,,-,) eF-  7 
teSenses.  
A MANUAL
i:,
.      I- "             S
OF
ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION,
FOR THE
USE OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND
NORMAL CLASSES;
CONTAINING A GRADUATED COURSE OF
OBJECT LIE S SONS
FOR
TRAINING THE SENSES AND DEVELOPING THE FACULTIES OJ
CHILDREN.
BY E. A.SHEID-])ON,
SUPEERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS — OSWEGO,  N.,Y.;
ASSISTED -BY
MIISS M. E. M. JONES AND PROF I. KRUSL
SIXTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.
NEW YORK:
CHARLES SCRIBNER & CO., No. 654 BROADWAY.
1869. 
Entered, according to act of Congress, in the year 1862, by,
CHARLES SCRIBNER,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District
of New York.
JOHN F. TIOW,
PRINTER, SEREOTYPER, AND ELECTI'ATPW
48 & 50 Greene Street,
New York. 
PREFACE.
FOR many years there has been a growing convice
tion in the' minds of the thinking men of this country,
that our methods of primary instruction are very defective, because they are not properly adapted either to the
mental, moral, or physical conditions of childhood. But
little reference has hitherto been had to any natural order
in the development of the faculties, or to the many peculiar characteristics of children. Memory, by no means
the most important of the infant faculties, and reason,
at this age but faintly developed, have been severely
taxed, while but little direct systematic effort has been
made to awaken and quicken the perceptive faczulties,
which are the first to develop themselves, and upon the
proper cultivation of which we must depend for success
in all our future educational processes.  Even in schools
where better views have prevailed, the want of some systematic exercises, with proper apparatus and facilities for
putting them into practice, has been strongly felt.
The -design of this work is to meet this demand:
to present a deyfinite course of elementary  instruction
adapted to philosophic views of the "laws of childhood."
We do not claim for it originality, either in thought
or method. It is now a full half century since that dis tinguished educational reformer, Pestalozzi, to a great
ol 
PREFACE.
extent gave expression and embodiment to the principles
and methods herein contained.
Important modifications have however been made;
many errors both in principles and practice have been
eradicated, and we are now able to bring to bear the sug  gestions of some of the mlost distinguished educators in
Europe, based upon many years of careful study and ex periiiient.
The work upon which this is founded, and from which,
with the kind consent of its authoress, Miss Elizabeth
]Mayo, we have largely drawn, is, as stated in her preface,
" A  Manual, in two volumes, containing the essential
portions of the five in which alone such help has hitherto
been attainable; and this, too, with the addition of much
valuable matter which is now published for the first
time."
This work, entitled "Manual of Elementary Instruc tion," has been compiled within the past year, and
brings down to us the light and experience of the best
schools of Europe, where these methods have been longest
and most thoroughly tested.
She further says, "The whole work has been carefully reconstructed on a plan which presents principles
and practice in immediate connection, in order to illustrate their mutual dependence; all details of practice
being exhibited as flowing naturally from the first truths
on which they are founded."
While the general plan of this work has been followed,
and some of the lessons adopted with slight changes, a
lag'e prolportion of original matter has been added, and
the wolioe arranged with special reference to the wants
o. o-Lr Americ(an s(chools.
Tbie Lesions on  Objects, Color, Moral T]nstructi()I.
L}s(rns oil Animals, and the Introduction hleave been
made up from the original mnuscripts of Miss M3.  E.
6 
PREFACE.
M. Jones, with such exceptions as are indicated, and the
whole arranged by her. For more than fifteen years this
lady was engaged in training teachers in these methods
in the Home and Colonial Training Institution, London,
and has been connected with the schools of this country
sufficiently long to understand something of their wants.
Prof. Hermann Krusi* is the author of the Lessons
on Form and Inventive Drawing. He has also rewritten
and arranged the third step in Number. His suggestions on
many other points have been very valuable. WVe can but
congratulate ourselves and those engaged in primary instruction for this timely aid from one so eminently fitted
for the work.t
Of the remaining subjects, Reading has been entirely
rewritten. The Lessons on Place or Geography have been
slightly changed, introducing two or three original sketches
of lessons in the first step, and so changing the third step
as to adapt it to our American locality. Some changes
have also been made in the Lessons on Sound, Size,
and Weight; new matter added, and, in two or three
instances, substituted for that contained in the old velumes.
While these lessons are prepared for primary schools,
they are also arranged with special reference to use in
* At present teacher in the Oswego Training School.
t Prof. K. was born, as it were, in the very school of Pestalezzi, in which
his father was fgr twenty years a leading and active teacher.  For ten years he
was engaged with his father in teaching a government school for the training
of teachers in Pestalpzzian principles, in one of the cantons of Switzerland, his
native country. After this, he was for six years engaged in the Hpme and
Cqlonial Institution, waking out and adapting these methods tq the English
schWls; and it was here that he first brought out the Inventive Drawing.
In this country he has been for several years engaged in teaching normal
schools and teachers' institutes. Hle has studied carefully the characteristics
(f our schools and peqple; and is, in every way, abundantly qualified to adapt
this system to our peculiarities and wants.
7 
PREFACE.
Normal and Training classes.  Model lessons are given:
and then subjects suggested on which similar lessons may
be drawn up. The models should be carefully examined
and analyzed, and, in the case of classes in training, the
original sketches should in every instance be submitted to
the criticism of the teacher. By individual teachers, these
sketches may be written out and used as lessons in their
schools.  In some of the less,)ns, general directions only
are given; in others, these directions are more particular;
while many are drawn out at full length, including both
questions and answers.  In any case, they are only designed as suggestions and models to guide teachers in
working out their own  lans and methods.   Teachers
who confine themselves simply to the lessons presented in
this book, and to their exact minutiae, can but fail in their
work. To be truly successful, they must catch the spirit
and philosophy of the system, and work it out somewhat
in their own way; of course, always conforming to the
principles upon which it is based: these we believe to
be sound and philosophical, and they should never be
violated.
The lessons that have been taken with no alteration,
other than an occasional verbal expression, have been
indicated either in the index, or in the body of the work
where they occur, by the letter M.
It is now more than four years since these methods
were practically and thoroughly introduced into the Oswego schools, and from a constant and careful observation
of their working, we feel that we are in some degree
prepared to judge as to what is wanted in a book of this
kind for our teachers and schools; and we trust we may
not be disappointed in the hope that it will meet these
wants.
The subjects are arranged into steps, simply with reference to the order of time in which it is thought various
8 
PREFACE.
portions of the work may be accomplished. All first-step
lessons are designed for children from four to five years
of age, or during the first year of their school life. In the
same way the second step is designed for the second year,
and the third step for the third year; thus covering the
time usually allotted to our primary departments in
towns where the schools are graded. In some instances
a fonrth step is added, which is designed for the next grade.
The order of succession in which the various subjects are
arranged, has no reference to any order in which it may
be supposed they should be taken up. While it is the design that the lessons of each step, in every subject, shall
be taken up at the same stage of the child's development,
it is not expected that they will all be treated simultaneously. From three to five only are taken at once, and
these are carried on until the interest of the children begins to flag, when they are changed for other subjects,
which in their turn are to be changed, as the children
weary, for others still, until we again return to the first
course, to resume it, after a rapid review, where we left it.
This necessity for change with little children cannot be
too carefully observed; for no matter how interesting the
subject is at first, they will in time tire of it; and a lively
interest can only be maintained by change. Reading,
spelling, and number are the only subjects that are
constant. With the youngest children the programme
should change fortnightly, and with the older ones monthly. In the Appendix may be seen some programmes of
the Oswego schools, which will give a very good idea of
the way in which these may be arranged.
In the country schools, where no such gradation and
classification are possible, where the teachers find it im practicable to take up all the topics, as they usually will,
they must confine themselves to those which seem to them
of the most practical importance; as, for instance, Moral
1*
9 
PREFACE.
Instruction, Reading, Geography, Number, Language,
Form, Color, and Size.
Others might make a different selection of subjects:
we only call attention to this, by way of expressing our
view of the importance of doing well and thoroughly
whatever is undertaken. It may seem difficult to make a
selection of subjects where all are important; but it is
better to leave half of them untouched than to undertake
to do all, and do nothing as it should be done. Whatever
is taught, let it be taught with reference to correct principles.
E. A. SHELDON.
OSWEGO, A9ug. 25, 1862.
Explanation of Abbreviations.
S. R.-Simultaneous repetition.
W. B.-Write on the board.
R. T.-Repeat together.
10 
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION,....   13 
Necessity of Training,......       13
Pestalozzian Plans and Principles,...  14
Preparation of Sketches,..                                   16
Criticism Lessons,....    24
Reports of Model Lessons,.....       40
Miscellaneous Exercises,......    42
COLOR,........        45
FORM,.       *           62
OBJECTS,........        86
NU R..            138
SIE  e.    e *.        200
~ I T..   208
...        212
~..  219
,.. 231 br
.  258
~..        263
. 292 in    ~..         310
~..  359
~..       884:;"
~..  419
SOUND,.. 
LANGUAGE (M.), 
READING,.21
DICTATION (M.),...
GEOGRAPHY, -.
LESSONS ON THE HUMAN BODY (M.),.
LESSONS ON ANIMALS,
LESSONS ON PLANTS (M.),
MORAL INSTRUCTION,.
DRAWING,..
PAGE
NUMBER,
SIZE,.
WEIGHT, 
Abbreviations used in the Work.
S. R. Simultaneous Repetition.
R. T. Repeat Together.
W. B. Write on the Board. 
MANUAL
ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTIONl
INTRODUCTION.
I.-NECESSITY OF TRAINING.
II.-PESTALOZZIAN PLANS AND PRINCIPLES.
III.-PREPARA,TION OF SKETCHES.
IV.-CRITICISM LESSONS.
V.-EEPORTS OF MODEL LESSONS.
LI.-MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN METHOD.
T.-Necessity of Training.
WERE we to undertake to discuss the importance of a regular
apprenticeship to the mechanic who builds houses or makes machines, or of a professional education to the artist, the lawyer, or
the physician, we should expose ourselves to public ridicule. It
is too self-evident to admit of sober discussion. All regard it a
necessity. And even when a thorough professional education has
been obtained, or a complete term of service as apprentice served,
we are slow to employ them until their success has been tested by
long experience.  We  are slow to trust the setting of a broken
bone to one who has not given practical demonstrations of his
skill.  And yet these things are important only in a physical
sense-the lowest of all human wants  and necessities.   How
much more, then, would it seem important that those to whom
we intrust the moral and intellectual destiny of the race should
be carefully educated and prepared with special reference to their
work!
It would seem too obvious to require an argument, that every
OF
0 *.
lp 
INTRODUCTION.
teacher should clearly comprehend the character of the infant
mind, and its mode of operation-the way in which each faculty
stauds related to the other, and the order of its evolution-as also
the related order of appliances in the process of development, together with a knowledge of the many striking peculiarities and
characteristics of children. It is clear that, without this knowledge, teachers  go blindly at their work,  and can but fall into
many and grievous errors. One thing is certain, that with the
principles and methods here discussed, no one can hope to succeed
who does not carefully study and intelligently practise them.
II.-Pestalozzian Plans and Principles.
There are several different ways of giving a lesson.
EXAMPLE.-SiX ways of giving a Lesson on a Plant.
1. Account of the plant learned by children from a book, and
repeated to the teacher.
2. I)escription learned and repeated as before, teacher afterward explaining the meaning.
3. Piece first explained by the teacher, then learned by the
children, and repeated.
4. Picture shown-parts pointed out by teacher. Description
learned, and repeated as before.
5. Specimens given-parts examined first by teacher, then
observed by the children.
6. Specimens distributed-parts found out by the children,
who frame a description, which is put on the board and committed
to memory.
We need not add that the latter is the correct method.
All lessons should be given in accordance with the following
principles, which were laid down by Pestalozzi:
1. Activity is a law of childhood.  Accustom the child to doeducate the hand.
14 
PESTALOZZIAN PLANS AND PRINCIPLES.
2. Cultivate the faculties in their natural order-first form the
mind, then furnish it.
3. Begin with the senses, and never tell a child what he can
discover for himself.
4. Reduce every subject to its elements-one difficulty at a
time is enough for a child.
5. Proceed step by step. Be thorough. The measure of in.
formation is not what the teacher can give, but what the child can
receive.
6. Let every lesson have a point; either immediate or re
mote.
7. Develop the idea-then give the term-cultivate language.
8. Proceed from the known to the unknown-from the particular to the general-from the concrete to the abstract-from
the simple to the more difficult.
9. First synthesis, then analysis-not the order of the subject,
but the order of nature.
Of course, the educational teacher, in addressing a class of students, would explain and illustrate these principles. In order to
ascertain whether they are thoroughly comprehended, the following questions may be put. Answers should be given in writing.
QUESTIONS.
1. A teacher begins Arithmetic by teaching a child to count
orally, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. What principle is violated?
2. A teacher teaches multiplication by letting the children
sing the tables. What principle is violated?
3. He begins Geography by use of globes, pointing out continents, &c. What principle is violated?
4. He begins Natural History by taking the children into a
museum where there are specimens of all kinds, and makes a
classification. What principle is violated?
5. To develop an idea, he begins  by saying:  "Children,
I am going to teach you something:'All things through which
15 
INTRODUCTION.
we can see clearly are transparent.' Look at this piece of glass."
What principle is violated?
6. Having developed an idea, he omits to give the term or put
it on the board. What principle is violated?
7. He gives a lesson on coal, without presenting the object.
What principle is violated?
8. He gives a lesson without observing any divisions either
by S. R. (simultaneous repetition), or by W. B. (writing on the
board). What principle is violated?
9. He teaches Reading by the same method. What principle is violated?
10. He adopts a uniform plan in all lessons, so that the child.
ren always know in what order a subject will be represented..
What principle is violated?
11. He tells the children that water is a liquid, and then
shows what a liquid is. What principle is violated?
12. He gives a lesson on position and distance, always measuring and representing the object himself What principle is violated?
13. He gives a lesson on the lion, before the children have had
one on the cat. What principle is violated?
14. He gives a lesson on perching birds as an order, before
any have been given on the robin, canary, and other individuals.
What principle is violated?
15. The teacher, giving a lesson on a tiger, refers to the catlets one child talk of the cat at home, another of the dog, a third
of the horse, a fourth of riding the horse to town. What principle is violated?
16. He undertakes to give lessons on the parts of speech to
children who have had no lessons on objects. What principle is
violated?
III.-Preparation of Sketches.
Too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of preparing notes or sketches in writing.  It is not too much to say that
no lesson ought to be given, a sketch of which has not been systematically prepared. In training students to this work it is found
16 
PREPARATION OF SKETCHES.
desirable to begin with an examination and analysis of a few sim
ple lessons.
FIRST ExAMPLE.-Sketch on Water.
(See " Objects," Second Step.)
Directions for Analysis.
1. Matter to be separated from method.
2. Point to be found, whether definitely stated, or contained in
the title, or in the head.
3. Terms and information given to be distinguished from ideas
developed.
4. Ideas developed, whether
(a) by addressing the senses directly.
(b) by comparison.
(c) by experiment.
(d) by addressing the reason.
5. Illustration-Use  of Board-S.  R.-Ellipses-Kind  of
Summary.
The analysis of the lesson on water as made by students
should appear thus:
1. Matter. See Summary.
2. Point is contained in the heads, which are         General qualities.
Uses, and special qualities on which uses depend.
3. Terms given-liquid and bright; information given-every
country is well supplied with water.
4. Ideas developed:
(a) Water is bright-has neither taste nor smell.
(b) Water is a liquid-has no color-can be seen through.
(c) Water is useful for washing and drinking. (Memory.)
(d) Water is used for washing, on account of the absence
of color and smell.
5. Illustrations-Ellipses and S. R.-Summary elliptical.
17 
INTRODUCTION.
SECOND EXAMPLE. —Lesson on Writing Paper.
Wlat is this?  Paper.  W'hence do we get paper?  Does it
grow upon any plant? Does it come from off any animal? Do
we dig it out of the ground?  How do we get it then?  It is
made.  Yes, it is made by man: but did man make it out of noth ing? No; he must have something to make it from. Do you
know of what paper is made? It is made of rags. Yes, the best
paper is made of linen rags.  Of what is linen made?  Do you
not know?  It is made from the fibrous stem of a very pretty
plant. Here is a picture of it; it is called flax. Repeat together,
"Paper is made of rags; the finest paper is made of linen rags;
linen is made from the fibrous stem of a plant called flax." Now,
children, look at the paper, and tell me what you observe about it.
It is white. This paper is white, but what is this? Blue. And
this?  Brown.  What kind of paper is white?  Writing paper.
Try and find out why writing paper is made white. That we may
see the writing upon it. Look at it and feel it. It is smooth.
Put it between your thumb and finger. It is thin. Try again.
It is light.  Repeat together these qualities, " Writing paper is
smooth, thin, and light." Now hold it toward the window. We
can see through it. Can you see through it as well as you do
through glass? What is the difference? We can see everything
quite clearly through the glass; but through paper we only see the
dim light.  What did we say of glass?  That it is transparent;
but we say of objects through which we can see light only, that
they are translucent. What can we say of paper? It is translucent. Try what you can do with paper. We can tear it. What
more? We can bend it and fold it. Yes; on account of this
quality it is said to be pliable. Repeat together, "Paper is easily
torn: it can be easily bent and folded: it is pliable."  See, I have
p,lt a part of this sheet of paper into the fire.  It burns.  It is inflammable.   Why do we call paper inflammable?  Because  it
burns readily.  Tell me some other things that are inflanmmab)le.
Wood, coal, &c. Of what use is this kind of paper? To write
upon.  Yes; and when you are grown up, and perhaps have to
i8 
PREPARATION OF SKETCHES,
live very far away from your father and mother and brothers, Low
pleasant you will think it to receive a sheet of paper folded up,
and brought to you by the postman, to tell you how they all are,
and how they are getting on I What is such folded-up sheet of
paper called? Yes, a letter. How glad you will then be, that
when you were young you went to school, and learnt to read, so
that you can understand what is written in the letter brought by
the postman.
After you have told me all you have found out about writing
paper, and sung a hymn, I will tell you a true little history about
writing.  Now  all repeat together, "Writing paper is made of
linen rays; linen is made from the fibrous stem of a plant called
flax: writing paper is white, translucent, and pliable; it is smooth,
thin, light, and easily torn; it is inflammable; and it is useful to
write upon."
After learning to spell any new words met with in the lesson,
the children repeat the hymn
"I thank the goodness and the grace," &c.
Now I will give you the little history I promised. It relates
to one of those countries in which they worship idols of wood and
stone, and where the people do not know God and Jesus Christ.
The Lord put it into the heart of a very good man in England,
Mr. Williams, to go over and teach these poor ignorant people
how they might be saved and go to heaven. How do the Scriptures say that we can be saved? This good man had to cross the
sea, in order to get at this country.   How did he manage this?
Yes; he went in a ship, and when he arrived at the country
where the people did not know God and Jesus Christ, le began
to teach them a great many things; he was very kind to them,
aind showed them how to build neat little cottages, and places
where they mnight learn about  God; and he made a ship that
would sail upon the water.  One day he was working very hard
among them, when he found that he had left a tool at home of
which he was in need; so he called one of the men, and taking up
a chip of wood, wrote upon it the name of the tool he wanted, and
desired the man to take it to his wife, and that she would give
19 
INTRODUCTION.
him something to bring back with him. The man looked aston.
ished, and waited for a message.  "Go quickly," said Mr. Williams; "I am in haste; show this to my wife, that is all."
Now the poor man, though he was a great man in that country,
knew nothing about reading or writing, and as he went he thought,
How silly it is to take this piece of wood to show. However, he
aid as he was bid; he was obedient. How great was his surprise
when he had given the chip to Mrs. Williams, to see her look at
it and immediately fetch the instrument.  "But  how do you
know," said he, "that this is what Mr. Williams sent me for?"
"You brought me a chip of wood," said Mrs. Williams, "and
that informed me what I was to give you; you have now only to
go back quickly with it." He did so, saying to himself as he returned, What a wonderful people these Englishmen are; they can
make even a chip of wood speak! Now, when this chief saw how
much more than he or any of his people this kind missionary
knew, he became willing that he should teach them about God and
Jesus Christ.
You see, dear children, how much happier we are than these
poor ignorant people. Who gave us our many blessings? God.
Yes; He it is who made you happy my dear children.   What
should you do? Praise Him. Is it enough to praise Him with
your lips?  No.  How, then, should you praise  Him?   We
should praise Him with our hearts. Yes; but when you were
singing that pretty little hymn of praise, I did not see you look as
if you were really thanking God in your hearts. When a kind
person has given you something, I have heard you thank them,
and in such a manner, too, that I am sure you felt they had been
kind to you.  Now I should like to hear you thank God as if
you indeed felt all that kindness which He is ever pouring out
upon you.
The analysis of the lesson on writing paper, as made by the
students in training, should appear thus:
1. Matter of the lesson.  Paper is artificial.  Writing paper is
made of linen rags; linen is made of the stem of a plant called flax.
Writing paper is white, translucent, thin, light; will tear easily;
can be bent and folded; is inflammable; and is useful to write upon.
20 
PREPARATION OF SKETCHES.
2. Point is contained in the heads, which are-nature, qualities,
and uses of writing paper.
3. Terms given: pliable, translucent, flax; information given
-that paper is made from rags (by children)-that linen is made
from the stem of the flax plant, and the anecdote (by teacher).
4. Ideas developed:
(a) white, smooth, thin, light.
(b) translucent; paper is of different colors, though writing
paper is usually white.
(c) it will bend easily; pliable; it is easily torn; inflam.
mable.
(d) that we may see to write on it, it is white;  it is
made by man; artificial, but made of something that
only God can make, and for which we must thank
Him. Application made: the advantage of learning
to write.
5. Illustrations.   Picture of flax plant shown, and anecdote
told.  Mechanicalplans-Hiands out.-Ellipses-S. R.-Elliptical
summary.
The students in training may next draw up notes on parchment as writing
paper.
THIRD ExAMPLE.-Sketch of a Lesson on Parchment.
I. Matter. Parchment is an animal substance, and it is artificial, being the prepared skin of a sheep. It is yellowish, stiff,
thick, tough, odorous, translucent. It frizzles when burning. It
is durable, and therefore used to write on when the writing is to
be preserved.
II. Point.  Nature; qualities; use, and quality on which use
depends.
III. Terms given: parchment, and refer to "Ideas Developed,"
and supply any terms with which they are unacquainted.   Inormation given: parchment is the dried skin of a sheep; it is used
to write upon when the writing is to be preserved.
IV. Ideas developed:
(a) Yellowish white, thin, smooth, odorous.
(b) Stiff, translucent.
21 
INTRODUCTION.
(c) Flexible, tough, frizzles when burning.
(d) Animal substance, artificial, durable.
[. Illustrations. Qualities written on the board (S. R.).
Story told.-Verse given.-Summary read from the board.
It is to be observed that the preparation so often referred to
consists in drawing up sketches of lessons, not in fully writing out
lessons. A report of a full lesson on parchment would appear
thus:
Report of Lesson on Parchment.   Do you know what this
is? It is paper. It is like paper. Here is a piece of paper.
see if you can find a difference between this and that. The paper is
white, and this is yellow. Is it very yellow? It is rather yellow.
Say it is yellowish. What did we find out in the last lesson about
the color of paper?  That it may be of different colors.  Then paper may be yellow. I will help you to find out the real difference.
What is paper made from? Linen rags. Whence come the
linen rags?  From the flax plant.  But this was never a part of
any vegetable; it is the dried skin of a sheep. Does the skin of
a sheep look like this? No. What is the difference? The skin
of the sheep is woolly. What has been done to it? The wool
has been taken off. Yes, and it has been cleaned and smoothed.
Who made the skin into parchment?  Man.   What do we say
of things made by man?  They are artificial.  The dried skin of a
sheep is called parchment. I will write on the board the qualities
we have discovered:
Parchment is an animal substance.
"     " artificial.
"     " yellowish white.
Now feel the parchment and the paper. The parchment is
thicker than the paper. See what you can do with them. We
can fold them up. Which folds the more easily? The paper.
Yes, the parchment is stiff. Do you know anything else that is
stiff?  Cards, a pen.  Repeat together (R. T.).  Things that will
not bend nor fold easily are stiff (W. B.). Try once again. We can
tear the paper, but we cannot tear the parchment (R. T.). Parchment is tough. Do you know anything else that is tough? India
22 
PREPARATION OF SKETCHES.
rubber (R. T.). Things that will not tear easily are tough (W.B.).
See, I have put it into the fire; it frizzles. But when I put the
paper into the fire it burns up with a flame. Think of other things
that burn with a flame. Wood, rags. What is paper made from?
Rags. And rags come from the flax plant. What does wood
come from? Trees. Give me another name for plants and trees.
Vegetables.  Try and remember what I tell you. Solid things that
burn with a flame come from vegetables (R. T.). But how does
the parchment burn?  It frizzles.  Name other things that frizzle.
Hair, a bone.  What do bones come from?   Animals.   Hair?
Animals. Parchment itself is the skin of an animal. What can you
find out from all this? That things that frizzle come from animals
(W. B.). WVhat use can we make of this? It will do to write on.
It is used to write on. Can you tell me why we use it, when we
have plenty of paper?  Shall I help you to find out?  Which
can you destroy more easily; which will last longer-paper or
parchment?  And why?  Because it is tough.  Now, if you were
writing a note, which would be torn up after it was read, what
would do to write your note upon? Paper. But when people
want their writing to last for years and years, they write on parchment. The laws of the land are written on parchment. Now, if
you answer well, I will tell you a story about this, after we have
gone over what is written on the board (R. T.).
Once on a time there lived a queen in England, not like the
present queen, who is kind and good to all. The former queen
was ignorant, harsh, and cruel. There were good people in the
country, who loved to read their Bibles and to learn; but there
were wicked people, who tried to prevent them from doing this,
and they and the queen made a law that whoever read the Bible
and worshipped God, as we are told to do, should be burned
to death. Now this queen had a servant who was a clever man
He knew that such a wicked, unjust law would not last: God
would not let it. So they came to him about writing out this law,
and said, Shall it be written out on parchment or on paper? He
answered, "Take paper; for the poorest paper will last longer than
the law."  And so it proved,  for the poor, mistaken queen died,
23 
INTRODUCTION.
and then the people could read and pray in peace. There is a
hymn about this, beginning
I took the sacred Book of God,
To keep, to fear, to read it free;
But holy martyrs shed their blood
To win this word of life for me.
Now, what more have I to add to what is
board? The Uses of Parchment.
IV. Criticism Lessons.
Many of the lessons given by the students are called criticism
lessons. They are given in the presence of the members of the
class, who express opinions on the various points of the lesson;
enumerating those in which they think the teacher has succeeded,
and those in which they think she has failed. To conduct a criticism properly, it is necessary that there should be a presiding
critic, whose opinion is final. The following are the points of
criticism which are given as a guide to the class:
Points of Criticism.
I. Mfatter.
1. Whether suitable to children; whether exercising observation, conception, reason, or all these.
2. Lesson-whether bearing on one point; into what heads
divided.
3. Whether, in a Scripture or moral lesson, an application be
made; whether the right one. In a lesson on an animal, whether
the children are led to see the wisdom and goodness of God in the
adaptation of parts to mode of life, and whether human.ie feelings
are cultivated.
JII. fethocd.
1. Whether the teacher clearly apprehends thie distinQtion between what must be told and what must be given.
24
written on the 
CRITICISM LESSONS.
2. Whether she distinguishes the various mental faculties one
fiom another; knows which should be, and how exercised.
3. Whether good illustrations are used; the specimens large
enough and sufficient for distribution; whether diagrams were
drawn when required.
4. Whether appropriate questions were used when general
answers are wanted.   Leading questions only to obtain an admis.
sion, on which another question is based.
5. Whether the board was sufficiently used-new terms writ
ten on it; also titles and heads of lessons; also, with elder chil.
dren, definitions and statements.
6. Summary, of what kind; whether of the kind most appro.
priate to the children and the lesson.
7. Whether proper use was made of "hands out" and S. R.
III. Teacher.
1. Whether capable of swaying the class according to her
will and of awakening sympathy.
2. Whether attending to all, or carrying on the lesson with a
few forward children; whether taking the right standing position.
3. Manner-whether appropriate-bustling and excited-slow
and languid-cheerful and energetic; whether, if a Scriptural
lesson, reverential tone of voice.
4. Language-whether appropriate; syntax and correct pro,
nunciation.
IV. Children.
1. Whether respectful, attentive; whether interested; if so,
to what interest is owing.
2. Whether likely to carry the lesson away as a whole; if a
Scripture or moral lesson, whether their hearts were touched.
As a clear illustration of the design and method of conducting
these lessons, we subjoin the following remarks and sketch, taken
from a paper issued by the Home and Colonial Institution of
London:
Two principal objects are always kept    view in training
teachers-the first, to make them acquainted Mth the principles
2
25 
INTRODUCTION.
of education, as founded on the nature of children; the second, to
initiate them in the art of teaching.  One of the most successful
plans for accomplishing the latter point has been that of the teachers giving a gallery lesson, before a class of the students, who
criticize the matter and manner of the lesson, according to certain
rules with which they have been previously made acquainted; these
criticisms being summed up and commented upon by the head
master or mistress. This plan acts as a strong stimulus to exertion; it gives the head master the opportunity of bringing out
the principles of education, and applying them practically; and
at the same time it tends to produce that self-possession so necessary to every teacher of young children.
The following is a specimen of what is called a Criticism Lesson, a sketch of which the teacher first prepares; in fact, with a
few alterations, it is the report of one actually given at the Model
Infant School of the Home and Colonial Institution:
SKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE BAT.-CHILDREN FROM FIVE TO
SEVEN.
The children will be required to observe -
I.  The pvecutliar organization of the bat.  It has a body like
that of the mouse, and wings like a bird, the latter formed by
the bones being extended and the skin stretched between them,
the ears extremely long; small, sharp-pointed teeth; five claws
on the hind feet, somewhat like fingers and a thumb.   It is also
provided with hooks on its wings.
II. Its habits. The bat, when seeking its food, which con.
sists of insects and small birds, flies like a bird, but always in the
dim twilight.  As its eyes are dazzled by glaring light, it remains
during the day in old barns or houses, and suspends itself by its
hind legs.  In winter it falls asleep.
III.  Acalatation of the organs to the habits and propensities
of the bat.  The wings and expansion of skin enable it to fly, and
thus to get its food.  As its prey comes out at night, it has acute
feeling to guide it, instead of good sight, which would not have
been so useful. It cannot rest on its legs, but is able, by means
26 
CRITICISM ILESSONS.
of hooks and claws, to suspend itself, with its head downward,
and so get rest.  Its food fails in winter;  it then falls into a
sleep, and requires none.
IV.   Apltication.  Lead the children to trace the hand of
God in all this. If we see any thing beautifully fitted for some
purpose, we conclude it was made for that purpose.   God's wisdom, benevolence, and power to be shown in the adaptation of
all the parts of the animal to its habits.
LESSON TO BE CRITICISED.
Teacher. -What animal is this?  (Shozvwizg it.)
Children. A bat.
T. Look at it, and tell me something about it. tWhat do you
see peculiar in it?
A little girl. I do not know what "peculiar" means.
T Can any one tell her? (A pause.)
Another child. It means something that you see in one kind
of thling, but not in anything else.
T. Well, that will do. What, then, do you see peculiar in
the bat?
Several. It has wings and hands.
T. WVhat have you at the end of your own arms?
C. Hands.
T. And what have you on your hands?
C. Fingers.
T. How many fingers have you on each hand?
All. Four, and a thumb.
T. Do you see anything in this bat that looks like four fingers
and a thumb?
A little girl counted them, and said there were four bones that
looked like fingers.
T. Can you tell me the difference between these bones and
our fingers?
A little boy. They have no flesh on them, and they are very
T. What other difference do you see?
27
long. 
INTRODUCTION.
Some of the children said it had a web, others that it had 
skin between the fingers.
T. Where does this skin appear to comre from?
C. From the back.
T  And what does it do?
C. It stretches over the fingers.
T. What has the bat beside four fingers?
C. It has a thumb.
T. What does this thumb look like?
C. Like a claw.
T. But what kind of claw?
C. It'looks like a hook.
T. (to an active-looking but idle little boy).   Now, little boy,
I am quite sure you can tell me something about this bat.
Boy. It has teeth.
T. What kind of teeth has it?
Several. Sharp teeth.
T. WVhat kind of mouth has it?
Two or three children. It looks like a beak.
T  Would you call this a beak?  What creatures have beaks?
C. Birds.
T. Well, would you call this a bird?
C. No; it is a beast.
T  What kind of ears has it?
Some of the children said, They are large.
T. Can you tell me anything about the bat's sleeping?
A little girl. It sleeps in the day, and flies about in the twi.
light.
T  Where does it sleep?
A boy. In a hole.
A girl. It hangs on high walls.
A boy. It hangs on trees.
T  Yes; they hang on trees, also on the walls of old.houses,
where nobody can live because they are so old; there they sleep
all day. Do you know what they hang by?
C. By their feet.
T. If they hang by their feet, what position are they in?
28
f 
CRITICISM LESSONS.
C. Their heads are downward.
T. You have told me where the bat lives, and what it does by
day; now tell me what it does when night comes on.
C. It goes about.
T. How does it go?
C. It flies.
T  WVhy can it not walk?
C. Because its legs would not bear it; they are very weak.
T  Then must it not be a very awkward animal?
C. No; because it has wings and a hook instead.
T. Now tell me what its body looks like.
C. Like a mouse.
T. Have you ever seen a mouse like this animal?
C. No; it has a skin stretched over its fingers, and a mouse
has not; a mouse has four legs.
T. And what does this skin stretched over its fingers make?
C. Wings.
T. By what means does it fly?
C. By its wings.
T. Why does it fly about?
C. To get its food.
T. What is its food?
C. Insects.
T. And anything else?
A boy. Worms.
T. I don't think it eats worms, but I am not quite sure; however, I know it eats little birds. When does it come out?
C. In the twilight.
T. What do you mean by twilight?
A  girl. Night.  A  boy. Evening;  between day and night,
when it is not quite dark.
T. What time do the insects come out?
C. At the same time that the bat comes out.
T. When it comes out at the twilight, can it see the insects?
C. Yes; because it has very sharp eyes.
T No; you have guessed this. Look at its eyes; bats have
not sharp eyes; they cannot see their food plainly, because their
29 
INTRODUCTION.
eyes are very snmal.   Then, how is it they can catch their
food?
Some of the children. They have little nerves.
A little boy. The food comes upon its wings.
The Head  flaster (speaking to the teacher).  I do not think
the children all understand how the bat catches its food; be so
good as to repeat the questions.
T. Tell me how it catches its food.
A boy. The food comes upon its wings.
T I will tell you: when the insect flies upon the wings of the
bat, it shuts them up very quickly, and turns its mouth around
sharply and catches it. What, then, is one of the uses of tlm
wings of the bat?
Several. To get its food.
T  Why does it need its wings to get its food?
C. Because there is very little light, and it cannot see plainly.
T. And what are the hooks for?
C. For the bat to hang on the wall.
T  There is something else about the  bat that you do not
know, I thinlk.  Shall I tell you?  It goes to sleep all the winter.
Why should it sleep all the winter?
C. Because no insects come out.
T. Wrhat would become of it if there were no insects?
C. It would starve.
T. Now tell me again, what is the use of the wings to the
bat?
C. To fly with, and to catch its food.
The teacher repeated all the questions on this point.
To the question, why the bat could not find its prey without
its wings, a little girl replied, "Because its eyes is dull "-a fault
in grammar which the teacher required-the children to correct.
T. WVhat is the use of its claws?
C. To hang on the walls.
T. When does it hang on the walls?
C. In the day.
T  If this large body (pointing to the body of the bat) were
to walk on the ground, what would become of its delicate legs?
so 
CRITICISM LESSONS.
C. They would break.
T. And what would happen to the wings?
A little girl. They would break too.
T. Is "break" the word to use?
A boy. They would be torn.
T  Now attend to what I am going to ask you, and speak
quietly: Who gave the bat these wings?
The children replied in a low tone of voice, "God."
T. What did he give the bat wings for?
C. To fly in the air.
T. And when you see this bat has wings, what are you sure
it was made for?
C. To fly in the air.
T. If it looked like a mouse, and if it had not these wings,
what would you think it was made for?
C. To walk like a mouse.
T. And suppose it had not these wings, what sort of eyes
would it most likely have?
C. Sharp eyes.
T. When we see that God has given the bat these wings,
what are we quite sure hlie has made it for?
C. To fly in the air.
T. What does this show you of God?
C. It shows us his power and wisdom.
T. Wisdom in what?
C. In giving the bat wings to fly.
T. How does that show his wisdom?
C. (after a pause).  Because it would starve if it had not
wings.
C.
T
C.
T
C.
And what else does it show beside his wisdom?
(after anoth7er pause).  His goodness.
His goodness in what?
In giving the bat these wings to fly in the air.
But why does that show his goodness?
Because it would not be able to get its food without
them.
T. Then there is another thing that shows God's goodness;
31 
INTRODUCTION.
what is it?  (IVo answer.)  What  did I tell you it does in the
winter?
C. It sleeps.
T  Well, how does that show God's goodness?
C. Because, when there are no insects, it does not require any
food.
T. Can you give me a text which speaks of God's goodness
to all the things which he has made?
After a short pause, a little girl said, " 0 Lord, how manifold
are thy works! in wisdom hast thiou made them all: the earth is
full of thy riches."
T  Now, can you give me another short one?   (No answer.)
Well, I will repeat it: "The Lord is good to all;  and his tender
mercies are over all his works." Now repeat it after me.
The children did so three or four times.   The lesson then
closed, and the children marched out of the room singing.
THE CRITICISM. OF THE TEACHERS IN TRAINING ON THE PRE                      CEDING LESSON.
Head Chaster (addressing tale teachers). You  have now to exercise your judgment on the matter of this lesson, and on the manner in which it was given. Before you can give a correct opinion
on a lesson, with what science ought you to be, in some degree,
acquainted?
A Teacher. With the science of education.
H. HL  And what are the subjects which this science acts
upon?
T Children.
I. JA. What, then, should you know?
T Something of the nature of children, and of the best
method of working upon them so as to develop their faculties and
form their characters.
H. M. Recollect that the object of your "criticism lessons" is
not to sit in judgment upon a companion-you have nothing to do
with the person; you are only so to appreciate the right and the
wrong of the lesson that you may be led to imitate the one, and
to avoid the other-that thus both you and the teacher whose les
32 
CRrICISM LESSONS.
son you are to consider, may learn to profit by our joint criticism
Can you tell me what ought mainly to guide a teacher in such a
lesson as this —what main objects, or points, she should keep be.
fore her in a lesson on natural history?
T. The adaptation of the parts of an animal to its habits.
H. M. Be a little more general: what should be her main
design?
T. To communicate information.
H. M. Would you make it the main object of such a lesson
to communicate information?
Another T. Certainly not.
H. kI. What, then, would be your object-what effect would
you propose to produce on the children?
T. I would call forth their observation-I would require them
to notice all the parts of the animal, and to examine them very
minutely.
H. Lf. Now, suppose that repeated from day to day, what do
you think would be cultivated?
T. Habits of observation.
H. M. And with young children, this is one main purpose of
these lessons. The communication of information is a secondary
one. Our first object is to discipline their minds, and prepare
them to acquire knowledge. When you merely communicate in formation, the mind of the child is in a passive state, which is the
very opposite of that in which it ought to be. No doubt, the love
and the pursuit of truth are among the ultimate objects of educa tion: but during the training of your children, you are only pre paring them for these objects.  As the children looked& at and saw
the nice and curious claw of the bat, the strangely formed' wing
without any feathers, the body like that of a mouse, the feet not
made for walking, and were told of the fine sense of feeling given
to it, did it occur to you that they did more than obtain informa tion?
T. Curiosity was excited; and the tendency of this curiosity
is to create an interest in all the objects by which they are sur rounded.
H.'~. Then, as it regards information, do you see anything
O-W
33 
INTRODUCTION.
in connection with the lesson that would, if it did not give them
information, tend to the same result?
T  The children would be led to get it themselves their curi  osity having been excited.
-. I. Yes; we should not value a lesson so much for the in  formation it gives, as for its tendency to cultivate in our children
power and inclination to acquire information for themselves. We
should endeavor to open to them the extensive volume of nature,
and so to improve their faculties, that they may themselves inves  tigate it.
T. You cannot call upon a child to observe anything, with  out, in some way, giving him information.
H. M. True. But do you not see the difference between giv ing information, and making him observe and examine a thing for
himself?
T. Not clearly.
EL. 3f. In the one you direct the chiild's own efforts-you cul.
tivate a power in the child which must always be useful; in the
other you merely pour in information, which may or may not be
remembered. But it is not on the mind only that we produce
effects. Do you know what is our further design in a lesson in
natural history?
T. To teach the heart;  to administer, it may be moral, and
even spiritual good, to the children.
H. M. How is this done?
T. By showing them the goodness of God in his works: this
leads them to cultivate humane feelings, and to be kind to animals.
H. M. Yes.  And though the teacher said nothing about humane feelings, yet when the children were led to see how wise
and gracious God has been in adapting the parts of the animal to
its uses, they must have felt interested in the animal, and be less
disposed to treat it unkindly, and have been taught also to admire
the wisdom and power of God. I will now read the sketch of the
lesson.-The Head Master having read the sketch, continued:
Now you are in possession of the general object contemplated inll
such a lesson as this; and you have also the teacher's written
sketch, stating her special object and the manner of working it
34 
CRITICISM LESSONS.
out; you are, therefore, prepared to determine how far thle teacher
accomplished her purpose.
The Head Master then directed the teachers to turn to page
50 of "Useful Hints to Teachers,"* and to make use of the points
that are there given, confining their attention to one of the three
general divisions.
First Teacher. I think the sketch is clearly arranged.  The
matter was well selected, and not too much for such children.
There also appeared to me some attention paid to each part of the
lesson, the animal itself being the chief thing in such a lesson.
There was, however, a want of clearness-each point was not, as
it were, settled as the teacher went on.  I think a summary was
not necessary; there was repetition, which supplied the place of
a summary. The children were led to see the wisdom and goodness of God in so admirably adapting the structure of the animal
to its habits.
Second  Teacher. I think the teacher seemed  to have command over the children.  Order and attention were preserved, in
part by the power of the teacher, but especially by the interest of
the lesson. I do not, however, think that the interest in general
was altogether so well kept up as it might have been, though
many of the children seemed attentive. They saw very clearly
how God had provided the animal with means adapted to the
catching of its food, and with an instinct which enables it, when
there is no food, to dispense with it altogether.
Third  Teacher. I think the teacher's manner was kind.  She
did not, however, speak with sufficient firmness to the children.  I
thought her tone of voice was very good. She paid great atten tion to the pronunciation of the children, and corrected them in
grammar.   I thought the children might  have been made to
repeat with advantage some parts which they did not.
H..lf. Do you suggest repetition as a means of keeping up
the general attention?
T. Yes; and also of fixing the ideas gained on their minds.
The questions were in general good; but she did not always work
out what the first question of a series seemed to aim at.
* One of the London Society's publications.
;55 
INTRODUCTION.
H..f. When do you consider a question good?
T When the children, by means of it, are led to think.
H. 3. That is certainly one good feature of a question-in.
deed, an essential one; but your answer is general.
T. It should be a question which leads them to observe, compare, or draw a right conclusion, as the case may be. There was
one point in the questioning which struck me as bad; she asked,
how the bat caught its prey, and then did not wait for an answer,
but went on.
H. Mf.  Yes;  this arises sometimes from want of patience,
sometimes from not holding the idea to be developed with tenacity; it often defeats all the ends of questioning, and causes confusion in the gallery. A question may be good or bad, as it is, or
is not, followed by another. Would you consider the question,
"Do you know how the bat obtains its prey?" a good one?
T. Such a question would only bring out Yes or No.
H. 3~. It is therefore bad. Such a question is of no use, ex.
cept to ascertain what extent of knowledge the children have;
and it leads to a habit of guessing.
T. I did not observe that any of the incidental circumstances
of the lesson were noticed.
H. JI. What do you mean by incidental circumstances?
T  The state of the children.
H. -I. Do you call their mere state, as being quiet or noisy,
attentive or inattentive, an incidental circumstance?  (A pause.)
What does any one understand by an incidental circumstance?
A Teacher. Anything happening in the course of the lesson
that the teacher did not expect, and that did not properly belong
to is. Such incidents may often be used to give interest to a lesson,
Third Teacher (in continuation). I think she was right in
correcting the children in grammar. The words she made use of
were sufficiently plain and simple. But she did not make them
hold out their hands before speaking, as much as they ought to
have done.
Hl. M.  What is the use of making children hold out their
hands?
36. 
CRITICISM LESSONS.
T. To prevent disorder. But she allowed them to speak without waiting till she had pointed to them.
II. 3f. The main use of this practice is, to ascertain what
children are really at work, and to prevent the forward from answering all the questions; to secure, in short, attention and thought
from as many children as practicable.
Fifth Teacher. The sketch of the lesson was not worked out
in that part that spoke of the wings. I do not think the children
understood how the sense of touch in the wings of the bat helped
the animal to obtain its food. She appeared to confound the sense
of touch with the fact of the closing of the wings; I thought she
seemed rather confused about it herself. Might she not have said
a little more about the eye of the bat?
II. M. Will the next teacher make her observations without
referring specially to the points already noticed, but keeping in
view the general objects to which I called attention before we
began to make our remarks?
Sixth Teacher. I think that what the teacher proposed to do
in the first stage of the lesson was well calculated to cultivate ob servation, and to excite the interest and curiosity of the children.
She might, perhaps, have better prepared them to admire God's
wisdom and goodness, by first showing them that the generality
of animals with wings are birds, but that the present one was a
singular case.  She might have led them to see that although the
animal had wings, yet that it had not another essential part of the
bird, viz., a beak; that while it had wings, it had a mouth with
teeth, which birds have not. And then she might have led them
to see that it was most like a mammal; for although it had wings,
which were the only things that it had in common with birds, yet
that those wings had no feathers, and that although it appeared to
be a bird, yet that in reality it had not the same parts as the bird.
Then she could have shown them how adapted its parts were fox
procuring its food, inasmuch as it lived on insects in the air; and
being a mammal, and its food being in the air, if it had no wings
it could not have procured its food, and would, therefore, have
starved. I have no doubt it might have brought the children to
a stand, to determine whether it was a bird or a mammal; if she
37 
INTRODUCTION.
had shown them it had wings, they would have immediately said
it was a bird; but when she drew their attention to the mouth,
teeth, and body, they would have seen that it was not a bird, but
that it had the appearance of a mouse; this, however, might have
led to a profitable warning against hasty judgments; it might
have enabled her also to lead them to see more clearly the
goodness of God in supplying this creature with wings. I think
the teacher was extremely kind; and able to give the children
information.
Seventh Teacher. The main points of the lesson, good and
bad, have been already touched upon. I thought the first part of
the lesson was, upon the whole, very well given, with the excep,
tion of that spoken of by the last teacher with regard to the dif.
ference between the mammal and the bird. In the habits of the
bat, and the adaptation of its parts to these habits, there was a
little confusion; but there was one good proof that the children
sympathized with the teacher; that is, the interest increased as she
went on, and when the lesson was finished, the interest seemed to
be greater than at any other period. She might sometimes have
exercised their minds a little more when they gave her an opportunity, as in correcting wrong answers, and making the younger
ones answer more frequently. Also, about the old walls, I think
she might have got that out of the children without telling them.
With respect to the bat getting its food, she told them something
which I think she might have drawn from them without telling
them. I think the sketch is very well written, and very clear,
and, had she adhered to it, she would have given, in my judgment,
an excellent lesson.
H. M. In the remarks of the teachers generally, I quite concur.  On the latter part of the lesson particularly, they are very
good. The first part of the lesson (that which required the children to observe) was worked out the best. Are we to suppose
that the teacher had then most time on her hands, or that she excels more in cultivating the observing faculties of her children than
the reflective? This is a feature I often remark among the teachers in training.
The teacher started well with the second head, the animal's
38 
CRITICISM LESSONS.
habits; but she did not keep the chi'Ircn so close to them as she
might have done.
When any idea has been worked out, the children should
always be made to express it clearly. The teacher several times
failed in this; as when she led the children to observe the wings
and the hooks. It was rather by a ki-ind of false reasoning, or
taking something for granted, than by observation, that the animal
was discovered to have a mouth instead of a beak.
In the third part of the lesson, although she failed a little in
holding firmly her own ideas, and in leading the children to see
clearly the adaptation of the organs, yet it was fairly done. It is
mucl to her credit, that, whilst she lost herself several times during the lesson, she rallied; a circumstance which always proves
to me that the teacher has made progress in her training.  She
had her point before her, but stumbled in attaining it.
You gave the sketch credit for being full and clear; but did it
not evince thought and ingenuity in its arrangement?  There was
a nice choice of parts and habits, which told well in leading the
children to perceive adaptation.  I hardly agree with one of you
about omitting the summing up. Although there was a great deal
of repetition, I do not think that repetition ought to have supplied
the place of a summary; it does not answer the same purpose.
Neither do I think that in such a lesson a summary is unnecessary.
Whenever you want to make an impression on the hearts of the
children, you should endeavor to bring before them, in a connected
form, those features or ideas of the lesson by which you expect to
produce such an effect.
The fourth head was to lead the children to see and feel the
wisdom, power, and goodness of God. Now, to accomplish this,
a summary of the points of adaptation ought to have been made
and repeated by the children; such as, The body is that of an
animal, but its food is in the air; therefore, to procure this food,
God has given it wings.  It comes out in the dusk, when its prey
is abroad, and it catches it while flying; therefore God has pro vided it with a sense of touch so exquisite, as to be equal to sight,
and also with a large mouth. These points and others, brought
into one or two sentences, should have been repeated before mak
39 
INTRODUCTION.
ing the application. It has often been remarked to you, that whilst
the true catechetical method of teaching is admirable, yet one
effect of giving lessons by questions is, that of separating it into
parts or fragments, and consequently the children cannot see the
matter of the lesson as a whole, or the harmony and dependence
of its parts. The summary ought amply to make up for this, and
after a minute and accurate examination of the parts, to present
the subject as a whole.
There was a little of the same want of power in the application that I remarked under the third head; but it must be admitted that this is the most difficult part of a lesson. It requires
sound judgment, very considerable clearness, and no small degree
of practice. A teacher may consider herself well advanced in
training when she is able to do it clearly. I like the remarks of
one of the teachers on the order and attention of the children.   I
do not know that she required to show very much power of command, because the children were particularly steady and willing
to work. The interest of several was very satisfactory, but it was
not general.
Such questions as, "What time do the insects come out?"
"Can the bat see the insects?" are bad, because they lead the
children to guess; they imply knowledge which the children have
not.  With the exceptions stated, the great principle of not telling young children what they can discover by the exercise of their
own faculties, was carried out; also the important one of keeping
the children intellectually active during the lesson. Finally, a
religious turn was  given to the lesson, without any apparently
forced feeling on the part of either the teacher or children.
V.-Reports of Model Lessons.
Simultaneously with the Criticism Lessons, it is of equal importance that the class should see a sufficient number of Model
Lessons, i. e., lessons given by teachers thoroughly trained, with
the view of exemplifying the treatment of a given subject. The
class should learn to draw up reports (abstracts) of these lessons
while hearing thenm, or directly afterward, taking special notice of
40 
REPORTS OF MODEL LESSONS.
1. The ideas the teacher draws from the children.
2. The plan she adopts in order to draw out these ideas.
EXAMPLE.-Report of Jfodel Lesson on the Seal.
MATTER.
I. —Habits, etc.
1. The seal lives in
water  and  on  land.
It is found in cold
countries.
2. The seal feeds on
water foNvl and fish.
I.  -1. Drawn  from the children, who
were led to form the sentence, which was
written on the board.
2. Drawn from the children by asking
them what food the seal would be likely
to find in or near the water, and such
framed into a sentence, and W. B.
3. Drawn  from the children by  questioning on an anecdote told them.  Terms
loving and intelligent given. (S. R.) Sentence famed. (W. B.)
4. Drawn as an inference from anecdote
told. Little girl gave term acute. (W. B.)
II.-Adaptation  of
structure to habits.
1. The body of the
seal should be light,
slender,  tapering, and
flexible.
1. Drawn from the children by reference to the animal's food, fish; how these
move  rapidly,  suddenly;  how  the seal
must  move rapidly also to catch them.
What kind of body he must have to enable him to move and turn quickly. Teacher required the children to represent on the
board such a shaped body as seal ought to
have.
2. The necessity for breadth drawn out
by reference to different things made to
go in the water, as oars of a boat, fins of
a fish, &c. Why the seal cannot have
fins, drawn out by reference to his double
habitation (land and water). Advantage
of shortness drawn out by asking why the
limbs of a dog would not suit the seal they would be too narrow as well as too
long.
i
I
41
METHOD.
3. The seal is lovin- and intelligent.
0
4. The hearing
the sell is acute.
of
II.
2. The limbs of the
.,eal should be short
and broad. 
INTRODUCTION.
3. Brought out by reference to a rud
der.
3. The  tail
seal should  be
and flexible.
4. The seal
have sharp,
teeth.
5. Tile seal,
have lungs.
should    4. Brought out  by  reference to the
strong character of its food.
5. Brought out by reference to its coming to land, and its swimming with its head
above the surface.
6. Brought out by exercising the reason in discovering what kind of covering
an animal thus situated needs.  Children
at first said scales.   Teacher told them
these would not be warm enough, but desired them to judge how it was that scales
would suit the fish and not the seal. Others supposed that because the seal sometimes came out of the water; others, because the fish lived in warm countries.
By referring to the sensation of feeling,or
touching a fish, led them to see that the
fish had cold blood. Teacher told them
that the seal had warm blood, and therefore needed warm covering.
By reference to the covering of a dog,
sheep, and the effect of water, etc., on
this, children decided what sort of covering an animal needs which is always swimming, or climbing rocks.
Each point, as drawn from the children,
framed into a sentence, and put on the
board.
Summary read from the board.
VI.-Miscellaneous Exercises in Method.
FIRST  EXAM.PLE.-Exercise on the Fable,  " Tle Lark  and  her
Young Ones."
(See "Jilfo)al Instruction," last lesson of Second Step.)
Directions for Students.
I.-State the Point.
II.-Find the Introduction.
42
6. The seal
leave a warm
ino.
0
should
cover
7. The seal has
short, thick, -,mooth
fur. 
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN METIIOD.
III.-Find the Points on which the Conceptive  Faculties
should be exercised.
IV.-Find  the Poirts on which the Reasoning Faculties
should be exercised.
V.-AVhere the application should be made.
Students' Answers.
I. Point.-To teach the advantage of self-reliance.
II. Introduction.-To see that the children have an idea of a
lark-kind of bird as to size, color, mode of life-before telling
the story.
III. Points on which the Conceptive Faculties are exercised.The corn field-appearance of the ripe corn-the hidden nest,
with mother bird and young ones-the anxiety of the farmerconversation in the field-should be, as it were, dramatically rendered.
IV. Points on which  to exercise the ]Reasoning Faculties.Why the lark builds her low nest amongst the corn.  What danger she avoids. What danger she incurs. What the young birds
would infer from the first and second conversations. What the
old bird. What the young birds would infer from the third conversation. What the old bird. VWhat she would do.
V. Application.-To be made after the narration of each conversation.
SECOND EXAMPLE.- Exercise on Sketch on the Tortoise.
(See "Lessons on Animals," "Miscellaneous Sketches," page 348.)
Students examine sketch, and state:
I.-What is told, and why.
II. —What must be developed.
III.-Where the Observation is exercised.
IV.-Where the Reasoning Faculty.
V.-Where the Conceptive Faculty.
Students' work should stand substantially as follows:   I.-1. What is told.-The tortoise lives either on land or in
water It moves slowly on thle ground, but swims beautifully.
43 
INTRODUCTION.
It comes on land to deposit its eggs, of which it lays a great num
ber-scrapes a hole in the ground, and leaves them to be hatched
by the heat of the sun.
1. WVhy.-Because the children have no opportunity of ohb
serving.
2. WVhat is told.-Thle eggs of birds become hard, those of
reptiles soft, by boiling.
2. Wlhy.-Because it would be inconvenient to try the ex
periment.
3. The tortoise is covered by a thick, hard, strong shell; the
tail has a scaly covering of its own.
3. Because a picture is used instead of a specimen. If a
specimen shell can be procured, this would not be told.
II.-What must be developed.-All that can be discovered by
the observation or the reasoning faculty.
III.-Where the Observation is exercised.-The tortoise has
a small head like that of a serpent, four legs, and a tail. The
shell that covers the back has thirteen large pieces in the middle,
and twenty-three smaller pieces round the margin. The head and
legs are without armor.
IV.-NVhere the Reasoning Faculty is exercised.
1. Eggs of reptiles become soft by boiling. The eggs of the
tortoise become soft by boiling, therefore we infer that the tortoise
is a reptile.
2. Provision is made for the safety of the young of all classes
of animals. The tortoise is one of a class of animals, therefore
provision is made for the safety of its young (while in the egg).
3. Animals that can fight possess weapons of attack. The
tortoise has no weapons of attack, therefore the tortoise cannot
fight.
4. All creatures with thick horny coverings are reptiles. The
crocodile has a thick horny covering, therefore the crocodile is a
reptile.
V.-Where the Conceptive Faculty is exercised.-The tortoise
on a bright summer day.  The tortoise scraping away the sand to
lay its eggs.
44 
COLOR.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
- IN the First Step, the Perceptive Faculties of the children
are exercised in distinguishing various Colors. The memory is
exercised in learning the names of these Colors; and in the last
part of this Step, the Conceptive Faculty is in a small degree exercised, by recalling absent objects of a certain color, which is
held before them. Order and taste are also cultivated in arranging them in patterns.
In the Second Step, the Conceptive Faculty is still further
exercised, as in the First Step, and also a more minute perception
in distinguishing and naming the Tints, Shades, and Hues of the
different Colors, and learning how they are produced.
More difficult patterns are also formed and reproduced by the
children from memory.
In the Third Step, the Reasoning Faculty is exercised on the
relat'on and production of different Colors, and the children are
exercised somewhat on the harmony of Colors.  For teachers who
desire to gaini more knowledge of the subject of Color than is
here presented, we would recommend a little work entitled,
" Color Considered," or "RPedgrave's Manual of Color," or, if a
more extensive work is desired, that of Chevreul is perhaps the
best. 
COLOR.-FIRST STEP.
FIRST STEP.
Distinguishing Prominent Colors.
I. SketchI of a Lesson n Distinguishing Blue and Yellow.
1. Blute. —Having selected all the blue and yellow blocks
from Scofield's box of colors, the teacher places them promiscu.
ously upon the table. Pointing to the blue pattern on the diagram of color, she calls upon a pupil to find a block of the same
color and place it beside the pattern on the diagram. The pupils
in their seats decide, after close examination, whether the pattern
is well matched. If not, call upon another to try it. If the
child is "color blind," he may, without knowing the difference,
select an orange block to match the blue pattern!
2. Yellow.-The teacher selects a yellow pattern on the diagram. She calls upon a child to select from all the yellow and blue
blocks, now laid on the table, one like it. If color blind, he will
as soon match a yellow wvith a blue, as with a yellow. Let the
other children decide, as before.
3. The teacher selects a blue block, and asks a child to find a
color like it on the card. Compare them as before.
4. Now select a yellow block, and proceed as with the blue.
II.-I1. ExERCISES.-Select two yellow and two blue blocks;
place them upon a sheet of white paper before the class, in this
Yellow.
manner: Blue.       Blue.  Let a child place other blue and yel             YelIow.
low blocks on the paper in corresponding positions.
2. Place wafers thus: Yellow. Blue.      A  child to imi                          Blue.    Yellow.
tate as before.
While a child is employed in this way, let the paper be placed
upon a frame in front of the school, that all may see the work
and judge of its correctness, and, by raised hands, indicate when
it is wrong, that another may take his place.
46 
COLOR.-FIRST STEP.
3. Let the teacher thread five large colored beads before the
class, thus:  Blue, yellow, blue, yellow, blue.   A  child to imitate
as before. Blocks may be arranged in the order described, where
beads are not convenient.
The members of the Training Class should draw out sketches of lessons on
Red and Green, or on Violet and Orange, inventing exercises for each sketch.
REMI.PK.-With young children who have just entered school,
these exercises in distinguishing colors may be continued with
advantage until they can select correctly, and with rapidity, all
the colors on card No. 1.  The point is not here to teach the namnes
of the colors, but if a child calls the color by its right name, very
well; if by the wrong name, the right name may be given him.
III. Lesson o? Naminy Colors.
1. The teacher selects from Scofield's box of colors, blocks
of blue, yellow, red, green, orange, violet, brown, and gray, together with black and white, and places them promiscuously upon
the table.  Placing the diagram before them, point to a red pattern on the card, and say, This is red; or ask those who know the
name of the color to hold up the right hand.  Call  upon a child
to find a block like it.  The child says: "This is red."  Showing it to the children, they repeat together: "This is red."
Previous to giving this lesson, the teacher should place objects,
as nearly resembling these colors as possible, about the room. She
now calls upon one and another to find something in the room
that is red.
2 and 3. Proceed in the same manner with the exercises on
yellow and blue.
4. Point rapidly to the red, yellow, and blue patterns upon
the card, requesting the children to give their names as pointed to.
5. Bid a child place a yellow block on the table, a blue one
on the desk, and a red one on a chair.
6. Call upon one child to place the yellow block where the
blue one is, and the blue one where the yellow one is; another to
change the places of the yellow and red, and the red and blue, &c.
7e Select three children  one to find something that is red,
47 
COLOR.-FIRST STEP.
another, something blue, the third, something yellow, among the
colored objects in the room.
8. Tell the children to bring to school, for the mrorrow's lesson, something that is red, something that is yellow, and something that is blue, as bits of cloth, glass, paper, leather, or anything of these colors.
REVAPIK-.-Although blocks  of more than  three colors are
presented to the children, the names of three will be sufficient
for the first lesson; and several days may be spent on these before passing on to the names of other colors.
IV. Plain of a Lesson following the Last.
1. The children, on entering the school room, place the col
ored objects, which they were told to bring in, upon the table.
Call upon one child to place all the red objects upon one corner
of the table; a second, to place the yellow objects in another
place; and a third, the blue objects upon another corner. The
teacher now holds each object before the children, who say what
color it is. The objects may be of different shades, as light red,
dark red, &C.  As they note the differences, the general terms,
light and clark, may be given to the different shades.
2. Let the teacher, unseen by the class, conceal a red object
among the yellow ones, a blue among the reds, or a yellow among
the blue ones.  Take up each yellow object rapidly and hold it up
before the children, who repeat together the name of the color.
Practise them in the same manner with the other colors until
they can distinguish each color readily and correctly.
Exercise them with the blocks in the same manner.
The members of thie class in training may draw out sketches according to
the "Lesson in Naming Colors," distinguishing and naming orange, green,
and violet.
OBsEnvAxTION.-After the children have learned the names of
the colors on card No. 1, exercises like the following may be given
them, which will familiarize them with the names, as well as teach
them tQ distinguish them rapidly.
48 
COLOR.-FiRST STEP.
V. Placn of a Lesson in i)istingyishinig cand Araming Colors.
Plane Card No. V. before the children where all can see it.
Distribute all the blocks among the children, giving one block, or
more, to each child. Point to a color on the card. Let the child
who holds the block corresponding to the one indicated bring it
forward, and place it by the pattern. Tell the name and let al
the children repeat simultaneously if it be correct.
Or, if the teacher can furnish duplicate colors, distribute
them promiscuously among the class; then point out a color, and
let the two children who possess the same color bring it forNard.
The desire of knowing who have like colors makes the exercise more pleasing.
To vary the exercises, let one then another of the pupils point
out the colors on the card, thus keeping more of them actively
employed.
RE.MARKI.-In lessons on color, flowers should often be brought
before the class, as furnishing an endless variety of hues, tints,
and shades, of a purity next to that of the rainbow.  They must
be taught that the same colors in different substances will have
only a general resemblance. Who can paint the ruby, the emerald, the topaz, or the rainbow?  Dyes  are more perfect, being
chemical, than  mechanical  mixtures.    Yet dyes of the same
color in silk, worsted, cotton, and lin-en, are very different in brillialncy and purity: still the color may be recognized.
VI. Plate  of a Lessor with Flowers.
1. Select a flower having as many distinct colors as possible.
Give one to each of the children, if so many can be obtained.
Tell them to look at the flower, separate the parts, and see how
many different colors they can find. To the child who finds the
greatest number of colors, and names them, award the privilege
of taking from the box of colors the blocks to match the colors
found and named. Let all the children find in their flowers the
colors named, and name them simultaneously; or,
3
49 
COLOPR.-FIRST STEP.
2. A bouquet of flowers may be shown to the children. Let
latah one name a color which he sees, and find a block of the color
corresponding with it.
As they find colors in the flowers to which there is no counterpart among the blocks, and for which they have learned no
names, they may be told that God, who has made all things so
beautiful, has made ten thousand hues, tints, and shades of exquisite beauty, for which we are unable to find names.
The following lessons are designed to impress upon the minds
of the children clear conceptions of the leading colors, by teaching them to observe and remember the appearances of various
objects about them.
VII. Plan of a Lesson  on the Color Blue.
1. To make sure that the children have a clear idea of the
color, let the youngest child select all the blocks from the box
that are blue, lwhile the rest are employed in finding any objects
of a blue color in the room.
2. Lead the children to compare these blues with their recollection of the color of absent objects-with the heavens above us.
Is the sky always blue? &e.  (S. R.)  "The sky is sometimes
blue."
3. Let the children name some flowvers that are blue; bluebells, larkspur, forget-me-not, spiderwort, &c.  Where these flourish; whether in meadows, fields, in the gardens, or by the roadside.  "Some flowers are blue." (S. R.)
4. Let the children name fruits that are blue; as the blueberry and plum. Whether these are the same blue as the patterns.
They are rather blue.  "Things rather blue are said to be bluish."
(S. R.)
5. Let the children name some bird that is blue, or has any
part blue; as the peacock, bluebird, kingfisher, duck, jay.  "Some
birds are blue." (S. R.)
6. Let them give the names of some insects that are blue, or
50 
COLOR.-FIRST STEP.
have any part blue; as some beetles, the  dragon-fly, house-fly.
"Some insects are blue."  (S. R.)
7. Any other natural objects that are blue or bluish, as stone,
steel, indigo.
8. Children name from memory things that have life and are
blue or bluish, and things natural, not having life, that are blue
or bluish.
VIII. Lesso?, on the Color Yellow.
1. Introduce this lesson in the same manner as that on blue.
2. Lead the children to name  any natural objects of a yellow
color or yellowish. WVrite all the objects named on the board,
and help the children to classify them; as
(a) What birds with any part yellow?  as canaries, yel           low-birds, larks.
(b) AV hat insects are in part yellow?   Some butterflies,
caterpillars, wasps, and some worms.
(c) AYhat flowers contain yellow?    Buttercups, daisies,
coreopsis, sunflowers, some dahlias, &c. What part
of each is yellow? WNVhen are leaves yellow?
(d) WVhat fruits are yellow? Lemons, some gooseberries,
some plums, apricots, and apples. Are these yellow
as the pattern is vellow? They are yellowish. (S. R.)
(e) Other natural objects; as sulphur, gold, brass, straw,
ochre, butter, yelk of eggs, and sometimes the sky.
3. Sumnzmary.-Children say what animals, vegetables, and
wbat other objects are wholly or in part yellow.
PE,.MARK.-Each of the colors, red, yellow, blue, violet, green,
orange, brown, and gray, representative types of the family to
which they belong, may be treated in the same manner; varying
the exercises to keep utip the interest of the children.
Members of the class in training may draw out sketches on red, violet,
green, orange, &c.
51 
COLOr.-FIIST STEP.
PATTEPXIY, G.
This is an exercise of rauchl importance, and should be frequentlv introduced at each step.
In order to conduct it with success, every school should be
provided with a board oi wood, or heavy binders' board, tawo or
three feet square, covered upon one side with black velvet.   Also,
with a set of triangular cards, colored upon one side-as  green,
red, orange, blue, yellow, violet, olive, citiine, russet, and grayand upon the otlher some kind of cloth having a nap, so that they
may not fall from the velvet-covered board,  hen placed at such
an angle before the chlildren that thley may all see it.  It would
be desirable to have at least four cards of each color named.'k
In lessons of this kind, given in the First Step, children will
be required to imitate alone.   The teacher should select the
colors and form the patterns with reference to cultivatirng the eye
to harmonious contrasts.   She should avoid mraking patterns of
those colors which do not harmonize.
As the children advance and invent patterns for themselves,
the teacher should select the colors for thlem, until, by constantly
seeing harmonious contrasts, they readily and almost instinctively
associate the proper colors.
_IT(rtzto,iy of Colors, under tlat name, is not to be taughtl in
the First Step..
PREarArK.-Of the many beautiLful patterns which may  be
made by coimbining the  proper colors, we  would  suggest a
few.
Previouts to appearing before her class, thle teacher is expected
to lhave preparedcl herself for the exercise by arranging harmonious
colors into suitable patterns.
-:: Scfiel's Colored Blocks for invcetive Dirawiig, got out by the p,l).
hsoer of thlis work, are just adapted to this purpose.  They consist of eight,
pieces of each of the colors namned above. They afford endless amusement,
cultivate the taste, and stimulate inventive genius.
52 
COLOR.                        5
1.
1.
I1.
2. 
I
53
.I
I
1
i
L
2. 
COLOR. 
2.
3. -.
3.
Now.-The above combinatipns are made by means of two kinds of triangles,
— a  which are the result of the bisection of an isosceles rectangu               lar triangle (see-the figure). The triangle a b c representing one
/, kind, and the triangle a c d the other kind.  This idea is beau    _____      tifully illustrated by Scofield's Blocks for Inventive Drawing,
d      e  published by/C. Scribner & Co., New York, by which  may be
produced a pleasing  varie'ty of designs, and is even capable of representing
objects with a complicated outline.
54"
2..
.., Wl,/;g g  
COLOR. —SECOND STEP.
In the Second Step, the children not only imitate the more
difficult patterns as here presented, but the memory may be exercised in this manner:
The teacher forms a simple pattern of four blocks of two colors, telling the children to look carefully while she forms the p)attern. She allows them a very short time to look at it after it is
finished. She now takes the blocks from the board and calls
upon the children to reproduce the pattern.   That all the chlildren may be interested in the exercise, let one child place the
first block in the right position, another the next, &c., till the
pattern is reproduedel; the children in their seats judging whether
it is correctly done.
In the Tiirdl Step, still more difficult patterns may be formed,
either bv the teacher or by the children themselves, the chil({rea
reproclducing them from memory.
Patterns similar to those marked I may be used in the first
step; 2, in the second, and 3, in the thi:d.
SECOND STEP.
MIinute and accurate perception and power of comparison are
cultivated in this Step.  The vocabulary of the chlildren is extended by learning the names of the tints and shades of different color,s.
A standard color is the type of the given color.  The type of
blue is a blue that has no mixture of red or yellow.  A type of
red is a red that has no blue or yellow, &c.
IHues are modifications which a color receives by the addition
of a very small quantity of another color, but not sufficient to
give it a decided color different from the one modified.
A shade is the standard mixed with a darker pigment.
A tint is the standard mixed with a lighter pigment; or,
A  shade  is a tone earier than the standard, and a tint is a
te ll-hter than the standLard.
I. Lesson, oa Tints and S[iades of Blue.
1. Having selected a pale blue, an ultramarine, and an indigo,
55 
COLOR.-SECOND STEP.
from Scofield's color blocks, hold each up separately, and askl what
color it is. They will say each is blue.
Showv all together, and ask what difference they observe.  They
will say, some are light and some are dark blue. Call upon a
child to find a blue that is neither light nor dark. Ultramarine
will be selected.  Tell them, as this is neither light nor dark, but
the bluest blue wye can find, we will call it the type of blue, or stnd aerd allo.  "The bluest blue is called a standard blue."  (W. B.)
2. Direct attention to the remaining varieties. Children will
say some are darkl and some light.  Show how the light and dark
blues are made, thus:
On a white earthen palette place some ultramarine in pow der, the nearest type of blue to be found; or, if ground, mixed
with enough white to be of the same color as the dry powder.
On  cne side of the blue place some white paint, on the other
some black.  (Oil tube colors will be found most convenient.)
Let the children say what colored paint they see upon the
palette.  Tell a child to select from the blocks a blue like this
upon the palette.  The ultramarine block will be the one selected.
WNhat iname do we give to this, the bluest of the blues? (Standard Blue.) AWhat blue have we on the palette?  "Standard blue."
Let the children now observe carefully, while we mix a small
portion of the white paint with this standard blue, and note the
result.  They will see that a lighter blue is made.  Now we will
mix with the standard a still greater proportion of white.  The
blue is lighter still.  Continue this until three or four blues lighter than the standard are produced.  To these give the term, ti,zts
of blue.
"Blues lighter than the standard are called tighs of bluc.'
(WA. B.)   Children say how these tints are made.  "Tints  of
blue are made by mixing white with the standard."  (W. B.)
3. Take some of the standard blue and mix with it a small
portion of black.  Let the children observe carefully and note
the result.  A  dark blue is produced.  Blackl for practical purposes mav be used to make the shades, though it gives a grayish
hue.  Several blues may be made darker than the standard.  To
b,u 
COLOR.-SECO-ND STEP.
these give the term, shades of blue.  "Blues darker than the
standard are called shades of blue."   (W. B.)
Children say how these shades were made.   "Shades of blue
are made by mixing black with the standard."  (W. B.)
4. Show how convenient it would be if, instead of calling for
thie dCLarkest shade or the tint nearest the standard, we had names
for those colors. Wvho would likle to know the names? Tell them
that although we have made several tints and several shades upon
the palette, we will give names only to the standard, and to one
tint andl one shade.  (Vve caln get really no true type or standard
of blue.  Standard blue has no red or yellow in it.  This has a
sligh,lt tinge of red in it. Yet it is the purest type we can find.)
AWhat is standlardcl blue?  "Standard blue is the bluest of the
blues." This standard we call ultramarine blue; this shade, indigo blue; and this tint we call pale blue.  Point out pale blue
on color card No. 2.  Now point to ultramarine-indigo.  Now
i,At the teacher point rapidly to each, and let the children give the
names.
5. Having covered up all the colors except the tint, standard
and shade of blues on card No. 2, by folding white paper over them,
call upon the children to find the pale blue, the ultramarine, and the
indigo blue; and then find the blocks corresponding to these in color.
S t?(Pz'2ry.- Call upon the children to say how the tints and
shacles of blue were produced; what we call standard blue; and
give the name of the standard, one tint, and one shade.
II. Lessoi ol T'ints anzd Schades of.Re(.
1. Having previously concealed the other colors, as well as
thle different hues of red upon color card No. 2, ask the children
to and the reddest pattern upon the card. Refer' to the previous
[esson upon the color blue.  Askl what we called the bluest of the
i-lues.  If the bluest of the blues was standard blue, what may
we call this (pointing to standard red), vwhich you say is the
reddest of the reds?   The standard red.  "The reddest of the
3*
57 
COLO.-.SE,COND STEP.
reds is called standardcl red." (W. B.) Call upon a child to select
from the bo)x a block of the standard red.  Another child is called
upon to find a red lighter than the standard.   A third to find
still another lig-hter than the standard.
By again referring to the lesson on the color blue, we draw
from the children the term,tints of red.  "Reds lighter than the
standard we call tints of red." (W. B.)  Draw out the term
shades in the same way, after having them pointed out upon the
card, and selected from the box.' Rleds darker than the standard are called shadcles of red." (W. B.)
2. The teacher nowv produces a palette, upon which she has
put some carmine, white and blaclk paint.  By comparing the red
upon the palette with the blocks or pattern, the children see that
it is a standard red.
From their know-ledge of the lesson given on the color blue,
they may be able to say what would be the effect of mixing white
with the standard in greater or less quantities.   The teacher now
mixes the paint before tlhem, and the children note the result.
"Tints of red are made by mixing white with thle standard red.
Shades of red are made by mixing black with the standard."
(AY. B.)
S. From the several tints and shades made upon the palette,
let the children select the one tint and the one shade which cor'responds with the tint and shade upon the card and the blocks
which they have selected.  Ask how many would like to know
the names of this tint, shade, and standard red.
The name of the tint is flesh color; the shade, crimson; the
standard red, carmine.
FEMxi.;P.-Carmine, in dyes, formis a perfect red, but not in
oil; it becomes a shade unless warnmedl by vermilion till it resembles the dry pigment, which is the type of red.
Snzm;e,ay.-Children name the standard red.  Say whly we
call it standard red.  Give thle name of one tint and one shlade,
and the name of the standard red.  Tell howy the tints compare
v-ithi tihe standard; how the shades compare mith the standard;
58 
COLOR.-SECOND STEP.
and how the tints differ from the shades.  Tell from memory how
te,'nts and shades are made.
III. Lesson on Tiehts and SLIades of Green.
1. This lesson is treated in the same way as the lesson on the
color red; but as the children can now tell readily which the
standard is, what we call those greens lighter, and what those
darker than thie standard, and how the tints and shades are produced, less time will be required on this than on previous lessons;
but more examples may be found, and the older and more careful
children may produce, under the direction of the teacher, the
tints and shades upon the palette.
2. Names given.  Standard, emerald green; lightest tint, pea
green; darkest shade, invisible green.
3. The children may be requested to bring in, for the morning's lesson, leaves of trees; or, if not in the season for this, any
other objects of a green color, that they may classify them under
standard, tints and shades of green.  Also select those greens
of the same name as those which we have to-dclay shown them.
IV. Lesson on Tints and Slades of Violet.
1. This is treated in the same manner as tints and shades of
green. (The teacher, in giving lessons upon any color, as green
,and violet, which may be required to be made by the mixing of
any two or more colors, should perform this operation previous to
bringing the palette before the children. And it should be remembered that those colors are nearest perfect which most resemble the colors of the rainbow.   The production of different colors
by mixing two or more simple colors, will be noticed in due time.)
2. Name given. Standard, violet; lightest tint, mauve; darkest shade, plum color.
Ultramarine and scarlet lake will produce all the varieties of violet. Prussian blue, in smaller proportion, may be used instead of ultramarine, as being
less expensive.
59 
COLOR.-SECOND STEP.
V.
REI.mARK.-We omit lessons on tints and shades of yellow
and orange, and for this reason: No pigment of black wvhicl
can be procured is found sufficiently pure to mix with yellow without producing a green, owing to the tincture of blue
which is always found in it.  Only in theory, then, can we teach
the children that black with yellow prodnuces a shade of yellow;
or black with orange, a shade of orange. A shade of yellow is
produced by mixing umber or sienna with yellow. A shade of
orange may be produced by mixing a darker color with it.
1. After the previous lessons, by simply referring to the colors
upon the card, the blocks, &c., children will be able to point out
the tint, standard, and shades.  Then the names may be given
by the teacher.  The name of the standard is yellow; the lightest tint, straw color; the darkest shade, indian yellow.
Oraci/e.-The name of the standard is orange; lightest tint,
cream color; darklest shade, sorrel.
PRE,TAPI.-It will be seen that the different families of colors,
or, more scientifically, scales of color, run into each other.  Thus
vermilion is the yellowest red and the reddest orange. Turkois
is the bluest green and the greenest blue, &c.  This makes classification very difficult, and yet really necessary.
The class in training may write out sketches modelled after the lesson on
blue, thereby supposing the children never to have had previous lessons in
tints and shades; or, after that, on red, taking brown or gray as the subject.
NRames  of the browns.   Standard brown,  chlocolate;  lilghtest
tint, russet; darkest shade, umber.
Names  of the grays.   Standard gray, normal gray;  lightest
tint, pearl gray;  darkest shade, black.   (The best ivory or bone
black is but a grayish black.)
To extend the vocabulary still further, we have but to supply an adjective
to the colors given, as russet, purple russet, yellow russet, greenish russet,
orange russet, red russet, scarlet russet, brown russet, oak russet, olive russet,
&c., all descriptive of the various hues assumed by the foliage of trees in au.
tunin.
60 
COLOR.-SECOND STEP.,
VI. Lessoni on Hutes of PRecl.
1. Bring before the children Scofieldcl's box of colors, also
several skeins of red worsted, including tints and shlades, as well
as scarlet, vermilion (yellow hues), and solferino, magenta, and
crimson (blue hues).
2. Let the children select from the box all the reds, and then
classify these and the worsteds under the heads of tints and shades,
by arranging them in groups.  A  difficulty will arise with the
scarlet, vermilion, magenta, &e. They will not be able to tell to
which group they belong.  They do not look like tints, nor yet
like shades.  When compared with the standard red, one appears
more like orange, and thie other like purple, yet when we  hold
them up alone, or especially with a violet or an orange, they appear red.  After seeing the children sufficiently  interested in
knowing under what head to place them, let the teacher produce
a palette, on which she has put some carmine, chrome yellow,
and ultramarine blue.
Rlefer to the manner in which tints or shadcles are made from
the standard, by malking the standard lighter or darker.
3. Xow take standard red, carmine, and mix with it a little
chrome yellowv, and we have a yellow hue of red.  Mlix with the
red a little blue, enough to give it a bluish cast.  Give the correct terms, yellow hues of red, blue hues of red.  Ask how each
was produced.' A  yellow hue of red is produced by mixing a
small portion of yellowe  with the standard." (W. B.)  "A blue
hue of red is produced by mixing a small portion of blue with
the standardl." (CW. )13)
4. The children can now classifv the blocks, worsted  &c.,
utnder the heads of tints, shlades, blue hues, and yellow hues of
recL  They will see that some of the hues are lighter, and some
are darker, than the standard.
From previous knowledge the children may be led to say, that
a i;i t of a standard hue may be produced by mixing white with it,
andt a shade of a standard by mixing witli it any color which deep
cs it, alnd that color which deepens it is by artists called black.
61 
COLOR.-SECOND STEP.
5. Color card \To. 2 is now shown the children, eho  select
the standard red, tints and shades, blue hues and yellow hues,
telling the names of those they know.  The teacher may give
the names of the hues found upon the card, at the same time telling the children that there are many more hues, but these are
sufficient for the present.
Name of light blue hue of light red (chemical), Solferino.
"   " light blue hue of deep red,                Crimson.
"   " light yellow hue of red (chemical),        Vermilion.
"   " dark yellow hue of red,                    Scarlet.
RE.lAn.K.-In the same manner the teacher goes on showing
the blue and red hues of yellow, the yellow and red hues of blue,
the yellow and blue hues of green, the red and blue hues of purple, the red and yellow hues of orange, the blue and red hues of
gray, and the yellow and red hues of brown.
The following arrangement is found on color card No. 2. It
will be found to give a clear idea of terms often incorrectly used:
Family Groups of Colors, embracing Tints, Shades, Standards, and Hues, as arranged on Color Card No. 2.
BLUES.
Yellow ItI,es. Blue Hues.
Flesh Color.
Salmon.               Solferino.
Red (Carmine).
Vermilion.            Mlagenta.
Crimson.
Azure.                  Turkois.
Blue (Ultramarine).
ilazarine.       Prussian Blue.
Indigo.
ORANGES.
Yellow []ves.      Blue Hues.
Pea Green.
Apple Green.     Beryl Green.
Green (Emerald).
Grass (Green.       Sea Green.
Invisible Green.
Red Grees.         Fe llow   Zues.
Cream Color.
Buff.                    Corn Color.
OrangC,e.
Scarlet.                        Flame.
62
rlel)s.
f
Red Hues.
Yellow -1-lues.
Pale Blue.
GREENS.
Sorrel. 
v
COLOR.-SECOND STEP.
YELLOWS.
, ellow I-tlues.
Russet.
Tan Color.
Chocolate.
Copper Brown.
Umber.
BlYl e ICtoet.
Sulphur.
Canary.
VIOLETS.
-Red Hues.          Blue Hues.
Pearl Gray.
Ashes of Roses. Neutral Tint.
Normal Gray.
Ash Gray.          Steel Gray.
Tyrian Purple. Royal Purple.
Plum.
The colors in the left-hand column of the reds and greens are
yellow hues.  Those in the rig,ht-hand column, blue hues.  The
colors in the left-hand column of blues, oranges, yellows, violets,
browns, and grays, are red hues. Those in the right-hand column of the blues, oranges, and browns, are yellow hues.   And
those in the right-hand column of the yellows, violets, and grays,
are blue hues.
The colors in the centre of each group are standard; above
the centre, tints; below the centre, shades.
Or, we may arrange thus:
STANDA RDS.
Red (Carmine).
Green (Emerald).
Blue (Ultramarine).
Orange.
Yellow.
Violet.
Chocolate.
Normal Gray.
63
BROWNS.
P,ed Hiies.
Straw.
Lemon.
Yellow.
Ind-'an Yellow.
Saffron.
Red Hiies.
Maroon.
Mulberry.
GIZAYS.
-Re(l Ifite8.
31auve.
Lilac.
V;-olet.
Black.
TINTS.
Flesh Color.
Pea Green.
Pale Blue.
Cream Color.
,latiN,c.
Strav; Color.
Russet.
Pearl Gray.
SIIADES.
C.rimson.
In-visible Greea. -
Incli,To.
,Sorrel.
Saffron.
Plum.
Umber.
Black. 
COLOR.-THIIIRD STEP.
THIRD STEP.
I. Lesso~t on the Pfodtctiot of Secodcdary Colors from Prinzaries.*
1. Let the teacher mark off sixteen squares of equal size, with
a lead pencil, upon the palette, before giving this lesson.  Cover
three of the squares with chrome yellow, five with carmine, and
eilght withl ultramarine blue.   Show the palette to the children
andcl let them nalme the colors.  Yes, here we have a standard red,
yellow, and blue.
- By prinaei, colors we understand the thrce colors of which a ray of
light is composed.  They are blue, yellow, and red.  Any two of the primaries
combined make a secondary; and, if the pigments were perfect, would malike
a true type as seen in the solar spectrum. The imperfection of pigments
forces us to resort to colors made both chemically and mechanically.  For examiple, grass green, theoretically, is the type of green, or standard green, but
this difftors so much from the green in the spectrum, that we select a chemical
color more nealAy resembling the prismatic green, viz., emerald green.  But
again, practically, emerald  green  taken as the standard will not produce
the  ordinary greens in nature.   The  secondary colors  are violet, green,
and orange.  "Any two of the secondaries or the three primaries combined
make a tertiary.  The following arrangement will show how these couplings
are formed:
PRIMIARTES.        SECONDARIES.          SECONDARIES.          TERTIARIES.
Yellow +  3Blue   =      Green.          Green  +  Violet  -=    Olive.
Blue   + Ped   --   Violet.              Violet  + Orange  =    Russet.
Red    + Yellow -=    Orange.            Orange  + Green   =        Citrine.
Or. you can make the tertiaries immediately fiom the prinaries, thus:
1 part blue, 2 parts yellow, and 1 part red, or ~ part blackl  -=  Olive.
2 pa-ts redl, i part yellow, 1 part bluce, or - part black           =   Russet.
1 past blue, 2 parts yellow, and 1 part red                          -=  Citrine.
The followving prismatic colors, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange,
and red, are sometimes called primary colors, being the colors most marked
iti the rainbow.   Violet, however, is but the blending of red and blue rays.
Indigo is but a dleeper shade of violet, when a small proportion of the (red
bleods with the blue.  Green is the blending of thle blue an(ld yellow rays, a,d
orange the blenidilng of the red and yellow r,ays.
64 
COLOP.-TTHIRD STEP.
Nlow call attention to the squares upon the palette.  They
will see that there are three squares of the yellow, five of the red,
and eight of the blue.  Therefore we say, we have the colors in
these proportions: 8, 3, 5.*
2. Let a child say which of these two colors he will have
mixed together.  Suppose he says yellow and blue.   As the children observe the result they will say a standard green is prodluced. Ask in what proportions the yellow and blue were mixed
to make this color.  "Three parts yellow and eight parts blue
make standard green."   (W. B.)
Let another child say what other two colors he would like to
see mixed.  Suppose he should say blue and red.  Proceed with
these as with the yellow and blue.  "Eight parts blue mixed with
five parts red produce standard violet."   (W. B.)
In the same way continue with the remaining colors, red and
yellow.  "Five parts red mixed with three parts yellowv produce
standard orange." (AV. B.)
3. Ask the children what colors were upon the palette at the
beginning of the lesson, and now what colors. Tell them that
not only the colors green, violet, and orange, but all the colors
they behold in nature, could be made from blue, yellow, and red,
in different proportions, were the pigments perfect. In getting
the true theory of colors we must talk as though they were perfect, and show their imperfection as we proceed in practice.  As
all colors are made from these three, we call them Primzary Colors.
"Blue. yellow, and red, the colors from which all others are made,
are called primary colors."  (W. B.)
The children say what colors were produced by mixing two
of the primnaries, or what were the second colors made.
* An experiment made by Mr. Scofield makes the proportions here given
somewhat doubtful.  It is easily tested.  Take a cylinder on which the three
Cc rs are painted accurately: 8 parts or L blue;  3 parts or-,3  yellow; 5
Il-.rts or -l red.  On a contiguous section paint 5 parts or -'- blue, 3:l parts
yliiow, 33- parts red; each a normal color. Cause it to revolve in a lathe 1,800
times in a minute.  The blended colors approximating nearest to white will
be the true proportions. (Pub.)
65 
COLOR.-THIRD STEP.
Give the term "Seconzdary Colors."'
"Green, violet, and orange, produced by mixing the primaYies, are called secondary colors."  (W. B.)
4. Again refer to the proportions of the primaries which we
used to make the standard secondaries.
3 yellow and 8 blue to make green.
8 blue   and 5 red    "      violet.
3 yellow and 5 red      "     orange.
\Now ask the effect of varying the proportions; as, more yellow
and less blue-a yellowish green; of mnore blue and less yellowa bluish green, &c. All greens, but different. So vary the proportion of blue and red, of red and yellow.
Substitute now thle signs +  and =, the meaning of which the
rhildren at this step understand, and we have
Yellow +  Blue       Green.
Blue    + Red         Violet.
Red    +  Yellow    Orange.
Children repeat these until committed to memory.
RlEIMAnK.-As the standard secondaries are produced by the
mixture of certain proportions of two primaries, we see that in the
tertiaries, which are made by combining two secondaries, the pro
portion of these secondaries to each other will be as the sum of
the parts of the primaries which form thlem.  Thus, the tertiary
olive is made by mixing green and violet.  The green is made by
tho mixture of three parts yellow and eight parts blue; the violet
is made by the mixture of five parts red and eight parts blue.
The sum of the parts of which the green is composed is eleven
the sum of thie parts of which the violet is composed is thirteen
olive, then, is composed of thirteen parts of violet and eleven of
green.  In practice, a little black is required to give the proper
shade.  Citrine is made by mixing green and orange in the proportion of eight parts orange and eleven of green; russet, by
mnixing eight parts of orange with thirteen parts violet:  practically, a little black (or sienna) is necessary. It is quite as simple
66 
COLOR.-THIRD STEP.
a process to produce the tertiaries by the mixture of the three primaries.   Tlhus, olive may be made  by mixing  eight parts blue,
six parts yellow, and five parts red, and, in practice, a little black.
If this lesson upon the production of tertiaries from secondaries be thought too difficult for children to understand, they may
be taught by telling them that we have upon the palette the
standard secondaries (with the exception of the standard green,
emerald, where grass green must be substituted)-from these we
produce the tertiaries, by mixing them before the children, giving
the termr  Toerioriaes.  The result will stand thus upon the board:
SECONDARIES.      TERTIARIES.
Green  +  Violet  =- Olive.
Violet  +  Orange    Russet.
Orange +  Green  = Citrine.
The class in training draw up a sketch on the production of brown from
the three primaries, or ore upon the production of gray from black and white.
II.  Genieral Lesso~, on Color.
1. Ask  the children what  they would see if they were to
walk out on a pleasant morning and look upward.  The sky.
Ihow does the sky look? Blue.  Of iwhat colors does it appear
at different times?  VWhat do we sometimes  see in the sky?
Clouds.   What colored clouds?  -Vlhat besides clouds?  The sun
and moon.   The color of each at different times?  Wvhen does
the sun look like a ball of red file? &c.
Suppose the sun were to burst forth during a sliower, what
would they see in the heavens opposite the sun?   A rainbow.
What colors would they see in the rainbow?  Violet, indigo, blue,
green, yellow, orange, and red.
Ask them what colors they see in the fields.  Green grass,
trees with green, red, yellow, or russet leaves; brown or gray
stems, branches, and trunks, and flowers of various colors.
Let each child name a flower of a dlifferent color, to show that
'Pse are of all colors.
67 
COLOR.-THIRD STEP.
What living things show the brightest colors? Tigers, leopards, the redbreast, bullfinch, peacock, macaw, kingfisher,  butterflies, ladybugs, &c. How much we likle to look upon all these
beautiful things! Lead the children to imagine the trees, flowers,
and objects in general, all of one hue, as white, drab, or gray.
Present a piece of gray or brown glass. Allow the children to
look through it. They will see that everything about them appears of the same color. Ask how we should feel if everything
that we could see was of some dull leaden hue, and all of one
color. iNo pretty colored clouds to be seen-the ground upon
which we walk to be of a dull brown; no pebbles of different colors to be admired. Some flowers to be seen blossoming upon
brown stems, but the flowers all gray and the leaves all of the
same color. The trees all black, gray, or brown, and the children themselves all clothed in black dresses. How such a dismal
scene as this would make them feel.  Then what colors make us
feel gloomy?  "Dull colors make us feel gloomy."   (W. B.)
Now suppose we walk out some pleasant morning, and look at
every object about us clothed in the pretty colors which nature
hleas given them.   See the blue sky, and the brown earth strown
with pretty stones of so many different colors, the green trees,
and flowers of every imaginable color blossoming about us, and
the children all clotlhed in their pretty dresses of different colors.
I-ow they feel.  What colors, then, make us feel gay and cheerfutl? " Brig,ht colors makle us feel cheerful." (WV. B.)
2. Refer to the blaclkboard.  Of what color is it?  Make
some strokes upon it with a piece of black crayon.  Some more
strokes with a piece of white crayon.  Ask the children which
strokes they can see.  Why theycan see those last made, but not
those which were first made.   Draw from them this conclusion:
Thlat the marks or strokes first made are not easily distinguished,
b-ecause of the same color of the board;  while the strokes last
ia(ae are easily seen, because of a different color from the board.
lVe learn, then, that  " Color  helps  to  distinguish objects."
(W. B.)
68 
COLOR.-TIIIRD STEP.
Su2))marn?ay.-Let us now see in how many ways color may
benefit us. Read from the board until they can repeat from
memory.
III. Lesson on Harmony of Color.
Previous to this the children are supposed to have had considerable exercise in combining colors which harmonize, and in
forming patterns, under the direction of the teacher. We will
now give them further exercises in this direction, and lead them
to observe what particular colors look well together. Let the
colors red, yellow, blue, green, purple, and orange be presented.
Call upon a child to select any two  that look well together.
Suppose he selects the red and green. After the children have
decided that the selection is right, lay them aside. Let another
child select two others.  Suppose he selects purple and yellow.
Let these be treated in the same way as the red and green.
Continue these exercises until each primary is placed beside
its complementary secondary; thus: red and green-yellow and
purple-blue and orange. In this exercise let the teacher always
accept the selection of the child if it is right, and, if wrong, lead
him to see the error by contrasting it with a harmnonious combination.  Hold red and green before the children.  Ask what they
can say about them.  They will say they look well together. Give
the term harmonize.   "Colors that look well together are said to
harmonize." (W. B.)
Now we will write the names of some of these colors which
harmonize.   Children dictate from the selections that have been
made, and the teacher writes them thus:
* ( Red and Green.
Colors that harmonize:  Yellow and Violet.
Blue and Orange.
Children read this over.  Nowv let us see what colors we have
in this first column. (Primaries.) In the second column. (Secondaries.) Now let us see of what the secondaries are made up.
69 
COLOR.-TIIIRD STEP.
Write from the dictation of the children, so that the matter uplon
the board shall stand thus:
Colors that  a  (Red and Green: Green -- Blue + Yellow.
Colr  t  r-Yellow and Violet: Violet = Red + Bltoe.
monize    (Blue and Orange: Orange -- Yellow + Red.
The children read this over several times, until they may, with
a very little assistance from the teacher, discover that in each
harmony we have the three colors, red, yellow, and blue. Therefore we see that to form a harmonious combination the three primary colors must all come in.  The children may now be called
upon to select two colors which do not harmonize. Suppose they
take blue and red.  Ask what color is wanting to make a harmonious combination. Suppose they take blue and violet. Violet =  red +  blue; so we then have blue, red, and blue, but no
yellow.  Several days may be spent on lessons like the foregoing.
Let them see that each of the secondaries will look better with
either of the other secondaries, than with a primary which is not
its own complement.  Thus, green and orange look better together than green and blue or green and yellow, because, in the
one case, we have the three primaries, but too much yellow; while,
in the latter cases, the red is wanting.  For the benefit of teachers we append the following:
Colors harmonize wnich contain the elements of-white, and discord where
these elements are wanting.  This is clearly seen in the law of complenentary colors on Scofield's Diagram of Colors. Complementary colors are in opposite panels; discordant colors are contiguous, or most nearly so.  It will be
seen that red harmonizes with green, because on the supposition that a ray of
white light contains 8 parts blue, 5 parts red, and 3 parts yellow, it is made
up of 16 parts. Green is made up of 3 yellow and 8 blue = 11 parts; 11
parts +  5 parts red make up the complement of 16 parts.  So yellow harmonizcs with violet, because violet is made up of 13 parts, 8 of blue and 5
of red; 13 parts + 3 parts yellow = — 16, the complement.  But as the primary red beecomes more yellow, the secondary green must contain more of the
remaining primary, blue.  Thus we see that vermilion, a yellowish red, best
harmLonizes with sea green, a bluis7i green.  A crimson, a bluish red, with
grass green, a yellowish green, &c., &c.
70 
COLOR.-THIPRD STEP.
The secondary or primary colors harmonize each with its concordant tertiary, because the analysis of each shows that together they contain the elements of white. Thus, orange, which harmonizes with violet and green, harmonizes with olive, composed of violet and green and a small  quantity of
black. So russet harmonizes with green; citrine with violet.
The harmony of the tertiaries with the primaries, upon the same prilicip!e, is this: olive harmonizes with yellow or with red. Citrine harmonizes
witl red or with blue.  Russet harmonizes with blue or with yellow.
The harmonies of the tertiaries with each other are the least striking of all
thle harmonies.
71 
FORM.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
THAT "the child sees in nature objects, not lines," is a truth
which nobody will attempt to deny.   On these objects are seen,
on closer examination, some common properties belonging to form
and outline.  That which  strikes the eye most,  is the size and
shal)e of the object.  Its size is dependent on its length, breadth,
and thickness,  wlhich properties are treated  in  the chapter on
Size.  The shape or form of an object is chiefly visible on its
sztrfctce, which, tog,ether with its divisions, or faces, will claim
most of the child's attention in the First Step.
The principal feature of the First Step is, that it makes the children examine and describe forms on the objects themselves;  that
it avoids technical names and definitions as much as possible, and
makes but very few classifications.  In the  Second Step, beginning with the directions of the straight line, the child is led to
perceive andl describe elements of form, that have been abstracted
from the objects, and are represented by lines and figures.   The
Third Step describes and classifies solids.
FIRST STEP.
Development of Common Properties belonging to
Surface.
1. Lesson on the Surface and Faces of isolids.
The teacher presents to the class an object-say a square box.
Tell me, which is the outside?  Which is the inside?  Which is 
FORM.-FIRST STEP.
the bottom?  Which is the cover, or lid?   Where  are its sides?
We will turn the box over; now, where is the top of the box?
Where the bottom? The teacher may then show a regular solid
-a cube, for instance, and ask, What do you call this?  A block.
Show me its top; its sides; its bottom.   I will turn the block
over:  now  show me the top; bottom;  sides.  Tell me if you
can see any difference between them? Then what can you say
of the parts of the outside? They are alike. We will call the
outside, surface, and the parts of the surface, faces. Wthat do we
call the outside? What do we call the parts of the outside?
How many faces has this block? Let one child point out one of
its faces, another a different face, &c., till all are pointed out.
ANe will now  repeat what we have learned.   The outside of
an object is called its surfcace. The parts of the surface are called
feces.  Show me  the faces of the box; of this book; of  the
bookcase; of your slates, &c.
The teacher may now  show the class another object-say  a
sphere-and call upon one of the children to come and cover the
surface with his hands.  How many parts has the surface?   Do
you know the name of this object? (If the children call it a ball,
the name may for the moment  be retained.)   Here  is another
object (a cone). Show me its surface. Move your hand over
the whole surface.  How  many parts are there to this surface?
~That do we call these parts?   Faces.   Let us compare  the
faces of the objects before us.  If I move this block, will it roll?
5Thy not?   Right;  because its faces are flat.  Instead of flat,
say ilane.  But if I move this object (the sphere), what  will it
do? Vhy will it roll? Because its surface is round. Teacher
places the cone on its base, and asks, Now will this object roll?
TWhy not?  Teacher places the cone on its side, and moving it,
asks, And nowv what can you say it does?  It rolls.   And why?
Nowv repeat, An object may have a plane or a round surface.   It
may also have plane and round faces. Now show me objects in
the room that have a plane surface; others which have a round
surface; others which have both plane and round faces.   (The
cylindrical and conical objects belong to this class.)
4
73 
FORM.-FIRST STEP.
2.  0n the Edges and Corners of Solids;  the Idea of Straight
and Curved developed.
The teacher again presents the  block, and asks  a child to
point out two of its faces that meet each other. She bids him
further to move his finger along between them.   (Presenting
the blade of a knife.) Where do the faces of this blade meet?
Yes; at the edge.  Now let us call the meeting of two faces an
edge.  What is an edge?   Show  me  the edges of this block.
How many are there?  Pointing to a corner of a cube.  What
do you call this?   A  corner.  Where  do  these edges meet?
These edges meet in a corner.   How many corners are there in
this block?   How  many  edges do you see in this object  (a
sphere)?  How many corners?  Howv many edges in this object
(a cone)?  How  many corners?  We  might in the latter case
call that one corner at the top its point.  Point out the edges and
corners of this table; of this book;  of this tumbler, &c.
Now move your finger along one of the edges of the block,
and now on the edge of this solid (the cone). Did you move exactly in the same way? Who can tell me the difference?
Although the children may already have both the idea and
names of straight and curved, yet we may seize this opportunity
of illustrating one of the most important elements, or rather the
element of form, by means of drawing.   For this purpose  the
teacher draws distinctly and correctly a straiyht line and a circular curve on the blackboard, and gives them the names of straight
and  curved lines.   She then asks which  of these lines represents an edge of the cube, and which of them the edge of the
cone.
If any further definition of straight and curved is required, the
teacher may show that the straight line never changes its direction,
wihile the curved line is continually changing its direction.  The
vYord "direction" may be illustrated by the teacher, in moving
from one point in the room to another. By going directly, or the
slortest wvay, from one point to the other, she describes a strajilgt
/ine on the contrary, if she gradually turns to the right or left
of this line, and then returns to it again, she has been out of thl
74 
FORM.-FIRST STEP.
straight line; and if her motion was traced on the floor, it would
be by a curved line.
The teacher must make some other curves on the board, be
side the circle and the arc, in order that the idea of curve may
become somewhat generalized.
She lastly requires the children to name and point out objects,
the edges of which describe a straight line; others, of which the
edges are curved; others, which have edges both straight and curved.
It may be well for the children, as well as the teacher, to
know that in copying objects from nature, we draw what is called
their outline; this outline is sometimes analogous to the edges of
the solid, which form the boundary of our view. But in some
solids, as the sphere, the cone, the cylinder, the outline does not
always coincide with the edges, but is visible on the rounded
surface.
3. 0  An)yles and Enclosed Surfaces.
Thev are classified and named according to the number of their
sides. The teacher might here ask the children whether they
think they could enclose a space with one straight line, or, to render the case more obvious, with one straight stick?   Whether
thev think it could be done with one curved line? The children
may suggest a circle, or an ellipse.
The teacher then may continue the exercise by asking whether
a space could be surrounded by two straight lines (to be illustrated
bv sticks placed in the form of a right angle).  On how many
sides is this space surrounded? Where is it open? The teacher
may make a drawing of this combination, and tell them that this
is called an ag,gyle, and that an angle may be more or less open.
(Teacher changes the position of the sticks to illustrate this.)
QUESTIONXs.-Showv me some angles on the blackboard?
Which is the most nearly closed? Which is more open?  Which
is the most open?
Next require the children to find out whether, with three
straight lines, a space can be entirely surrounded or shut in, and
to show it by arranging sticks on the floor. This done, a triangle
is formed, which the teacher copies, and to which she gives the
75 
FOPrZr.-FIRST STEP.
name, letting the children repeat: A surface which is enclosed by
three sides is called a three-sided figure, or triangle.
(N. B.-The teacher has to tell them, that in speaking of enclosed surfaces, we use the word side, instead of line.)
After this, the children are required to find out how a space
can be enclosed by four straight lines, which the teacher copies
on the blackboard, representing not only the square, but, if she
chooses, the rhomb, rhomboid, trapezoid, trapezium, and oblong,
to which the children will easily give the name  of four-sided
figures.  The children may now select these from the box of forms.
QUESTION.-AVhat is a four-sided figure?
The same plan is continued, so as to include the five, six,
seven, and eight-sided figures.
An excellent plan, still further to impress these forms upon the
senses and the minds of the children, will here be suggested, as
being within the scope of every teacher.   Let her draw the
figures described above on pasteboard; after this, the figures are
cut out by means of a penknife, so that the holes, as well as the
pieces cut out, may serve as illustrations of these forms. It will
be well to draw and cut out several kinds of four-sided figures,
since each of them represents forms of frequent occurrence. It is
doubtful whether the proper Greek names ought to be given to
these quadrilaterals at this step, such as rliomb, trapezoid, &c.
'5e should propose to take the children's names, such as windowshaped, boat-shlaped, etc., which will prove to be more practical,
especially for purposes of drawing.   " Calkin's Chart of Forms"
may be used in connection with these exercises, the children
pointing out upon the chart the figures corresponding to the forms
cut from pasteboard.   The figure on the chart named paral'eloyrcmr, is in this treatise called an oblong.
We  subjoin here the exercises which this plan suggests, in
due order:
1. The children take the pieces which the teacher has cut out,
one after the other, and find out to what hole they fit.
2. The teacher herself fits those pieces into the holes from
which they have been taken, and asks what figure they represent.
A5hy?  Co-unt the sides, and co'ners, or angles,
76 
FORM.-FIRST STEP.
3. She then may tell them to bring her a piece representing a
circle, a five-sided figure, a four-sided figure, &c.
4. Finally, she bids them look at the objects in the room, and
find out which of them  has a triangular surface, or one which is
four-sided, circular, five, six-sided, &c.
4. App)lication of the last exercise to Drawing.
The bearing of this last exercise to drawing is so obvious,
that we shall bring it in as a part of the lesson.
The teacher proposes to draw a window, and asks them what
kind of lines will represent it?  -That kind of figure?  (They
will probably refer to the oblong.) Then she herself begins to
draw, always asking whether the class knowvs what part of the
window, what edge, corner, &c., she is drawing.  After the drawing is completed, she may call the children out, and, pointing to
different parts of the window, bid the children point to the analogous parts of the drawing.
N. B.-Although the terms horizontal, vertical, and oblique,
have not been developed at this step, the children's meaning will
be sufficiently clear in speaking of lines going downward, to the
right, left, sloping lines, &c.
DRAWING OF A IOUSE.
It need not be remarked  that drawings of this kind apply
mostly to the frontispiece of objects, and do not include vanishing
surfaces, which represent thickness.
The teacher again may  ask what figure they think would
represent the front of a house, the door, the windows, &c.  kVlhat
figure do they think would represent the roof?   The children
may possibly find that the one they have called "boat-shaped"
would  Dest represent it; if not, the teacher may first show some
wrong figures, till she hits the right one, which will probably receive the approval of the children.
7 
FORM. —SECOND STEP.
Other objects that might be drawn by the teacher under the
direction of the children, are: a box, a door, a secretary, a chest
of drawers, a clock, &c.
Although the children are not, at this step, supposed to draw
themselves, the training they receive in regard to form, &c., will
be invaluable. The real starting point for children to draw, is by
means of the i?zventive drawing.
SECOND STEP.
1. Dieections of the Straizht line.
For the sake of the recapitulation of one of the previous exercises, the teacher may draw a curved line on the blackboard, and
ask lwhat klind of a line it is.  WVhy do you call it a curved line?
Sh-e then may draw  a vertical, horizontal, and oblique line, and
ask to what kind of lines they belong.  They are straight lines.
Bult can you see any difference in the direction of the lines?
The children undoubtedly see some difference, although they may
not be able to state it clearly.
In order to develop this subject in a visible and tangible manner, the teacher may place a stick or pointer vertically against the
wvall or the blackboard, and ask, AVWhat do youl see?  Hiow is the
pointer situated?   It stands against the wall.   And  now  (lettiig the stick fall to the ground )?   It lies on  the floor.   And
now  (lec(tnin,  it toctward  the wacll, inclining -it to the right)?   It
leans against the wall.
The teacher then calls upon one of the class to come forward,
and draw, by means of a line, the stick as it looks when standing.
Another child is called to draw the stick as it appears when lying
on the floor; and a third to represent the stick leaning against the
wall.  Is this drawing exactly right?  Some  say, The stick in
clines more than the drawing indicates.   To which side does tilIe
stick incline?  Yes; to the right.  And now?   To the left.  Let
some of the children come forward, and draw it as it appears
now.
After the several lines representing the stick in a standing,
78 
FORM.-SECOND STEP.
Iying, and inclined position, are thus made on the blackboard, the
teacher may point to one of the lines-for instance to the verticalasking what name they would give to this line.  A standing, upright line, &c.  She then gives them the name which is commonly
applied to lines of this class in drawing, viz., vertical, which she
spells, writes on the board, and makes the children repeat.   No
further definition is necessary, such as are often give in books, and
-which are mostly beyond the child's experience. Nevertheless,
for purposes of drawing, or in mechanics, an accurate standard for
measuring the vertical direction becomes very desirable. For this
purpose the teacher may attach to the end of a string a weight,
andl hold it suspended before the class. What line does this string
describe?  Yes; a vertical line, and in so perfect a manner  that
we may use it to measure the vertical lines on the blackboard, or
elsewhere, as a carpenter or mason measures vertical objects or
their edges by means of something very much like this, which he
calls a plummet.   Let a child come and make some vertical lines
on the blackboard.   Are they exactly right?  WAho  thinks they
are? Let us decide it with the plummet.
The teacher next makes the children examine the horizontal
line, and asks whether they have a name for it.  She then tells
them that instead of flat, or even, the word horizontal is used in
speaking of lines. In order to familiarize them with this new name,
she may ask them whether they ever stood at the shore of the
ocean or some great lake; whether they ever observed a line
nwhere the sky and the water seem to meet.   She then tells them
that this line is called "horizon,"  and asks which of the lines
on the board the horizon seems to resemble most in regard to
direction.
Lastly, she inquires for the name they would give the oblique
line. If they call it sloping or slanting, she may tell them that
these words are sometimes used, but that the name "oblique" is
generally preferred when applied to lines. The teacher must take
care not to reject unconditionally the names which the children
may give to these lines, since they are generally correct when
applied to things or objects.
A recapitulation of the lesson may be had as follows:
9 
FORM.-SECOND STEP.
1. The teacher points to the lines on the blackboard, anrel
requires their names.
2. She gives the name, and requires the children to draw them,
either on the blackboard, or on their own slates.  In the latter
case she would do well to vary the exercises by saying, Draw four
vertical lines of the same length; five horizontal lines, beginning
with a short one, and making each successive one a little longer
six oblique lines, inclining to the right; seven oblique lines, inclining to the left, &c.
3. She then requires them to point out objects in the room
that have a vertical, horizontal, and oblique direction, either as a
whole, or considering their edges only.
2. Angles.
WAVe have already considered how angles are formed. VWe
will only remark here, that a pair of scissors or shears are w)ell
calculated to illustrate angles; and the fact that their size depends
on the width of the opening, and not on the length of the lines,
or, in case of the instruments, on the length of the blades.
In order to illustrate the three different kinds of angles, let the
teacher present to the class a knife with a straight edge, when
questions like the following may be asked:-The teacher (opening the knife haf-way) asks, How  much did I open this knife?
Trace the angle which it describes. After shutting it a little, she
asks, And what is its opening now?   Yes;  less than before.
And  now?  More  than at first.  (Shuttin  v it enctlAcy):  And
now?  (Opening it entirely): And now?  What can you say of
the angles in the last two cases? There were no angles.
A scholar is then required to draw the angle which was repre.
sented by the knife when it was half open. He can give it, of
course, the opening lie thinks most appropriate, by guess or other
wise. It will, however, generally be found that the child's practical sense will suggest to him that an angle like the one he is reqlired to draw is most easily made by erecting a vertical line upon
~,e end of a horizontal one. InII that case, the name and following
definition may be given: A right angle is formed by drawing a
so 
FORM.-SECOND STEP.
vertical line from the end of a horizontal one.  Let the children
repeat this, and try to execute the right angle according to the
direction given.
Now draw the angle which is represented by the knife when
it is less than half open.  What did we call the angle you drew
before?  What can you say of the one you have just drawn?
Yes; it is smaller than the right angle.  Now I will tell you: an
aig,le lwhich is smaller or less than a right angle, is called an acutd
c7tMfe. Repeat this.
Now draw this angle which is represented by the knife more
than half open.  How is the angle you have drawn, when compared to the right angle?  Greater than the right angle.  Now
I w-ill give you its name:  an angle which is greater than  a
right angle, is called an obtuse angle.  Repeat this.
The teacher may finally present to the class a knife with a long
blade, together with a smaller one, both half open, and ask,
What angles do both of these blades describe?  Right angles.
WVhich is the greater of the two right angles?  They are alike.
Whly?  Because the blades are both half open, or because they
are equally open. Then repeat: Angles are alike when their
openings are the same.  All right angles are equal.
EXERCISES.-I. The teacher draws promiscuously a certain
iimnber of angles of different kinds on the board, some of them
hardly discernible from right angles, and requires the class to name
them.
2. She tells them to draw any kind of angle she describes, as,
for instance, an acute angle with a very small opening, another
with a wide opening, &c.
3. Shle asks them to point out right, acute, or obtuse angles,
as formed by objects they see about them.
3. Perpendicular Lines.
Although the children have hitherto been encouraged to form
their right angles by the combination of a vertical line with horizontal ones, it will be necessary to generalize the idea.  For this
purpose the teacher mnay hold up horizontally a slate, and ask
4:v
81
i-' 
FORMo-SECOND STEP.
what angles they perceive on it.  Then she may turn the slate so
that one corner falls lower than the other, thus:
and ask whether the angle they see there is still a right angle.
WVhat kind of lines form it?   Yes;  slanting lines.   Then  let
them draw an angle in the above position. A child does so on
the blackboard, and the teacher appeals to the class to determine
whether the angle is right.  As there may be a difference of opinion, one of the lines mat- ~e prolonged, thus
~
AVhat do you see now?   Two  angles.   Where situated?  On
each side of one of the lines.   What  can you say of these
angles?  What about the size of their openings?  (This may be
ascertained by measuring, at an equal distance from the point of
meeting, across the opening of the angle.) If this point is settled,
the teacher tells them: TVhen one line meets another, so that the
anyles on each si'le are e'qual to each other, such angles are right
angles.  And  again:  Any line which forms a right angle with
another, is said to be I)erp)endicular to the other line.
ExERICISES.-1. The  teacher bids one  child draw on  the
board a line in any direction, and then to draw another line perpendicular to the first.  If it should be done incorrectly, then the
teacher must apply the test suggested above.   The  questions to
be asked in such a case are: What kind of angle is this?   Yes;
an acute angle.   And this?   An  obtuse angle.  Can  the line
drawn be a perpendicular? Why not?
2. The class is then required to point out edges of olbjects that
are perpendicular to other edgs,e.  Pointing to the blackboard, for
instance, the teacher may ask, What can you say of these two
82 
FORMA.-SECOND STEP.
edges with reference to each other? Is it also vertically placed
oii that edge?  Then is it both perpendicular and vertical?
RE\AIRK.-AS the term perpendicular is frequently used in the
place of vertical, it may be well to make the class acquainted with
this fact; without, however, recommending it, since it may lead to
a confusion of ideas. For instance, pointing to a sloping edge of
a desk, the teacher may  ask, What  kind of edge is that placed
under it?  A  vertical one.   Is it perpendicular to the sloping
one? It is not.
40 Triangles.
The teacher draws a right, an obtuse, and an acute angle on
the board, and then shuts the opening of each by a third line.
She then asks, VWhat do you call these figures now?  Of how
many lines or sides are they composed? What can you say as to
their resemblance or difference?   Point out any difference between them; for instance, between the first and second.  In the
first there is a right angle, which is not in the second; in the
second there is an obtuse angle, which is not in the first. What
can you say of the angles in the third of these triangles? They
are all acute angles See if you can find any acute angles in the
first and second figures. How many are there? Point them out.
The teacher then may tell them that the names given to these
triangles depend on the kind of angles they have. The one which
has a right angle in connection with two acute angles, is called a
riyAght-anylcd triangleo  The other, which has an obtuse and two
acute angles, is called an obtuse.angled triangle. The third, which
has three acute angles, is called an acute-angled triangle.  Repeat
this.
EXERCISES.-1. The teacher may draw any number of triangles of the above kinds, and require the children to give their
names.
2. She requires them to draw any of these triangles according
to dictation.
3. She bids them to point out triangular faces of one or the
other kind on objects they see in the room.
4
83 
FORM.-SECOND STEP.
5. Continuation of Triangles.
The triangles in the former exercises were classed by comparing their angles. The teacher now proposes to class themn by
comparing their sides.   Who  can make a triangle having two of
ts sides equal, and the other of a different length?   Who  can
make a triangle having all of its sides unequal?   Who can make
a triangle having its three sides equal?  The pupils, in attempting
to make these, may possibly fail. In this case the teacher draws
the figures for them on the blackboard, and shows them that the
angles must have a certain opening, to make the construction possible. The teacher then gives the names:
Fig. 1 is called an isosceles triangle.
"   2       "      scalene       "
"   3       "      equilateral (equal-sided, regular) triangle.
After this the children give a definition of each. In the recapitulation the same order of exercises is to be observed as
before.
6. Parallel Lines.
In order to develop this important idea in a distinct and pleasing manner, the teacher may place before the children two sticks
parallel with each other, and then represent themin on the blackboard by two parallel lines. For the sake of obtaining a simple
definition of the term parallel, she may remind the pupils of two
parallel streets in their neighborhood, and ask the following questions: If one person was walking in one of these streets, and a
second person in the other, moving in the same direction, would
they be likely to meet? (Pointing to the lines on the blackboard.)  Do you think these lines would ever meet?  Why not?
Answer: Because they do not come nearer each other; because
they are equally apart.  Now I will tell you, that lines, which
are equally apart, and which can never meet, are called parallel
liies. What are parallel lines? (Calling on the children.) Can
84
L 
FOREM.-SECOND STEP.
you draw some on the board, which are near together?  Others,
which  are farther  apart?  Draw  two  parallel lines of great
length.   Draw two which  are  short;  draw one long and the
other short, yet both parallel with each other.  With what instrument do you think I could make any number of parallel lines with
much ease and correctness?   Where do you find these lines?  On
writing paper.  Where else?   Make on your slates five vertical
parallel lines. Now five vertical lines not parallel.  Is this possible?
It is not.  Then say, All vertical lines must be parallel.   Draw
now six horizontal parallel lines. Drawv six horizontal lines not parallel. Is this possible? Then say, Horizontal lines must be parallel.  Now draw five oblique parallel lines to the left; five oblique
parallel lines to the right; five oblique lines not parallel.  Is this
possible? Then say, Oblique lines may be or may not be parallel.
Are there any parallel lines in a triangle?  In a four-sided figure?
This latter point we propose to consider more particularly in the
next lesson.
7. Four-sided Figures, or Quadrilaterals.
As the children have, in the preceding exercises, obtained
some insight into the principle of classifying geometrical figures,
it is proposed that they should, in this exercise, perform the classification themselves, under the direction of the teacher.   For this
purpose, draw promiscuously on the blackboard the six different
kinds of quadrilaterals; as, for instance,* 1, the trapezium; 2, the
square; 3, the trapezoid; 4, the rectangle; 5, the rhomboid;
6, the rliomb. It need hardly be stated, that the teacher must
refer to these figures by their numbers only, until their names are
given.
She now may askl, In which of these figures do you see two
pairs of parallel lines-that is, two lines running parallel in one
direction, and two running parallel in another?   In figs. 2, 4,
5, 6.  What can you say of the length of their opposite sides?
They are equal.
The teacher then selects the figures just named, and draws
* For these figures, see Chart of Forms.
85 
FORM.-SECOND STEP.
them on another line, and says, Four-sided figures, havirng all theit
ol)posite sides parallel and equal, are called parallelograms.  Repeat the definition.   After this, she asks the children which
of these parallelograms bear a strong resemblance to each other?
Figs. 2 and 4.  In what particular are they alike?  They have
both four right angles. In what are they different, if you comnpare
their sides?  Fig. 2 has all its sides equal, and fig. 4 has two
opposite sides shorter than the other two. Is there any resemblance between the other two parallelograms, figs. 5 and 6?
Yes. In what are they alike? In what are they different?
The teacher then tells them, that if they will make a full description of each figure she points out, she will give them its
proper name. What is this figure? (fig. 2). A parallelogram,
of which all the angles are right angles, and the sides equal. The
teacher gives the name square, and requires the class to repeat
the definition, with the name attached to it.
What is this figure?  (fig. 1).  A  parallelogram which has
four right angles, and two opposite sides shorter than the other
two.  The teacher gives the name oblo?g.
-VlWhat is this figure? (fig. 6).  A  parallelogram having two
opposite angles acute, and the others obtuse, and all the sides
equal. The name rhomb is then given.
What is this figure? (fig. 5). A parallelogram having two
opposite angles acute and two obtuse, and two opposite sides
shorter than the other two.  The name rhomboid is then given.
There remain now only figs. 1 and 3, which are not classed
among the parallelograms. The teacher tells the class that in the
description of these two figures, neither the angles nor the length
or equality of the sides are considered, but simply the fact of their
having any sides parallel or not. She then bids them to describe
these figures accordingly, after which she will give their names.
Pointing to fig. 1, she asks, What  do you see?   A  four-sided
figure, which has but one pair of parallel sides.   The name
trapezoid is given.
What do you see here?  A four-sided figure liavin, none of
its sides parallel. In order to impress these figures in somewhat
modified forms, the teacher may ask whether they could make a
86 
FORM.-SECOND STEP.
trapezoid with two right angles, or with two lines, or even three
lines equal;-a trapezium with two adjacent sides equal, and hay
ing all kinds of angles, right, acute, and obtuse.
EXERCISES.-1. The teacher draws a number of different four,
sided figures on the board, and asks for their names, requiring, if
necessary, definitions.
2. She bids the class draw  the figures according to her description or classification.
3. She then requires the pupils to point out objects in the
room, the faces of which are squares, rectangles, rhombs, rhomboids, &c.
N. B.-There will be no lack of objects presenting rectangular
faces, such as panes of glass, boards, walls, tables, steps, boxes,
houses, &c. In order to supply to some extent a deficiency in
rhombical surfaces, an intelligent teacher may present some minerals, in their crystallized shape, which will moreover give them
an idea of some regular solids, not often found amongst the works
of man.
8. Polygons.
As the children are already acquainted with the meaning of
five, six, seven, eight-sided figures, it only remains to give them
the names by which they are generally known in geometry, and
lwhich have at least the advantage of being shorter.  Let the
figures be drawn on the blackboard by the teacher.
A five-sided figure is called a pentagon.
A six-sided    "       "     a hexagon.
A  seven-sidced"       "     a heptagon.
An eight-sided"        "    an octagon.
Let the teacher question the children as to the number of
sides, angles, and corners in these various figures, and lead them
to discover that it is always the same in each.
In order to illustrate the original meaning of polygon, the
teacher might draw on the board a figure with a great number of
sides, and ask the class how many sides it has.  If the children
are puzzled to tell exactly the number of sides, she may ask
87 
FORM.-SECOND STEP.
wh-ether it has few  or many  sides?   It has many sides.   It
might therefore be called a ntany-si(led figure.  Polygon means
thle samne thing.  She may further state, that any figure including
the triangle is classed among the polygons.   The definition is now
given:  A  polygon is a figure enclosed by three, or more than
three sides.
In order to develop the idea reyular, the teacher draws a regular polygon, and asks, WVhat can you say of its different sides and
angles?  Yes;  they are equal.  A  polygon with its sides and
angles equal, is called a regular polygon.   Is the square a regular
polygon?  Is the rhomb?  Why not?
In order to develop the idea of diagonal, let the teacher draw
a line through any of the above figures from one corner to the
other, and ask Nwhat she has done.   The teacher may tell them:
A  line drawn  fro)P one corner to another throuylh the flgyure is
called a diagyosicl.  Repeat this.  Can any diagonals be drawn in
a triangle?  How many in a four-sided figure? in a pentagon?
hexagon?  heptagon? octagon?  The amount will prove to be
respectively, two, five, nine, fourteen, twenty diagonals.
9. The Circle.
The circle is mentioned here last amongst the inclosed spaces,
although it is in one sense the simplest of all, and the one which
is easiest recognized by children. Yet the perfection of its form,
and the reflections that are called forth by it, seem to place it on
a somewhat higher step.
In order to show the construction of the circle, as well as some
of its properties, let the teacher draw, by means of a chalk attached to one end of a strilng, a circular line.  What have I been
drawing?  A round line, a ring, a circle.  Let us call the whole
figure a circle, and the surrounding line "the circumference."  Can
you tell me where the middle of the circle is situated?  Where
you held the other end of the string.  (The teacher makes  a dot
at the point indicated.)  How do you know that this is the middle?
AVWhlat can you say of its distance from the different points in the
circumference?  It is the same distance from every point.  lWhy
must it be so?  Let us now call the point in the middle t7he centre
88
r 
FORM.-SECOND STEP.
of a circle. AWhere is the centre.  Point out the centre; the circumference; the circle.  AVhat can you say in regard to the distance of the circumference from the centre?  Is it equally distant
in every part from the centre?  R. T.  The circumference of a
circle is a line equally distant in every part from the centre. And
what is a circle?   It is the space bounded by the circumference.
R. T.  The circle is the space bounded by the circumference.
WVhen the circle was constructed onl the blackboard, by what
has the distance between the centre and the circumference been
measured?  By the string.  Let us now imagine the string to be
a line which, as the thread is moved round, can assume various
positions. The teacl-ler draws several of these lines, and calls one
of thiem a radius; several of them, radii. What is a radius?  WNhat
can you say of the length of the radii?  Then say: All the radii
of ole chrcle care eqeal.
The teacher then may make two radii going in the same direction, and ask how many lines they form.   They form but one line.
Describe that line-nwhere it begins, through what point it passes,
and where it ends.  It is drawn from one  point of the circumference, passes through the centre, and terminates in an opposite
point of the circumference.  Let us call a line of this kind  "a
diameter."  AWha1t is a diameter?  How  many times the length
of a radius?  Can we draw more than one diameter?  How?
WhaVt can you say of the length of the different diameters?
As it is not proposed here to give a definition of all the parts
of divisions of the circle, we limit ourselves to some of the most
important ones.  As, for instance, A  diameter cuts a circle into
twco eqzal t)aorts, each of which is called a semicircle.  Two diane(ers, ilntersecting at right angles, divide the circle into four equal
1)trts, called quadrants.  Any part of the circumference is called
all ar1C.* The teacher may show them by what an easy and graceful movement an arc is produced, by simply swinging the arm.
Performing the same movement on the blackboard, with chalk in
hand, the children will see the arc arise.  Does this arc belong to
a small or large circle?  WAhere do you think its centre would be?
* For these figures, see Chart of Forms.
89 
FORM.-THIRD STEP.
Is the arc which belongs to a large circle, more or less bent than
the one which belongs to a small circle?
THIRD STEP.
Solids.
It is perhaps premature to suppose that even in these days
of educational progress, a box of solids will be considered as
necessary an appendage of the school room, as alphabetical cards
or a map of the country.   If it should not be found there, it is
certainly an easy task for the teacher, as well as the pupils, to
manufacture the most important solids, such as the (cylindei, the
cone, and a number of pyramids and prisms, from pasteboard.
As the word "solid" will be often used in these exercises, the
teacher will do well to remark, at the outset, that every extension
in length, breadth, and thickness, is called "a solid," which word
must not be confounded with the quality "solid," Chiclh would,
for instance, never be attributed to water, while nobody will deny
that any volume of water has length, breadth, andl thickness, and
is therefore a solid, like all other objects.
a
1.  Prisms.
The cube. The teacher places a cube before the chlildclren, and
requests them to point out its surface; some of its faces; some
corners, edges, &c.   Who can tell how many  faces there are?
What can you say of the form of these faces?  What  do  they
represent? What can you say of their size as compared with
each other?  They are equal.  HIlow many edges can  voII see?
Lead them also to observe that they are parallel.  I-To' mrnv
corners?   Would you like to know the name of this solid?  The
'eacher gives the name, and the children repeat it.
The teacher may now lead the children to put this descrip
00 
FORM.-TTHIRD STEP.
tion together, thus: The cube is a solid having six parallel, equal,
square faces, twelve edges, and eight corners.
What shall we call the face on which this solid stands?  Its
base. Teacher turns it over. Which now is its base? And
now? (turning it over again.)  How many different bases may it
then have?  Yes, six, or as many  as it has faces.  Let  the
teacher now produce a cube divided into two sections, so that the
faces still remain parallel. How many faces do you see in each
of these solids?  What can you say of the form of these faces?
Some are squares and some are oblongs. Can you give me a
name for both these kinds of faces?  Yes, they are both parallelograms.
The teacher now places before the children a triangular prism,
and asks, What kinds of faces, and how many, do you see on the
sides of this solid?  Yes, three parallelograms.   How many and
what kind of faces at the ends or bases? Two triangular faces.
The children may now be led to give a connected description of
this solid, as, "It has three faces on its sides which are parallelograns, and two ends or bases which are triangles."
In a similar way the teacher may lead the children to a description of a pentagonal  prism, as, "This solid has two fivesided bases, and five faces on its sides, all of which are parallelograms."
The teacher now informs the children that all the solids which
they have examined and described are called pris?ns. WVe will
now see if we can describe a prism. By what kind of faces are
all these prisms bounded on their sides? By parallelograms.
Their bases are what kinds of figures?  Right; some are squares,
some are rectangles, others are pentagons, &c. What common
name can you give to all these figures?  They are all polygons.
Then what are the bases of these prisms?  They are polygons.
Let the children now describe a prism.   "A prism is a solid
whlose bases are polygons and whose sidcles are parallelograms."
The teacher may now tell the ch'ldren that the name given
to each of these prisms is determined by the number of sides by
which its bases are enclosed.
9-1 
FORM.-THIRD STEP.
Thus we have three-sided or triangular prisms; four-sided or
quadrangular prisms; five-sided or pentagonal prisms, &c.
2. The Cylinder.
Describe the object before you. What do you see on its surface? Two circular plane faces, and a rounded face between
thlem.  If you wanted to make this solid stand, how would you
place it?  On one of its plane faces.  Now I will tell you that
the face on which it is supposed to stand is called its base. How
many faces can form its base?   We will compare these bases one
with the other.  What can you say of them?   Yes, they are
equal. Andcl what more can you say of them? They are parallel.  If the children  do not readily give these answers, the
teacher may draw them  cut by putting each end upon the board,
andcl drawing a mark around it.  Compare the circles thus made.
The idea of a parallel may be brought out by placing objects
upon the table parallel to each other. The name of the solid is
cQ!i/7ler.  WVho can describe it?  The cylinder is a solid, having
twio circular ends, which are parallel and equal, and a rounded
face between.   \TNow name some objects that have a cylindrical
form, as lhats, stovepipes, tumblers, rolls, rulers, pillars, &c.
3. The Cone.
Describe the surface of this object.  It has a circular plane
base, and a curved face. Can you tell me the difference between
this circular face and the circular face of the cylinder? Yes, it
ends in a point. Does it end suddenly in a point, or does it become narrower gradually?   Now we will use the word taperiy?g,
instead of "becoming narrower," and call the sharp point at the
top "apex."   The name of the solid is cone.  Who can describe
it? A cone is a solid, having a plane circular base, and a curved
face tapering toward a point, called its apex.  Namle some objects
92 
FOIAM.-lTIIIRD STEP.
which are of a conical shape.  The trunks of many trees, carrots,
sugar loaves, the peaks of many mountains, &c.
RE.ANRKS. —The teacher may show  that by cutting off the top
of a cone, the remaining piece, which is called a "truncated cone,"
presents a form which is common to some objects, as, for instance,
coal scuttles, pails, &c.
4. Pyramids.
The teacher places before the children a number of pyramids
of different kinds, and presenting the base of a triangular prism
to the children, asks, What is the form of the base of this solid?
A triangle. Of this? A square. Of this? A pentagon, &c.
Supposing we wished to speak of all their bases together, what
could we call them?   Polygons.   If necessary to bring out this
answer, the teacher can refer them to the plane figures they have
called polygons. The teacher should always be careful not to answer
for children questions which they may be led to answer for themselves.  Now look at the faces of these pyramids.  What can
you say of their number?   They do not have the same number.
What can you say of their form?  They are alike in form.
WVhat is their form? Yes; they are all triangles. How does the
number of triangles on each compare with the number of sides to
the base?  Yes; there is the same number of them.  Now I will
tell you, that all solids of this description are called pyramids.
Can you describe a pyramid? A pyramid is a solid, having a
polygon for its base, and as many triangles meeting in a point
(the apex) as there are sides in the base.
The teacher has to add, that according to the number of sides
in the base, these solids are called " triangular," " quadrangular,'
"pentagonal," "hexagonal," &c., pyramids.
EXERCISES.-l1. Select a pentagonal pyramid.  Tell how many
faces, corners, edges, angles, &e., you find in it.
2. Describe from memory a hexagonal pyramid. Tell how
many fztes, corners, edges, angles, &c., you think it has.
93 
FOREI.-THIRD STEP.
3. Point out as many objects as you can, the shape of which
is like a pyramid.
REImAPK.-The teacher may make here an allusion to the most
ancient of all monuments, the pyramids of Egypt, and demonstrate how difficult it is to overthrow a pyramid resting on a
broad base.
5. Thlze Sphere.
As the solid which is presented to the class is already known
to them under the name of ball, the teacher gives the more geometrical name of sphere; the object of this lesson being to make
them aware of its properties  Where is the surface of the sphere?
Miark a point on the surface, and one directly opposite on the
other side.  Supposing I pass a string or a thread from one point
over the other, till it returns to the first point, what line does it
describe? Now if I cut through the sphere, along the circular
line described by the thread, how would the sphere be d(livided?
(This operation ought to be performed, or, at any rate, illustrated.)
These half spheres are called hemislpheres.  How are they called?
What is the form of each of the plane faces of these hemispheres?
A circle. How can you find the centre of such a circle? Right;
by drawing a diameter, and marking a point in its middle.
Suppose we put the two parts together again, so as to form a
sphere, where is the point we spoke of situated? Plight; in the
middle, or the centre of the sphere, an(d as such, it must  be
equally distant from every part of the surface.  Now  if you
answer carefully all my questions, you will be able to give a simple description of the sphere.  What can you say of the shape
of the surface?  Yes; it is rounded.   And whlat can you say in
regard to the distance of every point in the surface from the centre?  Right; that it is everywhere the same.  Then  describe
the sphere.  A  sphere is a solid, having a round surface, every
point of which is equally distant firom the centre of the sphere.
The teacher may now proceed to show that in consequence of
94 
FORMI.-THIRD STEP.
the property just mentioned, a sphere has the samue dimensions
everyvwhere.   This would also account for the ease with which it
rolls toward any direction. Producing a solid, called a spheroid,
hlie may ask the children whether they perceive, in this solid, any
difference in its dimensions.   Let them point out where the difference exists, both in the oblate and prolate spheroid.
EXERCISES.-The teacher must now call on the children to
name  some objects, the shape of which is that of a sphere;
others which are spheroids, such as apples, peaches, cherries,
oranges, plums, &c. Of the latter objects again a distinction
may be made between those which are oblate, such as oranges,
and those which are prolate, such as plums, watermelons, &c.
95o
i 
OBJECTS.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
FOR many years the sentiment has been gaining ground in
this country, that there is something to do in our schools beside
simply teaching children to "read, write, and ciphler." It is now
very generally acknowledged that an acquaintance with Nature,
in her varied forms, is also an important educational attainment,
and that a knowledge of things does in its natural order precede a
knowledge of words.   As a result of this conviction, "Lessons
on Objects" have been introduced into very many of the best
schools of the country.
These lessons, however, have not always been given in a manner best calculated to awaken and cultivate the early faculties of
children, and prepare them for the study of Nature.
These first exercises with children should be of a character calculated to quicken perception, and to cultivate close and accurate
observation and expression. For the teacher to tell the child what
she knows about objects, is only to burden the memory, discourage investigation, and weaken the perceptive faculties. The effort
should rather be to lead the child to discover for himiself, and then
properly to com2itiunicate the result of his observations.  It is with
this idea prominently in view that the following sketches and
series of lessons have been drawn up.
The truly successful teacher will rather use these as models, as
conveying an idea of the general plan and method to be pursued,
and will not confine herself either to the subjects or exact method
here laid down.   Too much importance, however, cannot  be
1, 
OBJECTS.
attached to the teacher's havinrig a definite plan and aim in each
lesson.  No teacher should ever go before her class without an
exact sketch of the lesson she proposes to give., without such
preparation, the lesson had better never be given.
In the First Step, the Perceptive Faculty is exercised.   In the
earlier lessons the object is considered as a whole; in the later, as
possessing parts-the recognition of these requiring more nminute
and accurate exercise of perception. In all the early steps, one
important aim is the formation of a vocabulary.
In the Second Step, the Perceptive and also the Conceptive
Faculties are exercised.   In the earlier lessons the object is considered as possessing familiar qualities; in the later lessons, as possessing some important quality which other objects also possess.
In the Third Step, the exercise of the Perceptive Faculties
serves as the basis of the lesson, the superstructure of which addresses the Conceptive, and especially the Reasoning Faculties.
The object is considered in detail, all its parts noted, and all its
qualities, except such as are altogether beyond the range of the
children's experience.  Especially do children consider the uses
of the object, and the adaptation of structure, material, or qualities to these.
In this Step they often consider two objects at a time, comparing and contrasting them. A little information is often given;
still it is not the aim of the teacher to tell them what they can
learn from books, but rather to form correct and thorough habits
of observation, and develop power of thought.
In the Fourth Step, the Faculty of Generalization is exercised,
in addition to the other faculties before named. Objects are consideredl in classes: when a single object is taken, it is with reference to art, manufacture, &c.
5
97 
OBJECTS.-FIRST STEP.
FIRST STEP,
I.-Objects Named, Arranged, &c.
1. S?;etch of a Lesson on a -teapot, MLilk Pitcher, CItp, and Saucer.
1 The teacher should first ask the children if they have ever
seen such things as these, when they usually see them, and what
each of them is called.
2. The teacher calls upon a child to touch the teapot, asking
the others if he has rightly done so.  The same may be done with
each of tile objects.
3. The teacher herself touches one of the objects, and desires
all the children n-who know its name to raise their hands; one child
is afterward selected to apply the name. The same to be done
with each of the objects.
4. The teacher to remove the objects out of sight, and then
ask the children what things she has been showing them; this
test should be repeated till they caz correctly nmention all the
objects from memory.
5. The teacher may require a child to place the objects in a
certain order; as the teapot in the middle, the milk pitcher before
it, and the cup in the saucer behind it; the ether children saying
wlhether it is correctly done   they may then be desired to place
all of them in a row.   The teacher may then put the saucer upon
the cup, and ask the children if that is its proper place, and then
call a chiid to place it as it ought to be, and also to say what are
the proper positions of the cup and of the saucer.
6. The teacher, having arranged the objects in a certain order,
desiring the children to observe lhowv thiev are placed, is to remove
thei,m, and call upon some child to replace them in the same order;
they may then be placed differently, and the samine test be applied.
7o The lesson to conclude with a little talk about the objects-.
their nu-lmbler and names; their uses; what is ptut into the teapot,
what comes out of it; what is put into the milk  i'cher m; lowv the
cup is used, &c.
Supposing this book to be used by the Educ,'ewe.al Teacher,
98
i,
F-' 
OBJECTS.-FIRST STEP.
or Teacher of Method, in the instruction of a class of students, it
is of the utmost importance that they should be exercised in draw.
ing up sketches corresponding with the patterns given.
After examination of the above sketch. the students in training should
construct a similar lesson, on plate, knife, fork, spoon, and glass.
2. Sketch of a Lesson on a Basket, a Book, and a Slate.
1. See that the children know these objects and their names,
and can themselves apply the proper name to each object.
2. Remove the basket, book, and slate, one by one, and after
each has been taken away, call upon the children to say which it
is; then take all three away, and let them say what the three
things which have been taken away are, and how  they were
placed before they were removed.
3. Call upon some of the children to place the several objects
as directed, thus: the basket in the middle, the books nearer to
the window, and the slate on the opposite side. Tell them to
observe how they are placed, and then, removing them, desire one
of the children again to place them as they were.
4. Next talk about the uses of these objects. How are baskets used, and by whom? For what purposes do the children
themselves use them?  What have they seen their mothers do
with them?  Place some books in a basket in a neat and orderly
manner, and then desire a child to do the same with others; this
will teach them to do such things neatly and tidily.  Then ask
them what people do with books.  Read a line or two in a book,
and ask what has been done, and if they would like to be able
thus to read.  Then talk about the slate, by whom they have seen
slates used, and for what purposes.
5. Sum up the lesson by asking how many things have been
spoken of, their names, and the ordinary use of each of them.
The students in training construct a corresponding lesson on shovel,
poker, and tongs.
Their attention should be drawn to the general plan of these
lessons, thus:
I.
'.'.'"'" 5
99 
OBJECTS.-FIRST STEP.
PLAN.
1. Teacher presents the objects; ascertains which the children
can name; gives names they do not know, always touching the
object named, requiring children to observe it, and causing the
names to be simnultaneously repeated.
2. Teacher exercises the children on the names, by pointing
to the objects, and letting the children name them; then by inaming the objects, and letting the children touch or bring them.
The last part of the lesson will vary according to the objects
selected.   If these are plate, knife, fork, &c., the teacher will
direct attention especially to the arrangement of the objectswhere they would place the plate, if they were going to set the
table? where the knife?  where the fork?  Tongs, poker, &c.,
candle, candlestick, &c., would be treated similarly; and the
arrangement of bonnet, scarf, &c., as parts of dress, show.
In the lesson, " Vood, Hatchet, Hammer, &c.," the use of the
tools, rather than any arrangement of them, would be exhibited.
Terms for prominent parts, as handle, rim, lid, should be given as
the parts are noticed by the children.
LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR SIMILAR LESSONS.
Plate, knife, fork, spoon, glass.
Tongs, poker, shovel, hearth brush.
Candle, candlestick, extinguisher, tray, snuffers.
Bonnet, veil, scarf, gloves, parasol.
Needle, thimble, thread, calico, scissors.
Pen, ink, paper, blotting book, pen wiper.
Penknife, pencil, ruler, India rubber.
Wood, hatchet, hammer, gimlet, nail.
Clay, stone, sponge, wool, string.
II.-Objects for Parts.
Including the consideration of      1. Names and Number of Parts.
2. Position of Parts.
100
I.."i
t
... -,   1.. 
OBJECTS.-FIRST STEP.
3. Uses of Parts.
4. Principal, distinguished from Secondary Parts.
Any one or two of these points may be taken up in a lesson,
which one or two will generally depend on the subject.
1o Skcetc  on a Thidmble, for Parts.   (Pattern Lesson.)
Uses of parts.
Names of parts.
MATTER.
I. —A thimble has
a crown, a shield, cells,
a border, and a rim.
I.-Teachler presents a thimble.   Se.
lects a child to touch a part. Asks  t}e
children to name it, and when  they fail,
gives name,  -whichl  is simultaneously  repeated (S. R.) by the children, and writ.
ten on the board (VW. B.). Teacher selects second child to touch a second part,
and proceeds as before, until all the parts
are distinguished and named.
Children read the names from the board.
Teacher erases these, and children give
them again in order from the top to the
bottom of the thimble.
II.- 1. Teacher exercises the children
on  the  appropriateness  of the  names.
Child  to touch  the  crown.    Wlhy  the
upper part is so called.  Whlat crowns
are.  Where  they are worn.  A part of
the head is called the crown. Teacher bids
a child touch crown, and then touch some
higher part.  Why he cannot comply withli
the latter command.   The top) part of the
head is called the crown, and a part of the
thimble is called the crown, because it is
the top Ipart.
2. A child to touch the shield.  Teacher shows the picture of a soldier with a
sword and shield.  Children state use of
the sword-of the shield, and why this
part of the thimble is so called.
3.  Child  to touch  the cells;  show
101
METHOD.
II.-I. The crown,
so called because it is
the top part of the
tlilmble.
2. The shield is so
called because it keeps
the filter from bein,
b
hurt.
3. The cells are so 
OBJEOTS.-FIRST STEP.
honeycomb  and its cells.  Children say
vlwhy the holes in the thimble are called
cells also.
4. A  child to touch the border.   Its
position referred to (near the edge).  Children mention ally borders they have seen
on any objects, as on handkerchiefs, shawvls,
&c. Where these are placed. Why people have borders. Why this part of the
thimble is so called.
5. A child to touch the only remaining
part-the rim-and give examples of rims
on other objects.
called because they resemble the cells of the
h-ioneycomb.
4. The border is so
called because it is an
ornament  near  the
edge.
NOTE.-Nothing is said about the inside, outside, &c., as dis
tinct parts. It is undesirable to mix up the consideration of geometrical with that of material parts; it tends to confuse the children.
Students in training construct a sketch on "Penknife," as " Thimnble."
The Teacher of Method might next require the class of students to work out exercises on an apple, thus:
Find the matter under the heads.
Parts found and named.
Position of parts described.
2. Exanmi7le of Sketch on an Apple.
MIATTER.-I. Parts of an apple.
The parts of the apple are pulp, core, seeds, peel, eye, dimple,
and stem.
II.-Position of parts.
The peel covers the apple.
The pulp is inside the peel.
The core is in the centre of the apple or pulp.
The seeds are enclosed in the core.
The dimple is at the base of the apple.
The stem is at the base, and partly within the dimple.
The eye is at the top of the apple.
102 
OBJECTS.-FIRST ST~rP.
The teacher of  Method next requires the class in training to find the
method corresponding.
Exercise.
'ITFTIIOD.-I.  1. Show an apple.  Get the name, and after a
little talk about thie use, where it grows, &c., desire a child to
touch a part-(the skin).  Give the term peel.  Children to say
what part of the apple they like best. How we are to get at
this.  WVhether, before this is done, they can find any other part
by looking at the outside-(the speck or bud).   Give the term
eye.-(Thie little hole.) Tell them there is a better name-dim)le.  The little dent in the apple is also called dimple.  What
part is near the dimple?   (Stem.)   Children name  all the outside parts of the apple.   (W. B.   S. R.)
2. Children allowed to name all the inside parts. Apple cut
and examined, to prove whether they are right. (W. B. S. R.)
II.-Bring out the position of the peel, by asking why they
could not see the pulp of the apple before we cut it open.
Position of pulp, core, and seeds brought out by direct questions. Children led to express themselves properly, and S. R.
Idea of base developed by making the children ascertain on what
part the apple will stand best.   If necessary, remove  the stem.
Let them find the parts near the base.  (The dimple and the stem.)
Only one part left-where is it?   Not at the base, but at the other
end of the apple. Give the expression, opposite the base.
Suinzmary.-Teacher names the position by requiring children
to fill up the ellipses by naming the parts, thus:  Outside the pulp
is.  Under the peel is.  In the midst of the pulp
is.  WVithin the core are.  At the base is the
. Partly within the dimple, and at the base, is the
Opposite the base is the
The students in training construct a lesson on the "Penknife," after the
model of the lesson on the "Apple."
3. Sketch of a Lesson on a Shell.  (Pattern.)
For Namnes of Parts.
Principal, distinguished from Secondary Parts.
Position of Parts.
103 
OBJECTS.-FIRST STEP.
I.-Parts.
1. Introductory.-Object named,  whliere found, and of what
use.
2. Parts distinguished and named.   Teacher directs the chil.
dren to find the largest part of the shell.  Excites interest by tell
ing them that they can find out the name of this part.  What they
call the largest part of themselves.   (The body.)  (S. R.): "The
largest part of the shell is called the body."   The  part of shell
next in size pointed out. Children told they can find a name for
this also; they must not, however, look at themselves for the
name, but at the buildings out of doors.   Set the shell on its base,
and ask, What part of any building goes up like this? The spire
of a church.  (S. R.): "The next largest part of the shell is called
the sl)ire."  Terms body and sp)ire written on the blackboard.
II.-I1.  Children have next to find the parts of the bodymouth, lips, beak.  Teacl-her gives the names, writes them on the
board, and requires the children to say why these names are
given.
2. Next, children find the parts of the spire-whorls, sutures,
and capex. Teacher gives the first and second terms. (S. R.)
W7ithl respect to the third term, if they have had lessons on Form,
she bids them select a solid that has a part like this part of the
shell, telling them that the same name is given to each. They
read what is written on the board, which appears thus:
( Whlorls,
Spire,   Sutures,
Apex.
III.-Position of Parts.
Children led to describe the position of principal parts with
respect to each other, and the position of secondary parts with
respect to principal, or to each other, as may be most convenient,
thus:-The spire is at one end of the body;  the mouth is in tle
under part of the body; lips around the mouth; beak proceeds
from the mouth, and is at the end of the body opposite the spire.
Whlorls surround  the spire; sutures are between  the whorls;
apex is at the end of the spire.
104
Moutli,
Body, - Lips,
Beal,-. 
OBJECTS.-FIRST STEP.
If time allow, these questions should be varied, as, WVhere are
the whorls with respect to the apex and the body? or this may
be done in recapitulation next day.
Saunznary.-Parts given from memory.  Position given from
memory, if children are quite advanced, and about ready to entef
the next Step.
Students in training are required to construct a lesson on the " Penknife,"
after the model of the "Lesson on a Shell."
Students in training write a sketch on "Bunch of Grapes," according to
the following heads and directions written on the blackboard:
4. A Bunch of Grapes.
1. Parts found and named. (Lead children to distinguish the
principal parts first, then the secondary.)
2. Position of Parts.   (Of the principal parts with respect to
q.ach other.  Next take the secondary parts of the stem; next of
the berry.)
-While considering the position of the principal parts with respect to each other, develop the idea of "cluster."
PLAN.
Chl-ildren must discover the parts for themselves, and at first
may do so in any order, teacher putting them down in the order
of discovery.   She rearranges them  in proper order, according to direction of children, either at once or at the close of the
lesson. See " Sketch on the Thimble."
It is important that children should be accustomed to recog.
nize that there is an order; that " any way" will not do.
When tile ideas of principal and secondary parts have been
developed, children may be told to find the secondary parts of
one principal part first, then the secondary part of another principal part, putting them down as found.  This saves time.  See
"Sketch on Shlell."
Children should be encouraged to give any names of parts
they know, teacher supplying the rest wh-en arbitrary; but, wh1i6
105 
OBJECTS.-SECOND STEP.
the name is suggested by any circumstance or quality not beyond
the knowledge of the children, it will be well to help them discover
the name.   Or she may give the name, and let the children say
wvhy given.
EXAMPLES OF NAMES WHICH MAY BE FOUND  BY CHILDREN.
Bluebell.               Body, spire, and beak (of a shell).
Handle.                 Dimple (of an apple).
Bowl (of a spoon).      Ribs (of an umbrella).
Use of parts should be shown by children whenever possible.
Position and uses not usually written on the board.
S FOR
'Watch.                Table
'Wheel.                 Chair.
Shoe.                  Pail.
Carpenter's tools.
(Refer also to list on page 90.)
SECOND STEP.
In this Step the children are led to distinguish between the
object and its qualities.
I.-An object is distinguished by its most simple and familiar
qualities.
II. —The idea of one essential and distinctive quality is systematically developed.
I. Simple and Common Qualities of Objects.
As an example of a lesson on an object distinguished by its
most simple and common qualities, take
1.  T]ater.    (Pattern.)
,rhat is in this cup?  Water.   (Teacher pours a little on a
piece of paper, or of linen.)  What has the water done to the
106
Spade.
Fruit.
Articles of jewelry.
Kitelien utensils. 
OBJECTS.-SECOND STEP.
paper? Miade it wet. Now observe me. (Teacher pours it out
it drops.)  What do you observe, now that I pour it out little
by little?  It forms itself into drops.   Tell me, then, how the
water is unlike the flint. The flint does not make the paper
wet. It does not form itself into drops. What, then, can you
say of water? Water is a liquid. Tell me some other liquids.
Beer, milk, &c.  Anything you can pour out so as to form it into
drops, is called a liquid. Now look into the cup of water; what
do you see?  We see a mark at the bottom of the cup.  Here is
another cup with the same mark at the bottom; look at it.  (The
teacher pours in a little milk.)  Look at the mark again.   We
cannot see it now.  Why not?  You have covered it with milk.
But the mark in this cup is covered by water, and yet you see it;
how is this?  We  can see through the water.   What, then, can
you say of water?  We  can see through water.   Find some
other thing in the room that you can see through. The glass.
Look at the water again, and find out something more that you
can say of it. It shines. Yes; it is bright. All of you repeat,
"'WVater is bright." What color is the flint? Black. What
can you say of the water?  Look at these colors (showi?g a red
,wafer, green leaf &c.).  Which of these is the water like in color?
None of them, teacher. What, then, must we say of it? Water
has no color.  (The teacher calls upon some of the children to taste
the water.)  What do you observe?  It is cold.  What taste do
you perceive?-you cannot tell me.  Has it any taste?   No.
What, then, can you say of it? It has no taste. Repeat together, "Wvater has no taste."
What use have you made of water to-day?  We  have washed
ourselves with it. What quality of water makes it useful for
washing? Its being liquid. Beer is also a liquid; why do you
not wash in beer? We should smell the beer. Then why do
you prefer water for washing? It has no smell. What other ob jection is there against washing in beer?  It would not make us
clean; it would leave a brown stain. Why, then, is water a
proper liquid to use for washing?  Because it has neither smell
nor color, and it cleanses from dirt. When are you very gladcl to
be able to have water?  When we are thirsty.  Tell me, then,
5*
107 
OBJECTS.-SECOND STEP.
another use of water.  It is useful for drinking.  Water, you see,
is essential to every one; can you tell me some liquids that we
might do without?  Yes;  beer and gin.  But what can we say
of water?*? What can we most easily procure?   Water.  Yes;
and as every one needs water, God has kindly supplied every
country with it in abundance.
Repeat together what you have found  out about water.
"Water is a liquid; we can see through it; it is bright; it has
no color, nor any taste, nor any smell; it is cold; it is used for
washing and for drinking; and because water is necessary to man,
God has given to every country an abundant supply." t
The students in training construct a lesson on "Milk," modelled after the
"Lesson on Water."
2. Lead.
What is this?  Lead.  Can allny of you tell me where lead
comes from?  Does it come from an animal?  Is it -part of a
plant?  Where, then, does it come from?  It comes out of the
earth.  God has not only given us animals and vegetables to be
useful to us, but he has stored up in the earth a great many things
for our use:  tell me one of them.  Lead.  Now take this lead
into your hand; what do you find? It is heavy. Look at it,
and tell me what you see.  Part of it is very bright, where it has
just been cut.  And what is it everywhere else?  Dull.  When
is it bright?  When it has been freshly cut.   When is it dull?
When it has been some time in the air.  Of what color is it?  It
is gray.  Now feel it.  It is hard.  John may come and cut it with
his knife.  Now what can you say of it?  It is hard to the touch,
but it is easily cut.  I put some of it into water; what happened
to the lead whlen I put it into the water?  It fell to the bottom.
Vould the feather have done so?  No.  WNIhy did the lead sink?
* The teacher might remark upon the goodness of God in abundantly supplying every one everywhere with that liquid which is essential to comfort;
whilst the noxious spirit is obtained by art and labor, and at great cost.
t It is most desirable that children should be eally taught to write, or print;
and printing on their slates all they can recollect of their lessons, forms a most
improving exercise.  In mixed schools this would flrnish emnployment to one
set of children while the teacher is engaged with another.
108 
OBJECTS.-SECOND STEP.
Because it is heavy.   Did you knlow it was heavy before you saw
it sink? Yes; we felt it heavy in our hands.
Is there any child here whose father works in lead?  Yes;*
Jolhn's father works in lead. What is he called? A plumber.
People who work in lead are called plumbers.   Well, John, tell
us what your father does with lead.  He makes windows.   What
sort of windows-those like the windows of this school root?
Noo; windows made with little bits of glass.   Where do you generally see such  windows-in  large  houses,  or in small ones?
What is the use of the lead in windows such as these?   It fastens
the pieces of glass together. What have our windows for this
purpose?  Wood.   And what is used to fasten the glass to the
wood?  Putty.  But in church windows, what is sometimes used?
Lead.   Yes;  lead is used to fasten the glass together.   Now,
John, what other use does your father make of lead? He makes
pipes.  All who can tell me what is the use of leaden pipes, hold
up their hands. To convey water. Yes; to convey water from
one place to another.  Who  can tell me any other use of lead?
It is used for cisterns.  What is the use of cisterns?  They hold
water.  What use do fishermen make of lead?  They put it on
their nets.  Why?   To make one edge of the net sink in the
water.  VWhly does the lead make that part of the net sink?   Because it is very heavy.
AV"ell, now repeat all you have said about lead.   "Lead comes
out of the earth; when it is freshly cut it is very bright; but after
it has been in the air for some time, it becomes dull; it is very
heavy; its color is gray; it is hard to the touch, but it is easily
cut; lwhen put into water, it sinlks; people who work in lead are
called plumbers; they use it to fasten together the glass of church
windows; to make pipes to convey water, and cisterns of lead to
hold it.  Lead is also used in fishermen's nets."
The students in training construct a lesson on "Wood," modelled after
the one on "Lead."
Attention of students should be directed to the general plan
* It may be that the child of a plumber is present at the lesson; it must
occasionally happen that some have seen the materials brought before them at
slcool, used by their parents or others. A teacher should always make the most
of aly information the children may already possess.
109
t' 
OBJECTS.-SECOND STEP.
of these lessons. The children are led to notice first the qualities,
then the uses, and lastly those qualities on which the uses depend.
LIST OF OBJECTS.
This it is unnecessary to give, as any common objects will do.
LIST OF QUALITIES TO BE DEVELOPED AT THIS STEP.
Simple qualities referring to Substance; as, hard, soft, tough, brittle,
liquid, &c.
~~"       "   ~Surface; as, rough, smooth, plane, fiat.
"  Condition; as, hot, cold, cool, warm,
dry, moist, full, empty.
"     "Shape; as, tapering, pointed, rounded,
jagged, broken, torn, &c.
"     Direction; as, straight, curved, crook                               ed. See "Lessons on Form."
"s              "     Size; as, large, small, thin, thick, deep,
shallow, etc.
"  Color;  as,  red,  blue,  green.   See
"Lessons on Color."
~~"       "    ~Number; as, one, two, &c., up to ten.
After a course of these lessons, the children, being made acquainted with common objects and their common qualities, may
receive a few recapitulatory lessons on several of these in combination.
EXAMPLE.
3. Sketch of a Lesson on "Distiznguishing Objects by their
Qualities."
I. Introduction.-Bring before the children a large, round, ripe
apple-a sheet of thin, smooth, pink paper-a slender, pointed
cedar pencil-a piece of narrow, blue silk  ribbon-an oblong,
shallow wooden box-a square, white linen pocket handkerchief.
Let the children give the name of each object, teacher writing the
initial letter of each on the board as given, and requiring children
to sav what each letter stands for.
110
F
I
I 
OBJECTS.-SECOND STEP.
II. Ideas Developed.-Teacher  requires the children  to say
something of the apple as to size (large); as to shape (round); as
to fitness for food (ripe). How other apples may be unlike this.
AVhat we can say of this apple. (It is a large, round, ripe apple.)
Children to describe the paper as to texture (thin); as to surface
(smooth); as to color (pink).   Other papers mentioned unlike
this-tissue, brown,  &c.  How  wNe can describe this sheet of
paper.   (It is a sheet of thin, smooth, pink paper.)  Children to
describe the pencil. Compare with thicker pencil; as to girth
(slender). Compare with uncut pencil; as to condition (pointed).
Of what material is it made?  (Wood and lead.)  Tell them the
w ood is called cedar.
Proceed in this way with the remaining objects.
Summary.-Children to name the objects from the board, and
describe them from memory.
Students ill training select six objects, upon which they construct a similar sketch.
II. Essential and Distinctive Qualities of Objects.
For the idea of one essential and distinctive quality systematically developed, take
1. Sketch oat the Devclo2gnent of the Idea of Adhesive Gu7m,
for Adhesive.
MATTER.
1. Gum will stick.
1. Show this by experiment with postage stamp.
2. Term given.  Questioned on.  S. R.
and AV. B.
3. Such examples found by the childreni.
2. Gum is therefore
said to be adhesive.
3. Glue, melted sealing wax, and molasses,
are also adhesive.
4. Those    things
that will stick to other
objects, are said to be
adhesive.
4. Children led to draw this general
conclusion, which is committed to memory.
Students in training construct a sketchl on "Idea of Inflammable,"
modelled after the one on "Adhesive."
ill
METHOD. 
O)BJECTS.-SECOND STEP.
Toward the close of this Step, two or three qualities connected,
or contrasted, may be taken together.
EXAMPLE.
2. Idea of Transparent,  Semi-transparent, and  Translucent.
1. Bring before the children a piece of glass and a key. Hold
the key behind a slate, also behind the piece of glass, and require
them to notice the difference.  What they can say of the glass,
that they cannot say of the slate.  Give the term that distinguishes things we can see through, and let the children repeat,
"Glass, because we can see through it, is said to be transparent."
Require them to give examples of things they can see through, as
well as through glass; also what such things are said to be.
2. Place a knife with a white handle in some tea, and again
behind the glass.  WVhat the glass shows about the knife, which
the tea does not (the color).  Lead them to recognize that they
can clearly see through the glass, but only partly through the tea.
Refer again to the term which distinguishes things through which
we can clearly see, and let them try to find a term for anything
through which we can partly see.  Give the term, thus: Tea, because we can see partly through it, is said to be semi-transparent.
Explain the meaning of semi. Get examples of both terms, to
be written on the board.
3. Place the knife behind a china plate. Children to say how
it looks.  (They cannot see it at all.) Hold the plate, with the knife
behind it, opposite the window;  the shape of the knife can be
seen.  Explain to the children that the light can pass through the
plate, except where the knife stops its passage.   What they can
say of the knife. (It is opaque-idea previously developed.)  VWhat
they can say of the plate.  We  can see light through it.  Give
the term translucent, with definition. Get examples, and write
on the board as before.
Sutnniary.-Children  say how well  they  can see througli
anythling transparent (clearly).,What they cannot see through
anything which is semi-transparent (color).   What only they can
112
it,- 
I'll
R.
I
I 
OBJECTS.-SECOND STEP.
see through anything which is translucent (form).  In conclusion,
give the general definition of each term.
Students construct sketch on three kinds of Romundness (Globular, Cylindrical, and Circular), as sketch on "Transparent," &c.
As a final exercise, the children may be tested in discovering
objects by the mention of their qualities. Teacher says: I have
something hidden in my hand (a blade of grass). It is long; it
is narrow; it is pointed at one end; it is flexible; fibrous; vegetable; green. Speaking thus, the teacher pauses between each
term, allowing the children to judge as she proceeds, and making
them name the quality which led to the discovery of the object.
Sealing wax:-It is long; it is smooth; it is colored; it is inflammable; fusible; impressible. Drinking glass:-It is bright; it is
]lard; smooth; sonorous; hlollow, and transparent. Judgment
mnust be shown in putting the more general qualities first, and the
more special afterward.
LIST FOR DEVELOPING IDEAS AS TO THE QUALITIES OF OBJECTS.
Paper, as being..
Leather...
Glass...
Cotton...
Cork...
Card Or Cane, String
Cloth...
Whalebone, India rubber, Sponge
BWater...
-Vood...
Loaf Sugar..
A Mirror, or WVater,
Sponge...
Bread...
Chalk...
Flax and Hemnp. 
Gum....
Lead..
113
Inflammable.
Tough.
Brittle.
Soft.
Light.
Flexible.
Pliable.
Elastic.
Liquid.
Solid.
Sparkling.
Reflective.
Absorbent.
Porous.
Crumblino,.
b
Fibrous.
Soluble.
Fusible. 
OBJECTS.-TIIIRD STEP.
Water-proof.
Durable.
.  Impressible.
Adhesive.
Odorous.
Fragrant.
e   Semi-transparent,
Acid.
Tasteless.
Pungent.
. Granular.
Oil-skin
Leather.
Sealing-wax.
Glue
Camphor
Lavender.
Horn or Gum.
Cloves.
WVater.
Ginger.
Salt or Sand.
J,IST OF CONNECTED OR CONTRASTED
LATION.
Soft, hard, tough.
Light, heavy, buoyant.
Rough, smooth, polished, adhesive.
Stiff, pliable, flexible, elastic.
Brittle, rotten, fragile, friable, pulverable.
Fibrous, granulous.
Inflammable, fusible, soluble.
Porous, absorbent, waterproof.
THIRD STEP.
In this Step a more thorough examination of the object is
made. We consider
Parts, Qualities, Uses.
Adaptation of Qualities to Use.
Qualities as discovered by the senses, or by simple ex   periment.
The less obvious Qualities.
Qualities as depending on one another.
Adaptation of Material or Structure to Use.
114
QUALITIES, FOR RECARITC,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
l
l 
OBJECTS.-THIRD STEP.
Sometimes two objects are taken for comparison in respect to
any of these points.
In this Step, as the subjects of the lessons go beyond the range
of the child's immediate experience, some information may be
given.   Let it be remembered, however, that the mind of the child
may be exercised as much on information given him by the teaclher, as on anything he can discover for himself.   The teacher who
tells the child a fact, requires him to state the cause, or the effect,
or some other relation.   For everything told to the pupil, the
latter should be required in return to tell something bearing on
what has been told to him. Tell him that a substance cast into
the form of a hollow cylinder is stronger than the same quantity
of matter in a solid form; let him say why the barrel of a quill
is hollow, and not solid.  Tell him what places the kingfisher frequents, and let him infer the character of its food.  Tell him that
the fur of animals thickens at a certain period of the year; let
him discover when and why.  Tell him that the concentric circles
in the trunk of a tree are not equal in diameter;  let him find
any circumstances likely to account for the fact. 
1. Sketch of a Lesson on an EEgg.
Point.-Parts, qualities, uses, and qualities on which the uses
depend.
MATTER.                            METHOD.
I. Parts. —The parts    I. Parts. —Show  an egg, and let the
of an egg are the shell, children name its parts. Break the egg,
liinin     g, albumen,  en- and show each part, correcting any errors
velop       e,   air bag,  and they have made.   Let the children  obyelk.                            serve how these parts are placed with re                       spect to each other:. e., the shell is out                       side, the lining is inside  the shell,  &c.
Write the parts, and their position, on tle
board.   Draw  the term lining from  the
children.   Give  the terms albumen, air
bcy, envelolde.
II. Qualities.-The        II. Qualities.-Develop oval, by comshell  is oval,  white, paring the egg with a sphere.  Develop
ii:; 
OBJECTS.-TIIIRD STEP.
hardness, by comparing it with an orange.
Brittle, by referring to the experiment of
breaking the egg just performed.  Develop
translucent,  semni-transparent, and opaque
together, by comparing the different parts
of the egg one with another, but apply the
terms separately to the proper substances.
iyelwopuean Develop semifluid,  by comparison of a
solid and a fluid.  Write the qualities on
the board.
III.  -Draw from the children, by questions, the uses of eggs, and the qualities
on which the uses depend.   By comparison of eggs as prepared for our food, and
for that of little birds, lead them to see
that birds must  have  a much  stronger
digestion than we.   From the use made
of the albumen, let them say what quality
it must possess.  This will prepare them
for the next question-why we put eggs
into puddings?   We  need  not make  a
thick, heavy paste of flour: a little flour
will do, or even crumbled bread, when we
have enough eggs.
III.  Tses, and  q      aalities on which uses deiend.-Eggs are used
as food  for man, and
then must be lightly
cooked, or we should
not readily digest them.
As  food  for  young
birds, they must be
boiled hard like leather.
Eggs are put into
cakes and puddlings,
because adhesive and
light. The albumen
is used to mend china
and glass, because adhesis-e.   Tile  shells
are good for fowls to
mix with their fbod.
S,ztmeiry.-Read from the board, and repeated from memory.
Students in training construct a sketch of a "Lesson on a Peach,"
modelled after the "Lesson on an Egg."
2. Sketch on Comparison of Orange and Apple.
Poi?t.-Parts,  qualities,  uses,  and  qualities on  which  uses
depend.
MATTER.                             METHOD.
I. Ressemblances.         I. Resemblances.
1. Qualities.   Both      1. That  these  fruits  are  nattral, is
are natural, vegetable, brought out by reference to the works of
juicy, (nearly) spheri- God and man, children giving examples.
I
.1
116
hard, translucent, and
brittle. The lining
is translucent, -%vhite,
thin, and tough. The
-albumen is semi-transparent, adhesive, and
semi-fluid. The yelk
is yellow, opaque, and
fluid.
I 
OBJECTS.-THIRD STEP.
Vegetable, by  referring to the different
kingdoms.   Juicy, by experiment (cutting
fru.it).  Spherical, by comparison with a
coin or ring. Wholesomne, by reference to
a horse chestnut; distinguished firom noutrishing, by comparison with an egg.  Pleasant to the taste, by experiment, or an appeal to memory. (WV. B.)
2. Children find out the corresponding
parts, and the position of each, by observation.
It. Differences in the arrangement, substance, color, and in presence and absence
of core, brought out by observation.
2. Parts.    Both
have seeds in the
midst, peel, and pulp.
II. Differences.
1. Pulp. The pulp
of an orange is yellow,
divided, and without a
core. The pulp of an
apple is whilte, undivided, and contains a
core. It is harder than
the pulp of an orange.
2.  Peel.    Orange
peel is thick, somewhat
rough,   and   orange
color. Apple peel is
thin, smooth, and varies in color.
III. Uses, and qualities on which uses depend.
1. Apples are made
into sauce, tarts, cider,
&c. Are best when
cooked.
2. Oranges   make
candy, marmalade,
wine. Are best uncooked.   Each eaten
because pleasant to the
taste, and wholesome.
IV.  Growth,  cultivation, &c.
1. Apples are grown
in moderately warm
III. Appeal to experience  and reason
of children.
1. Teacher refers to map, and points out
States where apples grow.  Children de
117
IV. 
OBJECTS.-THIRD STEP.
climates.   A  planta- cide as to the kind of climate that  is
tion of apples is called necessary for their growth.
an orchard.
2. Oranges grow in    2. Proceed the same for oranges.
hot climates. A plantation of oranges is
called an orangery.
Sunmmnary.-Write heads on the slate.  Children give matter.
Third head left out, because not essential to be committed to
memory.
Students in training construct a sketch of a "Lesson on Kid Glove and
Kid Slipper," modelled after the "Lesson on Orange and Apple."
3. Sketch on ComIcarison of Cor2k and Sponge.
Point.- Quality on which uses depend, and dependence of one
quality on another.
METHOD.
I.-1. Brought out by reference to the
works of man.
2. Children asked where it comes from.
Told that it is the bark of a tree.
3. Children told that the tree grows in
distant countries.
4. Children referred to water as the
standard weight.  The lightness of cork
shown by experiment.
5. Show  different specimens,  and let
children name the color.
6. By experiment.
6. Cork is compressible and elastic.
7. Cork is porous.
7. By direct observation with a magnifying glass, and comparison  with  dense
substances, as minerals.
8. By experiment.
8. Cork is imnpervious and buoyant.
118
MATTER.
T.-I. Cork is natu
ral.
2.
Cork is vegetable.
3. Cork is foreign.
4. Corl,- is li,lit.
5. Cork is brown.
I
i 
OBJECTS.-'I'-IIRD sTEP.
II. Sponge   is   a
natural  animal  substance,  light, brown,
compressible,  elastic,
porous, a-nd absorbent.
IiI. Qualilies   de     oete one   anoil e).
1. Cork is buoyant,
not merely because it
is light, but because it
is impervious.   Cork
is impervious because
its pores are small, and
but little connected.
2. Sponge is absorbent, because its pores
are large and connected.
IV. Uses, and qualities on which uses depend.
1. Cork is used for
life boats, cork legs and
arms, because buoyant
and liglt; for sol          es  of
soes, because impervious; for stoppers of
bottles because imperviotis, elastic, and cornpressible.
2. Sponge is useful
for wvasling,, because
abs<orben,,e compressiblle,   elastic,    light,
toughl, anid durable.
2. Brought out by getting children to
describe the effect of the process of waslihink, ol the sponge.  It receives water, be, cau,se it is absorbent; it discharges the
water whel  used, because it is comipressi ble; it resumes its former shlape, aId be comes fit for use as before, because it is
elastic; it is easily lifted and nioved(, be cause it is light; it lasts for a lon,i4:e in
constant use, and is not vwoin \aw-, be.
cause it is tou,gh and durable.
119 
OBJECTS.-TIIIRD STEP.
Sumnnary.-Children  arrange  and  classify  the  "M atter"
under "Resemblances and Differences of Cork and Sponge," as:
RESEmIBLAN.CES.                   DIFFERENcES.
Both  are  natural,    Cork is a vegetable substance.  Sponge
foreign, lighit, brown, is an animnal substance. Cork is irper
porous,  compressible,  vious.   Sponge is absorbent.   Cork is
and elastic.            buoyant, because light and  impervious;
impervious, because its pores are small and
not connected. Sponge, though lighter
than cork, is not buoyant, because absorb                       ent; and absorbent, because the pores are
large and connected.
Students in training construct a sketch on "Comparison of Salt and
Sugar," like the one on "Cork and Sponge."
4. Sketch of a Lesson on WVatc)
Points.-Qualities on which uses depend.  Less obvious quali.
ties.
METHOD.
1. Children say why they like to drink
water in summer.  Whether there is anything they like better to drink.  Whether
they would like to drink cider or tea only
wvlhenever they were thirsty, and at every
meal. (They would get tired of it.) Why
they cannot get tired of water.  Effect of
drinking water when very thirsty.
2. -xEperiment.-Put a little sugar into
water.  Children say what the water does.
Are told what water is.  Find other things
of which water is a solvent.  Refer to
water as nourishing plants, and explain
that it does so by dissolving substances in
the ground which are their food.  Refer
to use of water in washling.   As beer is a
solvent, lead children to find why it would
not do to wash in that.
3. Ecp'eriie)zct.A-Water will serve as a
120
'NIATTER.
I. AVater is tasteless aiid refresh'Illo';
therefore, useful to
drink.
2. -NVater is a solvent, without smell or
color; therefore useful
for Nvashirg, for fertilizing the ground, and
for dissolving various
r.ubstar-ces,
3. AlTater is reflec
;i 
OBJECTS. —THIRD STEP.
mirror.  Children find what does better
than water, and why.  Refer to the condition of people before mirrors were invented. Objects commonly mirrored in
water.   Effect of this reflection on the
scene.
4. Experfiment with-1, plate; 2, basin;
3, vial.  Children describe these as to extent-1, wide and shallow; 2, not so wide,
but deeper; 3, narrow across, but deeper.
Fill each with water, and measure in different directions, showing how the extent
of the water corresponds with that of the
vessel. Children called on to say what
will happen if the contents of the vessels
be exchanged.
5. Experiment.-Refer to the idea of
liquid.  Refer to a little girl who went for
water on a very cold day.  She found only
ice.  How this differed from liquid water.
She put the solid ice into the kettle-put
the kettle on the fire.  Second change
water underwent (vapor). Children to say
where they expect to find much ice, and
why the earth is often so dry in very hot
countries.
6. By reference to the uses of water,
and the sufferings caused by the scarcity
of it, show the goodness of God in supplying it abundantly.  Children say where
it is to be found.  Refer to where the
vapor went, and tell them the clouds are
made of this vapor. Thus some water is
always floating in the air, whence it falls
in rain. Some in hollow places in the
earth; hence it gushes out in springs, and
there is generally plenty on the surface of
the ground, that we may get it easily.
As each point is worked out, let children form a sentence,
which write on the board as found in "Matter."
For summary, read matter from the board, and rewrite from
memory.
121
tive, which makes it a
beautiful object in a
landscape.
4.'Water takes the
shape of the vessel that
holds it.
5.'Water exists in
different states-sometimes as a liquid, sometimes as a solid, and
sometimes as a vapor.
6.'Water is found
in different places-in
the clouds overhead, in
the eaves of the earth,
underneath and on the
surface of the ground.
,6 
OBJECTS.-THIRD STEP.
Students in training construct a sketch of a Lesson on "Mercury," or
" Air," modelled after the "Lesson on Water."
5. Sketch of a Lesson on Loaf Sugar.
Points.-Qualities as discovered by the senses.  Less obvious
qualities.
1. Present a piece of loaf sugar, and ask
the children to give the name, and tell what
they can discover by looking at it. Compare it with a piece of crystal. Points of difference-one translucent, the other opaque.
Points of resemblance-hard white, bright.
Compare the brightness of both objectsone is bright all over, the other full of little
bright points. A thing clear, bright all
over, is said to be lucid. A thing full of
little bright points, is said to be sparkling.
Children name other objects that sparkle,
and find by comparison that things that
sparkle have usually a rough surface.
2. Bring out rough and hard, by asking
children what they can say after feeling of it.
3. By taste.
i    4. Bring out fusible, soluble, brittle, and
granulous, by direct observation and experiment.   Crystallized developed by put ting threads into strong solutions of salt
or alum, which, after a few hours, will be
covered with crystals. (a) Children compare the grains with each other, and find
that they are all of the same shape.   (b)
Children notice that they are solid, by
reference to the broken grains.  Whether
they find anything inside? (c) Produce
some of the simplest solids, and some
amorphous stones. Which do the grains
most resemble?  Why?   Because  they
are all of the same  shape.  Show one
part of a solid concealing the other
part.  What children expect to find on
the other side-corresponding faces and
edges.  Will know that crystals are alike.
Give the term regular.  Tell children that
2. Sugar  is  rough
and hard.
3. Sugar is sweet.
4. Sugar is fusible,
brittle, granulous, and
crystallized.
i
i
122
METHOD.
MATTER.
1. Suar is white,
6
sparkling, opaque.
I 
OBJECTS.-THIRD STEP.
substances formed in little grains, all of
which are regular solids, are said to be
crystallized. Refer to sugar as juice of a
plant. Children state the origin and original form of sugar (liquid). Produce various specimens of crystals, and after drawing attention to them as such (being regular), tell them that every one of these was
once a liquid, and has now become a regular solid. Examples found by children of
a liquid that crystallizes (snow). Might
be followed by lesson on the forms, into
whlich many objects crystallize.
5. Bring out vegetable, by reference to
the sugar cane, of which show a specimen.
2~anufactured, by comparison of the cane
with its product (sugar).   Some information given as to the processes the article
undergoes in the course of manufacture.
Points, as worked out, written on the board.
Summary.-Erase  "Matter."   Children say  which  of the
qualities they have considered have been discovered by sight;
which by feeling; by taste; by experiment; and by reference to
previous knowledge. WVrite the qualities, as the children shall dic
tate, in separate columns.
Qualities discovered by more
than one sense, may be written
in separate columns, thus:
Sermn of Senseo SnseofPrevious
Experiment.        Knous
Knowledge.
Rough(2).
Hard.
Cultivated.
Manufactured.
Vegetable.
Granulous.
Crystallized.
Students in training construct a sketch of a lesson on "Bread," after the
model of the one on "Sugar."
123
5. Sugar is veoetable, and manufactured.
Sense of
SighL
Sense of Sense of
Feeling. T.-tste.
Wliite.
Sparklino-.
C,
Opaque.
Roti,h(').
ZD,
Sweet.
Fusible.
Soluble.
Brittle. 
OBJECTS.-TIIIRD STEP.
6. Sketch on a Mould Candle.
Points.-Material and Structure.  Adaptation of each to
uses.
I. Shape and Substance.-The candle is long-length com
pared with girth.  Slender-girth compared with length.  Nearly
cylindrical. Number and kind of sides of a cylinder observed.
In what respects the candle differs. Description given-It is
made of tallow and cotton, the tallow outside, the cotton inside,
where it forms a loop at one end. Materials and their position
observed.  Terms wick and loop given.
II. Quialities.
1. Tallow is an animal substance-brought out by reference to
whence we get it.  It is white-by sight.  Adhesive-a little
dropped on some paper. Impressible-the candle scratched by a
match or pin.  Solid and fusible-candle lighted, and the part
nearest the flame compared with the rest. What makes the difference?
2. Cotton wick is white and soft-by looking and feeling.
Tough-by reference to breaking a candle; what part remains
unbroken. Fibrous-compared with chalk, which is formed of
little grains.  Is a vegetable substance-refer to the source from
whence it is obtained. What, then, is cotton? Told a little
about the cotton tree; that it grows in warm climates, &c. Picture shown.  Is absorbent-lighted wick observed.  Is infiammable-wick lighted.
III. Uses, and qualities on which the use depends. —Candles
are burned to give light.  This use depends on the fact that the
wick is inflammable and absorbent, and the tallow inflammable
and fusible. Tallow and wick compared. In what respects they
are alike.  What the wick would do without the tall-smoulder
away without giving much light. The tallow without the wick
-flow in all directions while blazing away. What the wick does
to the tallow-absorbs it.  Then "the wick must be not only
inflammable, but absorbent," In what state the tallow is when
121
,l 
OBJECTS.-THIRD STEP.
absorbed-in a liquid state. "Tallow must be not only inflam.
mable, but must be fusible."
Matter put on the board point by point, as worked out. Read
by the children. Erased by the teacher, who writes:
I. State the parts of the candle.
IL. State on what qualities-1, of the tallow; 2, of the wick
-the use of the candle depends.
Children reproduce the lesson on their slates.
Students in training construct a sketch on "Match," modelled after the one
on a " Candle."
7. Sketch on a Kngfe and Fork.
Points. —Material and Structure.-Adaptation of each to use.
I. Objects Observed and Comnipared.-1. Resenmblance.-Traced
by the children.  As to use-both used in taking food.  Substance partly mineral and partly animal.   Mlake-both  have handles,
shanks, and points.
2. Difference. —In use-one to cut up the food, the other to
keep it firm and convey it to the mouth. In make-the one has
a blade, the other a shank spreading out into three prongs. Why
this difference?
II. Adaptation of ~fake to *e.-Children to determine this.
Handles and shanks to both.  WVhy?  The blade of the knife why thin at one edge? WVhy blunt at back?-to allow the pres sure of the finger in cutting; also to strengthen the blade. The
fork-its shank-why longer than in the knife?   Why partly
visible, and not, as in the knife, hidden by the handle? Its use.
Prongs-their number, and the reason for this number.   Why
narrowing towards the points?  Why edged, and not quite cylini drical?-to give them a firmer hold in the meat.  Use of the
shoulder.
III. Adaptation of H1aterial to Use and Structure.-Children
to discover this by comparing it with various other substances.
1. The Blade of the Kn?fe.-Why not of stone?-a stone
blade could not give way when, being used, it might happen to
come in contact with any other substance, as gristle, &c.  It is
125 
OBJECTS.-THIRD STEP.
not flexible. Why not of lead?-a leaden blade would bend,
lose its shape, and become useless. Not elastic. Why not of
tortoise shell?-a tortoise shell blade as likely to break as to
yield. Why not of wood?-a blade made of wood, or of any of
the other substances, would not take an edge sufficiently fine
and sharp.   The  last two  substances  not sufficiently hard or
tenacious.
Requisites for the blade of a knife determined by the children-flexibility, elasticity, tenacity, hardness. Why not of iron,
which possesses all these qualities?-the blade must be very
smooth, and capable of taking a high polish, to cut thin, smooth
slices. Substance possessing all these requisites-steel.
2. The metallic part of the fork.-Qualities  required-tena.
city-hardness-capability of taking polish. Steel required for
this also.
3. Hactndles.-Oust  be  light.  Why?-the metal is lheavy.
Smooth.   WVhy?-that the touch may be pleasant to the  hand,
and that they may  be easily cleaned.   On these acciiits commonly made of bone-the more expensive ones of ivory.
Summiary.-The children required to reproduce-first, orally
from the board, and afterward in writing on their own slates.
Students in training construct a ketch on "Pen and Pencil," modelled
after the one on "Knife and Fork."
8. Sketch on the Spider's Web.
Point.-Material and Structure. Adaptation of each to use.
METHOD.
1. Draw a diagram of the web on the
b oard, getting the children to notice the
kind of lines made-whether vertical or
horizontal. Finally, let them say what
object the whole represents, and of what
use it is.
2. Question as to material of which web
is made.   What  it is like?  How  they
know it is not cotton, silk, or hair?  Having exercised their reason and curiosity,
126
MATTER.
1. The garden spider makes a web in
which to take its prey.
2. The spider's wel)
is made from a thick
glue contained in its
body. The creature 
OBJECTS.-THIRD STEP.
tell them.  Show some ravelled silk, and
tell them it would take many of the spider's threads to equal one of these-thus
giving them  an idea of their thinness.
Draw threads from some heated sealingwax, to develop the idea of tenaciousgive the term. Let them apply it to spiders' threads.  Get other examples.   If
not readily given, refer to melted glass,
metal, or even molasses. Then, from experiment with the sealing wax, the children will see that the more the threads are
drawn out, the thinner they must become.
3. (a) Tell children.
3. (a) To begin her
web, the spider presses
her side against the
wall; then a drop of
glue comes out, which
sticks.
(b) She then jumps
to h othe other side, carrying the thread with her.
She goes backward and
forward several times,
ever adding to the
thickness of the thread.
(c) She next goes
from corner to corner,
and then across, untill
thilewole space is filled
up w ith thre ads regularly arranged.
(el) She fastens the
sides to the wall by
threads projecting from
the outer edge.
(e) Lastly,   she
makes a little cell in
the middle underneath,
in which she can hide
-while  watching  for
prey.
4. The material of
the web is a tenacious
(b) Illustrate this on the board.  Let
the children say how the doubling,  tre(bling, &c., will affect the thread.  Whether
there would be one thick thread, or several thin ones, and why?
(c) Illustrate this by drawing lines in
order on the board.   Let children notice
how closely the threads come together.
(d) Draw from the children how this
can be fastened to the wall, and  what
quality enables the threads to fasten themselves.
(e) Tell them of the cell; of its situation out of light.  Let them say of what
use it can be to the spider.
4. Facts, from memory-results, by reason; for instance, let the children discover
i
127
has five or six holes in
its sides, out of which
the glue oozes. This
substance is very tenaclous, and can be drawn
into the finest threads. 
OBJECTS.-THIRD STEP.
glue. Its threads are what would happen if a fly came to a web,
thin, drawn closely to- the threads of which were wide apart, or
gether, and wonderful- made of a very fragile substance.  Refer
ly strong, first to catch, to an insect in molasses or cream; show
and then to hold the that the more it struggles, the more it is
prey.                   stuck fast.
In conclusion, refer to the discomfort of flies in summer, the
mischief they do, &c. Let the children say of what use the spider is to man. Refer to the wisdom of God in creating the spider.
Students in training construct a sketch on "Cocoon,"' after the model of
the one on a "Spider's Web."
9. Sketch on the IHoneycomnb.
Point. —'Material and Structure.  Adaptation of the latter to
uses-so brought out as to develop the idea of Instinct.
I. 2~aterical. —Made by bees of a substance obtained  from
flowers, and called wax.  Usually found in a kind of box called
a hive. Refer to the condition of bees in wild countries, lwhere
no hlives are provided for them.   WThlat they occupy-cavities in
rocks, holes in trees, &c.  Refer to the reed baskets used in
Africa.
II. Structure.-Why the bees make the comb-to put their
honey in.  How adapted to this purpose-by being full of cells.
Give the term cellular.  Also to keep the young bees in before
they are able to fly about, &c. The young of the bee is round in
shape.   Children say of what shape they would expect their
cradles to be.  Whether the cells are of this shape-they are
six-sided.  Give the term hexagonal.  Why hexagonal, and not
round? To bring this out, draw two diagrams on the board,
one representing round, and the other hexagonal cells. Direct
attention to the spaces between the round cells. Suppose this
space filled up with wax, as it would be in the honeycomb, of
what use would the wax be there? None; it would be a waste
of material.  But suppose the bee to take away with its pincers
all the wax between the cells, except a thin thread; thi; would
save the wax, but what the effect would be-this would be tc
128
i
p-
I 
OBJECTS.-THIRD STEP.
fragile; the weight of the young bee would crush it. How won
derful to see the little bee meet these difficulties, by making hex.
agonal cells, which take the least amount of wax consistent with
the proper strength of the comb, and are just as good to keep the
young bees in.
III. The faculty of the constructor.-Refer to themselves,
their work, their lessons (as writing). At first they do a thing
badly, then better, and at length very well. But the bee makes
the first honeycomb as well as the last. If several men had to
make each a cradle, and without seeing the work of the rest, their
workmanship would be very different; perhaps, too, the material
and the design. The work of bees of the same class is always
the same. The bees in the garden of Eden worked as the bees
in their gardens to-day. The faculty which enables the bee thus
to work is called instinct.  Children give examples of instinct as
shown by other animals. Children say how they recognize instinct.  (a) Instinct never improves; its work is as perfect first
as last. (b) The work is the same as done by all other creatures
of the same kind.
Instead of summary, draw from the children a statement of the
advantage of hexagonal over round cells, and definition of instinct.
Students in training construct a sketch on "Bird's Nest," after the model
of the one on "Honeycomb."
10. Sketch on the Palm  Tree.
Point.-To exercise the children on information given.
I. Fruit.-Show this to the children, and let them say what
kind of substance it is. Get or give the name of the fruit. Let
them describe it as to shaple, color, parts, flavor. Let them taste
it.  Write on the board the following:-The date is a fruit of an
oblong shape; it has a tough, smooth skin, a pulpy part, and a
very hard stone in the centre.
II. Tree.-Tell the children that the dates have been gathered
from a tree which grows in a country far away.  Describe the
country as having large sandy plains, arid and barren.  Refer to
the heat of the climate, and the intense thirst caused by this.
6*
129
t 
OBJECTS.-FOURTH STEP.
The condition of travellers after marching many miles. They see
a grove of tall trees.  Name of these.   How travellers feel when
they are covered from the hot, burning sun, and can eat the fruit.
Draw picture of the tree, and direct attention of the children to
the height the trunk of the tree grows without leaves. Tell them
it grows from sixty to one hundred feet. To give the idea of tihe
height, compare it with the length of the school room, fenlce, or
yard.   (,V. B.): "The date palm grows in the desert.  It has a
trunk which is from sixty to one hundred feet high."
III. Uses.-Children to name those parts of the tree likely to
be useful to man, and the uses made of them. Correct errors, and
supply information. (bT. B.): "The fruit is used for food. The
stones are bruised for the seeds, which are given to the camels.
The leaves are made into baskets and hats. The wood is used
for building houses."
Summary.-Recapitulation of lesson from memory.
Students in training construct a lesson on the " Cedar," modelled after the
one on the "Palm."
LIST OF IDEAS TO BE DEVELOPED AND TERMS TO BE GIVEN, ETC.,
IN THIS STEP.
1. Terms expressing less obvious qualities; as, buoyant,
ductile, malleable, tenacious, sonorous, fertilizing, conservative or
preservative, aromatic, medicinal, emollient, mixable, amorphous,
slimy, &c.
2. Terms expressing ideas referring to structure; as, woven,
cellular, tubular, netted, serrated, indented, crystallized, concave,
convex, spiral, &c.
3. Terms expressing ideas referring to the nature and condition of substances; as, metallic, fluid, watery, sweet, saline,
vinous, manufactured, exported, imported, &c.
FOURTIH STEP.
Includes Classification of Objects, and so leads up to science.
Also, Classification of Qualities.  Lessons on the senses them
,elves should be given at this step.
130
I 
OBJECTS.-FOURTH STEP.
Where the course of instruction does not contain a course of
lessons on Actions, which properly lead to manufactures, arts,
&c., some consideration of these subjects may properly be referred
to Objects, Fourth Step; as, metals, and manufacture of articles
made from metals, liquids, and textile fabrics. See "Lessons on
~)bjects."
1. Sketch to Develop the Idea of Distinction between the Essential
and Accidental Qualities of an Object.
I.-Teacher presents a number of various pieces of sealing wax,
telling the children to find, state, and classify the differences.
They are red, blue, green, &c.; therefore they differ in color.
One is thick, slender, long; therefore they differ in size.
One is flattened, another cylindrical; therefore they differ in
form.
By experiment, one is hard, softened, fused,-whole, broken,
stamped; therefore they differ in condition.
II.-Children required to state the resemblances-vegetable,
fusible, impressible, and adhesive. Children led to see that we
can have no sealing wax which has not the four qualities; while
we often have pieces not red, not cylindrical, or not stamped.
Terms and definitions given. "The qualities which a thing must
have to be itself, are called essential qualities. Qualities which it
may have, but can be itself without having, are called accidental."
2. Sketch to Develop the Idea of the Distinction between Generic
and Specific Terms.
I.-The teacher, standing before a large table covered with a
variety of objects, including pictures of birds, which can readily
be classified, desires first one and then another of the children to
group all that should go together. Children group
Swallow,  Robin,
Silver,     Gold,
131
Kingfisher,
Iron,.
. as Birds.
as i)letals. 
OBJECTS.-FOURTH STEP.
Wheat,    Maize,       Oats,...  as Grain.
Water,    Milk,        Ink,..     as Liquids.
Tulip,     Lily,       Rose,...  as Flowers.
JI. -I)ifferences in terms distinguis1ied.-Ask children whether
we can call all flowers roses?   No; for some  are violets, some
are pinks, &c. Whether there are more flowers or more roses in
the world, and why? Children thus led to see that flower is the
name of a large class, while rose is the name of a smaller class
contained in the large class. Compare this with a school, and its
classes.
III. Names given and applied.-Tell the children that words
which express the large class are said to be generic, and words
which express the small class said to be specifc.
1. Let them apply these terms to flower and rose, respec
tively.
2. Give jewel as the name of a large class, and let the children give the name of some smaller class belonging to it, as diamond, &c.
3. Then give trout as the name of a small class. Children
to find the name of the large class to which it belongs.
Children give as many examples of generic and specific qualities as needful. Put down all the examples in two columns under
the proper heads, as the children shall direct.
Examples.
SPECIFIC.
Picture.
Pillar.
Edifice.
Temple.
Furniture.
Ornament.
Servant.
Feature.
Painting.
Column.
School house.
Church.
Chair.
Bracelet.
Slave.
Nose.
132
GENERIC.
i 
OBJECTS.-FOURTH STEP.
3. Sketch of a Lesson on Shells and their Inmates.
I.-Bring  before  the  children  some
shells.   Let them  say what  they  are.
iWhere found?  Supply information as to
shells found inland, and by  reference to
them as marine objects, lead children to
conclude that wherever they are found the
sea  must  once  have  been.   Show  an
oyster shell containing its inmnate.  Children state the use of the shell.  The last
use brought out by reference to its defenceless condition without it.  Let a child
press the oyster; then press his own chin
or forehead. The difference, and its cause.
What they can say of the oyster. (S. R.):
"The  oyster has no  bones."   Another
difference discovered by touch. Its cause.
(S. R.): "The blood of the oyster is cold."
Refer to the color of our blood. Cut the
oyster, to show the watery liquid. (S. R.):
"The blood of the oyster is colorless."
Children told that all animals living in
shells resemble the oyster in all these
points, and on account of their soft, boneless structure, are called mollusks. Children dictate the matter of this head.
(W. B.)
II.-Refer to storms at sea, the waves
dashing the shells against rocks, &c., and
lead children to see that shells require to be
made very strong.  Show  a specimen of
the lime as one constituent part.   Where
the  animals can find such  a substance.
Refer to the limestone rocks of coasts, and
coating inside teakettle.   Whether  this
substance alone would make a good shell
(too brittle).  What more required-some
substance not brittle, the reverse of brittle,
to mix with it.  Show glue.   Let chil dren recognize it as an animal substance,
and show the quality on which its use as
a constituent part of the shell depends.
133
MATTER.
METHOD.
I. Use.-Shells are
found in the sea; also
in'rivers, and -some on
land. They serve both
for the homes and
armor of certain anirnals. These have no
bones, and cold, white,
or colorless blood,
and, beiing soft, are
called mollusks.
II. Of'what com.
posed. - Shells are
formed from the ani.
mals which inhabit
them. They are composed of three substances: 1, lime, a
sort of chalk, which
the creature obtains
from the water; 2, a
glue given out by it
from its own bodythis varies in color,
and gives color to the
shells; 3, part of the 
OBJECTS.-FOURTH STEP.
Tell children that the glue used to make
the shell comes from the animal itself. Note
the beauty and color of the various shells.
Let the children name the colors, and try
to account for their appearance.   Give information.   Let them give examples of
similar variations in other classes of Nature's works  (birds, stones, &c.).  How
the animal obtains the shell-it is part of
itself; grows with it. Refer to broken
shell.  These objects, which are very liable
to be broken, can be repaired.  Appearance of the new piece on the shell. Refer
to a new piece of material put upon an old
garment, &c.
III.-Bring the children specimens of
each kind.   Let them discover how they
differ in structure,  and classify accordingly.  Matter of the lesson dictated by
the children, and placed on the board.
III. Different kinds
of Shells.-Shells are
very numerous. There
are many thousand
different kinds. These
are divided into three
classes, viz.:1, those of one piece
2, those of two pieces;
3, those of three pieces.
4. Sketch on Plants of the Cruciform Tribe.
MATTER.
I.-Bring flowers of this kind before
the children.  Let them observe the distinct parts of these.  Direct special attention to position of the petals.  Refer to
the derivation of the name, the number
and length of the stamens, the compartments of the pistil.  Let children name
all cruciform plants they know.   (W. B.)
I. Structure. —In
plants of isri this tribe te
corolla is formed by
fours etals placed crosswise; hence the name.
There are six stamens,
four long and two short.
The seed vessel is a
pod, differing from that
of the pea in having
two partitions.
II. Qualities.These plants bear flowers of different colors.
Brown, as the wall
II.-Children, with reference to the list
on the board, name the different colors of
the flowers.  Lead them to see that they
have mentioned no blue flower;  there is
134
sk in of the animal,
which lines these. The
shells, when broken,
may be made new
again. The new pieces
are brighter in color
than the old.
METHOD. 
OBJECTS.-FOURTH STEP.
the scent of any of these flowers when
fresh.  Refer them  to  the condition of
water in whiclh wall flowers have been
kept, or in which cabbage has been boiled.
Refer to the mustard plant, the chief quality of mustard-pungency, leaving tleem
to infer that all plants of the same kind
partake of the same quality.
flower; pink or puce,
as the stock; white or
y      ellow,   as   mustard,
turnip,   radish.   No
.lower of the tribe is
blue, nor can any
amount of cultivation
produce a blue flower.
The flowers have a
swleet smell except
when  decayed,  and
then the smell is particularly disagreeable,
on  account of   the escape of a gas on which
the characteristic qualities of these plants depend.   They  are  all
higohly   pungent, all
wholesome, an   d e ven
medicin     al.
III.  Us e s. -NV e
cultivate some of these
plants for their sweet
smell, as the stock and
wall flower; some for
food, as the cabbage
and   watercress,  for
their leaves;  the tur nip and radish, for their
roots; some for what
we call a relish, as
mustard and horse rad.
ish. All this food puri fies the blood. Sailors,
who take long voyages,
and consequently suffer
from scurvy, almost
always find a plant of
this tribe (Cocheleria)
growing on the shores
of uncultivated lands.
They eat it, and this
cures them.
III.  -Refer to the list on the board.
Children mention the use of each separately, then classify the uses.  Bring out the
distinctive use of mustard and horse radish,
by asking if these would serve as the only
vegetable at a meal.  Explain the effect
of eating only salted meat, and refer to the
goodness of God in providing a cure.
Sit, nary.-Children reproduce the lesson from the heads.
135 
OBJECTS.-FOURTH STEP.
5. Sketch on Flavors.
MATTER.
I.  _t'lavors.
1. Some things are
sweet to the taste.
2. Some things are
luscious to the taste.
I.-I1. Developed by experiment with
sugar.  Children give the term.   No definition given.
2. Developed by experiment with mnolasses. Children describe the flavor. Term
and general definition given: "Anything
which is extremely sweet, is said to be
luscious."
3. Developed by experiment witli qui.
nine.  Children give term.  No definition
given.
4. Developed by experiment with cream
of tartar.  Children give the term.   No
general definition given.
5. Developed by experiment with soda.
Term and general definition given:  "Any thing that has a burning, bitter taste, is
said to be acrid." Children told that soda
is one of the substances called alkalies,
whence we sometimes speak of its taste as
alkaline.
6. Developed by experiment with the
blue and white papers called Seidlitz powders, after the flavor of each powder has
been separately ascertained. Term and
general definition given: "Anything having the taste of salt is said to be saline."
A saline substance can be obtained by
combining an acid and an alkaline substance.
7. Developed by putting a little salt ill
water.  Children describe the taste.  Term
and general definition given: "Anything
that has a slightly salty taste, is said to be
brackish." Refer to springs in the desert.
8. Developed by experiment with alum.
Children describe the effect on the mouth.
Term and general definition given: "Anything which draws  up or contracts the
mouth is said to be astringent."
I
I
136
METHOD.
3. Some things
bitter to the taste.
arp,
4. Some things
acid to the taste.
are
5. Son-ie things are
acrid or alkaline to the
taste.
6. Some tbings
saline to tlle taste.
are
7. Some things are
brackish to the taste.
8. Some thinms are
astriingent to tlae taste.
t
I 
OBJECTS.-FOURTH STEP.
I  9. Developed by experiment with mustard.  Children referred to scents of the
same character. Give the term. General
definition given: "Anything which has a
hot, biting taste, is said to be pungent."
10. Developed by experiment with cinnamon.  Children being referred to scents
of the same character, give the term. General definition given: "Anything which
has a hot, strong, pleasant taste, is said to
be aromatic."
11. Developed by reference to gravy,
&c.  Children describe the flavor.  Term
and general definition given: "Anything
with a rich, saltish, pleasant taste, is said
to be savory."
II.-Developed by writing two sentences
on the board, in each of which the word
taste is used in a different sense.  Children
say how used.  Are told that there is another word which expresses the quality,
and what advantage there would be in
using it. Teacher writes the general term
flavor above the list of specific flavors,
which have been written on the board as
given.
III.- Terms and definitions given.  Ex.
amples found by children.
III.-Things having
a flavor are said to be
sapid. Things having
little or no flavor are
said to be insipid.
Things having a highly
agreeable flavor, are
said to be delicious.
Things having a disagreeable flavor are
said to be nauseous.
Summary.-1. Children read the list of flavors, and in turn
give examples.
2. Teacher gives the definitions in any order, children giving
the term which expresses each definition.
3. Teacher erases the list of flavors, children supplying it.
137
9. Some things are 1
pungent to the taste.
IO. Somethings are
aromatic to the taste.
1 1. Some things are
savory to the taste.
II.-The sense by
w, bicli we discover each
of these qualities, we
call taste; the quality
itself we call flavor.
I 
OBJECTS.-FOURTH STEP.
4. Children add each of the definitions given to the corresponding term.
The summary may be omitted until the next day, and used as
an exercise on the previous lesson.
6. Sketch of a Lesson on Qualities, discovered by the Sense of
Feeling.
I. Introductory.-Teacher refers the children to a former lesson, in which they have brought qualities of an object to the test
of all their senses.  Tells them that the subject of this lesson will
be all the qualities they can discover by means of one sensefeeling. Let them name all the qualities they can think of.
(WAV. B.)   Teacher then engages them to try experiments, in
order to find out what more can be known.
II.-I1. Teacher blindfolds the first child. Presents him with
a stone, cotton, water, tube, &c.  He says:  "By feeling, we can
discover whether objects are hard, soft, liquid, or hollow."
2. Teacher blindfolds second child, and presents him with a
nutmeg grater, an oyster shell, a piece of carved wood, &c., who
says:  "By feeling, we can discover whether things are rough,
smooth, level, or uneven."
3. Teacher proceeds as before, by examining the contents of
a box of solids, and comparing these with lumps of chalk.  The
third child says: "By feeling, we canl discover whether objects
are edged, cubical, cylindrical, or (in fact) any regular form, or of
an irregular form."
4. Teacher presents measures of different lengths.  The fourth
child says: "By feeling, we can discover whether things are long
or short, thick or thin, deep or slhallow."
5. Teacher places several similar objects at various distances.
Fifth child says: "By feeling, we can discover whether things are
near or far, and how far." [Exercise on the absolute distance,
whether an inch or a foot.]
6. Teacher places the same objects in different positions, and
sixth child says: "By feeling, we can discover whether things are
up or down, without, within, or between."
7. Teacher presents a piece of sealing wax that has just been
138 
OBJECTS.-FOURTII STEP.
usea.  Seventh child says:  "By feeling, we can discover whether
things are burning, hot, warm, lukewarm, cool, cold, or freezing."
8. Teacher presents a sponge, before dipping it in water, and
after wringing it; an eighth child says: "By feeliny, we can discover whether things are dry, wet, or moist."
III.-Children compare these ideas with those discovered by
themselves at the beginning of the lesson. Teacher may do well
to refer to the use of object lessons in giving accurate and systematic knowledge, instead of the imperfect knowledge that is
gathered from a merely superficial observation.
IV.-Chlildrenl led to find general terms inclusive of each set
of the particular terms before used. They dictate what is to be
put on the board, thus:
By the sense of feeling, we discover,
1. The Character of the Substance.
2. The Character of the Surface.
3. The Form.
4. The Size.
5. The Distance.
6. The Position.
7. The Condition, as to Temperature.
8. The Condition, as to Moisture.
7. Sketch of Lesson on an Egg.
I. Shape.-An egg is oval, smaller at one end than the other.
The word oval is derived from ovun, the Latin for egg.
II. Parts- Order of Position and Formnation.-An egg consists
of several distinct parts: 1, the shell; 2, the skin between the
shell and albumen, or the membrane; 3, the albumen;  4, the skin
between the albumen and the yelk, or the envelope; 5, the yelk;
6, the embryo. The order of the original formation of each part
is exactly the reverse of the position. To these parts, though not
as a distinct part, may be added the follicle.
III. Use of each Part.-l.  The shell protects the  interior
parts.  2. The membrane is of use to strengthen the shell and to
prevent injury to the young bird; probably also to keep the exter.,  air from penetrating, and to keep the albumen from mixing
139 
OBJECTS.-FOURTH STEP.
with the shell ere it becomes hardened by exposure.  3. The albu.
men serves as nourishment for the young bird.  4. The envelope
prevents the yelk from mixing with the albumen. 5. The yelk
is the substance from which the bird is formed, as the albumen is
the nourishment during formation.  6. The embryo is the yelk
in process of formation.  7. The follicle contains the air for the
use of the young bird.
IV.  Qualities on which UTses depend.-1.  Shell.-Advantages
of the shlape-being oval, it is not so likely to be broken as if it
had corners. The shape also renders it more comfortable for the
mother bird during the process of hatching, and more convenient
to be turned over, that each part may receive equal warmth.
This shape, too, suits that of the bird before it is fully developed,
and admits of the little creature's free egress.
2. Obvious Qualities of the Shell.-Hard, smooth, brittle, thin,
porous.  Hard, that it may keep its shape under pressure; smooth,
pleasanter to the touch-less liable to be broken when coming in
contact with any roughness of the ground; brittle, that egress may
be afforded to the chick; thin, for the same reason, and to prevent waste of material; porous, to admit air.
3. Qualities of the 3fenibrane.-Tough, smooth.   Toigh, to
strengthen the shlell; smooth, on account of the chick.
4. Qualities of the Albumen.-Thick, glutinous, insipid;  is
soluble in cold water, curdles in hot water. Effect of heat in
hatching the bird, &c.
5. Qualities of the Envelope.-Strong, thin, impervious.
6. Qualities of the Yelk.-Sapid, colored.
8. Sketch of Lesson on Writing Paper.
I.-Thle children are desired to discover the qualities on whlichi
the use depends. It is smooth, in order that the pen may pass
over it; glossy, to prevent the ink from penetrating; flexible,
tlherefore easily folded into the form of a letter; thin, therefore
light; portable, therefore cheaper.
II. Substitutes for Pajper.-Tell the children that paper was
unknown in ancient times. Let them say how people could man:
age when they wanted to send news-they could send messen
140 
OBJECTS.-FOUP,TH STEP.
gers.  Why this was not so good as writing notes-some trouble,
and less certainty.  But we have another use for paper.  When
war breaks out, or some great deed is done, we like to write it in
a book, that it may be remembered. How people that had no
paper could keep their records. Refer the children to what they
have read in the Bible. The commandments were written on
tables of stone. Joshua wrote a copy of the law on tables of
stone.   The high priest had an inscription on a gold' mitre.
Hezekiah desired that his writing tablets should be brought.
Explain to the chidlren that the tablets used in those days were
generally of wax.
The rolls mentioned in the Bible were of parchment. Why
called rolls?  Children dictate the list of substances formerly used
in lieu of paper-stone, metal, wax, parchment.   Consider the
comparative convenience of using each of these. Tell them that
the Egyptians used something else. A plant used to grow on the
baiks of the great river which waters their country. The people
took the bark of this, and pressed the edges together till they adhered.  5Whether the same thing could be done with narrow strips
of paper?   Children mention things that will adhere, as postage
stamps, &c.   WVhat quality this bark must have possessed-it
contained a sweet gum. Was called papyrus. Children say why
the pieces of bark were allowed to adhere at the edges only.
When a large sheet was formed, it was rubbed with a glass or
metal ball. The use of this operation.
III. Jfodern Paper.-Tell them that the first paper, properly
so called, was made in Spain, of cotton wool, and afterward of
woollen rags. The first mixture of linen rags was accidental; but
when it was discovered that paper was improved thereby, more
linen rags were added next time, and so on until only linen was
used, and the best paper produced as a result. In the reign of
Henry III., a ship laden with this paper was wrecked off the coast
of England. The booty was considered of so much importance,
that several records are still in existence in which the fact is men tioned. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the first paper mills
were established in England. For a long time, only a little paper
was used.  WThy so;much more required now?   It was feared
that there would not be enough nice white rags to make good
141 
OBJECTS.-FOURTH STEP.
paper.  An ingenious German-Schaffer-thought he would ascertain of what other substance paper could be made. Some he
made of straw, some of vine tendrils, some of fibrous roots. In
what these substances were alike. But soon after this another
ingenious man found out, that by using a substance called chllorinie, he could take the dye out of colored rags, and make them
perfectly white.
IV. Ancient Paper.-Refer again to the substitutes for paper
formerly resorted to.  Tell the children there was one nation
which in ancient times used paper. Let them enumerate the
ancient nations with which they have any acquaintance, as, Jews,
Egyptians, Romans. Whether it could be any of those, and why
not?  Refer to the map, and point out China.  Tell them that
hundreds of years ago the Chinese were in the practice of
making paper, by grinding the bark of a tree, and placing it in
water. When steeped to a pulp, it was poured into shallow
moulds, placed one on the top of another, with a bulrush mat between each mould, and a reed under each mat. These mats were
raised every day, that the paper might dry gradually. Children
state  the use of the mats, and the use of the reeds.  Produce a
specimen of rice paper, and explain how this is obtained. It is
the pith of a water weed. In the finest specimens this is found as
large as the thumb of a man. This is pared in a circular direction
with a knife.
9. Sketch on Comparison of Wine and TVater.
I. Qualities conmpared.
Wine is
1. Artificial.
2. Colored.
3. Only semi-transparent.
4. Odorous.
5. Sapid.
6. Stimulating. 
7. Exhilarating. 
8. Nourishing. 
9. Astringent.
10. Heating. 
142
Vater is
1. Natural.
2. Colorless.
3. Transparent.
4. Inodorous.
5. Tasteless.
6. Onl.Y refreshing.
7. Rela,xing.
8. Cooliii-.
i 
OBJECTS.-FOURTH STEP.
II. How these Qualities in each Liquid render it useful to n?an.Water must of necessity be natural, as such a quantity is needed
by man for his use. It must be colorless, transparent, inodorous,
and tasteless, otherwise it would not be pure, and consequently of
little service, as it would destroy or detract from the taste of sub.
stances with which it is mixed. "Its cooling and refreshing quali
ties give it great advantages over any other liquid. The sapid,
stimulating, exhilarating, and astringent qualities of wine, render
it particularly useful to man.
III. How these Liquids are obtained.-Spontaneous evaporation
is the origin of any quantity of water. This is continually taking
place from off the surface of seas, lakes, &c.: the vapors ascend, and
form clouds; these, on attaining a higher region, become condensed;
by the power of attraction they descend to the mountains, the
particles become separated, and percolate into the earth; then the
water, where it finds the least pressure, forces a passage; a fissure
is consequently made in the mountains, and a spring is thus originated, which flows onward till obstructed; at such a place the
water accumulates, and ultimately gives rise to a river, which in
its course is joined by others, and these continue their onward motion till they are lost again in the mighty ocean. Then the same
thing again occurs; and therefore we may perceive, as it were, a
complete revolution in the formation of water as used by man.
To obtain wine, vines must first be planted. When the fruit
is sufficiently ripe, it is gathered, placed in large vessels, and
pressed.  Perforations in the bottom of the vessel allow the juice
to flow out into another, from whence it is taken and casked.
Then there is a fourfold repetition of this process: 1. The liquid
becomes sweet; this is the saccharine fermentation (examnple,
wort).  2. This process evolves another substance, and we have
the alcoholic fermentation; in proportion to the quantity of alcoliol contained in the liquid, the next process is retarded.   3. It
becomes sour; this is the acetous fermentation. When a fourth
change takes place, it is the symptom of decay and corruption,
and is called the putrefactive fermentation. Wine is fit for use
after the second fermentation. The wines of Hiungary have been
known to form so thick a crust around the insilo. of the cask, that
143 
OBJECTS.-FOURTH STEP.
the wood could be removed without causing the wine to flow
out.
IV. Qualities referred to in Scripture.
WINE, IN MODERATION.
Cheering. Judges ix. 3.
Gladdening. Ps. civ. 15.
Strengthening. Cant. ii. 5.
Medicinal. I Tim. v. 23.
WATER.
Unstable.   Gen. xlix. 4.
A Solvent.  Job xiv. 19.
Penetrating.  Ps. cxix. 18.
Reflective.   Prov. xxvii. 19.
Refreshing.  Ps. xxiii. 2.
Purifying.  Ezek. xxxvi. 25.
IN EXCESS.
1. Intoxicating. Eph. v. 18.
2.' Infuriating. Prov. xx. 1.
TVine is rather typical-l, of
consolation; 2, of the reviving
land invigorating graces of the
I Spirit.
Water is typical of regeneration and sanctification-cleansing
and purifying in its nature. It
is particularly typical of the work
of the Holy Spirit, and is used
in baptism.
11-1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
i
I 
NUMBER.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
LESSONS ON NUMBER introduce the pupil to subjects which
afford a higher exercise of mental power than any of those which
have hitherto engaged attention.
In the study of the properties of number, Pestalozzi did not
aim at the mere acquisition of the science, and of mechanical dexterity in calculation; hlie considered the subject to be a valuable
means of awakening intelligence, of forming the judgment, and
of developing the reasoning faculty. His method of presenting
the first principles of the science also differs greatly from that ordinarily pursued; he trained the mind to grasp the full perception
of the value of numbers, by observation upon them as illustrated
ill surrounding familiar objects; and when by this process the
abstract idea was acquired, he then, but not till then, communicated the symbol by which it is conventionally represented. It
was found that pupils trained on these principles were themselves
enabled to deduce the practical rules of arithmetical calculation
from the very examples on which their minds had been previously
exercised.
This may be a slow process; but it has been well observed,
that "when the true end of intellectual education shall be admitted to be, first, the attainment of mental power, and then the ap.
plication of it to practical and scientific purposes, that plan of
early instruction which dwells long on first principles, and does
not haste to make learned, will be acknowledged as the most economical, because the most effectual." 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
To some persons, the detail, the analysis, tlhe repetition recommended ill the following lessons, may seem wearisome; and it is
true, a careless or unobservant teacher may make a weariness of
such instruction, and, indeed, of any other plan of education.
But if those who have long understood the meaning of one, two,
and three, were able to remember the mental process by which
thley themselves acquired their understanding of these numbers,
they would find it was by some process not very dissimilar from
that here recommended.   It may be they were never taught on
such a plan-truth was never thus clearly presented to the mind
in its own natural simplicity, rising step by step into greater complexity; it may be, that instead of learning such truth easily and
surely, as those will do who are led through these lessons, they
had to gather it here and there, under disadvantages of every
kind, so that even still, perhaps, the beautiful properties of numbers, constantly as experience presents them, are but seen through
a mist; but it is indisputable, that any amount of clear perception
such persons may have attained to, they have attained it by the
fact of the mind, itself an observant faculty, having done for itself
that which the teacher omitted to do for it, and having done it,
also, by some such process as this, with the visible world for its
book, and with God's gifts of observation and reflection for its
eyer willing guides.   Remembering these things, the judicious
teacher will guard against dwelling too long on these analytical
lessons, using them just so long as there may be work to be done
by them, while avoiding also the opposite extreme of rapid but
unsound progression.
FIRST STEP.
The  \Tu?umbers One to Ted.
Object.-I. To lead the children to the perception of num
her, by presenting it as it is exemplified in surrounding objects)
and to teach the word by which each number of which an idea
has been gained, may bp expressed.  [I. To teach the power and
146 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
name of each number, when used as an ordinal.   III. To exercise the mind on the numbers of which the knowledge has been
attained, by exhibiting their gradual increase by ones, and by
comparing their general magnitudes.
Plan.-I. Successively develop the distinct perception of the
value of numbers, beginning with one, and taking each number
separately in its order as far as ten, by the exhibition of the corresponding number of objects. Any convenient appliances,* such
as books, balls, pebbles, slate-pencils, or marbles, may serve as
illustrations.  It is well that these should be diversified, that the
child may the more clearly perceive that number is a property of
all separate objects-of objects of all qualities, shapes, sizes, and
colors alike.
As clear perception is thus successively gained of each of the
several numbers, the teacher should tell the name of the number.
The class must then be practised in associating the number with
its name.  In carrying out this    1. The teacher gives the name, the children bring forward the
corresponding number of objects.
2. The teacher shows the children a definite number of objects, requiring them to apply the name of the number to them.
3. Lastly, the children enumerate or count from one to the
number last attained, ascending; and inversely firom it to one,
descendilng, again and again, till perfect in the exercise.
II. The plan of teaching the powers and names of the num)ers when used as expressing order of time or of position, is given
in II., p. 147, of this Step.
I.-Exaniples of Lessons on this Plan.
To develop the perception of the number expressed by the
word ONE, and to communicate the name of the number.
* Were the common ball-frame alone depended on for illustration, the children might be led to associate their ideas of number with one species of exclusive objects, and their attainment of the abstract idea of number, as a universal
property of all objects, might be retarded. The true province of the ball-friame
is rather to assist in working out some of the simple processes of calculation,
when a notion of number in the abstract has been gained.
147 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
This first lesson is most important, as it involves that which is
the foundation of all number-the grand idea of One, or UNITY.
The teacher must not think the idea so simple as to need no illustration.
The child should be led to appreciate the notion of this number by the means already recommended.   One object may  be
taken from many of its kind, and held before the class, or it may
be placed in some unusual place, the teacher telling the children,
even though they may already know the fact, that such a number
of anything whatsoever is said to be one of it. The word should
be applied to diverse objects, the children being allowed to describe them.   How many do I hold?  One.   One of what?  One
marble.   And this?  One pencil.   And  this?  One book.   A
child may be told to bring one slate, or one ball, or to give one
shout, one clap, &c.;  and the attention of each child may  be
guided to observation onl itself as one separate individual, or to
those objects in nature which exist in oneness, as one sun, one
moon.
A Lesson to Develop the Perception of the lTumnber expressed by the
Thord  "Three," and to Contmmunicate the Yame of the unmber.
The following sketch of a lesson will show the plan to be pursued with all the numbers as far as ten.
Before commencing a lesson on a number which is new to the
children, the teacher should ascertain that they have clear ideas of
those on which they have already received instruction. In this
instance it is supposed that the number two has been the subject
of a lesson, and is thoroughly understood, and that the teacher
tests this by directing one of the children to bring two pencils, or
two books, &c., while the others look on observantly, and approve
or otherwise, as the case may demand. If the requirement be
rightly met, the class may simultaneously describe the objects as
they are presented, saying, "Two pencils," "Two slates," "Two
books," &c. Here also the objects should be diverse.
With this attainment made, the class may be led on to the
observation of the number TISREE.
148
l 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
1. The teacher shlould now add one pencil to the two pencils
one slate to the two slates, or one book to the two books, and, as
this is done, require the children to say, in each case, "Three pencils," " Three slates," "Three books," &c.  As an exercise, groups
of three of different objects may be placed before the class, and
one of the children desired to bring a similar number of the same
object, or of some other.  When observation has been well exercised by varied examples of this kind, the children may again be
told that such a number of any object whatever is called three of
it, and that the name of that number is TIHREE.
. The teacher should then try to discover how far the cluildren are able to connect the word three with the corresponding
number, by calling upon several of them in rotation to bring three
pencils, or three books, or three pills-to bring three of their companions to the teacher, to hold up three fingers, or to clap their
hands three times, &c.
3. The object of the next exercise is to ascertain whether the
children can promptly apply the proper name to the number, when
presented to them in different objects.  The teacher may hold up
three fingers, and ask how many are held up, and then take up
three pencils, and again ask how many there are, or make three
strokes upon the slate, and ask how many such a number of anything is said to be.
It may confirm ideas already gained as to the succession of
numbers, if the children are required to tell in regular succession
those they have acquired, while the succession is enacted, as it
were, by the teacher.  Several sets of objects should be at hand,
from each of which the teacher takes first one, then a second, then
a third; the children saying, as this is done, "One pencil," "Two
pencils,"  " Three  pencils;" " One  pin,"  "Two  pins,"''Three
pills," &C.
This should be followed by an exercise in ascending and descending enumeration, thus:    "Now, all together say with me, One, two, three;  and again,
Three, two, one.  And now say the same without me, for I shall
be silent."
In these exercises, -which will need frequent repetition, great
149 
N'UMBER.-FIRST STEP.
care must be taken not to perplex the children; the perception of
number should be permitted to grow upon them almost without
their being conscious of the attainment. It should be attained by
simple observation, rather than by a process of reasoning, although
it is true that at a further stage of the chlild's education it will be
found that all the higher calculations of arithmetical reasoning are,
in fact, based upon the knowledge for which it is the aim of these
initiatory lessons to prepare.
A right method of carrying out this early instruction in number is so important, that it is thought advisable to introduce in this
place the following notes of a lesson actually given by an experienced teacher to a class of very young children, on the development of the number four.  The lesson was given in the presence
of strangers, to whom the teacher gave the following introductory
explanation of the plan to be pursued: —
1. I shall exercise the children in the number three, to ascertain whether they have a correct idea of it.  For example, I will
call a child to bring me three pointers from among  many; then
three bottles, &c.  To give the idea of four, I will add one pointer
to the three pointers, one bottle to the three bottles, &c.
2. To ascertain whether they connect the right idea with the
name, I will ask them to bring me four pointers, four bottles, &c.
3. To see if they can apply the names themselves, I will hold
up four bottles, four pointers, &c., and require them to tell me
how many there are.
Lastly, I will make them go over together in succession, the
numbers they have learnt, that they may obtain a clear perception
of numeration;  as, "One bottle, two bottles," &c.; and after this
make them say, "One, two, three, four," several times.
THE LESSON.
Teacher. I should like a little child to bring me three bottles.
Let Charles bring them.
The child named brought two.
T, Is he right? Several. No.
150
,II
i 
NUMBER.- FIRST STEP.
T. lWho can do it?  Several. I can.
A little boy rose at the bidding of the teacher, and brought
another bottle to her, making up the number three.
T. Now  who  can bring me three shells? (pointing to sontc
-)laced at a little distance.)  Several. I can.
T. Let Emma bring them.
The little girl referred to brought the proper number.
T. Now who can bring me three pointers?   A  little gil. I
can.
The child rose, and brought the number of pointers required.
T. Has she broulgit the right number?  All. Yes.
T. Now some child bring me three stones.
A  little girl b)roughlt three stones.
The teacher, finding that the children had a correct idea of
three, placed before them the same objects in groups of four, and
called upon them to repeat after her, " Four pointers."
All. Four pointers.
The words were repeated three or four times.
T. Now say, "Four stones."  All. Four stones.
Tlhe same repetition took place as in the case of the bottles
and shells.
Tle  teacher's next point was to ascertain whether, when she
used the name FOUn, the children connected the right idea with
the name.
T. Wvho can bring me four pointers? A little girl. I can.
The child rose, and brought them to the teacher.
T. How many pointers are there here?  All. Four.
T  Then did Lizzy bring the right number?   Three or four
voices. Yes.
T. Now I should like to have four bottles.
A  little boy rose, and brought three to the teacher.
T. Is hlie right? Several voices. No.
T.  WhIo can make the number to. be four?   A little boy. I
caI1.
Ile then rose, and brought one bottle more.
T. Now, how many bottles are there?   Several voices. Four.
T'. lWho can b)ring mie four shells?   A little boy. I can.
151
L
iL,
i
11 
NiUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
He brought them to the teacher.
T  Is he right?   MIany voices. Yes.
The same thing was repeated ill the case of four stones:
"One stone, two stones, three stones, four stones;'" "One bottle,
two bottles, three bottles, four bottles," &c.
The teacher's third point was to find if the children could
themselves correctly apply the name. To do this, he called upon
them to pick up four shells, four stones, &c., which they did cor rectly. They then practised numeration up to the point they had
reached, to obtain an accurate perception of the increase of numbers, saying after the teacher:  "One stone, two stones, three
stones, four stones;" "One bottle, two bottles, three bottles, four
bottles;" "One, two, three, four."
T  Now,  Thomas  (addressing  one of the children), can you
bring me four children? four who are sitting up nicely.
The little boy spoken to, rose, selected three, and led them to
the teacher.
T. WVell, Thomas, have you brought four?   Thomas.  Yes.
T. (to all). Thomas  says he has brought four children; are
there four here? ADearly all. No.
T. Let us count them: one child, two children, three children. Let me have four, Thomas.
He brought another boy, who walked before the rest to take
his place by their side.
T. (to all). Should hlie have gone in front of the other children? Two or three voices. No.
T Certainly not; he should have come round behind them.
The child was then led round, and placed by the side of the
three children.
T. Now  say, "One child, two children, three children, four
children." This was done.
T  Now let three children go to their seats.   Now one child.
The children then went to their seats.
T. -Who can show me four fingers?
A little boy held up all the fingers and the thumb of both
hands.
T. (to all). Are there only four there? Several voices. No.
152
1i 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
T. See what a number of fingers! How many did I ask
for?  Several voices. Four.
The teacher then counted four on her own fingers.
T. Now, Emily, show me four.
The little girl addressed held up that number of fingers.
T. How many does she hold up? Four.
It is unnecessary to pursue these detailed lessons further. In
working, out the idea of the higher numbers, it is necessary siimply to adhere to the plan here recommended, adding one additional marble, pebble, or book, to the group last considered, recognized, and named, the teacher then calling on the class to formr
successive groups of objects, to the numbers of which the names
fot?,u five, six, seven, eight, nine, and ten are applicable; and then
requiring the children themselves to give the proper name, as
groups of objects containing such numbers are successively presented to them, concluding the lesson by ascending and descending enumeration.
It must be left to the discretion of the teacher where to put a
limit to lessons such as these.  "The degree of power in children,
and the time of development, are so various, that nothing but
careful observation can make the teacher aware what time or
labor each step will require, before it is thoroughly understood by
the pupil."  One child will be embarrassed when required to tell
the number of ten or twenty objects which lie before him, while
another will determine it at a glance. In one of these cases the
power of perception needs to be developed by a patiently conducted gradual process; in the other it will steadily acquire increased scope as larger numbers are presented to the chiild's observation. As a general rule, the number ten should be the limit of
these initiatory lessons on number for some considerable time.
II.-The Order of LVumbers.
The object of this lesson is to bring out the relation in which
numbers stand to each other when used as ordinals, and when the
perception has been awakened, to communicate the name applied
7*
153 
NT4UMBER.-FIRST STEP.
to each number when so used. It is manifest that, though closely
allied to the abstract value of a number, its power as an ordinal is
a relative quality.  The number three is always three, under all
possible circumstances; but an object is third, only when some
other is second; and that object again is second, because some
other separate object is first in order.  The idea of three is quite
lchlangeable, but the notion of third is mutable, as regards the
object whichl- for the time is qualified by the word; for the object
which is third may be made the second, or the first; and the
object which is first, may be made second, third, fiftieth, &c., infinitely.  These facts deserve a distinct lesson for their elucidatioin,
lest the mind should indulge an ill-defined perception of a welldefined truth.  When, also, each new property of numbers is thus
made the subject of concentrated attention, the mind gradually
gains power to think with vigor, to rely on its own attainments,
and to apply the knowledge gained with accuracy and precision.
If, however, the teacher should not consider the children sufficiently advanced for these lessons, the Exercises, No. III., page
149, may precede them; and even addition may be commenced
upon before they are given.
A  Lesson to Develop the Idea of the Order of Succession in TArum.
hers, as First, Second, Third, &c., to Tenth.
In giving this lesson, as is suggested in "First Ideas on Number," a small ladder containing but ten "rounds" may be used for
illustration. This, being a new object, will arrest attention. It is
also an extremely appropriate object for such a purpose.
The children should first count the rounds or steps; they
should then be led to observe their order.   If a b)oy wished  to
mount this ladder, what would he first do? He would put his
foot on the step. On which? Would you say on the one step?
No, teacher; on the first step. And then on the two step? No;
on the second. And so on, to the tenth. When would you say,
"One step, two steps, three steps," &c.?   When simply counting
how many there are.  And  when would you say, "First step,
second  step," &c.?   When  using the steps in going  up or
154
1l 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
down, or when thinking of them as coming before or after each
other.
If these ordinal names are already known to the children, as
some of them will probably be, the teacher will merely have to
superintend the correct application of them. If, however, they
are not known, as may be the case with very young children, one
child may be called out and placed in front of the class, ready,
when directed by the teacher, to place his hand on each round,
beginning with the lowest, as he supposes himself climbing to the
top. As each round is touched, the teacher may give its ordinal
name of first, second, third, fourth, &c., to tenth, tile whole class
pronouncing it after her.  After several repetitions of this ascending process, the descending enumeration may begin, and be followed out in the same way.   The teacher may  then vary the
exercise by enumerating from first to tenth, and from tenth to
first, immediately. After this the teacher should require the children to give the ordinal name of each step when pointed out by
another.
The attainments of the children may be tested, by their being
required to lay the hand upon any round named by another, and
again to give the name of any round on which the teacher places
the hand.  They may be asked to say what is the name of that
step which is above the second, and of that below it; and then to
give the name of each alternate step, beginning with the first, so
as to elicit the series-first, third, fifth, seventh, ninth; and then
starting firom the second, so as to produce the series-second,
fourth, sixth, eigqhth, tenth.  This may be done also in descending
order, beginning consecutively with tenth, and ninth.
In applying the ordinals to other groups of objects, an attractive illustration might be afforded by placing a class of ten
children in front of the gallery, in which the relative position of
each individual might be ascertained and described.  Small ol) jects, which may be easily moved from place to place, and put in
a variety of relative positions, are most useful in lessons such as
these. The number of the objects presented should be first deter mined, and then their relative position.  One of them may then
be moved into a new place. The effect upon the whole series, as
155 
NAIMBER.-FIRST STEP.
well as upon the single object moved, will attract attention, and
deepen impressions already made.
A few original miscellaneous questions may inow be asked, as
tests of acquirement.
What is the first meal of every day?   What the second?
What the third?
In what place does this child stand in this class? &c.
III.-EXERIaSES.
This First Step may conclude with the following series of exercises, which are valuable as affording practice on the numbers
which the children have learnt to distinguish and to express by
name.
The Gradiual Increase of NVutmnbers from  One to Ten.
To lead the children to form an accurate idea of the increase
of numbers, the teacher should draw lines on the slate in the following order, and afterward call on the children to name the numbers as they are successively pointed to, and to say how two is
formed by adding one to one, three by adding one to two, &c.:
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
i
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
!ilIl
The teacher may then point to any number, asking the chil.
dren to name it, and then to tell what is the number next above
it, and what the next below it.
Again, a number may be mentioned, and the children required
to say what numbers are next to it, above and below.
156
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
i
I 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
The children, may then be called on to state, first by means of
strokes, and then in words, what number is between any two numbers named; as, what numbers there are between seven and nine
four and six; eight and ten, &c.
Lastly, the teacher should lead the children to see that sumbers naturally increase by unity, and that each number above unity
is greater by one than that preceding it. This will prepare the
way for the process of addition: thus, one and one are two, two
and one are three, three and one are four, four and one are five,
&c., to ten. Again: two is one and one, three is two and one,
four is three and one, &c., to ten; or, two is one more than one,
three is one more than two, four is one more than three, &c.; or,
in inverse order, ten are nine more one, nine are eight more
one, eight are seven more one, seven are six more one, &c., to two.
Comparison of Numbers with each other as to their General
Magnitude.
EXERCISES.-It is not here intended to measure the actual
amount of difference between numbers, but only to compare them
with each other as to their general magnitude.
In three and four, which is the greater?
And in two and six; in three and five; in four and eight; in
eight and nine? &c.-which is in each case the greater number?
Tell me a number which is more than three.
Now name a number that is more than six; another greater
than eight, &c.
Tell me a number that is less than eight.
Another that is less than six, five, and three, respectively.
Tell me all the numbers you know that are less than five, four,
six, eight, one, &c.
Now tell me all the numbers you know that are more than
-five, four, six, eight, one, &c.
Four, two, six-which is the least of the numbers I have
named?   WVhich is the largest?  Then two is the smallest, or
least of thie three, and six is the largest of the three. Now what
can I say about the four?  That it is larger than the least of the
157 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
three, and smaller than the largest of the three; fQr these reasons
it is called the mean, or middle number.
Tell me a mean number between three and five; between four
and eight, five and seven, two and eight, eight and ten, seven and
nine, &c., respectively.
ILLUSTRATIONS.-I had eight apples, and my  brother six;
which of us had the greater number?
That child is five years old, and the one next him is seven;
which is the elder?
If one child sleep eight hours, and another ten hours, which
of them sleeps the longer?
It is four miles from Oswego to Scriba, and ten miles from
Oswego to New Haven; which of these two places is the greater
distance from Oswego?
The teacher should ask a variety of questions such as these.
They may be invented as they are needed.
Addition and Subtraction.
Object.-To teach the addition and subtraction of numbers
under ten.
Plan.-This is exemplified in detail in the exercises which
follow.
It is clear that the simple enumeration of a series of numbers
gradually increasing by one, call the process by what name we
please, is in fact an exercise in the addition of ONE, and that the
simple enumeration of a similar series in descending order, is in
fact the subtraction of ONE. Hitherto, however, the gradual increase or decrease of numbers has been presented as a matter of
sensible perception, rather than as an appeal to the reasoning
faculty of the mind. While, however, it is almost impossible, and
perhaps equally undesirable, to separate these two processes, it is
important that the child should now be taught to use those numbers of which he has gained a clear perception, in a manner more
allied to an act of reasoning. Neither will it do for him to enumerate by ones all his life; he must learn to bound over the
minute intervals which separate one number from another, and
158 
NUrIBER.-FIRST STEP.
still to be sure of his ground. He must learn to be as ready in
enumerating, ascending and descending, by nine, as he is in enu
merating by one.  This facility is to be attained by a graduated
series of exercises, with the aid of objects, which shall make each
step sure before a further step is ventured upon.
ADDITION.
1. The Acildition of the Number One.
The children are supposed to have become familiar with the
increase of numbers from one to ten, as carried out practically by
the exhibition of objects. Lines should now be drawn on the
slate in the order indicated by the following table, the children
observing and describing each line as it is constructed:
I and I are?
I I and I are?
III and I are?
I I I I and I are?
to
I I I I I I I I I and  I are?
The teacher, drawing two lines, says: "One line and one
line are?"   The  children take up  her words,  and complete
the sentence: "One line and one line are two lines."  Again:
"Two  and one are?"   "Three;"  and so on, to "Nine  and
one are ten." Their answers may be written in strokes as they
are given, each opposite its component numbers.
The teacher should now exercise the children in the addition
of the number one to other numbers without the use of objects or
strokes; bringing these forward, however, when necessary to prove
the correctness of calculations, or to detect errors.
The subject may now be illustrated by some miscellaneous
questions, such as the mind of an apt teacher will at once be able
to propose. A few examples are given:
James has one orange. If I give himn one more, how many
will he then have?
Jane has eight walnuts. If her father give her one more, how
many will she have?
159 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
A boy had two rabbits given to him. His father bought him
one more; how many had he?
A baby had nine teeth. One day, another came; how many
teeth had the baby in all?
2. The Addition of Two.
The mind of the child, having acquired the power of adding
ONE once, will now be prepared to add it twice; for into this the
addition of two resolves itself.
The teacher should arrange objects, or draw lines on the slats
in the following order:
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
l      II
II
I I
II
II
The children being required to repeat together, first with the
use of the lines, and then without:
"One line and two lines are three lines;
Two lines and two lines are four lines;
Three lines and two lines are five lines;"
to
"Eight lines and two lines are ten lines."
The teacher should then question the children individually
upon the lesson, without any reference to order of numbers,
avoiding any result exceeding the number ten.
Here, also, a few practical questions should be put to the class,
as in the addition of one:
Three boys were going to school. Two others joined them;
how many boys were there then?
Two little girls went to buy bread. One of them carried home
four loaves, the other two loaves; how many loaves had they in
all?
160
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I I I 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
In a working-man's cottage there are three rooms on the
ground floor, and two rooms up stairs; how many rooms does the
cottage contain?
The apt teacher will invent many other simple illustrative
questions of this kind, until the class has had sufficient practice.
3. Addition of Three.
This is to be taught on the same plan.
The teacher arranges objects, or draws lines on the blackboard,
in the following order:
l  III
ii      III
I II   I I
liil           III  
11 l l             I I  
I1111              III
I111                II IIIIII
The children then say together, as each line is pointed to.
"One line and three lines are four lines;
Two lines and three lines are five lines;
Three lines and three lines are six lines;"
end so on, to ten lines.
The children should then, as before, recapitulate the lesson,
without reference to tIe objects or lines on the board. In doing
this, the word lines, &c., may be omitted, saying only, "One and
three are four; two and three are five; three and three are six,"
&c.; only do not suggest the answer to the children, nor lead on
too rapidly.
After this repetition, as in every other lesson of this kind,
the teacher should energetically question the children individually
upon it, introducing also questions bearing upon the instruction
given in preceding lessons on the same subject. The necessity of
this cannot be too strongly impressed upon the minds of teachers
A few practical illustrations are given by way of example:
A boy has two cents.  His uncle gives him three cents; how
much has he then?
There are five apples in a basket; how many will there be, if
I put in three apples more?
161 
.GN UMBER.-'IltSIT  STEP.
I gave a boy six cents yesterday, and I have given him three
cents to-day; how many cents have I given him in all?
A boy, fond of playing at marbles, has a hole in the pocket in
which he keeps them. He lost seven marbles last night, and three
this morning; how many has he lost?
4. Addition of Four, Five, Six, Seven, Eight, and Nine.
These operations need no further illustration; the plan adopted
is the same as with the previous numbers. The teacher must carefully avoid advancing too rapidly, and must not be weary under
the frequent repetition of previous instruction. It must be constantly borne in mind, that as the children are supposed to know
little or nothing, as yet, of any number more than ten, all operations are to be so adapted as to involve no higher number.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE FOREGOING EXERCISES.
The scope afforded by the preceding lessons is so narrow, that
it is found difficult in actual practice to extend the instruction upon
them to that point which nevertheless must be reached, if they are
to be fully comprehended and indelibly fixed on the mind.
The following exercises have been devised in order to meet
this difficulty. They will be found useful, as presenting the numbers to the observation of the children in new aspects, and as exercising their faculties upon them in a manner less formal and methodical than the lessons already given, whilst at the same time
the operation of addition is adhered to.
1. To FIND WHAT NUMBER MUSS  BE ADDED TO A GIVEN NUMBER IN ORDER TO PRODUCE A THIRD NUMBER.
In some of the above lessons on this Step, two numbers have
been given, and the children required to find a third number which
should be the sum of both.
In the following exercise two numbers are given, the one being
always larger than the other, and the children are required to find
what number must be added to the smaller number to make it
equal to the larger number.
The use of objects or lines must be continued. Suppose the
162 
NIUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
given numbers to be two and three, the teacher arranges objects
or strokes thus:
II  I i
and asks, "How  many strokes must I add to the first of these
groups, ill order to make it equal to the second of them?" The
teacher may proceed:  "What  must I add to two lines, in order
to make three lines? " or, " What must I add to two, if I wish
to make it three?"
This method must be pursued with all the numbers up to ten,
those numbers being commenced with which present the difference
of one. After this, those exhibiting a difference of two; this progression being maintained till ten is reached. As the lessons proceed, the objects or lines may to some extent be laid aside, and
referred to chiefly for correction of error, or for proof of accuracy.
EXAAMIPLES.
To find what must be added to a number to produce another
number larger than the first by one:
To FIVE to produce six?
SIX       "    SEVEN?
c SEVEN    a    EIGHT?
THREE    "    FOUR? &C.
To find what must be added to a number to produce another
number larger than the first by two:
To TWO to make it FOUR?
FOUR     I    SIX?
FIVE     4   SEVEN?
EIGHT    4   TEN? &C.
To produce another number larger than the first by three:
To THREE to form SIX?
" FOUR   4"  SEVEN?
FIVE   "(  EIGHT?
" SEVEN   a   TEN? &c.
163
I I 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
Larger than the first by four:
To TWO to
" FOUR
a FIVE
" SIX
form six?
"   EIGHT?
i "   NINE?
"   TEN? &c.
2. THE PRODUCING A NEW NUMBER BY COMBINING TWO
OTHER NUMBERS.
EXAMPLES.
To produce the number FOUR in? every possible mode:
In the first place, the teacher questions the children in such a
manner as to lead them to dispose objects, or to draw lines on the
board, according to the following arrangement:
Il      l    l
III              I
II             iI
I           II I
The class, with their attention closely directed to this arrangement, is then to be required to repeat aloud:
"Four lines are formed by
"Three lines and one line.
Two lines and two lines.
One line and three lines."
The children should then be required to describe from memory
the various modes of producing the number four, after which they
may be called upon singly to come forward and construct the
number four in every practicable manner, with objects or by lines.
To produce FIVE in the same manner:
Here also the children should first be led to the construction
of the lesson with something they can handle, or examine by the
eye.  In the present case the arrangement will be this:
I
I  I
I  I-I
I II I
I       I
I
164: 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
To be read as before.   Suppose the construction to be of
books:
"Five books are formed by
"Four books and one book.
Three books and two books.
Two books and three books.
One book and four books."
This to be followed by the repetition from memory:  "Four
and one are five; three and two are five; two and three are five;
one and four are five."
To produce the number SIX on the same plan:
"One and five are six.
Two and four are six.
Three and three are six.
Four and two are six.
Five and one are six."
To produce the number SEVEN:
"Six and one are seven.
Five and two are seven.
Four and three are seven.
Three and four are seven.
Two and five are seven.
One and six are seven."
These lessons should be extended to the number ten, each
of them to be followed by a variety of illustrative examples for
practice; such, for example, as the following:
I buy a book for eight cents. If I cannot pay for it in one
payment, in how many ways can I pay for it in two payments?
A boy has to visit his aunt, who lives at a town nine miles
from his home. His mother tells him he may rest for an hour
once on the way. If he rest at the fourth milestone, how many
165 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
miles will he have to walk when he sets off again? How many
if hlie rest at the fifth? At the sixth? At the seventh?
3. THE SIMPLE ADDITION OF THREE OR FOUR NUMBERS, OR
MORE.
The use of objects or lines should at first be adhered to in this
exercise also, and the children should repeat aloud the given numbers, as well as each successive step of the process.  Thus, supposing, the numbers given to be two, three, and four, they should
say:
"Two and three more are five; five and three more are
eight;" or, " Three and three are six; six and four are ten."
When the class has had some practice in this kind of addition,
the teacher may slowly pronounce the given numbers, and the
class be required to give the final sum only, the intermediate results being omitted.
The addition of other numbers is to be carried out on the same
plan. The exercises on this head will of necessity be limited, as
no result exceeding ten should be attempted; but they may be
varied, and many examples given of the same nature as those
before introduced.
4. THE PRODUCING A FIXED NUMBER BY COMBINING THREE
OTHER NUMBERS.
These exercises are to be illustrated in the same manner as
those on the combination of two numbers. Where objects are
used, the teacher may put them together as the children audibly
perform the addition. Two examples of this exercise may suffice.
To produce the number SEVEN by every possible combination of
three numbers:
The arrangement of lines or of objects will be this:
I I  11111    II
I  I I  I I  1111 I
I  II      LIII
II IIIII  I    III
166
I
I
I
I I
I
I I
I I I
I I
I I I I I
I I I I
I I I
I I I 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
To p)roduce the number TEN:
two  and
three        "
four   "
three  "
three  "
four   "t
two   "t
When the lines have been gone over in this order, it may
be useful, without changing the position of the strokes on the
board, to calculate each line backward, reading the top line of the
second table, for instance, thus: "Seven and two and one are
ten," &c.
The producing a number by the combination of four numbers,
will suggest itself to the teacher, as a simple extension of the
method recommended above.
Each separate exercise should be illustrated by examples having an application to visible objects and the events of every-day
life.
SUBTRACTION.
The children, having acquired facility in increasing numbers,
by combining them in the process of addition, must now be led on
to the equally important operation of separating them in the process of subtraction.  The use of objects must still be continued.
The lessons in addition having been entered into at so much
length, that which follows will be given  more  briefly.   The
teacher must not, however, suppose that the same patient repetitions, the same varied examples, are not necessary. Very young
children cannot be well taught in any other way.
16,7
One al-id
One "
One "
Two 11
Three"
Four "
Six it
seven
six
five
five
four
two
two
are
4 i
, I
I i
4 9
I 4
I I
ten.
ten.
ten.
ten.
ten.
ten.
ten.
I 
NUM13BE.-FIRST STEP.
1. To TAKE ONE GIVEN NUMBER FROM ANOTHER.
The Subtraction of the Nunmber One:
I
I
I
I
I
I
i
i
I
i
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
i
I  
I I
Objects are to be arranged, or strokes to be made on the board,
in the order indicated by the column on the left. The teacher
should then remove one object to a little distance, or rub out one
stroke from each line of strokes successively, the children repeating
aloud, as this is done, "Two less one is one; three less one are
two," &c., through the whole series of subtractions, and leaving
the objects as represented in the right column; or, if lines are
used, leaving the column on the right everywhere diminished by
one.
It is important, as an exercise, that the operations of addition
should be constantly returned to, and it is found in practice desirable to combine them with those of subtraction, as helping to a
clearer comprehension of both processes.  To effect this, after the
above lesson on subtraction has been given, it may be recapitulated, or a second lesson may be given, with the additional exercise of recombining the numbers which have been separated by
subtraction; thus:
Two less one is one.
Three less one are two.
Four less one are three.
Three less one are two.         Toadoeaetre
One and one are two.
Two and one are three.
Three and one are four,
to
Ten less one are nine.
After this lesson the children should be separately questioned
on it, and exercised in its application to objects of daily use.
168
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I I I
Nine and one are ten. 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
The subtraction of TWO should now be taught by objects or
strokes, as in the case of the subtraction of one, and, after that,
the subtraction and addition of two in one operation, thus:
Ten less two are eight.
Nine less two are seven.
Eight less two are six.
to
Three less two are one.
The subtraction of THREE, followed by the addition and sub.
traction of three in one operation:
Ten less three are seven.         Seven and three are ten.
Nine less three are six.          Six and three are nine,
to
Four less three are one.
Every successive number must be treated in the same manner
till the number nine is reached, each lesson being frequently repeated, and each being illustrated by questions involving the practical application of the number under consideration.
2. SUBTRACTION AND RECOMBINATION OF SEVERAL NUMBERS
IN SUCCESSION.
To subtract in succession the numbers one, two, three, and
four, from the number five, recombining each by addition:
Five less one are four.        Four and one are five.
Five less two are three.       Three and two are five, &c.
To subtract the numbers one to five from six:
Six less one are five.           Five and one are six.
Six less two are four.           Four and two are six, &c.
The intermediate numbers to be similarly treated, as far as the
subtraction of the numbers one to nine from ten:
Ten less one are nine.            Nine and one are ten.
Ten less two are eight.           Eight and two are ten,
to
Ten less nine are one.
S
169
Eight and two are ten.
Seven and two are nine.
Six and two are eight,
One and two are three.
One and three are four.
One and nine are ten.
I 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
This exercise should be followed by a series of iniscellancous
questions.
3. To FIND WHAT NUMBER MUST BE TAKEN FROM A GIVEN
NUMBER IN ORDER TO REDUCE IT TO ANOTHER GIVEN NUMBER.
It will be seen that this lesson is the inversion of one of the
exercises in addition.  The teacher should draw two groups of
lines on the slate, or arrange two sets of objects in unequal number, and require the children to decide how many must be taken
from the larger number to make it equal the smaller number.  The
subtraction should also be practically carried out, that the result
may be seen to be accurate. Begin with numbers having the difference ONE, increasing the difference progressively.
EXAMPLES.
What number must be taken from the number ten, to make it
nine? eight? seven?-to one, successively.
What number must be taken from the number nine, to reduce
it to seven? five? &c.
What from eight, to reduce it to five? three? two? &c.
The teacher must be careful that a sufficient number of examples are given and well understood before proceeding to a new
lesson.
4. THE COMNIPARING TWO NUMBERS IN ORDER TO FIND THEIR
DIFFERENCE.
This idea may be developed by simple questions. A few examples are given:
You have four apples, your brother has five apples; which of
you has the more apples?
But if you have five marbles, and your brother four marbles,
how- many more have you than he?
If you have six peachles, and he four peaches, how many more
peaches have you than he?
Qbjects may then be arranged on the table, or lines drawn on
170 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
the slate in two groups, one containing five, the other four. The
class may repeat, "Five is one more than four; four is one less
than five." One by one the number may be diminished, the class
in each instance explaining the result; thus:
Comparison of five with all numbers below it:
Five is two more than three.
Three is two less than five.
Five is three more than two.
Two is three less than five, &c.
Comparison of seven with all numbers below it:
Seven is one more than six.
Six is one less than seven.
Seven is two more than five.
Five is two less than seven.
Seven is three more than four.
Four is three less than seven.
The word "difference" may be used as these exercises become
familiar:-" The difference between seven and six is one; the difference between seven and five is two," &c.
5. THE SUBTRACTION OF A GIVEN NUMBER FROM THEl UNE.XPRESSED SUM OF TWO OTHER GIVEN NUMBERS.
Take six from the sum of five and five.
nine         "        three and seven.
"  three        "        six and six.
"   five        "        eight and two.
"   eight       "        six and four.
six          "        four and four.
"   four        "        seven and three, &c.
These examples may be varied to a great extent, at the discretion of the teacher. They should be followed by a series of well
adapted miscellaneous practical questions.
171 
NIIUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
6. THE SUBTRACTION OF A GIVEN NUMBER FROM TIlE UNEX
PRESSED SUM OF THREE OTHER GIVEN NUMBERS.
Take six from the sum of three, three, and three.
"   five         "          three, four, and three.
"   four         "          seven, two, and one.
"   seven        "          six, two, and three, &c.
7. THE SUBTRACTION OF THE SUM OF TWO LOW NUMBERS
FROM THE SUM OF TWO NUMBERS OF HIGHER VALUE.
From the sum of six and four take that of five and three.
'        six and three       "     four and two.
" 4      five and five      "       four and four, &c.
8. THE SUBTRACTION OF THE SUM OF THREE LOW NUMBERS
FROM THE SUM OF TWO NUMBERS OF HIGHER VALUE.
From four and five take two, two, and two.
six and three  "  three, two, and one.
"   four and four  "  two, three, and two.
"   three and five "  one, four, and two, &c.
9. PROMISCUOUS ADDITIONS AND SUBTRACTIONS.
Add seven to two, and take away five.
"  six to three,         "         four, &c.
From the sum of seven and two take away six.
"       five and three     "    four, &c.
At first, these exercises should, as far as possible, be carried
out with the use of objects or lines, and the teacher should be
careful not to discontinue the use of these too soon. A variety of
miscellaneous questions, bearing upon all the lessons hitherto given
under the heads of addition and subtraction, should be introduced
before the next Step is commenced upon.
172 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
MULTIPLECATION AND DIVISION.-ONE TO TEN.
-~ultIiplcation.
Object.-To lead the children to the comprehension of the
operation of -multiplying numbers into each other, to prove ty
them that this is but a simplification and abbreviation of the process of addition which they have already acquired, and to make
them familiar with the arrangement of numbers called the Multiplication Table.
Plan.-Illustrate the subject by means of objects or lines, as
indicated in the following outline:
In the process of addition the children have learnt to find a
new number, which is the slim of two, three, or four numbers,
which may be of differing value. They are now to be taught to
find the result of taking one and the same number a given number of times. Make one stroke on the large slate, and ask, What
have I done?  You have made one stroke.   How  many times
have I made it?  You have made one stroke once.   What number do I get when I make one stroke once?   You get one.  If I
put my hand into a basket once, and take out one apple, how
many apples do I get?  You get one.   How much is one taken
one time? It is one.
Make one stroke more on the slate beside the other. What
have I done?  You have put one stroke to one stroke, and now
there are two strokes. Yes; one and one are?-Two. How
many times have I made one stroke? Two times. Then two
times one are?-Two. Pursue this exercise till one has been
taken ten times; in each case, as one is added, first calling out ob servation on the process, as being one of addition, and then as
being one of multiplication.
Place two cubes of wood on the table. How many cubes are
there here? There are two. How many times have I now put
two cubes on the table?  Once.  How many are two taken one
time?   Once two are two.   Add two cubes to these.   WVi.at
have I done?   You have added two cubes to the two whichi wee
there before. How many cubes are there on the table now?
173 
NUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
There are four.  Yes; two and two are?-Four.  How many
times have I put two on the table? You have done so twice.
How many are two taken twice? Twice two are four. Let two
more cubes be added. What have I done? You have put two
more cubes on the table. How many were there before I added
them?  There were two and two-four.   How  many are there
now? There are two and two and two-six. HIow many times
have I put two cubes on the table? Three times. Then two
taken three times are?-Six.  Repeat:  Three times two are?
Six. This lesson on the multiplication of two should be carried
to "Five times two are ten."
Let the same plan be carried out with the number three, as far
as "Three times three are nine;" with the number four, as far as
"Two times four are eight;" and with five, as far as "Two times
five are ten."  These lessons should not be carried beyond tbhis
point as yet, because the children are not supposed to be familial:
with numbers more than ten, the hiigher numbers being gradually
introduced. Little is gained by pressing forward quick children
to the higher numbers; it is far safer to proceed gradually and
systematically.
It will be seen, that although the range of these exercises is
necessarily limited, they are important, as awakening perception
of a new mode of using numbers. When the children have gone
through them, they should recapitulate the facts, thus:
Once two is two.
Twice two are four.
Three times two are six.
Four times two are eight.
Five times two are ten.
Once four is four.
Twice four are eight.
Once three  is three.
Twice three are six.
Three times three are nine.
Miscellaneous practical examples should follow each exercise.
DIVISION.-ONE TO TEN.
Object.-To lead the children to the comprehension of the
174
Once five is five.
Twice five are ten. 
NIUMBER.-FIRST STEP.
operation of dividing one number by another, and to teach them
to divide other numbers by one, two, three, four, &c.
Plan.-This is illustrated in the following exercises:
1. Make two lines on the slate, and say, Rub out two lines
from the slate. How many times can you take away two from
two?  Once.   How many times is two contained in two?   One
time.
Make four lines on the slate, and say, Rub out two lines.
hVliat remain?  Two lines remain.  Rub them out.   What remain now?  There are none left.  How many lines were there
at first? There were four. How often can you take away two
from  four?   Tw-ie.   How  often is two  contained  in four?
Twice.
Now I make six, eight, ten lines on the slate.  Try how often
you can take away two from each of these numbers.
Now I place three cubes on the table.  How often can you
take three cub" away from them? Once only. But if I put
three cubes on, the table, twice over, how many will there be?
There will be two times three, or six cubes. How many times
can I take three away from six? You can take three cubes away
twice.  How often are three contained in six?  Two times.
Now I make three, six, and nine strokes on the slate. Tell
me how of,en each of these numbers contains the number three,
and how often you can take three away from each of them.
2. The Division by Twvo of lNumbers under Ten.
The teacher may construct the following table upon the school
slate, in order to illustrate the subject.  It will be seen that it incllides to some extent the exercises on multiplication, as assisting
to'he comprehension of the process of division.
How much is twice 1? 2.          How many ones in 2?  2.
How much is twice 2?  4.         How many twos in 4? 2.
Ilow much is twice 3?  6.        How many twos in 6?  3.
Hfow much is twice 4?  8.         How many twos in 8?  4.
The questions should then be put in another form; as, How
often is two contained in two? in four? in six? in eight?  How
much is two, four, six, and eight, divided by two?
175 
-NUM3IBER.-SECOND STEP.
A few miscellaneous questions might be introduced, even at
this early stage of the subject, to make the nature of the operation
clear.
If I measure four yards of cloth by a yard measure, how many
times shall 1 have to apply it to the cloth?
If I measure four yards of cloth by a measure two yards long,
how often will the length of the measure be contained in the
length of the cloth? 
Into how many sets of two can I divide eight marbles?
To how many boys can I give four pens, if I give one pen to
each of them? 
To how many, if I give two pens to each of them?
A farmer and his son are going to market; they wish to take
four baskets of apples with them; how many baskets must each
of them carry?
At the market they buy eight new spades; how many must
each of them carry?
SEOOND STEP.
NOTATION.
Hitherto the several numbers have been represented to the eye
solely by objects or strokes; the expression of the higher numbers
by these means will already have become inconvenient.   The
pupil must now be introduced to the more simple and practical
method afforded by the Arabic* numerals.
Object.-1.  To make evident the need of some brief and
ready method of expressing the value of numbers in writing; to
teach the form and power ot the ten numeric signs, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 0.
2. To make the children familiar with the meaning of the
words more and less,t and with the algebraic signs + and -, as
* They are, in fact, Indian in their origin, though we have received them
through the Arabians.
t If the children are advanced, they may be also taught that the Latin words
plus, for more, and minus, for less, are often used, particularly in books of
Arithmetic.
176 
NUMBER.-SECOND STEP.
respectively expressive of the operations of addition and subtrac.
tion; and also with the sign -- as expressive of equality or result.
Plan.-This, as it regards carrying out the first object, will be
gathered from the following suggestions to the teacher:
1. In order to illustrate the need for the use of figures in expressing to the eye the value of numbers, let the childreni suppose
a case in which it is required to state some high number in writing; as, for instance, the age of an old man.  They will at once
see that the doing this by means of strokes would occupy so much
time and space as to be most inconvenient, and that to avoid this
must be most desirable.  Various illustrations will suggest them
selves.
When the perception of the want has been awakened, the
teacher may communicate the numeric value of the several numeral characters by means of groups of strokes, each group having
written over it the figure which has been adopted as its unvarying
symbol; thus:
3               4
I  IIi        111
This should be carried as far as the number nine.
When these groups of strokes and their representative figures
have been thoroughly scrutinized, the children should be led on to
apply them for themselves.   The teacher may write any one of
the figures on the slate, and require a child to place against it the
number of strokes or units it represents, while the other children
of the class determine whether this is correctly done. To vary
the exercise, the teacher may make any definite number of strokes,
not exceeding nine, upon the slate, and require the children to apply
the right numeric sign; or, for variety, the teacher may present a
definite number of objects, requiring the children to express the
number, both by the utterance of the name of the number, and by
the formation of the corresponding figure on the slate.   They
ought to acquire familiarity with the nine numerals in two lessons.?
* It would be a useful lesson for the children themselves to make the figures
indicating opposite to each of them, by the proper number of strokes, the num
ber of units it expresses.
8*
177
1
1
2
1 1 
NUMBER.-SECOND STEP.
2. The children, having acquired the knowledge of nine figures
by which the nine lowest numbers are briefly expressed for convenience of calculation, may now be led to see that the word two
and the sign 2, the word three and the sign 3, &c., have an unchangeable, or absolute value, which may be used to qualify any
objects whatever; so that we may say, two elephants or three
elephants, two flies or three flies, two ones or three ones; the
number being always the same number,  however different  the
objects to which it is applied.
3. The teacher may now introduce the words more and less,
and the algebraic signs of addition, subtraction, and equality or
result. First, let the teacher write a column of numbers to be
added, on the school slate.  This may be done in different modes:
1  more  1 are 2
2 more  1 are 3
3 more  1 are 4
&c.
Then let the teacher write on the slate the same numbers as be.
fore, connecting them by the signs of addition and equality, as in
the margin; or the words may be erased, and the
signs substituted.   The sign +  should not be made   1 +  1  2
in a careless manner, and attention should be called   2 +  1 =  3
to the fact that the one line is exactly vertical, the  3 + 1 =  4
other exactly horizontal, in order that this sign   4 +  1 =  5
may be the better distinguished when that which
indicates multiplication is hereafter presented.
The process is the same with the sign of subtraction, columns
of some length being first constructed, with tile use of words,
afterward exhibiting the superior simplicity and utility of the
signs:
2 less 1  is  1
3 less 1 are 2
4 less 1 are 3
5 less I are 4
178
1 aiid I are 2
2 and I are 3
3 and I are 4
&C.
2 - I = 1
3 - 1 -- 2
4 - I -- 3
5 - I = 4 
NUMBER.-SECOND STEP.
TIIE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NUMBERS ELEVEN TO ONE HUNDRED,
AND THIE EXTENSION OF NOTATION.
Object.-This Step is but an extension to higher numbers of
the principles already laid down, and the extension of the power
of numeric notation to the expression of such numbers.
To explain the nature of the local value of figures, as distinguished from their absolute value.
Plan.-I. Develop the perception of the numbers eleven to
one hundred, on the plan proposed in the development of the
numbers one to nine, tangible or visible objects being still used
with the lower numbers. The number ten should be much employed as a means of classification, and as a help both to the eye
and to the mind in the comprehension of the higher numbers.
Teach the children to enumerate simply by combinations of
tens and units before using the common contractions; for example, saying after 10, one ten and one, one ten and two, &c., up to
one ten and nine; then two tens and one, two tens and two, &c.,
up to nine tens and nine; thus learning the meaning of the terms
fourteen, twenty-one, and being enabled to see more clearly the plan
of numbering by ten, and that the highest number is merely a
repetition of ten units.
II. Communicate the names of each of these numbers, and
test the children's attainments as already recommended and illus trated, concluding with simple ascending and descending enu meration.
III. Illustrate the powers and names of these numbers when
used as ordinals.
IV. When a clear perception of such numbers has been at tained, the children may be introduced to the effort of expressing
them in numerals. To do this, they must be led to see the neces sity for changing the numerals in the second, or tens' place of
figures from 1 and 2, as hitherto used in the numbers 11, 12, and
in 21, 22, &c.; to 3, in 31, 32, 33, &c.; to 4, in 41, 42, 43, &c.,
up to 99.
This subject is important, not at this stage of instruction only,
but throughout the whole range of number. It introduces the
mind to the perception of a new feature in numerical notation
179 
N UMBER. —SECOND STEP.
that of the local valute of the ten figures (inclusive of 0, which
indicates the ablsence of number);  for it is to these fiyures or
signs alone, and not to the names of numbers, that this property
of local value belongs.
In the first place, lead the children to feel the need of some
brief mode of expressing the value of numbers more than 9.
To do this, the teacher may once more form groups of strokes
on the slate, from one to ten, requiring a child to place over each
stroke or group of strokes its representative-numeral.  This will
be easy as far as 9.  When the child has reached the group con taining ten strokes, and is at a loss for a numeral by which to ex press it, the teacher may communicate the fact that only nine
numeral characters (exclusive of 0) ]lave been invented for the
written expression of all numbers, how large soever they may be.
Hiaving reached this point, the mind of the children should be
led to think out this fact of local value.   With a view to this, the
teacher may draw two columns on the school slate,
and write at the top of each of them the name of   ME. BOYS.
some familiar object, as in the margin; telling the
children to call the column on the right the first
column,* that on the left the second. Any numeral,
say 4, may then be written in the first column.
What does it mean?  It means four of boys.   What would it
mean if written in the second column?  It would then mean four
of nmen.  Write 3 in the first column, 8 in the second.  How will
you read these figures?   -Eight of  men  and three of boys.
Transpose them, and how will you read them now?   Three of
een and eight of boys.  Diversify both names and numbers for
further exercise.
Again, draw two columns on the slate, and at the top of the
first column, write "ones," at the top of the second,
"tens," as in the margin.  Place the numeral 1 in   TENS. I ONES.
the first column.  VWhat does it mean?  It means
one one, or one unit.   Remove  it to the next
column.  AVWhat does it mean now?  Now it means
one ten.  Write the same numeral in both columnus.
* This order is important as a right beginning, the "place of figures" being
always enumerated from right to left.
iso 
NUMBER.-SECOND STEP
What is it now?  Now it is one ten and one one.  Have you
learnt any name for one ten and one one, or for ten more one?
Yes; tell more one is called "Eleven." The teacher may then
successively change the figure in the first column to two. What
is it now?   One ten and two.  Its name?   Twelve.   To three.
What is it now?  One  ten and three.  Its name?   Thirteen.
And so on to nine.  What is it now?  One ten and nine.  Its
name? Tineteen.
The  teacher may  now  rub  out the vertical lines, leaving
the words "tens" and "ones" still standing as before, with the figures under them, and may  ask if  TENS. ONES.
the value of the figures is altered at all by removing the lines?   Not at all.  Whiy?   The words            1    9
still remain to tell the respective value of the figures
to be one ten and nine ones, or nine and ten, or
nineteen. The words may now be removed also, and the teacher
may ask if the children can themselves remember the respective
values of the figures?  Yes; their relative position indicates this:
that figure in the first place of figures means nine units, or ones;
that in the second place of figures means one ten, the whole sum
being one ten and nine ones, or nineteen.
The children may now be told that whenever two figures stand
side by side thus, that they always bear this relation to each other,
and they may be led to see that the value of a figure is increased
tenfold by being moved one place to the left.
The children should now be exercised in reading and putting
down numbers to ninety-nine.
Ex.ercises with Alrumbers, the Sum  or Product of which does not
exceed 100.
Since the decimal system in its principal features, together
with its notation, has to some extent been presented to the children in the preceding chapters, it becomes the duty of the teacher
to show the children its advantages, even in mental arithmetic,
and not to leave it entirely to chance, or to an appeal to menory
alone; remembering that in every school a large proportion of the
181 
NUMBER.-SECOND STEP.
children do not belong to that privileged class who seize every
thing by the force of native talent, or of genius. The teacher
may make use of the hints given in these introductory remarks
whenever the opportunity, or rather the necessity, presents itself.
For instance, if there should be some difficulty in the addition of
26 + 3, 56 + 3, &c., the teacher has but to ask what 6 + 3
would make, showing that the above questions are related, or
rather based upon this fact, and that, whilst the sum of the units
is 9 in every one of these examples, the number of tens remains
unchanged.
The same advantage is taken, when the subtraction of such
examples as 37 - 4, 57 - 4, 97 - 4, &c., is to be performed,
since they are all based upon the fact that 7 - 4 leaves 3, and
that the number of tens is not affected.
In such examples as 57 +  5, 67 +  5, 87 +  5, the number of
tens becomes affected-that is, increased by one ten; but as the
sum of the units 7 +  5 make 12, it is easy to perceive that the
number of units in the answer to any of the above questions must
be 2, whilst the mnumber of tens becomes increased by one.
A little more thought is required in solving such questions as
72 - 5, &c., where the number of units to be subtracted exceeds
the number of units in the number from which they are to be
taken.  In such a case, the teacher would do well to ask, into
what parts they could divide 5?  Answer, 1 +  4, 2 +- 3.  Ask
them further, whether to take 1 + 4, or 2 + 3 away, would be
the same as taking away 5? Then let them take off 2, leaving
70, and then 3 from 70, leaving 67 for the answer.  Ask, then,
whether it would not have been as convenient to have taken first
one away, and then 4 afterward. Why not? What arrangement would they make in taking away 7 from 54? What would
be the most convenient division of 7 in this example?
Another advantage presented by the decimal system, and
often used for the rapid solution of questions, is found in the addition and subtraction of numbers near ten, as, for instance, of 8
and 9.  To see this fully, the teacher may ask them to add 10 to
any number she gives. which is the operation of a moment. She
may then ask how much less 9 is than 10? If they would add 10
182 
NUMBER.-SECOND STEP.
to any number, instead of 9, whether the result would not be too
great?  By how much?   What must be done, to conform to the
question?
Similar questions may be asked in regard to the subtraction
of 9 or 8, and it will be found that the common sense of the children will never be slow to seize this legitimate advantage, which
the more talented children will have found out for themselves.
An intelligent teacher, who acts in this spirit, need not be afraid
of having many slow or stupid children in the class.
Addition and Subtraction of a  Tnumnber not exceeding 10 succes
sively.
We consider it of the utmost importance, that pupils should
not merely receive a few isolated questions of an exercise, but
should be led to answer questions arranged in a series where no
link has been omitted. There is, however, a danger, that many
teachers may commit mistakes in the presentation of such a series,
which will render it useless. For instance, let us suppose that a
class is required to answer the following questions:-What does
1 + 2 make? 2 + 2? 3 + 2? 4 + 2? 5 + 2? 6 + 2?   The
respective answers to these questions are, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, &c.
Now it is evident that every child, in giving his answers, has but
to add one to the answer given by his predecessor, which can be
done without thought, mechlanically; since, as far as the work is
concerned, it requires but the addition of one. To avoid this mistake, the questions given below have been arranged upon a different plan.
First Series of Addition.-Add 2 to 1, and to the successive
results. The teacher asks: 1 + 2, how many? 3 + 2? 5 + 2?
7+2? 9+2? 11+2? 13+2? 15+2? 17+2?
To what extent these exercises are to be carried, depends on
the discretion of the teacher, and on the number of the scholars,
since every one of them should take a part in the formation of a
series. As a general thing, it is sufficient to add the number
about nine times.
First Series of Subtraction.-Suibtract 2 from  19, and from
183 
NUMBER.-SECOND STEP.
successive remainders.   19-  2?  17-  2?  15 - 2? 13- 2?
11 -2? 9- 2? 7-2? 5-2? 3 -2?
REd,ARK.-After constructing a series, the teacher  must  not
forget to ask questions promiscuously.
Second Series of Addition.-Add 2 to 2, and to successive
results. 2+2?  4+2?  6+2? 8+2? 10+2? 12+2?
14+2? 16+2? 18+2?
Second Series of Subtraction.-Subtract 2 from 20, and from
successive remainders.   20- 2?   18-2?   16-2?   14-2?
12-2? 10-2? 8-2? 6-2? 4-2? 2-2?
In order to allow the teacher to superintend and conduct several classes at the same time, she may call upon those who have
gone through one or more of the preceding exercises, to commit
them to writing on their slates, giving them the signs of + for
addition, -  for subtraction, - for equality.
The work, as seen on their slates, would then stand thus:
19-2       =        17
17-2 -= 15
15-       2 =   13
13- 2=11
11-2 = 9
&C.
It is of little consequence whether the series of addition are
presented in close succession, or alternate with subtraction. We
follow the former method in presenting the series, which can be
made in the addition and subtraction of 3.
First Series.-Addition of 3 to 1, and its successive results.
1 + 3? 4 + 3? 7 + 3? 10 + 3? 13 + 3? &c., to 25 + 3?
Second Series.- Addition of 3 to 2, &c.   2 + 3?  5 + 3?
8 + 3?  11 + 3?  14 + 3?   17 + 3?  &c., to 26 + 3?
Third Series.-Addition of 3 to 3, &c.   3 + 3?  6 + 3?
9 + 3?   12 + 3?   15 + 3?   18+3?  &c.,to27 + 3?
SUBTRACTION.
First Series.-Subtraction of 3 from 28, and from successive
remainders.  28-  3?  25    3?   22 - 3?   19-3?  &c.
184
I + 2 = 3
3 + 2 = 5
5 + 2 — 7
7 + 2 = 9
9 + 2 =1 1
. &C.
2 + 2 = 4
4 + 2 =.6
6 + 2 = 8
8 + 2 = 10
10+2 = 12
&C.
20-2 = 18
18 - 2= 16
16-2 = 14
14-2 = 12
12 - 2 -- 10
&C. 
NUMBER.-SECOND STEP.
Second Series.-Subtraction of 3 from 29,
26-3? 23-3? 20-3? &c.
Third  Series.-Subtraction  of 3 from  30,
27-3? 24-3? 21-3? 18-3? &c.
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS.
28+3? 17+3? 22+3?
31-3? 16  3? 25-3?
16+2+3+2+1+3?
31 -3- 2-1- 2?
15 + 2- 3+1-2+3?
The above merely indicate the kind of questions that should
be put to the children after having gone through with the several
series.  Many similar examples should be given by the teacher.
The addition and subtraction of 4 presents 4 series for each:
First Series.- 1+4? 5 + 4?  9 +4? &c., to 33 +4?
Second "   2+4? 6+4?  10+4?'  34+4?
Third "   3 +4? 7 +4? 11+4?  "  35 +4?
Fourth "   4+4? 8+4?  12+4?   "  36+4?
SUBTRACTION.
First Series.-37- 4? 33- 4? 29-4?
Second "   38-4? 34-4? 30-4?
Third  "1  39-4?  35-4?  31-4?
Fourth "   40-4? 36-4? 32-4?
Similar tables should be made out with 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. If
the teacher does not deem it necessary to include all the.series in
each table, the first and last may be taken, and the intermediate
series omitted; as,
First Series.-1 +5?   6+5?   11+5?   16+ 5?  &c., up to
41+5?
Fftlh Series.-5 +-5?  10 +- 5?   15 + 5?  20 + 5? &c., up to
ten additions.
The Second, Third, and Fourth Series being emitted. If there is
185
&c. 29 —3?
&c. 30 -3?
&C.
I 4 
NUMBER.-THIRD STEP.
sufficient time, however, it is better to include all. It is quite important that the last series with each number, in which the number itself is repeated, should always be included, as this has an
important bearing on multiplication.
THIRD STEP.
INTRODUCTION.
MULTIPLICATION.
There are people who do not consider either Multiplication or
Division as a distinct operation, or as one involving a new principle, since, philosophically considered, these two operations of
arithmetic can but do one of two things-either increase or diminish-which was done equally by the two processes already described. Moreover, multiplication, as everybody knows, is undoubtedly the result of the addition of equal numbers. When
these results have been committed to memory, so that they can be
immediately reproduced, we  give to this act the name of niultiplication. All being agreed that the instantaneous production
of the facts of multiplication are of the utmost importance, in the
arithmetical transactions of practical life, the question remains
whether they have simply to be committed to memory, withlout
thought or reflection, or whether they ought to be found or produced by the efforts of the pupils themselves. The first view led
to the mechanical learning by rote of the so-called table of multiplication; the second view arose from the conviction, that it is
unworthy of the most logical of all sciences, to give distinct and
easily ascertained truths merely as a matter of belief, for parrot-like
repetition, and that memory itself has no stronger ally than the
full conception and understanding of a fact. The plan of the following exercises, as will be seen, advocates the latter of these
views.
In the original treatise, which contains Pestalozzi's plan of teaching arithmetic, was seen the so-called table of "units," consisting
of groups of strokes, intended, by their combination and repetition, to establish the facts of multiplication. Since, however,
186 
NUM3BER.-THID  STEP.
the counting by units (for which the lines are designed) is altogether discarded at the step at which the pupils are supposed to
be, it is proposed to use a less cumbersome method of illustration,
by making use of the figures representing numbers, and by arranging them thus:
Table of Add(lition to Illustrate Ifultiplcation.
1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1
2+2+ 2b+ 2+ 2+ 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
3+3+3+3+3+3+3+3+3+3
4+4+4+4+4+4+4+4+4+4
5+5+5+5+5+5+5+5+5+5
6+6+6+6+6+6+6+6+6+6
7+7+7+7+7+7+7+7+7+7
8+8+8+8+8+8+s+8+8+8
9+9+9+9+9+9+9+9+9+9
REMARK.-Each number, as will be seen, is represented 10
times. Tile table of ones is the first, although it reproduces but
the results of counting; as, 1 time 1 = 1; 2 times 1 = 2.  The
table of tens is omitted, since it is supposed to have been already
treated in establishing the laws of numeration and notation up to
100. The tables of 1l and 12 are here omitted, as involving
compound numbers, although they may be profitably learnt by
rote on some other occasion.
FIRST EXERCISE.-Multiplication of Twos.-Thle first operation to be performed on this table is obviously this, to have the
sums produced by the addition of twos, threes, fours, &c., distinctly
expressed. The power to do this has already been established in
the previous exercises; for instance, the teacher asking, How
many are 2 + 2?  2 +2+2? 2          + 2 + 2 + 2?  &c., will undoubtedly obtain the correct answer. It becomes necessary, however, at this step, to obtain the answers quickly, without delay or
hesitation. For this purpose, the teacher may point to the right
of a number (for instance to a), and ask, WVhat is the sum of units
to the left of my pointer?  Ans. 4.  And now?  (pointing to b.)
Ans. 6.  And  now?  (at c.)  Ans.  8.   She then moves  the
187 
NUMBER.-TIIIRD STEP.
pointer to the numbers farther to the right, always requiring the
children to tell the number of units.
This is done forward and backward (in which case it becomes
subtraction), with always increasing rapidity, till the children, or
at least the greater part of them, give their answers almost instantaneously. lVhen this is accomplished, the teacher may go
back to the first method of questioning, and ask, without pointing to the table, Can you tell me once more how many units
2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2  make?   Ans. 10.   Then  say, "Two  and
two and two and two and two are ten." Is there not a shorter
way to express this same fact? How many twos did I give?
Five twos. And how many units do they contain? Ten. Then
say, " Five twos are ten units, or five times two are ten."
The teacher then tells them, that the taking of a ntumber a
certain number of times, and expressing the result in anits, is
called mnultiplication; and the act of doing it, to multiply. She
then requires a child to take two 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, times,
in the way already indicated: "One time two is two; two times
two are four," &c.  She then asks others, and finally bids the class
repeat it in concert.  She then tells them to write the facts they
have just expressed, which can be done thus:
6 times 2 =  12
7    "   2 =  14
8  t 2 = 16
9    "   2 =   18
10  "  2 = — 20
Or, by giving them the sign of multiplication, together with its
meaning, the same facts would be rendered thus:
2X1            = 2
2 X 2 = 4
2 X 3 = 6
X 4=2     8
X 5= 10
X 6 = 12, &c.
NOTE TO THE TEACHER.-It is generally the custom to read
this table in a reversed order, and to call the above facts, 2 times
2   4; 2 times 3 = 6; 2 times 4 = — 8; but this cannot be defended on any philosophical principle. In the first place, it is not
188
I times 2 = 2
2 " 2 = 4
3 " 2 = 6
4 " 2 = 8
5  " 2 = 10
i.
I
2
2
2 
NUMBER.-THIRD STEP.
what the children have learned; for in practising, for instance,
the table of twos, they have not learned that twice three are six,
but that three times two are six. Secondly, it gives a wrong view
about the meaning of the sign of multiplication, X, which cannot
be translated by the word "times," but signifies "multiplied by."
The expression 2 X 3 means, therefore, 2 multiplied by 3; or, in
other words, 2 taken 3 times, which is equivalent to 3 times 2.
Those who wish to test the accuracy of the children's conception, in any school where arithmetic is taught on sound principles,
have but to ask whether they think 3 times 4 and 4 times 3 are
exactly alike, and to illustrate each fact by means of lines or
objects.  They will probably be told, that whilst the product or
result in both questions is the same, the arrangement or grouping
of the objects is different.
After the children have written the table of twos, they should
proceed in the same way with the tables of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and
commit them to memory.
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS ON MULTIPLICATION.
7X5? 4 X 8? 9 X7? 7  X 7?
3 X 2 +7+9? 7    X 4 +5 + 8 + 3?
9X9-4-8-3? 7X8-5-3-9?
8 X 6+4+7-8- 3+6?
7X2 +3 X 2?  4 X 3 + 5)( 3?  7 X 4 +2 X4+8
+ 6-7? &c.
The teacher should give many more examples of this character.
DIVISION.
INTRODUCTION.-It has already been hinted, that Division is
an operation which implies Subtraction. This can be shown in
the following manner:  Let us take the example, 12 +. 3, which
asks how many times 3 is contained in 12? Now if we ascertain how many times 3 can be subtracted from 12, the question is
solved.   But 12 -  3 - 3 - 3-3  =  0.  Thus we  see, that 3
could be subtracted 4 times from 12; consequently 3 is four times
contained in 12, or 12. 3 = 4.
189 
NUMBER.-THIRD STEP.
It is obvious, however, that at the present step it is easier and
shorter to consider Division the inverse operation of Multiplication,
or as one which analyzes the result of multiplication into its factors. Thus, since 3, four times taken, makes 12, it is evident
that 3 is, for this reason, contained in 12 four times.
Division of a Number by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, provided the Num
her does not exceed Ten Times its Divisor.
Division by 2.-Who can tell how many times 2 is contained
in 12? Ans. Six times. Why? Because 6 times 2 = 12.
This answer, as well as the argument, may be expected to be
given at once by many of the class. In order, however, to bring
the matter within the comprehension of even the dullest scholar, the
teacher may draw 12 strokes on the blackboard, i      111111111     1,
and bid a child to show how it might be proved that 2 (or a
group of two strokes) is contained six times in 12.
The practical analysis of this question is found in the adjoined
diagram:
1  2  3  4   5  6
IIIIIIIii111
She may also ask, how the same fact can be shown on the multiplication table, on the series representing twos:
2 +2 +2 +2 +2 + 2 + 2    + 2 + 2  +2
1  2  3  4  ~  6
The child has first to point out the sum of 12 units (at the right
end of the arc), and then count the number of twos situated under
the whole arc. One or two examples of this kind will probably
establish the facts of division, in so far as they are related to the
table of multiplication.
The further questions must, of course, be put in a systematic
and progressive manner, taking care that all the units below 10
are brought into play as divisors of a given number.
The second and third series of additions in the preceding table.
for illustrating multiplication, contain the answers to the follow,
ing questions:
190 
NUMBER.-THIRD STEP.
Hfow many times is 2 contained in 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16,
18,20? Why?
How many times is 3 contained in 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24,
27, 30?  Why?   &c., &c., &c.
If the teacher finds it necessary to make the children write
out the table of division, she may give them the sign of division,
*., and tell them that 12. 4 is generally expressed as 12 divided
by 4.
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS.
18+2?  27+3?  16- 4? &c.
To21l. 3add7+9+4?  To 56 —. 7add4+2+5?
To 64. 8 add 3 -- 5 -9- 7?
(27. 3) 9? &c.  This must be read, 27 + 3 multiplied by 9.
To(18+. 9)2 add 7+9-4-8? &c.
Division of Nutmbers leaving a Remnainder.
Hfow many times is 2 contained in 15?  Ans. 7 times and 1
over.   Why?   Show  it by lines.  I II lIf lf| |i  i.   The
teacher now may tell the scholars, that in future examples of this
kind they would do well to arrange the given number into two
unequal parts, the first or larger one containing a number a certain number of times, and the latter forming a remainder.
In this operation she appeals to the memory of the children in
regard to the products of the table of multiplication.  For instance, in the question 29. 3, she may ask whether they think
that 3 is contained in 29 a certain number of times without a remainder?  Whether this is the case with 28?  With 27?   Yes;
3 is contained in 27, 9 times. Then how many units are over, to
make up 29?  Two units.  Express  now the whole question:
29. 3 = — 7 and 2 remaining.
All the following examples, which the teacher may give pro.
miscuously, are to be solved in a similar manner; for instancer
39 -. 5?
Solution: 39. 5 = 7, with a remainder of 4.
191 
NUMBER.-THIRD STEP.
Sonie Suggestions on the Application of the foregoing Exercises to
so-called Concrete* Lumbers.
The purpose of these lessons being principally to develop a
clear insight of numbers, their relations and properties, and the
operations performed with them, the subject of their application does
not seem to belong within the compass of this book; and the less
so, as the examples to which we refer may be found in every
treatise on Arithmetic. On the other hand, it may not be inappropriate, in connection with the principles advocated here, to
render the teacher, to some extent, even independent of the examples supplied by a book.
In regard to one kind of examples which suggest the addition, subtraction, &c., of given objects, some of them of commercial interest, such as cents, dollars, pounds, &c., it need not be
stated how easily these can be supplied at every step; nor should
they be neglected, since they form an absorbing subject of consideration to every clerk, accountant, shopkeeper, and to other persons.  As mental exercises, they must, however, be limited to numbers that can be easily remembered.
There is, however, one set of questions in which the terms
usually adopted in the operations with abstract numbers, such as
"adding," "subtracting," "multiplying," &c., are discarded, and
other verbs supplied whichi imply the above named operations.
For instance, there is addition implied in the actions to receive, to
find, to earn, to borrow, to gain, to collect, &c. On the contrary,
the idea of "getting less," or of subtraction, suggests itself to the
mind by the actions of "leaving," "losing," "throwing away,"
"dying," &c. In the transactions of buying, we have an increase
of articles, and a diminution of money; whilst in those of selling
the case is reversed.
Now  it would seem no difficult task to any thinking teacher
to do what she is supposed to do in the preparation of all her other
lessons, namely, to prepare for herself some examples of a concrete and practical character; as, for instance, "I had 28 cents;
* We protest against the word "concrete," as applied to numbers.  Objects
must be concrete, but numbers are always abstract.
192
p 
IUMBER. —FOURTH STEP.
of these I spent 6, and lost 2. On the other hand, I earned 12
cents one day, 18 cents the other; how many cents have I now?"
In regard to multiplication, the teacher's examples must be
applied to objects which present some uniform repetition. For instance, in the example, "7 square tables have how many legs? " we
find a repetition of 4 legs in each, and therefore 7 times 4 legs in
all. The same is the case with the question, What is the price
of 7 articles, at 4 cents each?
In regard to division, the first practical view which suggests
itself is that of dividing a certain number of objects among some
persons, or arranging them within some spaces; as, for instance
If I divide 20 apples among 4 persons, how many will each
receive? If 28 chairs are equally distributed in seven rooms, how
many are there in each room?
In these examples it would be simply absurd to say, Divide 20
apples by 4 persons, or 28 chairs by 8 rooms. This is another
proof that the operations of arithmetic are performed mainly with
abstract numbers, since the substitution of pears, chierries, marbles,
and other objects, would not have affected the numerical operation.
There are a great many practical examples where division is
not suggested by name, but simply by the circumstances attending
the transaction.  For instance, "I bought 5 articles with 35 cents;
how much did I give for each?"
FOURTH STEP.
Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division, extended to
Higher Nunibers.  Also a Short Course in Fractions.
This Step, which is thoroughly connected with the preceding
one, is often neglected in common arithmetical works, and its solutions merely left to chance. Although at this step the visible
illustrations may be to a great extent discarded, yet it becomes the
more necessary to appeal to those sound principles which oblige
the pupil to give to number a real value, and not as is sometimes
the case in cyphering, a mere nominal one.
Where cyphering begins too early, the child will often operate
'1
193
L..
I 
NUMBER.-FOURTH STEP.
in a mechanical manner, even when he is required to perform a
mental example. In order to illustrate this, we will assume that
25 and 47 have to be added. A child taught by rules will probably imagine the 47 placed under the 25;  then adding 7 and 5
together, he will probably put two and carry one, which he adds
to the sum of the two figures to the left, 4 and 2. The sum he
will thus obtain he calls 72. Now it need not be said that this
method is very cumbersome for mental arithmetic, and becomes
nearly impracticable when applied to an example of subtraction.
On the other hand, a child taught by natural principles will mark
out a true path for himself, after having started in the right direction.  5Te state here some of the most obvious features of this
Step:
1. In performing operations of mental aritametic with numbers
composed of tens and units, it is safer to consider first the tens,
and then the units.
2. The tens have to be treated as if they were units, as far as
the operations are concerned.
3. The exercises have to be so arranged, that each one ex.
plains the following.
4. The solutions must not be given to the children, but drawn
out by questions.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION.
EXERCISE I.-Addition of Tens to Tens, and Subtraction of Tens
from, Tens.
Example  in Addition:  How  many  are  20 + 20?    How
many are 2 and 2? How many tens do 2 tens and 2 tens make?
How many units?
The solution then stands as follows:  2 and 2 are 4; 2 tens
and 2 tens are 4 tens, or 40; therefore 20 +  20 = 40.
Fxaimple in Subtraction:  How  many are  50- 20?    How
many are 5 - 2? 5 tens less 2 tens are how many tens? How
many units?
ASolution:  5 -  2 = 3; 5 tens less 2 tens leave 3 tens, or 30;
therefore 50 - 20 = 30.
194
i., 
NU'MER.-FOURTH STEP.
A great many questions of this kind must be given, and their
solutions required.
EXERCISE II.-Addition of Tens and Uhits to Tens, and Subtrac   tion of Tens fromn Tens and Units, or of Tens and Units frov
Tens.
Examnple  in Addition: Hlow  many  are 35 + 20?   Hod
many are 30 + 20?  And 5 more?
Solution: 30+ L 20 —50;  50 + 5 =  55.
Example in Subtraction: How many are 59- 20?   What is
50 -  20?  59-20?  WVhy do you add 9 to the former result?
Are the units changed in this example? Are the tens?
REMNIARK.-The child will see at once that the diminution only
takes place in the tens, and that the units are left unchanged.
The children will now be able to solve similar examples, which
should be abundantly supplied by the teacher.
Exanmple in Subtraction: How many are 50 - 37?  How
many are 50- 30? 20-7?
Solution: 50- 30 = 20;  20- 7 = 13.
EXERCISE III.-Addition of Tens and Units to Tens and Units,
and Subtraction of Tens and Units from Tens and Units.
Example in Addition: How many are 43 + 29?  43 + 20?
63 + 9?
Solution: 43 + 20 =  63;  63 + 9 = 72.
REMARK.-If some of the children should make the solution
thus: 40 + 20 = 60;  9 + 3 = 12;  therefore 60 + 12 = 72, it
should be accepted, although the former method will be more expeditious.
Examl)le in Subtraction: How many are 73 - 28?  73 - 20?
53- 8?
Solution: 73-20= —53; 53 -8= —45.
The teacher must use her own judgment as to the number of
examples that should be given under each exercise. Before pro
195 
iNUMBER.-FOURTH STEP.
ceeding to the next exercise, the children should be able readily
to solve any examples given them.
MULTIPLICATION.
The exercises in this step comprise examples in which one of
the factors may go as high as 100, whilst the other must at present be limited to numbers not exceeding 10.
EXERCISE I.-4ful1tiplication of Tens by Units.
REMARK.-This exercise will prove extremely easy, but not
the less important. Since, however, the results obtained will soon
exceed 100, and will reach as high as 1,000, it will be necessary
for the teacher to extend the pupil's knowledge of notation and
numeration, so as to enable him to write down correctly all the
numbers from 100 to 1,000. This she can do on the plan suggested in a previous Step, under the head of "Notation."
In order to do full justice to this fundamental exercise, the
children should compose several series by multiplying 10 successively by all units; after this 20, next 30, next 40, &c., up to
100.
The questions composing these series should first be given
orally, and analyzed, after which they may be written on their
slates.
The series will stand thus, when written:
20 X   1 =   20
20 X   2 =   40
20 X 3 -- 60
20 X  4 =  80
&c., to
20 X  10 =  200
This table should be read, "One time ten, two times ten," &c.,
and not "Ten times one," &c.
REMARK.-The first of these series needs no comment, since
it was discussed in a previous Step, on Notation. In order to
prove, in the second series, that 2 times 20 = 40, the teacher
196
10 x I= 10
10 X 2 -- 20
10 X 3 = 30
10 X 4 = 40
&C., to
10 x 10 = 100
30 X I = 30
30 X 2 = 60
30 X 3 = 90
30 x 4 = 120
&C., to
30 X 10 = 300 
NUMBER.-FOURTH STEP.
may ask, Of how many tens is 20 composed? 2 times 2 are how
many units?  2 times 2 tens are how many tens?  Hlw many
units?
The succeeding examples may be treated in the same way, till
the children readily see the analogy between the multiplication of
tens and that of units.
AMany miscellaneous questions should be given, and their solutions required; as, for instance, 5 times 80?
Solution: 5 times 8 = 40; 5 times 8 tens = 40 tens = 400.
EXERCISE II.-Tens and Units  Ifultiplied by Units.
Example: 53 X 4?  The teacher must first show that this
question requires that 4 times 50 and 4 times 3 should be added
together.
Solution: 4 times 50 = 200;  4 times 3 = 12; 200 + 12 =
212.
Example: 97 X 9?
Solution: 9 times 90=810; 9 times 7=63;  810 + 63=
873.
Let many questions be added, until the children can readily
solve any question given.
DIVISION.
EXERcISE.-Division of Numbers not falling below Ten Timnes,
and not exceeding Twenty Times their Divisor, tvhich must not
exceed 10.
Exan?ple: 37     2?
As examples of this kind are in their analysis somewhat different from those in multiplication, they require a fuller development.
The teacher may ask first, into what parts they would divide
the given number, before operating upon it? The probable answver would be, Into 30 and 7. The teacher then must proceed to
show, that however convenient such an arrangement would have
been for any of the preceding operations, it might not prove to be
so in this case. Let us take another example: How many times
197
il
LI
k 
NUMBER.-FOURTH STEP.
is 2 contained in 30? If the children hesitate in their answer,
the teacher proceeds: How many times is 2 contained in 20?
10 times. By how many more is 37 than 20? Seventeen. Then
we may arrange 37 into 20 and 17.  How many times is 2 coitained in 20?  Ten times.  And in 17?  Eight times and 1 over.
How many times in 20 + 17, or in 37? 10 + 8 times and 1
over, or 18 times and 1 over.
Example:  49   -3.  Into what parts would you separate 49
to be divided by 3?  Into 30 and 19.  Why would you do so?
Because we know that 3 is contained in 30 10 times. And in
19? 6 times and 1 over. Therefore it is contained in 49 how
many times? 16 times and 1 over.
The children are thus led to separate all the numbers  which
they are required to divide in this Step, into two numbers, one of
which is equal to ten times its divisor, and the other the difference
between this and the given number.  Both these numbers are then
divided, and their quotients added together.
The teacher should not, however, be satisfied witih giving a
few isolated examples, but should occupy the class during several
lessons by examples arranged like those below, the children giving a solution for each example:
27+2? 37+2? &c.
33+3? 42+3?  56+ 3? &c.
46   4?   53   4?   61 +4?   73. 4?  &c.
And so on, using 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 as divisors of any number
which does not give a quotient greaser than twenty'
The teacher should continue similar examples, until the children can readily solve any question conforming to the conditions
laid down.
The preceding questions, and their solutions, will prepare the
children to solve on their slates questions written on the blackboard by the teacher, not by a mechanical process, but by a true
analysis of the numbers which compose them.   The  following
example will suggest the manner in which it may be written by
the children:
. Example:  167. 9?
198 
NUMBER.-FOURTH STEP.
Solution:  90 -. 9 = 10
77 -- 9 =   8 and 5 over.
167. 9 =  18 and 5 over.
FRACTIONS.
Summary of the Exercises.
I.-Exercises on the names and values of Fractions.
II.-To convert whole numbers into Fractions.
III.-To convert Fractions into whole numbers.
IV.-Conversion of Fractions from one denomination to an         other.
V.-Addition of Fractional numbers.
VI.-To find how much must be added to a Fractional num         ber, in order to produce a given number.
VII.-Various applications.
I.- On the Nantes and  Values of Fractions.
Divide this apple into two equal pieces or parts. What is one
of these parts called?  What  the other?  And the two  parts
taken together? What, then, is a half?
A half is one of two equal parts of a whole.
How many half apples are there in one apple?
Then one whole apple is the same as 
How did I obtain the half of this apple?
By dividing it into 2 equal parts, and taking one of these
parts.
If, instead of 2 parts, I divide the apple into 3, what should I
have?  3 equal parts.  Say 3 thirds.  And each of these parts?
1 third.
WVhat, then, is the third part of a thing?
The two thirds?
To make one apple, how many thirds of an apple are neces
sary?  Then one whole apple is the same as.
How did I obtain the third of the apple?  How two thirds?
199
Mar 
NUMBER.-FOURTH STEP.
The idea of the fourth may be developed as the half and third,
or as follows:   If, after having divided an apple into halves, I divide each
half into two other equal parts, how many parts shall I have?
Ans.  4.
Each part is called a guarter, or a fourth.
To make one apple, how many quarters or fourths of an apple.
are required?
OBSERVATION.-It is necessary to familiarize the child with
these words, half third, fourth, and to endeavor to give him a
precise idea of them, by making him take a certain part of some
whole; for example, of a roll of paper, of a piece of wood, &c.
The different kinds of unity should be varied as much as possible,
in order that the pupil may not regard fractions absolutely, but
merely as they relate to the unity employed.
Having taken 3 different objects as units, divide one of them
into 2 equal parts, another into 3, and the third into 4; form them
into 3 groups, and desire the child to point out a hay  a third, two
thirds, a quarter, two quarters, three quarters.   These objects may
be apples, small wands, or cubes. Let him also compare these
different fractions with reference to size, by asking him which is
the larger, a half or a third? a third or a quarter? two thirds or
three quarters? &c. The object here is not to teachl him to find
the difference with great exactness; it is sufficient for him to know
that a half is more than a third, a third more than a quarter; for
the greater number of parts there are in a unit, the smaller they
are; that three quarters are more than two thirds, &c., &c.
II.- Conversion of Whole Numbers into Fractions.
How many half apples are there in 2 apples?
The same question upon 3, 4, 5, 6 apples, &c.
How many half feet are there in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 feet?
How many thirds are there in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 apples?
How many thirds are contained in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 yards?
The same questions may be asked respecting quarters.
9
200
F 
NUMBER.-FOURTH STEP.
Hiow many parts would there be, if each half were divided
into 3?
Ask the same question, if they were divided into 4, 5 parts.
How many parts would there be, if each third were divided
into 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 equal parts?
Ask the same questions, if each quarter be divided.
OBSERVATION.-The pupils should perform these operations
themselves, either upon apples or some other objects. As a great
quantity of apples would be necessary for such operations as these,
cards may be used, divided into as many parts as are requisite;
but it is better not to cut them entirely through, in order that the
child may preserve the idea of unity formed by the reunion of the
several parts. Lines may now be used; they are more convenient than objects.
Repeat all together.
1 whole is equal to 2 halves.
2 wholes make        4   "
3      i             6   "
4       "            8   "
5       "           10   "   &c., &C.
1 whole is equal to 3 thirds.
2 wholes make        6   "
3       "            9   44
4        "          12   " 
15    "      &c., &c.
4 quarters.
8    cc
1 whole is equal to
2 wholes make
3                1i
16   "
20   "   &c., &c.
1 whole is equal to
2 wholes make
3      se
4        it
"          25
"          30
9*
201
w      5
12 44
4
5
5
10
15
20
i I
1 4
I 4
5
6
i i &C., &C. 
NUMBER.-FOUIJRTl STEP.
III.- Conversion of Fractions into Whole Yumbers.
How many apples are there in 3 half apples?
Ans. 1 apple and a half.
Let the same question be asked respecting 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
halves, &c.
The children will easily perceive that they must find how
many times 2 halves are contained in the number of halves of
which the wholes are to be formed. This may be done first by
allowing them to put two halves together to make a whole, then
two more, and so on, until all have been counted. But they must
not be told.
They should also be required to find how many wholes there
are in a certain number of thirds, of fourths, and of fifths.
Simuzltaneous repetition.
Ialves.
2 make 1 whole.
3   "   1   "   and a half.
4   "   2 wholes.
5   "   2   "   and a half.
6   "   3 wholes.
7   "   3   "   and a half.
8   "   4 wholes.
9   "   4   "   and a half.
10   "   5 wholes.
Thirds.
3 make 1 whole.
4   "    1    "   and 1 third.
5   "    1    "   and 2 thirds.
6'   2 wholes.
7   "   2    "   and 1 third.
8   "    2    "   and 2 thirds.
9   "    3 wholes.
10   "   3    "   and 1 third.
202
Ilalve&
1 whole is equal to      2
1   "   and a half make 3
2 wholes make            4
2   "   and a half make 5
3   "  make              6
3   "   and a half make 7
4'"  make,   8
4   "  and a half make 9
5   "  make             10
Thirds
1 whole is equal to     3
1   "  and I third make 4
1   "   and 2 thirds make 5
2 wholes make           6
2   "  and 1 third make 7
2   "  and 2 thirds make 8
3   "   make            9
3   "   and 1 third make 10 
NUMBER.-FOURTH STEP.
Quartet&
1  whole is equal to      4
1   "   and 1 qr. make   5
1   "   and 2 qrs.  "    6
1   "  and 3 qrs.  "    7
2 wholes are equal to      8
2   "   and 1 qr. make  9
2    "   and 2 qrs.  "   10
5 make 1 whole.
6   "   1   "   and 1 fifth.
7  "   1   "   and 2 fifths.
8   "   1   "   and 3   "
9   "   1   "   and 4   "
10   "   2 wholes.
IV.- Conversion of Fractions from one Denomination to another.
OBSERVATION.-The analysis in the following exercises must
be made slowly, by the children themselves, upon objects, under
the guidance of the teacher
How many quarters are there in 3 thirds?
Ans. 3 thirds make 1 whole; 1 whole is equal to 4 quarters.
How many thirds are there in 4 halves?
Ans. 4 halves make 2 wholes; 2 wholes make 6 thirds.
How many quarters are there in 6 halves?
Ans. 6 halves make 3 wholes; 3 wholes make 12 quarters.
How many halves are there in 6 thirds?
Ans. 6 thirds make 2 wholes; 2 wholes make 4 halves.
How many halves are there in 6 quarters?
Ans. 6 quarters make 1 whole and a half, or 3 halves.
V.-Addition of Fractional lVumnbers.
One apple and a half, and one apple and a half, make how
mnany apples?
2 apples and a half, and 2 apples and a half?
203
Quarters.
4 make
5    "
7     "
8    "
9 it
10 it
1 whole.
1   "   and 1 qr.
1   "   and 2 qrs.
I   "   and 3 qrs.
2 wholes.
2    "   and 1 qr.
2    "   and 2 qrs.
Fifths.
Fifths
1 whole is equal to           5
1    "   and 1 fifth make 6
1    "    and 2 fifths  "    7
1    "   and 3 fifths  "    8
1    "   and 4 fifths  "   9
2 wholes are equal to 10 
NUMBER.-FOURTH STEP.
3 wholes and a half, more 3 wholes?
4 wholes and a half, more 3 wholes and a half -?
1 whole and a half, more 1 whole and a half, more 1 whole and
a half?
2 wholes and a half, more 4 wholes and a half?
2 wholes and a half, more 2 wholes and a half, more 2 wholes
and a half?
3 wholes and 2 thirds, more 2 wholes and 1 third -?
3 wholes and 1 third, more 2 wholes and 2 thirds, more 2
wholes and 1 third?
5 wholes and 2 thirds, more 5 wholes and 2 thirds, more 1
third?
3 wholes and 1 third, more 2 wholes and 2 thirds, more 3
wholes and 1 third?
3 quarters, more 3 quarters?
2 quarters, more 1 whole and 2 quarters?
3 quarters, more 3 quarters, more 3 quarters?
1 whole and 3 quarters, more 1 whole and 1 quarter?
1 whole and 1 quarter, more 1 whole and 3 quarters?
3 wholes and 3 quarters, more 3 wholes and 3 quarters?
5 wholes and 1 quarter, more 3 wholes and 3 quarters, more 1
whole and a half?
3 fifths, more 3 fifths?
2 fifths, more 4 fifths, more 3 fifths?
4 fifths, more 4 fifths?
3 wholes and 2 fifths, more 3 wholes and 3 fifths? &c., &c., &c.
VI.-To Find how much must be Added to a Fractional Y~umbe?
in order to Produce a Given Nuniber.
How much must be added to
1 half to produce
3 halves  "
3'"    cc
"     and  1 half?
14         as
2  "   and 1 half to produce 4   "
204
2 wholes?
2 it
3 I(
2 wholes 11
3'g it
4
it 
IUMBER.-FOURTH STEP.
3 wholes and 1 half to produce 5 wholes?
5  "   to produce             7   "   and 1 half?
4  "   and 1 half to produce 8   "
3 halves to produce           6   "
5  "       "                  5   "
What must be added to
1 third to produce
2 thirds    "
1 whole    "
1  "       I"
1 whole and 2 thirds to produce 3
1  "        2          "       4
1  "        2          "       3
2 wholes and I third    "      3
2  "        1           "      3
3  "   to produce              5
5  "        "                  7
10  "   and 1 third to produce 12
How much must be added to
1 quarter to produce
2, 3 quarters to produce
1 whole         "
1  "    and 3 quarters to produce
How much must be added to
2 wholes and 3 quarters to produce 5 wholes
2   "      " 1 half         "        4    "
2   "      " 1 quarter       "       6    "
3   "      " 3 quarters    "         7    "
4   "    to produce                  8    "
5   i"              (I.10    "t
3 quarters    "                     10    "
1 whole and 3 quarters to produce 10    "
205
whole?
It
wholes
It
It
44
it
44
c I
I 9
I c
I I
and I thi-rd?
and I third?
and 2 thirds?
and I third?
1 "
It
and 2 thirds?
and 2 thirds?
and I third?
and 2 thirds?
it
I whole?
1, 2, 3 wholes?
2 wholes and 2 quarters?
2 11 and 1 half?
and I half?
" 1 quarter?
11 3 quarters? 
01UMBER.-FOURTH SrEP.
OBSERVATION.-Other fractions require less attention than
Aalves, thirds, and fourths. It is, however, necessary that the pupil
should be slightly exercised upon them, in order that he may have
an idea of them-more or less development being given to the
subject, according to his age and information. Some exercises,
similar to the preceding, should therefore be given upon fifths,
sixths, and sevenths.
VII.- Various Applications.
If a person gives to two children 1 apple and 3 quarters for
each, how many apples will he have given?
He gives to one child 1 pear and 1 third; how many will he
give to 6 children?
He gives 2 apples to 4 children, dividing them equally; how
much will each have?   Ans. 1 half.
Two apples are given to 3 children; they divide them
equally; how much will each have? Ans. 2 thirds.
The same question may be asked, if 3 apples be given to 6
children, 3 to 4 children, 4 to 5 children, 4 to 8 children, &c.
A child has been desired to write 1 page and 3 quarters; he
has done the half of 1 page; how much has he still to write?
Ans. 1 page and 1 quarter.
Ask the same question, if he had 3 pages and a half to write,
and if he has written one and a half. If he had 2 pages and 3
quarters, and has done one and a half, &c.
A child had bought 3 pounds of cherries; he has eaten 1
pound and a half of them; how much has he left?
I work every morning 1 hour and a half; how many hours
will that make in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 days?
I work 3 hours and 3 quarters every day; how many hours
will that make in 2, 3, or 4 days?
What do 2 hours and a quarter, 2 hours and 3 quarters, and 1
hour and a half, make?
The teacher may continue questions of'this character in her
discretion.
206 
SIZE.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
SIZE, as existing in all objects, is, as well as form and color,
taken cognizance of by the eye, and soon attracts the attention
of children. It forms also an interesting subject for lessons, from
its blending amusement with instruction, when the children are
permitted to test the correctness of their judgment of the size of
any object, by actual measurement of it. It is important they
should receive correct first impressions on a point so essential to
future usefulness.
In accordance with our plan in all elementary instruction, we
begin by appealing to the intuitive perception of the quality under
consideration, leading the children to perceive the existence of
such a property as size; and this is effected by drawing their
attention to various groups of objects, the components of each of
which differ only in their dimensions. Observation being thus
concentrated on this one property, the idea of it will be realized
without an effort of reasoning. This may seem like giving undue
prominence to an unimportant process, inasmuch as the knowledge
to which it leads will be necessarily acquired by after experience;
but the results of an education which commences thus, laying its
foundation in clear, distinct, and vivid ideas of all that falls within
the legitimate range of a child's observation, will fully justify the
principle here advocated; materials of the highest value will be
treasured up for the future superstructure; habits will be encour
aged unwilling to be satisfied with vague, indefinite knowledge; 
SIZE.-FIRST STEP.
and the organs of the senses also, stimulated to healthy exercise,
will learn the better to perform their appointed tasks.
When the children have gained a clear notion of size in the
abstract, they will be prepared to observe its extension in different
directions, and to gain an idea of relative size, exercising comparison, calculation, and accuracy of thought and expression; while,
by referring to examples not present, the conceptive faculty is
called out. In the Second Step they are led to see the necessity
of a standard of measurement, and opportunity is afforded them
for the practical application of those measures of length and capacity which are in ordinary daily use.
FIRST STEP.
Object.*-1. To develop the general idea of size. 2. To dis
tinguish size, as it is exemplified in the different dimensions of
familiar objects.  3. To exercise the faculty of comparison, in deciding upon relative size and proportion, as also that of conception,
by applying ideas gained by actual observation to objects not in
sight.
I.-The Development of the General Idea.
Plan.-The children may be led to this, by having placed before
them sets of objects, such as cubes of wood, balls, books, &c., differing only in size. They should be directed to separate from the
rest those cubes, balls, &c., that are quite alike.  When the general idea of size has been in some measure developed by such
exercises, the teacher, pointing to each series of objects in its
order, may require the children to describe them, by saying together several times, "These are small balls," "These are large
cubes," &c. They may then be exercised on a wider variety of
objects, such as small and large books, or small and large boxes.
They may then be desired to touch or bring whatever the teacher
may ask for, as the small books, or the large balls; and lastly, to
say whether the objects on which the teacher places her hand are
large or small.
* Unless the children are quite young, the first two points may be passed
over quite rapidly, or be entirely omitted.
208 
SIZE.-FIRST STEP.
II. Development of the Idea of Size, as Extension in Different
Directions.
The attention of the class must first be directed to extension in length. The teacher may place before it laths or strings
of different lengths, arranging them in sets of uniform size; and
also draw lines on the board, grouping them according to their
length; these illustrations will give the first idea of the extension
of size in one direction. After some questions as to what difference they see in the laths, strings, &c., the children should repeat,
"The laths, strings, &c., are of different lengths." They may
then obtain some idea of relative length, by the teacher holding up
the longest and shortest lath or string, and leading them by questions to the idea of longest and shortest.  They may next be called
on themselves to select the longest and the shortest of each class
of objects, and having thus given practice to the eye, they may
simultaneously express the result of the exercise, saying, "This is
a long lath," " This is the shortest," " This is the longest," " This
is a long string," " This is the longest," &c. Their observation
of length may now be extended to other objects in the room; as,
Who has long hair? Who has short hair? Point out the longest form-the longest board-the longest side of the room, &c.
After this, a variety of objects may be placed before the class, and
the children will be required to describe the length of each by its
suitable term.
In the same way the children should be led to acquire the idea
of breadth or width, and narrowness.  Ribbons of differing breadths
afford convenient illustrations. They may be told to select the
widest, the narrowest, &c., of these, and to arrange them according to their respective widths.
The idea of thickness and thinness may be illustrated by the
use of blocks of wood, wafers, buttons, &c., or by familiar conversation about thick and thin slices of bread and butter, or of cake.
The kindred idea of depth may be elicited in the same manner,
as it is exemplified in a well, a hole, a jug, or bucket; and that of
height, by observing the room, a tree, or the spire of a church.
The teacher might show the real identity of depth and height, by
209 
SIZE.-FIRST STEP.
asking how the elevation of a cliff would be spoken of, under dif
fering positions of an observer.  If he stood at the top, and looked
down, he might say, "It is deep;" if hlie stood at its base and
looked up, he would say, "It is high."
The several steps of the lessons on color, form, and size,
should be carried on simultaneously; but after a while, objects
may be produced, in each of which the children will recognize
several diverse qualities. For instance, they may be told to select
a small white round object; a long narrow piece of blue ribbon;
or a shallow white plate.  They will thus, in the same object, find
an example of form, of color, and of size.
III. Relative Size and Proportion of Objects.
Plan.-Laths of different lengths may be placed before the
children, from which they may first select all those which are of
the same length, and then arrange these according to their relative
lengths, from the shortest to the longest. The teacher may then
require them to select two short laths, which together are equal to
the long one she herself holds; and afterward three or four others
which together form the same length: this may be done also with
tape or string. Similar exercises may be carried out with curved
forms.   Several sets of concentric  circles, of varying size, cut
out of thick pasteboard, may be placed before the children: they
may first select all the circles of one size, and then arrange them
according to their relative size, beginning with the largest; finally,
they may prove how far their arrangement of them is correct, by
fitting them one into another till the dissected circle is complete.
The following series of exercises will be found suitable at this
step:
Let the children determine the relative lengths of lines drawn
in differing directions, as to which is the shortest, and which the
longest; and let them decide the relative distances between dots
placed in different positions on the board; or the distance between
various parallel lines; or the relative size of angles, &c. They
may also determine which of a number of lines slope the most,
and which the least-first, by comparing them with a vertical line
210 
SIZE.-SECOND STEP.
drawn on another part of the board, and afterward without this
help. The same exercise may be carried out with horizontal lines.
The children may also determine the proportion which one line
bears to another-whether it is half its length, or double its
length, &c., without at present attaining actual precision. The
children should pursue these exercises till they are enabled to
judge of the relative size of an object by the eye, with tolerable
accuracy.
They may next be called upon to divide straight lines drawn
in different directions, into two, three, four, &c., equal or given
parts; their companions being required to give an opinion as to
the correctness with which the direction is executed. This exercise may be carried out also upon curved lines, and may be applied
to the lengths of different parts of the room and of its furniture.
The power of conception may be called out, by referring to
hings not present; for example, the children may be required to
say what animals have long or short tails-long or short ears;
what streets or roads are broad, narrow, or long. A variety of
similar illustrations will at once suggest themselves to the mind of
the intelligent teacher.
SECOND STEP.
Object.-To lead the children to perceive the necessity for the
adoption of standard measures of length, &c., and to make them
familiar with those established by law or usage.
Plan.-The teacher holds up a long and a short lath, or a long
and a short piece of string, and asks the children what they can
say of them; thus awakening the consciousness of their having
already acquired ideas of general and relative size. They should
then be led to feel that this is not enough. The teacher might
suppose herself wanting some ribbon for her bonnet, and might
ask whether it is probable, if she sent to the shop for a long piece,
that they would know exactly how much to send? Having, by
a few such illustrations, convinced the children that something
Sore definite than the general and relative measures, long, short,
211 
SIZE.-SECOND STEP.
broad, narrow, &c., is absolutely necessary, the teacher may show
them a yard measure, and tell them that this is a standard of
length, which has been universally adopted in this country, and
that it is called a yard. She may then send to another room, and
ask some one to cut a yard of string, and send it to her. The
children should be told to measure this; they will find it exactly
the same length as the standard yard she had produced. It is desirable that some such act as this should fix the idea on the mind.
The children may then be told that the yard-measure is this length
in every store in the country, as well as in the next room.
The standard measures of length might be marked horizontally
on the floor, or perpendicularly on the walls of the school-room, in
order to accustom the children to the use of them in measuring
lines and objects.
A Lesson on Afeasurinq by the Standard  Afeasures of Length.
No opportunity should be lost of giving practice to the eye in
determining the length of objects by these measurements. Children are greatly interested in themselves endeavoring to determine
the size of things, and in having their judgment tested by actual
trial. The children should carefully observe the length of the
yard, as it is held by the teacher in various positions, and at various distances from the eye:  they should notice the apparent
change which takes place in its length under each change of position, that they may be prepared to take this fact into consideration
when calculating the size of objects in different positions and at
various distances. They may also be required to find two objects,
as two pieces of string, or two laths, which are together equal to
the yard; thus introducing the idea of the half-yard, as being the
length of one of these. Again, they may produce four similar
objects, which, when united, also form a complete yard; and thus
gain the idea of a quarter of a yard, as being the length of one
of these.
In a further lesson, the idea of a foot may be communicated
in the same manner, showing that it is the third of a yard; and
also the idea of the inch and of the nail. The children should be
exercised in determining the relative size of these measures, i. e.,
212
t 
SIZE.-SECOND STEP.
the proportion each of them bears to the yard; and also their
positive size, as unvarying standard measures.
These exercises may be continued, until the eye can decide on
particular lengths with tolerable accuracy; after which the children may be called on to determine the length of lines combined
in various figures; the circumference or girth of various objects;
they may then proceed to dimensions of greater extent-those, for
instance, of the floor and walls of the schoolroom, or of the playground.
Dry Measure.
Bring before the children the peck, the half-peck, and the
quarter-peck measures, and ask if they know what things are
bought and sold by this measure? Then select the largest of the
measures, and having told a child to fill it with bran, turn out its
contents upon a cloth, and tell the class that the measure is called
"a peck measure," and that the quantity of bran it contained is
called "a peck" of bran.  Then require a child to fill the next
smaller measure, and to empty its contents into the peck measure.
How much of the peck does it fill? Half of it. By what name,
then, may this smaller measure be called? If this is half a peck,
how many of them will make one peck?  Prove this by measurement. Then let the children repeat, "Two half pecks, equal to
one peck." The same plan may be pursued with the quarterpeck; and when these measures have become familiar, the children
may be questioned upon them, thus:
If one person buy four quarters of a peck of bran, and another
buy half a peck, how much has the one more than the other?
How many half pecks in four quarter pecks? How imany whole
pecks? If I pay five cents for half a peck of peas, what must I
pay for one peck?  Require the children to go through the process thus: One half peck costs five cents; two half pecks, which
are equal to one peck, will cost two times five cents, or ten cents.
If the teacher cannot produce a bushel measure, the children may
be told that four pecks are equal to a measure called a bushel.
They may then be questioned on that measure also.
The following table of these measures of capacity may now be
written oni the blackboard, thus:
213 
SIZE.-SECOND STEP.
Quarter.
2
1
2    -           1
-=    1
The children should then read out the table once or twice
simultaneously, that the teacher may ascertain that it is understood. They should then learn it thoroughly by silent repetition.
They may afterward be required to write it out from memory.
The first four denominations in wine measure may be treated
in a similar way, viz., gill, pint, quart, and gallon. Beyond this it
is perhaps hardly profitable to go until the children come to learn
the tables.
Actual measures, both those of linear and superficial extension,
and those of solid and liquid capacity, should be set before the
children, until both sight and touch are perfectly familiar with
them. Practice in these, and in the use of the scales and weights
used in lessons on weight, should precede the learning by heart of
formal tables of weights and measures.   Such practice affords
most useful mental exercise, and secures a thorough understanding
of the importance and value of standard measures. When this
has been attained, the children may commit the tables to memory
with advantage, and then, with a thorough comprehension of their
several gradations, proceed to the acquirement of facility in the
practical application of them.
214
IE[alf Peck.
Peck.
Bush,al.
4 
WEI GHT.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
M'ANY important scientific truths are involved in this subject,
but it is obvious that scientific details are inexpedient in lessons
such as these, which are intended to help those whose minds are
just opening to the perception of truth as it meets them in daily
experience. Still, while the whole of truth cannot Just yet betold,
because the mind of the little listener cannot properly receive it,
't is essential that whatever is told should be part of that great
whole, on the further steps of which the more matured mind may
exercise itself without having to retrace the path.
In the subject now before us it is important that the teacher should
remember that the WErIGIT of any object is the force withi which it
is drawn toward the centre of the earth. Any one who would raise
a heavy stone from the ground must exert an amount of force in
lifting it up, somewhat exceeding that by which the earth's attraction drags it down.   It is chiefly in this aspect of resistance that
the property of weight is an object of infantile perception.
Through what medium does a child attain to this perception?
Possibly through several bodily powers. It is not by means of
the sense of touch alone that the idea is attained; for this sense
may be perfect, where a child is too weak to lift a pencil. It is in
truth through the exercise of muscular power that a weighlt is
raised or moved;'and therefore it is by this capability, aided arid
directed by sight and touch, that the idea of weight in the abstract
is acquired, and different degrees of it compared.
=
i 
WEIGHT.-FIRST STEP.
FIRST STEP.
Object.-To lead the children to the perception of WEIGHT in
the abstract, and to the difference in the relative weight of various substances, both solids and liquids, as compared with their
relative bulk.
Plan for Developing the General Idea of Weight.-The chil.
dren should be told to lift various objects presented to them, or to
poise them in their hands, and to mention any differences they
perceive. They will notice that the things they have lifted differ
in weight, some possessing much weight, others comparatively
little. They should then learn that those things of which the
weight is considerable, are said to be heavy, and that those of
which the weight is little, are called light.  They should then be
taught, by the comparison of objects of various weighlt, properly
to apply the terms heavy and light, heavier and lighter, heaviest
and lightest; and lastly, let the children arrange them in order according to their weight.   The teacher may then lead the children
to analyze their perception of weight.   When  you lift a very
heavy stone, by what means do you raise it? By putting out all
our strength.  And when you lift a feather?  WVe do so with great
ease.
Plan for Developing the Idea of Relative Weight, and of WTeight
as Compared with Relative  Bulk.-Bring before the children a
miscellaneous collection of objects, differing in both weight and
bulk, as also objects of the same bulk, but differing in weight; as,
lead, iron, coal, wood, cork, bags of shavings, sand, feathers, shot,
peas, pebbles, beans, &c.; a phial of quicksilver; also various
liquids, as water, milk, spirits, oil, &c.
1. Develop idea of bulk.   Exercise the children in finding
objects great in bulk, small in bulk, same in bulk; lastly arrailging them in order according to their bulk.
2. Compare objects as to weight and bulk; as, This cork has
much bulk, but little weight; This lead has little bulk, but much
weight, &c.
3. Children find objects same in bulk, but differing in weight;
samn  in weight, but differing in bulk.
216 
WEIGHIT.-SECOND STEP.
4. Compare solid objects as to weight, at first making simply
individual comparisons; as, This lead is the heaviest, this stone is
next heaviest, this wood is next heaviest, &c.
5. Let the children now make a general classification of objects as to their weight; as, Metals are heaviest, minerals next
heaviest, wood next, textile fabrics next, &c.
6. In a similar way compare liquids, giving water as the
standard.
A small quantity of oil may be poured into a phial, and upon
it some water; the water will displace the oil, and sink below it.
Why? It is the heavier liquid. Then some quicksilver may be
added; it again sinks below the water. Why? Because quicksilver is heavier than either water or oil. In a similar way compare the other liquids.
The children should be encouraged to describe the facts they
observe in their own language; as, The feathers are light, the shot
is heavy; oil is light, quicksilver is heavy. They should also be
led to perceive that there may be large quantities of some substances, as of bran or feathers, which, though of great bulk, possess but little weight; whilst but a small portion of other substances, as, for instance, of metals, is heavy. They will thus
arrive at the conclusion that the bulk of an object is no reliable
indication of its specific weight.
SECOND STEP.
Object.-To lead the children to perceive the necessity for
adopting standard measures of weight, and to make them practically acquainted with those in most common use.
Plan.-The children have already been led to see that heavy
and light are relative terms-the thing which, when compared
with one object, is called light, being said to be heavy when compared with another. Hence arises the necessity for an unchlanging standard of weight, with which the weights of substances may
be determined.*
* Exercises with scales and weights may be used at this step with much
IQ
217
p
I 
WEIGHT.-SECOND STEP.
In developing this idea, the same plan may be pursued as in
illustrating the necessity of standard measures of size.  The chlildren should also here be taught the use of scales and weights, and
the necessity of standard weights, in the same manner as the
measures of size were learned (page 201.) They should be much
practised in judging of the weight of miscellaneous objects, always
testing the correctness of their judgments by varying the objects
before the class. As a last exercise, the children may learn the
table of avoirdupois weight. This may be formed after the example given in the lesson on dry measure.
In all the exercises on weight, the pound is taken as the
standard.
Ill exercising the children to judge of weight, begin by passing around the class weights, or objects, that weigh just a pound.
Tell the children their weight, and request them to hold them in
their right hands, and think just how heavy they are, as they will
soon have some other objects, to decide whether they are heavier
or lighter than this weight, and how much. Next pass around
half-pound or two-pound weights, requesting the children to hold
them in their right hands, just as they did the pound weights, and
think how much they weigh. When the weights have gone
round, call for the judgments of the class, and let one of those who
come the nearest to the correct weight, test the correctness of
the guessing by weighing.  These exercises should be frequently
repeated with miscellaneous objects, until they can judge with tolerable accuracy of the weight of various objects. Request them
to bring in objects of a given weight, always testing, or rather
allowing them to test, the correctness of the selection by weighing. These exercises never fail to interest the children, and it is
astonishing how accurate they will soon become in judging of
weight, and thus will have cultivated a sense of great practical
utility, but which is ordinarily neglected.
advantage.  It is better to begin at first with the larger wfights, as, the pound,
half-pound, and quarter-pound, these being most readily distinguished.
218
._ 
SOUND.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
FEW things are more useful, in all positions of life, than a
delicate and discriminating perception of the varied qualities of
SOUND, with facilities of reproducing known sounds at will. It is
on these attainments that the effectiveness of the good reader and
speaker, as well as that of the skilled musician, chiefly depends.
These faculties are in constant activity in all the familiar scenes
of daily life and social intercourse; unitedly they form one noble
distinctive feature, by which man is exalted far above all other
animate beings of God's creation, and, in their exercise, may  be
found at all times a fruitful source of innocent, profitable, and exalting pleasure.
Under judicious exercise, the organ of hearing is susceptible
of a high degree of perceptive cultivation. The organs of voice
also are equally capable of practical improvement; and the earlier
in life the education of these organs is commenced, the more certain and satisfactory will be the results attained.
FIRST STEP.
Object.-To develop the general idea of sounr, and also
showv that it possesses great variety.
Plan.-The teacher to utter some sounds with her own voice,
and also to produce others by means of sonorous objects;  thus
leading the children to perceive the existence of the quality cf 
SOUND.-FIRST STEP.
sound, and to observe that it is made known to us by the organ
of hearing. They may then be exercised in distinguishing common and familiar sounds, and in determining by the ear by what
means they are produced; and in endeavoring to imitate some of
them by the voice. The teacher may then sing some simple tune,
to awaken the perception of melody, and to encourage the dawn.
ings of musical taste.
Subjects for Lessons at this Step.
1. Objects for producing different tones to be sounded, and the
children to be exercised in deciding by the sense of hearing only,
from what kind of substance the sound was produced; as, a bell,
a drum, a glass full of water, another half full, another empty,
china, different metals, &c.
2. Sounds made by men and animals to be imitated; the children to say what the sound is intended to represent.
3. Simultaneous movements to be carried out, especially those
involving sound in measured time; such as clapping hands, marching in tine, stamping with the feet, simultaneous counting, &c.
4. The children to be called on to decide which of their compalnions is speaking, having first been directed to close their eyes.
5. The teacher to sing some very simple melodies, some of
them quick and lively, others slow and solemn; the children to
say which of them they prefer.
Sketch of a Lesson on Sounds.
I.  -Children to say with what  they
hear.  Teacher tells them she wants to
find out who can hear best. She goes behind a screen, or asks the children to close
their eyes, rings a bell, asks what the noise
was, and how made; rings a quarter dollar on the table, blows a whistle, sounds a
tuning-fork, strikes an empty glass, also a
glass full of water, knocks with a hammer, with a ruler, &c., the children always
deciding how each sound is made. Should
they be at a loss, the teacher produces the
220
I. - So un ds dis tin -
guishel. 
SOUND.- FIRST STEPr.
noise in their presence, desiring them to
listen in order that they may discover how
it was produced.
II.-l. Children told they are going to
hear four of the sounds they heard before,
in order that they may decide which are
most alike. The teacher, still behind the
screen, touches the bell so as to produce
one tone, rings the quarter on the table,
sounds the tuning-fork, rings the bell
sharply. Children decide by ear that the
first and third sounds resemble each other;
also the second and fourth.
2. Teacher again sounds the tuningfork, blows the whistle, touches the bell so
as to produce one sound; children to describe whether the third sound resembles
more the first or the second.
3. Teacher strikes a small hammer on
the table, strikes an empty glass, knocks
with her heel, knocks a full glass. Children compare sounds, and decide which
resemble each other.
III.-  Children  hear  the sounds once
more, to decide which they like best, and
then arrange them in the order of sweetness or melody, going from the least to
the most musical. VWhen they disagree,
compare the sounds, and train the ear in
deciding.
The sounds will probably stand as follows, written on the board:
1. Sound of ruler on wood.
2. Hammer on wood.
3. Full glass.
4. Empty glass.
5. Coin.
6. Bell.
7. Whistle.
8. Tuning-fork.
221
II.-Sounds cornpared.
III. - Sounds arranged 
SOUND.-SECOND STEP.
SECOND STEP.
Sketch of Lessor for this Step.
Point.-To exercise the children in distinguishing sounds, and
also tune, in order to cultivate an ear for music.
I.  -Bring a girl and a boy before the
children.   Require  them  to  give their
names, and let the rest call them by their
names. Tell the children in their seats
that these are going to say something,
and that they must listen to their voices
so as to distinguish them. Let the boy
and girl repeat individually, "The clock
strikes." Require the rest to notice the
difference in their voices. Bring another
boy. Let each of the boys repeat the
same sentence, the rest to decide as before.
Bring another girl, and repeat the same
exercise, the rest deciding.
Tell the children that they must now
decide on the voice without seeing the
speaker. Put the two boys out of sight;
touch the boy who is to speak, and let the
children decide who it was that spoke.
Proceed in the same manner with the girls.
Put all four out of sight, letting oine of
them repeat the same sentence, or sing
a verse, exercising the rest in deciding
whether it was a boy or girl who spoke,
and which boy or girl.
II.- Require them to clap hands as the
teacher counts one, two, three;  children
to count as the teacher claps hands. Repeat these exercises four, five, and six
times, instead of three, and call on individual children to perform them. Strike
the pointer against the frame of the board,
making the beats regular and irregular, till
they can distinguish the difference.
III.-Sing some very simple melodies,
222
I. -guVoes distinguished.
II.-Sounds distin.
guished as to Times.
lII.-Sounds distin 
SOUND.-SECOND STEP.
guished as to Time and without words.   Let the children decide
Tune.                  which they  like the best.  Sing these
melodies twice over, with or without the
words, first slowly and then quickly. Try
and get them to see that some airs are
naturally plaintive, and some lively.
LIST OF LESSONS ON SOUNDS, FOR THIS STEP.
Hammer, Bell, Whistle.
Glasses full and empty.
China, Delft, Glass.
Coins of different metals; as, gold, silver, copper, selecting
those of as nearly the same size as may be.
Voices.
Further exercises should also be had to lead the children to
discover that musical sounds have the three distinct properties of
length or duration, pitch or tone, and force or volume. At first
these qualities should be taught separately, and the idea of time, as
being the most easy of apprehension, should be that commenced
with. The children should also be led to observe that there may
be either a prolongation of the sound of the notes themselves, or
of the interval or pause between them.
Plan.-To give the children the idea of the quality of time as
applied to sound, some notes should be uttered, at first very slowly,
and afterward rapidly, making them observe and state the difference in these two methods. Next the teacher may sing some
simple air, requiring the children to listen and beat time, first under
guidance, and then unaided. They should then practise singing
al air in unison with the teacher, she taking the lead and beating
time. After this they should sing the exercises by themselves,
she beating time; and lastly, they may be exercised in both singing and beating time themselves. Practice in simultaneous movemenets, actions, and utterances, helps to the cultivation of a correct
perception of time; and children derive great pleasure from such
measured simultaneous exercises, for they appeal to the powerful
agent of sympathy. Children may easily be taught to appreciate
223 
SOJUND.-SECOND STEP.
the difference in the intervals between notes, by counting whilst
the sounds are being uttered-at first the time between the notes
being considerable, and therefore obvious.
The next quality to be brought under observation is that of
pitch or tone.  The teacher should run up the common scale,
through a whole octave, to give the children an idea that there
are different tones; and then by selecting a deep tone and after ward sounding its octave, point out their agreement. The class
may then be practised in imitating these sounds. At this point
various exercises may be introduced which will greatly interest
the class, and they may now be taught that each sound is repre sented by its particular symbol; and by a comparison of the let ters as used as representatives of sounds in music, with the use of
them as symbols of sound in language, they may be taught the
mode in which one thing may represent another, and to what end
standard symbols have been established for general convenience.
If the children cannot grasp the idea at this step, though in most
cases it may be impressed upon the mind, it should not be lost
sight of by the teacher.
The third quality of musical sounds which the chlildreni should
learn to distinguish, is that of force or volume. This depends
upon the power by which tones are produced, and may be increased or diminished indefinitely.   It may be exemplified by
comparing the deep sound of the ocean in a storm, or the roar of
the majestic lion, with the faint cry of the infant.  To give the
idea, the teacher should sing a note ill a soft but steady tone, following it up by another in a loud and fAll tone, calling upon the
children first to state the difference between the two, and then
themselves to join in the exercise. This should afterward be frequently repeated by the children alone, loud or soft, at the discretion of the teacher. They may then be exercised on different
notes in the same way. The next practice should be to commence
a note softly, and increase it gradually, till it become loud, and
then to begin loud and to end soft. This is a most important
exercise in aid of a right manlagement of the voice.
These three qualities may be illustrated by school songs, ani
thus the style of singing in a primary school much improved.
224 
SOUND.-SECOND STEP.
Learning pieces of poetry, not only as an exercise of memory,
but also of intonation, would be very suitably introduced among
lessons on sound.
For a course of lessons and exercises in the Third Step, as
leading to music, we cannot do better than recommend to teachers
the use of the "Primary School Song Book," by Lowell Mason
and Geo. Jas. Webb, and published by Mason Brothers, New
York.
225
10* 
LANGUAGE.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
ALTHOUGH direct and systematic lessons.  language are, for
the most part, unsuited to a primary school, much may still be
done by the teacher to cultivate the habit of correct speaking.
To this end care must be taken that ideas communicated to the
children are conveyed to them in appropriate terms, and that,
when giving expression to their own thoughts, they do so in cor
rect and appropriate language.
In carrying out these objects, the following points deserve
special attention:
1. All erroneous expressions made use of by the children
should be immediately corrected, and the proper words fixed upon
the mind by repetition. This incidental mode of teaching is the
most natural and simple method of correcting those errors in language which the children of the poor acquire at their homes, and
of supplying those deficiencies which belong to their as yet limited
vocabulary.
2. In the daily work of the scho9l room, all definitions of the
meaning of words, and all descriptions of places, objects, or events,
whether given by the teacher to the children, or elicited from
them, should be clothed in simple and definite language, and fixed
in the memory by repetition. A double object is thus attained;
the mind is stored with knowledge for its own benefit, and furnished with appropriate language in which to convey it to others.
3. The children should be trained to give complete answers to 
LANGUAGE.
all questions which are put to them.   Teachers too often content
themselves with such answers as merely indicate that the child is
in possession of the idea they wish to convey, without caring for
the clearness or otherwise with which that idea is expressed;
whereas experience teaches that nothing more tends to make an
idea clear to the mind, and to render it a permanent possession,
than the act of clothing it in accurate language. Monosyllabic
answers, as "Yes" and "No," should be rejected, except when
they express all that can be said on the subject.
Besides the above incidental mode of teaching language, which
should be adopted in all the classes of a primary school, the following exercises are given for the special use of children from six
to eight years of age.
The following exercises in Language are designed as Third
Step lessons:
EXERCISE I.
To form sentences from given words-(1) the name of an
object, (2) a word expressing quality, and (3) some part of the
verb "to be."
Plan.-The children to name a number of objects, beginning,
for example, with those of the various articles of furniture, &c., in
the room; the teacher to write these names under each other on
the slate, requiring the children to spell each word as it is written,
assisting or correcting when necessary.
The children to be then required to say something regarding
each object, the teacher helping them to determine how far the
terms they apply are appropriate. The teacher to add these descriptions to the names already on the slate, and thus lead the
children on to the formation of simple sentences, in their shortest
form. A few examples follow:
The ink is black.
The slate is smooth.
The form is long.
That window is large.
This pencil is sharp, &c.
227 
LANGUAGE.
The children should then read over the sentences, and be led
to observe that each begins with a capital letter, anid ends with a
full stop. The slate may then be turned away, and the class required to reproduce the lesson on their own slates, without its aid.
When this has been done, the slate should be again referred to,
that they may correct their exercises.
The children may be supplied with little books, in which to
write out these lessons at home. For some time they should not
be required to originate anything for themselves, but merely to
reproduce that which has been taught in school.  They will find
pleasure in doing that which they can do well.
'When all the objects in the room have formed the subjects of
such lessons, those in the playground, the street, or in the fields,
may be resorted to, gradually extending the circle to more remote
objects. At the least a dozen lessons of this description should be
given.
EXERCISE II.
The forming of contracted sentences.   Of these there are two
varieties: 1. That in whiclh different qualities are ascribed to one
and the same object.  2. That in which the same quality is ascribed
to various objects.
Fiirst kind: The describing an object by various qualities.
Plan.-The teacher  writes the name of some familiar object
upon the school slate, and calls uponi the children to apply it to its
various qualities, writing them down as they give them.   The
teacher should assist the children in determining the suitability or
otherwise of the qualities suggested, and also in spelling the more
difficult words.
We may suppose a lesson ill which the given name is "paper."
It would present itself in some such form as this:
The paper is white.
The paper is thin.
The paper is smooth.
The paper is pliable, &c.
The teacher should next lead the childre     n to notice that tie
228 
LANGUAGE
word "paper" need only be written once, and that the four sentences may be contracted into one. Then the teacher, directed by
the children, writes:
" Paper is white, thin, smooth, and pliable."
The children then read this over, and are led to perceive the necessity for commas in those places where the words "the paper is"
are omitted, and also the use of the word "and" between the two
last words of the sentence. Lastly, the slate is turned away, and
the children reproduce and correct the lesson, as in the case of the
former exercise.
The words, chalk, iron, clay, coal, salt, water, air, snow, ice,
sugar, glass, leather, thread, a pen, a needle, fire, wood, &c., &c.,
are suitable for lessons of this kind. The children may be encouraged to reproduce such lessons at home, forming, in the first place,
the several simple sentences, and then contracting them as above
suggested. Two or three such exercises will generally suffice for
one lesson.
Second kind:  The same quality attributed to several objects.
Plan.-A  quality selected, sentences made, contracted, reproduced, and corrected, as above.
Glass is brittle.
Chalk is brittle.
Coal is brittle.
Glass, coal, and chalk are brittle.
Iron is hard.
Flint is hard.
Glass is hard, &c.
Iron, flint, and glass are hard.
The children to be led to notice the stops, as before, and the
change of the word "is" for "are."
Subjects for sentences of this kind: Black, white, light,
heavy, bright, sweet, sour or acid, cold, tough, porous, inflammable, soluble, fusible, pliable, &c., &c.
229
t,
I
I 
LANGUAGE.
EXERCISE III.
An exercise on discrimination in the use of words.
Select an object, say a tree, and let the children apply to it
every descriptive term that they can think of as applicable to any
tree, thus: A tree may be young, old, tall, short, graceful, stunted, withered, green, bare, branching, large, small, smooth, gnarled,
fruit-bearing, barren, upright, drooping, &c.
Then let them select all the terms that might possibly be applied to any one tree, and thus draw out a description of two or
more trees from the above list of attributes, thus:
The tree is young, small, graceful, green, and smooth; or,
The tree is old, tall, large, branching, and fruit-bearing; or,
The tree is old, short, stunted, withered, gnarled, and barren.
Subjects for these exercises: Flower, man, monkey, house,
sky, river, horse, mountain, book, water, an apple, &c.
EXERCISE IV.
Following the order in which a lesson on an object is usually
given, we now take the verb " Have;" and the children are required to form sentences, naming the parts of objects, and the
number of those parts introducing that verb.
1. To form sentences, describing the parts of objects, without
reference to their number:
The tree has leaves.
The cow has feet.
2. Contracted sentences of this character:
The tree has branches.
The tree has leaves.
The tree has roots, &c.
Contracted-The tree has leaves, roots, and brnnches.  The
contracted form may be at once adopted, as its nature is understood from previous exercises.
230
A bird has wings.
The cube has facer.. 
LANGUAGE.
3. Sentences in which the several parts of an object may be
distinguished by a word expressive of quality:
The cat has soft feet.
The knife has a sharp point.
The cow has a long tail.
4. Sentences in which the several parts of an object may be
described by their number:
The cow has four feet.
The cow has a tail.
The cow has two horns.
Contracted-The cow has four feet, two horns, and a tail.
The preceding exercises are confined to objects described as to
their qualities and their parts, and only one example of each is
given; but the teacher will, of course, take care that the children have
as many as are necessary. We now proceed to sentences which
include words expressing action or condition. As the vocabulary
of the children at this stage is usually very limited, it is desirable
to increase the stock of words at their command. This may be
done by writing out lists of the names of objects, and of words
expressive of actions. Each list should be formed of words which
may be arranged under some general head, itself familiar to the
children, and thus the principle of association will be brought to
the help of the memory.   Rigid classification should be avoided,
as well as the introduction of terms difficult of explanation.
The children may be assisted in drawing up lists of words expressive of domestic and social relationship, of trades, occupations,
and professions, or of the names of quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and
insects; trees, garden vegetables, fruits, grain; minerals, metals,
and liquids; articles of clothing, household furniture, &c. By
way of variety, the children may be required to name the objects
they have seen in the sky, in the field, or onl the river; the various goods sold in a grocer's shop; the tools used by the carpenter, the shoemaker, or the smith.
231
L
w 
LANGUAGE.
Similar lists of words descriptive of actions should be made,
beginning with those describing the powers and capabilities of the
several organs of the human frame:
The hand-openi, shut, hold, catch, grasp, &c.
The foot-stand, walk, run, stamp, dance, &c.
The mouth and voice-eat, drink, sip, speak, sing, &c.
The eye and ear-look, stare, gaze, listen, hearken, &c.
This may also be extended to acts of the mind; as, think
study, consider, invent, love, hate.
Actions peculiar to specific trades and occupations-cut, stitch,
sow, plough, reap, mow, bore, saw, &c.
Actions characteristic of certain animals-walk, trot, gallop,
fly, swim, crawl, climb, &c.
Sounds made by animals-sing, bark, neigh, low, bray, croak,
hum, hiss, &c.
The children should also be required to write out words expressing some of those less evident actions effected in plants; as,
grow, increase, spread, shelter, fade, wither, &c.; or those applied
to liquids; as, pour, drop, flow, overflow, &c., &c.
The following remarks point out how such lists of words may
be made so as to give them interest:
Suppose the children required to make a list of insects. Each
of the children in turn gives the name of an insect, which is
written on the board.  When they can remember no others, the
teacher may supply the names of any familiar insects they may
have  overlooked.   The board may then be covered,  and the
children required to reproduce them. This done, the list may again
be showed them, that they may correct errors in spelling, and
supply any words they may have omitted.
These lists may also form very useful lessons for home work.
In correcting them, the teacher asks the first child in the class
to read out his list, writing it upon the board as he does so.
Another child is then desired to mention any words his list may
contain which are not already on the board. The same plan to be
adopted with the other children, until a complete copy of all the
names the children have noted will be formed upon the board.
232 
LANGUAGE
From this the children are then permitted to correct their errors
in spelling, and to complete their several lists of words.*
Much varied information may be given to the children in connection with the new words they;earn as these lessons proceed;
but great care should be taken that the lesson on language is not
lost sight of in the communication of this general information.
EXERCISE V.
Sentences containing words expressing action.  I. The subject and the action complete the sense. II. An additional word
is required to complete the sense. III. Exercises onl sentences
of both these classes.
I. Sentences containing a word expressive of an act which,
with its subject, makes a complete and significant sentence.
Plan.-The teacher writes in column on the board a list of
words expressing actions; as, stand, walk, run, &c.; and the children, with the assistance of the teacher, form these into sentences,
by the addition of the name of an object, animal, &c. They are
then erased, and the children reproduce the exercise without help.
1. Sentences where the subject and the action complete the
sense:
The horse stands.
The child sleeps.
The scholar sits.
These exercises to be repeated, putting both the object and
the act in the plural form:
The horses stand.
The children sleep.
The scholars sit, &c.
The actions characteristic of animals, and the sounds they!
utter, will afford great variety in these exercises:
* It is not necessary that any large number of lists of words should be made
before proceeding to the following exercises.   The object is to furnish with
words, and the teacher may resort to the lists whenever the introduction of
new words is found desirable.
233 
LANGUAGE.
The fish swims.
The bird flies.
The serpent crawls.
The bee hums.
The frog creaks.
The dog barks, &c.
II.-Sentences in which, beside the subject and the object, an
additional word is required to complete the sense:
I hold-the pencil.
He opens-the book.
The monkey climbed-the tree, &c.*
The children should be led to see the necessity for each addi.
tional word.
Actions peculiar to trades or employments:
The gardener digs-the ground.
The tailor cuts-the cloth.
The carpenter planes-the wood, &c.
As a more extended exercise, the name of the instrument by
which an act is performed may be introduced into the sentence:
The gardener digs the ground with a spade.
The tailor cuts the cloth with scissors.
The grocer weighs sugar with a pair of scales, &c.
Words expressing quality may now be added to the subject or
object; as,
The little boys play.
The bright sun is shining.
The strong old horse drew the heavy wagon.
Great variety may be given to these lessons, and the attention
and interest of the children well sustained, by leading them to try
* The teacher need not object to the use of the past or future tense of the
verb, provided the children use it correctly.
231 
LANGUAGE.
to find out how many qualifying words may be added to a sen
tence, and the peculiar force of each.
EXERCISE VI.
In the exercises which follow, the children are led to observe
and describe some of those circumstances which are connected
with various actions, and so identified with them that the mention
of one is often suggestive of another. For example, such sentences as, The fish swims, The worm crawls, The bird flies, which
call up simultaneously in the mind the ideas, In the water, On the
ground, In the air.
Combinations such as these are simple, and readily understood;
those of a more abstract nature should be avoided. There should
be no attempt to lead where the children cannot follow.
Sentences.
The children sit on the forms.
Lions live in forests.
Ships sail on the ocean.
The leaves fall on the ground, &c.
Sentences with phrases expressive of time:
The sun rises in the morning.
We prepared our lessons last night.
The birds sing in the morning.
Dogs bark during the night, &c.
Sentences with words expressing the manner of performing an
kct:
The child walks slowly.
The dog barks loudly.
The lion growls fiercely.
Jane writes neatly.
As an example of the manner in which these lessons may be
varied, we give the following sentences, in which two or more of
the preceding circumstances are expressed:
235
v 
LANGUAGE.
Place and Manner.-The children sit quietly at the desks, &c.
Time and Manner.-The rain fell violently during the night.
Time and Place.-The rooks rest all night on the trees.
This is, perhaps, as far as it is desirable to lead the children of
an infant school in such lessons as these. The subject may close
with an example showing the mode in which two or more of the
preceding sets of exercises may be combined in the simple description of an object. The teacher need not, however, wait till the
foregoing exercises have been finished before such examples are
introduced.
An Apple, described as to its qualities, its several component
parts, its mode of growth, and its uses, or as to any other simple
fact connected with it.
Exercises 1 and 2. An apple may be round, russet, smooth,
juicy, odorous, wholesome, acid, and refreshing.
Exercise 3. It has a stem, a rind, or outer covering, a pulp
inside the peel, a core, and seeds.
Exercise 4. It grows in orchards and gardens; it is sold at
stalls in the streets, in fruit markets, at greengrocers' shops, and
is used for making cider, as a table fruit, and for making apple
pies.
In working out such descriptions, the children should be re
quired to point out the value of each word, and to state what it
adds to the description.
Thus, in the preceding lesson, the word round describes the
shape of the apple; the word russet, the color of it; the word
smooth, the nature of its surface; the word sweet, its taste; the
word wholesome, the effects of it when eaten as food, &e.
Treated in this way, the lesson becomes truly a lesson on lan.
guage. The children learn to distinguish between the idea and
the word representing it.
Such a course of instruction on language, given in connection
with objects, insensibly develops the perception of the nature of
the principal words or parts of speech, probably better than could
be done by lessons specially directed to that object.   It only
remains now that the teacher bring the subject of classification
236
k
r
t
I 
LANGUAGE.
di7ectly before the children.   This may be best done by leading
them to analyze a few of their own lessons, arranging the words
into names, words expressing actions, qualities, relations, &c. When
this has been done, the teacher may communicate the grammatical
names of nouns, verbs, adjectives, as introductory to more methodical lessons on grammar.
Such a course of teaching also prepares the mind for gram
matical analysis.
237 
READING.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
THERE is perhaps no subject of school study that has presented more difficulties to the minds of the little learners, than
Reading.   This has been owing very much to the manner in
which it has been usually presented. The English language is
full of difficulties; and if we introduce the child to them all at
once, we shall most certainly confuse and discourage him.
The principles of Pestalozzi so prominently insisted upon, that
but one difficulty should be presented at a time-that the business
of the teacher is analysis-that all difficulties should be divided
and subdivided, until reduced to their simple elements-and that
the work of the infant learner is synthetical, are peculiarly applicable in the prosecution of this subject.
It has been our aim, in the following lessons, to treat the subject in conformity to these principles. We claim for the plan
here presented the following advantages:
1. It puts the child in possession of a key by which he is able
to help himself-a very important principle in education.
2. It is an excellent disciplinary exercise, cultivating accuracy
or observation and expression.
3. It presents but one difficulty at a time, and thus avoids that
confusion, and consequent discouragement, that so often attend the
early efforts in learning to read.
4. It is thorough. By means of a progressive arrangement
and classification, it puts the child in possession of a knowledge 
READING. -FIRST STEP.
of important elements in the English language that are often
entirely neglected.
5. The plan is calculated to cultivate clearness of articulation,
and lead the children, by easy and progressive steps, to a knowledge of the orthography of words.
We believe it to be an easy, thorough, and rapid method of
learning to read and spell.
A set of cards and a little reading book have been prepared
with special reference to accompanying these lessons, which we
think the teacher will find of great assistance.
PHONIC READING.
FIRST STEP.
While in this Step, the children learn to distinguish and imitate forms, and to distinguish and imitate sounds. To each character is attached but one sound.   WVe  first begin by teaching the
children to recognize the forms of the small letters, and their appropriate sounds. For this purpose we use both the large and
small cards, and the blackboard.
The teacher makes the short * sound of a, and asks the children to imitate her. This is continued until they are able to do
it with some degree of accuracy. She then holds before the class
a small card with the small letter a on it. She asks one of the
class to select another like it from the table, calling upon the
class to decide  as to the correctness of the selection.   Asks
another to point to a form like it on the large card. Lets other
members of the class select other forms like it on the card and
on the table. Teacher makes several letters on the board; the
children decide when she makes this letter. Different members
of the class are called upon to select as many letters of this kind
from the tabl)le and card as they can find, always repeating the
sound as they select them.
* The short sounds of the vowels, as heard in hat, pen, pin, hot, htit, the
hard sounds of c and g, the sound of x as heard in wax, are used in every case
in this Step; and s has the sound of c soft, as heard in sent.  The letters,, q and
s.re omitted.  The names of the letters are not given to the childien at present.
239
p 
READING.-FIRST STEP.
The letter t is next treated in the same manner.'Ije cmidren are then shown card No. 5. Teacher points to the letter a
on this card, and the children give the sound. Teacher repeatedly points to these letters, and the children give the sounds, each
time pronouncing them in more rapid succession, until they get
the syllable "at," which they pronounce repeatedly., This is as
much as can be accomplished with one lesson.
Either at this point, or before giving the above lesson, which
perhaps would be the better course, let the children learn at sight
to recognize the following words, as an aid in forming short, easy
sentences, as we proceed: the, is, his, this. These words are
found on both the large and small cards, and may be treated very
much in the same way as in learning the letters a and t, selecting
cards with the required word from the table and from the large
card. In all these exercises, the class should be called upon in
every case to decide upon the correctness of the selection, or work
done by any member.
In case the Reading Cards are not used, the work may be
placed on the blackboard in these and the following exercises.
The teacher who can print readily will be likely to interest her
class more thoroughly by taking this course, than by confining
herself closely to the cards. The cards, however, will be found a
great aid to the teacher in indicating the exact course of the lessons, and in supplying a collection of easy sentences adapted to
the progress of each lesson.
In the next lesson the children learn to sound and recognize
the letters mn and c (hard).  These letters are treated in the same
manner as a and t, combining them with the syllable at. Place
this syllable upon the board, and let the children analyze and pronounce it. At a little distance from it, at the left, place the letter m,
and let the children sound it as pointed to; also pronounce the syllable at. Below, and a little nearer each other, place the same letter
and syllable, and let the children sound them as pointed to, more
rapidly than before; and so proceed until they are brought into
close proximity, and they pronounce the word mat. This may be
repeated several times, and a little conversation may be had with
the children about a mat; as, How many ever saw a mat? Where
240 
READING.-FIRST STEP.
they have seen it? What it is used for? &c. In all these early
lessons with the children, the meaning of each new word should
be made clear to them. Proceed in the same way with c, and so
with all the succeeding lessons.
Should there be any difficulty in getting the children to repeat
the desired sound distinctly, the teacher may make use of the key
word used in forming the combinations at the head of each lesson,
pronouncing it very distinctly several times, making the children
repeat it after her. Next pronounce the same word, emphasizing
the desired sound, requiring the children to listen, to observe her
lips, and then to imitate her.   Next separate the sound from the
remainder of the word, and pronounce the two parts distinctly,
requiring the children to do the same. Thus they will be led to
associate the power of the letter with the word, and may make
use of it when they wish to recall it.
It is well, when the power of a consonant has been learned as
an initial letter, for the children to have a lesson upon the same
letter when it is-a terminal. The following will serve as a plan
that may be continued in teaching the powers of all the consonants:
The teacher makes the children repeat after her a word ending
with a consonant, the power of which she wishes them to learn.
Supposing it to be the power of m, the teacher repeats such a
word as jam, emphasizing the letter m. Calls upon the children
to listen, to observe her lips as she finishes the word, and to imitate her. In this way, if possible, lead them to discover for themselves what the sound is that they hear at the end of the word;
and if they fail to give it correctly alone, repeat it for them, telling them that it is the power of the letter m; and when they wish
to remember the sound, they may think of the word jam.
By way of exercise, and an occasional review of what they
have learned, the teacher points to or prints a letter, and the children give the sound; or the teacher gives the sound of a letter,
and the children either print, or point out the letter which has
that sound.
The letters may be taken up in the following order: a, t, m, c,
b) r, h, v, f, s, d, 1, p, g, n, j, w, e, i, o, xX,, y, and z; and the corn
11.
241 
READING.-FIRST STEP.
binations ow, oy, s,, ch, ny, wh, and th, may be added.  For the
full exemplification of the methods of working out these lessons,
as also for the practice in reading, see "Phonic Reading Cards."
During the progress of these lessons, if the teacher finds the
children have difficulty in distinguishing the letters b, p, q, and d,
it will be well to give them a separate lesson on these letters.*
The following may serve as a specimen of the way of treating
them:
1. Select these letters, and lead the children to observe and
describe them as to resemblance and difference. They are alike,
in that each is formed of one straight and one curved line. They
are unlike in the position of these lines. The first is formed of
two lines-one straight and vertical, and the other curved. The
curved line lies to the right of the vertical line, and touches it at
the middle and base.
2. The second is formed of two lines, as the first, but the
curved line touches the straight line at the top and middle on the
right side.
3. The third has the curve at the left of the straight line, and
touches it at the top and middle.
4. The fourth has the curve at the left of the straight line,
and touches it at the middle and base.
5. EXERCISE.-Let the children say how they know each letter from the other three. Bid them put the letters into two
groups-those which have curves at the top, and those that have
curves at the base. What letters have curves at the top, and
what at the base? Let them divide again into those that have
curves at the right, and those that have curves at the left. Which
letters curve to the right, and which to the left? &c. How p is
distinguished from q, and d from b.
After the children have learned to recognize all the small letters, and to attach to each its appropriate sound, they should be
taught the capital letters, which they will be able to describe and
* Berore giving this lesson, the ideas of straight, curved, vertical, and base,
should be developed with the children, for the method of which, see "Lessons
on Form."   The terms long and short, longer and shorter, apward and downward, right, left, uper, lower, and between, if not already familiar to the chil
dren, should be doveloped.
242 
READING.-FIRST STEP.
draw upon their slates. Before commencing these lessons, how
ever, it will be well to have the following
INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES.
Alphabetical Forms of Capital Letters.
I.  Comparison of Large with the Small Letters.-Let the children select from the capital letters all that resemble the small letters that they have already learned. This will dispose of C, 0,
P, S, U,,  TV, x,  Y.
II.-Next take some letters not included in these, which, with
reference to their simplicity in making and describing, may be
presented in the following order:
1. I, L, T, F, E, ai, A, N, M, straight lined letters.
2. G, curved lined letter.
3. D, B, R,,; straight and curved lined letters.
4. Interest the children, by asking whether they would not
like to find out to what capitals the remaining small letters belong?
5. Select the capital I; place the small i beside it. Give the
sound of short i, or let the children give the sound of the small i,
and then tell them that the capital has the same sound, and let
them repeat it, and describe the letter.
6. Proceed in the same way with L, which the children distinguish as being formed of a vertical and a horizontal line. Proceed thus with T, and so on with all the remaining letters.
7.-Sketch on the Letter E.-The following sketch may serve
as a pattern of the way in which each of the capitals may be
learned and described:
Teacher places the capital E beside the small e, and calls upon
the children to give the sound of small e. Tells them that the
large letter has the same sound.   Children repeat it.  Calls upon
the children to select E on the large card; also from the table;
to find as many large E's as they can. The teacher now pro
vides the children with strips of wood or pasteboard,  and says,
"Make  this letter." *  The teacher asks, "How many  lines in
4 A small box containing both curved and straight strips, for this purpose,
tan be obtained of the Publisher.
243 
READING.-FIRST STEP.
your E? " (remembering to use the short sound of E, and not the
name). Point out the longest line. Tell the number and direction of all the lines.  Let us describe E:  "It is formed of three
straight lines; the longest is a vertical line, and the two shorter
are horizontal; the two horizontal lines touch the vertical line at
the top and base. It has also a little mark in the middle of the
vertical line, on the right side."
Description of the Letter D.-It is formed of two lines, one
straight and vertical, and the other curved. The curved line lies
to the right of the vertical line, and touches it at the top and bottom.*
III.-I1. EXERCISEs.-Hold up the small letters, and let the
children select the capitals that belong to them, and then reverse
this.
2. Let the children give the sounds of the large letters when
pointed to, and point to them when sounded.
Imitating Sounds of Letters.t
During the progress of the preceding exercises on the forms and
sounds of the letters, the teacher may have a daily drill with the
children in imitating the sounds of the letters, without any reference to their forms, taking them in the following order (see Card
No. 4). By varying the pitch on which these sounds are given,
sometimes high, and again low, sometimes at a shouting pitch, and
again in a whisper, the exercise may be made a very interesting
and pleasing one.
In the general classification of sounds, the terms vowel and consonant sounds are used.
* For this purpose letters without ornament should be used.
t The teacher will observe, that in these exercises no reference is to be
made to the forms of the letters, the children simply imitating the sounds as
made by the teacher.
244 
READING.-FIRST STEP.
L-VOWEL SOUNDS, OR TONIC ELEMENTS.
Sketch on Long Vowel Sounds.
1. Pronounce E, A, A in air, A in far, and A in aw, 6, 00oo.
Children repeat each sound in concert, and then call on individual
children to give them.
2. Proceed as before with be, ba, bare, far, fall, b6, boo. Cllil.
dren repeat as before.
3. Lead the children to notice the position of the organs of
speech in making these sounds.
II.-DOUBLE VQWEL SOUNDS.
Sketch on Double Vowel Sounds.
1. Pronounce i in pine, u in tube, of, ou. Let the children
repeat the sounds in concert, till they can say them in order, and
then individual children called upon to go over them.
2. Pronounce, and exercise the children in pronouncing, cy,
dry, try, fly, sky; boy, hoy, joy, cloy, Troy; bow, cow, now, plow;
new, dew, lieu, stew.
III.-SIISHORT VOWEL SOUNDS.
1. Children sound these after the teacher, as before.   The
sounds may be made more audible by repetition, thus: It, it, it;
et, et, et; at, at, at; ot, ot, ot; Ut, ut, ut, as in put; ut, ut, ut, as
in nut.
2. Exercise the children on other words containing the same
sounds.
IV.-CONSONANT SOUNDS.
1. Subtonic Elements.
1. Pronounce mat, mat, mat, emphasizing m. Children repeat, &c. So proceed with net, lamb, rat, ding. In the last word
let the last sound ng be emphatic. Continue to exercise the chil
245
r 
READING.-FIRST STEP.
wren on these elements, as directed with the vowel sounds. Pro.
ceed in the same manner with the remaining subtonic elements,
b, d, g, j, v, w, z in zeal and z in azure, and th in thine.
2. Atonic Elements.
Sketch on the Aspirate h.-(a) Sound the long vowels first
without and then with the aspirate; as, c, a, a in air, a in far, and
a in aw, 6, oo, he, ha, hair, hah, haw, ho, hoo.
Lead the children to notice what they do in pronouncing the
second line; viz., breathe forcibly at the commencement of each
word.
(b) Exercise the children in the same way on the double
vowel sounds; as, i, u (sound as heard in tune), oi, ou, hi, hu, hoi,
hou.  In the same way, if necessary, proceed with the short vowel
sounds.
(c) Utter the vowel sounds, requiring them to give them aspirated; then pronounce the vowel aspirated, requiring the children
to drop the aspirate.
Proceed with the remaining atonic elements as with the subtonic, viz.: p, t, k, f, c in nice, tch in fetch, th in youth, ci in
vicious.
Pronounce such words as pull, tin, kill, fan, celery, &c., repeating each word several times, making the first letter emphatic.
Let the children repeat the words after the teacher, and then the
sounds. Lead the children to discover the difference between the
subtonic and the atonic elements, not using, however, these terms.
They will discover that in making one, there is a tone, and in the
other there is not. To lead them to this, sound them in connection; as, bale, b, pale, p. Repeat them one after the other. So
take d and t, g and c hard, f and v, th in thin and th in thine, s in
seal and z in zeal, ch in chest or tch in fetch, and j in jest, sh in shall,
and z in azure. (These are sometimes classed as sharp and flat;
the sharps being the atonic elements, as p, f t, &c., and the fiats
being the subtonic elements, as, b, v, d, &c.)
Give them these sounds, both subtonic and atonic, indiscrimiaately, and let the children classify them as those having a tone,
,Ad those having no tone.
246 
READING.-SECOND STEP.
Let the children give sounds of the class called for, as "those
having a tone," and "those having no tone."
V.-EXERCISES ON THE SUBTONIC AND ATONIC ELEME!NTS, WITH
REFERENCE TO THE ORGANS OF SPEECH.
When the children can perfectly imitate the sounds, direct
attention to the organs of speech used in forming them. Let the
children discover which are formed by the lips almost entirely;
which by the tongue with or near the teeth; which by the palate
and throat.
VI.-ORDER OF SOUNDS.
Any word which contains a certain sound chosen by thi
teacher, to be distinctly pronounced by her. Children to decide
whether the sound comes first, middle, or last.
VII.-RHYMES.
1. Exercise the children in repeating lists of words or syllables that rhyme, after the teacher; as,
Long vowels: me, be, te, we, he, &c.; ha, ma, ra, sa, pa, &c.;
lone, cone, tone, known, &c.
List of rhymes containing double vowels; as, fine, tune, coy,
&c. Also short vowels, as, lip, nop, &c., should be repeated
slowly, loudly, softly, &c., according to direction.
SECOND STEP.
In this Step the children will be introduced   1. To words containing the long sounds of the vowels to.
gether with a few words which are to be learned at sight, contain
ing different sounds of the vowels; to words containing silent let.
ters; also the sound of k, q, and the two sounds of c and s.
2. To words formed with more than one consonant initial or
te rminal.
3. In this Step, also, the teacher will see that the children
learn the names of the letters.
247
t —
11 
READING.-SECOND STEP.
In writing out this Step, the teacher must at first be prepared
to furnish most of the examples; but soon, and often surprisingly
soon, the children will relieve her.
At first the children will perhaps be inclined to give non-sig
nificant words; but they must be encouraged to give significant;
words.
Accompanying the Reading Cards is a little book, which may
in this Step be put into the hands of the children.
Over these lessons, both on the cards and in the book, printed
in different type, are words containing different sounds of the
vowels, and other combinations than those to which their attention has been called, which may be taught in a similar way to
those at the beginning of the First Step, To aid in this, a large
card (Nos. 15 and 16) has been prepared, containing these words.
Before the children are introduced to a new lesson, they should be
made familiar with these words, so that they can readily pronounce
them at sight. For more particular directions as to the mode of
treating these words see the cards.
PLAN TO BE USED IN READING FROM BOOKS.
FIRST LESSON.- Object to secure Fluency and Accuracy.
I.-Word by word.
1. The teacher first pronounces a word, the children the next,
and so on. Then reverse the order.
2. Any words that have any peculiarity in spelling selected,
and put upon the board; sounds distinguished; silent letters no
ticed.
II.-Clause by clause.
1. Read each clause, as word by word.
2. Attention paid to pronunciation.
III.-Simultaneous reading.
1. Word by word.
2. Clause by clause.
3. Sentence by sentence.
IV.-Individual children selected to read the paragraph. The
248 
READING.-SECOND STEP.
teacher should select the poorest reader, except sometimes when
she takes the best as an example to the class.
SECOND LESSON.- Object to secure Intelligent Readiny.
I.-1. Teacher and children read, as before, sentence by sen.
tence.
2. Children questioned on the meaning of difficult words; the
board used.
II.-When two or three paragraphs have been read, the substance of each is drawn from the children, and an abstract put
upon the board.
III.-General questions. Object of the lesson; moral, if any.
W,Vhat they have gained from the lesson? &c., &c.
SILENT LETTERS.
At this point in the Step we may call the attention of the children to the fact that some words have letters that are not sounded.
At present, however, these words are not presented systematically
in classes, but the attention of the children is called to the fact of
these silent letters, and a few miscellaneous examples given, such
as will occur, or have already occurred in their reading lessons.
The following will answer as a sketch, to show the way in
which these may be treated, both at this point and in the latter
part of the Step, when they are-more fully discussed.
1. Write on the board, well, ill, bill, fill, will, dell, mill, have,
copse, live, cock, lock, dock, Dick, stick, trick, lick, mess, dress, press,
less, &c.
2. Let the children sound separately every letter in bill; then
give the number of sounds, and point out the letter to which no
sound is attached. Give the term silent. Proceed thus with at
least one of each of the class put on the board. Let the children
cross out, but not rub out, the silent letters in each.
3. Exercise the children in other words containing silent letters as they occur in their reading lessons, observing this suggestion, however, to have these exercises previous to reading the less
11*
249 
READING.-SECOND STEP.
son. Many examples of this kind will occur after they are intro.
duced to words containing the
LONG VOWEL SOUNDS.
The following sketches will illustrate the method of treating
these sounds:
1. Write mad upon the board.  Children analyze it, and give
the vowel sound. To the right of it write made, and treat it in
the same way.
2. Give the terms short and long.   Let the children give
numerous examples of words containing each sound.
3. Give examples, and let the children distinguish the vowel
sounds, and decide which are long, and which are short.
4. E, ], 0, and U, may be treated in a similar way.
K; Q, the Hard and Soft Sounds of C, and the Two Sounds of S.
1. Place the letter k upon the board. Give the sound, and
ask the children whether they have ever heard this sound before?
Ask them to select a letter which has this sound. If they fail to
find it from the card, place several letters on the board, and among
them the letter c, and ask them to select the letter that has this
sound. Now place upon the board, in opposite or parallel columns, lists of words having k, and the hard sound of c; as,
cat    can      cup
kill    kind    kid, &c.
Let them pronounce the two lists, and give the sounds in each.
Give a further list of words having the letter k, and let the children give the sounds; such as, hark, bark, bank, sank, kind, &c.
In a similar way treat the letter q.
2. Hard and Soft Sounds of C.
Sketch.-Develop the idea by comparing such words as cat,
cut, copse, cold, can, with cedar, cell, cinder, cider. Give the terms
hard and soft. The children see that the hard sound is like,
and the soft is like s.
250 
READING.-SECOND STEP.
3. Let the class, in training, give sketches of the two sounds
of s, as of c hard and soft, of u sounded as w, n as ng, and y as
i long.
It would be well, at this point, to have some exercises with
the children on the card, on which are arranged words such as
actually occur in their reading lessons, having the long and short
sounds of the vowels, silent letters, the hard sound of c as expressed by c and k, the soft sound of c, and s subtonic and atonic;
the children analyzing the words, indicating the silent letters, the
different sounds of c and s by the terms suggested.
In the following lessons the teacher may make use of the
names of the letters in speaking of the various consonants. This
will probably be sufficient to familiarize the children with their
names. If the teacher, however, should find this not effective,
methods similar to those used in teaching the words at the heads
;)f the reading lessons may be adopted.
DOUBLE INITIAL CONSONANTS.
As an illustration of the method of treating these lessons, we
subjoin a report of a lesson actually given:
BI Initial.
1. The teacher wrote these letters on the board, and exercised
the children in sounding them.
2. The teacher desired the children to find words beginning
with bl. As they hesitated, she wrote on the board, blot, bless,
black.
3. Children  gave  other  examples, viz.:  bland,  blank,  blind,
blink,  blab,  bladder, blose, blister, block, blanket,  bloss,  blood,  blote,
blick.
4. The children not being able to think of any more words
with these combinations, the teacher rubbed out all those that had
no meaning. She also rubbed out other words which she had not
time to explain, leaving about ten words on the board.
5. She required the children to give the meaning of these,
251 
READING.-SECOND STEP.
supplying the meaning of those they did not know. In the after
noon, the children copied this list of words on their own slates.
Sketch on the Initials Sc.
1. Sc written on the board. Children sound it.
2. Exercised in finding words with this commencement; as,
scan, scot, scum, scatter, &c.  They will probably give words with
other than short and long vowels; as, scar, scald, &c. These should
be added to the list; but should they give words having the sound
of so, but spelled differently, as skip, skin, the teacher should put
them in another column, and direct their attention to the difference
in spelling. Children questioned on the meaning as before.
3. Children print on their own slates all the words they can
remember beginning with sc; also with sk.
Sketch on Ld and Lt.
The teacher writes told on the board, and directs the attention
of the children to the last two sounds. Children exercised as
before, and list made out; as,
Id-held, gild, weld, hold, told, scold.
It-hilt, gilt, melt, felt, salt.
Should the children give such words as heal'd, seal'd, smil'd,
these should be written in another column, and the children led to
notice the apostrophe, and shown that such words are usually
spelled with e, and thus end with ed. If we leave out the e, we
must put the little mark in its place.
The above sketches will answer as models after which future
lessons in this Step may be given.
The teacher will observe that in all the following exercises
only a few words are given under each head as examples. The
children will, of course, produce many more words of each class.
Subject-matter of lessons to be given in this Step:
252 
READING.-SECOND STEP.
I.-Terminal Diphthongs.
ow      ew
bow     few
cow     mew
vow     new
anow    dew
II.-1.  Two Initial Consonants.
cl
clod
clinch
cliff
hi
block
bliss
black
dw
dwell
dwindle
dwarf
Smn
smell
smack
smut
sw          tr          tw
swing      tramp        twang
swell      trip        twill
swam       trot        twist
2. Two Terminal Consonants.
lb         Id          nd         ff         if
elb        gild       wind       cliff      pelf
bulb       weld       band       puff       self
held      rend        scoff      gulf
n k         sk          m1 im
ink         task        drill       elm
think       frisk       dill        helm
sink        mask        till        film
253
aw
caw
raw
taw
paw
ay
day
may
pay
hay
OY
boy
coy
joy
toy
hr
brick
brink
bran
dr
drag
drip
drop
_pr
prop
press
print
cr
cra-b
crib
crock
fl
flock
flint
fly
fr
frog
frock
frisk
PI
plug
plum
ply
sk
skim
skull
skip
SI
slip
slop
sle'd
sn
snap
snag
snug
qu
quit
quill
quilt
SC
scum
scant
scud
St
stand
step
stick
,SP
spill
split
spent
c7c
briclt
crick
track
ik
elk
silk
sulk
sm
prism
chasm
spasm 
READING.-SECOND STEP.
pinP
cramp
stamp
romp
88
fuss
muss
loss
NOTE.-The words are still to be spelled by sound, but as the
children become familiar with the names of the letters, they may
be spelled by names of the letters also.
III.-Thtree Inzitial Consonants.
spr          str          spl
s pring      string       split
spry         strip        splint
spread       strung       splash
IV.-Recapitulation of Initials.
br, sc, scr, sk, bl, cl, fi, pl, sl, spl, sm, sn, sp, cr, dr, fr, pr,
spr, str, tr, st, qu, squ, dw, tw, sw.
V.-Recapitulation of Terminals.
ck, ct, if, ft, lb, ld, lf, lk, 11, lm, lp, lt, mp, nd, ng, nk, nt, rf,
sk, sm, sp, ss, st, rl.
In conclusion, give a few lessons on the same combinations
used both as initial and terminal; as, sk, sm, sp, st, &c.
Let the children give any words containing one or more of
these combinations. Place them on the board, and let the children classify them.
TERMINAL.
ask
musk
risk
task, &c.
IDEAL.
skip
skin
skate
sketch
254
IP
help
yelp
pulp
ct
act
fact
sect
St
lost
frost
rust
ft
draft
drift
loft
SP
lisp
wisp
crisp
it
hilt
melt
felt
nt
went
sent
bent
rl
curl
furl
hurl
rf
turf
scurf
scarf
ng
string
sling
fling
scr
scrap
screw
scratch
squ
squib
squint
squills 
READING.-SECOND STEP.
Silent Characters.
The following lists of words containing silent letters may be
treated as per sketch given on page 249, illustrating a method
of teaching words having silent letters:
1. Initial Silent Consonants.
p          w          w
psalm     whole       wrap
ptarmigan who        write
psalter    whoop      wring
2. Central Silent Consonants.
c          c          d          d          g
scene     scissors   pledge    handsome sign
scent      scythe     lodge      wedge      resign
muscle    indict     judge       midge      malign
h          h          h          gh       I
rhomb      isthmus   scheme    light        talk
rhubarb   Thomas   school        height    stalk
rhyme      asthma    schooner  naughty   folk
p           t           t          w         s
tempt      castle      pitch      answer    isle
receipt    often       hitch      sword       aisle
symptom   chestnut   match        toward    viscount
3. Terminal Silent Consonants.
gh
plough
slough
sigh
h
Sarah
verandah
burgh
4. Central Silent Vowels.
i             u
marriage       build
carriage       gauge
tarried        guilt
255
h
berb
bonor
bour
k
knife
knob
knot
9
gnat
gdaw
gnash
b
debt
doubt
subtle
A
ghost
ghast
ghaut
I
calm
palm
balm
b
lamb
comb
Plumb
k
wick
dock
lock
e
open
listen
risen 
READING.-SECOND STEP.
5. Terminal Silent E.
ce          ble           cle         dle          fle
nice         able        uncle        handle       baffle
rice        fable         treacle     saddle       snuffle
peace        warble       circle      riddle       ruffle
gle         kle          ple     t le               te
eagle       freckle      ripple      tattle        etiquette
wriggle     sprinkle    cripple    rattle          brunette
struggle    tickle       supple      battle        coquette
6. Terminal Silent ue.
ve
grotesque
opa que
picturesque
league
plague
tongue
256
Be 
READING.-THIRD STEP.
THIRD STEP.
Ambiguities.
The children, while in this Step, learn to distingish the con
sonants, subtonic and atonic, and to consider the various and
anomalous sounds of vowels and diphthongs; also g hard and
soft, and z.
At this Step children may be introduced to reading books,
such as are ordinarily used in schools of this grade, having no
reference to a classification of sounds.
Consonants.
We have already considered the different sounds of c and 9.
The remaining consonants to be considered are g, th, ph, gh, ch, z,
and x.
1. a; also Th, Hard and Soft.-Treat this in the same way
as c hard and soft, giving lists of words; as,
IHard:  Gilbert          getting          unguent
Soft:   gipsy            George           pungent, &c.
Hard:  thin              think             truth
Soft:   thou              thine            thus, &c.
2. Ph.   Sketch.-Words containing this combination written
and sounded.
Children recognize the sound as expressed by f. Words are
given, which the children classify; as,
physic          sphere             engulph
phonic          camphor            triumph
photograph      orphan             seraph
As a second lesson, the children may be employed in finding
proper names containing this sound.   Names spelled with f
should be put in a separate column. 
INITIL.  CNTRAL         TERINAL
CENTRAL.
Humphrey
Alphonso
Sophia
Euphemia
257
I
INITIAL.
Phebe
Philip
Phillis
Phipps
TERMINAL.
Joseph
Ralph
Adolph
Guelph 
READING.-THIRD STEP.
3. Gh.-Proceed in a similar way with words having this
combination; as, cough, laugh. Compare these with words having gh silent, as, plough, bough, &c.
4. Sounds of Ch.-Children give words containing the sound
of ch called for by the teacher, which will stand on the board thus:
English Ch Classified.
INITIAL.   TERMINAL.
child      watch
chip       match
Ch Classified.
TERMINAL.
blanche
barouche
mustache
5. Z.-In teaching the sounds of this letter, proceed as in
teachb.ng the sound of k, with this exception, that the children
will now select their own words as examples.  If they hesitate in
doing this, it is only necessary to get from them a variety of words
containing this sound, some of which will be likely to contain the
desired examples, which may be arranged in columns, and compared; as,
Let the children add as many words as they can in which s has
the sound of z.
It will be well also to compare such words as
glazier
sugar
They will discover that both z and s have here different sounds
than in the, former list. Let them decide which has a tone, and
which has not. They will give many examples in which this
sound is represented by s; as, osier, crosier, treasure, usual, vision,
&c. Observe, in fact, that it is more frequently represented by s
than z. Practice them in interchanging these elements, pronouncing azure as asure (ashure), sure as zure, &c.
258
English.
child
china
church
French.
chaise
chivalry
chandelier
Kard.
Christmas
chord
chaldron
Ch Hard
INITIAL.
character
cha'sm
chaos
Classified.
CENTRAL.
ache
. echo
scholar
INITIAL.
chagrin
chamois
chamr,aane
. zo
is
zeal
his
zinc
arise
zounds
risen
zany
azure
assure 
READING.-THIRD STEP.
I.-Sketch on the Letter X.
1. Various examples of words containing x given. Children
examine these, and discover that x has the sound of ks.
2. Teacher gives other examples; as, anxious, complexion,
luxury. Children discover that the sound here is ksh. Classify,
putting in separate columns the words having these sounds; also
those having the sounds of gz and z may be added.
yz..s ks
z
anxiety
Xenophon
It may be well, at this point, to review some exercises that
have been slightly passed over.
II.-Sketch on D as T.
1. Let the children sound d repeatedly. Ask them, with the
organs in position for sounding d, to utter it without a tone.
They will discover that it is the sound of t. Let them give examples of both, and classify them; as,
CENTRAL.
udder    utter
madder  matter
ladder   latter
The teacher may use the terms subtonic and atonic; or, if preo
ferred, sharp and flat.
2. In the same manner  take b and p, g and k, v and f, th in
thine and th in thin, z in zeal and s in seal, j in jest and ch in
chest, z in azure and sh in shall.
The subtonics are d, b, g, v, th in thine, z in zeal, z in azure, g
in go.
The atonics are t, p, k, f, th in thin, s in seal, ch in chest, sh,
and k.
III.-I. In reviewing c hard and soft, introduce examples of
c before e, i, and y.
2. Soft sound of g, as expressed by j in jelly, just, Joseph. In
seeking for examples of this sound, the children may possibly give
259
INITI
din
den
dinner
TERMINAL.
nod not
shod shot
trod trot
tin
ten
tinner 
READING. —THIRD STEP. 
such words as obedient, individual, obdurate. There is a tendency
in such words to pronounce d as j. This should be guarded
against.
IV.-Sketch on Ch.
The children may be employed in making a list of Scripture
names containing ch, and in learning how to pronouce them. Ch
is hard in all except Rachel and cherubim. In seeking for examples containing English ch, they may give such words as creature,
and will require a lesson on the sounds of t before u. Let them
make a list; as, scripture, culture, lecture, fortune, virtue, rapture.
A double list may also be made out; as,
fracture         tincture          rupture
child            cheese            church
The children will discover that these sounds, represented by tu and
ch, somewhat resemble each other, but that the sound represented
by tu, properly spoken, is not quite like ch.
V. —S  C, and Z.
Lessons might be given on all the sounds expressed by s, c,
and z.
The sound of s, in sure, is expressed by s, sh, and ti.
Direct attention to the common change of s atonic to the subs
tonic, in pronouncing plurals; as,
pronounced birdz.
"      dayz.
"      dogz, &c.
ANOMALIES.-FIRST DIVISION.
ne Sign representing Various Sounds.
presented by the letter a:
Broad.   Italian. befoea  Short    o.
before r.
fall     far      fare   watch
warm    father   pair   warrant
walk    calm    care   wallow
260
birds,
days,
dogs,
Short e.
any
many
Thames
bag       baby
nap       cape
parrot natal 
READING.-THIIRD STEP.
In the above6, and in succeeding exercises, the title at the head
of the column is put upon the board, the sound given by the
teacher, and, if necessary, an example added, and the children dic
tate the words.   For lists of classified words, see "Worcester's
Spelling Book."
2. Sounds expressed by the letter e:
Short i. Short u before r.
England        her
English        fern
term
Show that sounds in the first and third columns are identical
with the sounds in the seventh and fifth, under a.
3. Sounds expressed by the letter o:
Broad. Long and Close.
storm     move
horn      lose
adorn     prove
4. Sounds expressed by the character u
Shlort.   Long.   Middle or Short and Short e.
Obtuse.  Obtuse.   Short e
tuck     tune      pull     fur       bury
run      mute      full     turn
sun      pure      push      hurt
Lead the children to see that the u in tune is really a compound sound. That the sound in bury is really the sound of short
e expressed by u. Lastly, that u has the sound of w after q and
after g, when sounded at all. (It is often silent, as gust.)
5. Sounds expressed by the letter i:
Short u before r.
bird
fir
stir
Long e.
marine
machine
fatigue
Lead the children to see that i in mite is a compound sound,
261
S,&ort.
met
men
ferry
Long.
mete
complete
secrete
Long a before r.
there
where
ere
Sliort u before r.
word
worm
color
Short.
dock
stock
lock
Long.
note
close
rose
Short u.
glove
color
sponge
hort i.
busy
minute
Sound of w.
queen
languicl
lingual
Short.
kin
nit
sit
Long.
mite
write
fire 
READING. —THIRD STEP.
or diphthong; that i in marine is identical with e in mete; and
that i in bird is like u in Turk and purse.
6. Sounds expressed by y:
Consonantal
Sound.
yet
year
your
7. Sounds expressed by ou:
L~ong and         SotUb
Proper. Long o.  Broad a.  Close and o
flour  soul     wrought group
hour   mould   brought  soup
sound  shoulder bought   through
SECOND DIVISION.
Single Sounds represented by Various Signs.
1. The long sound of a is expressed by a, and by
aiau   ao
gauge  gaol
ea
break
steak
great
2. The Italian sound of a is expressed by a, and by
heart
hearth
hearken
3. The broad sound of a is expressed by a, and by
au
daub
haul
vault
ou
fought
brought
thought
4. The long sound of a before r is expressed by a, and by
ai    ea         ~~ay         ec
payer
prayer
ere
there
where
262
Short u be fore r.
myrrh
myrmidon
myrtle
Short i.
long i.
mystery
sylvan
symbol
tyrant
st.yle
type
Short u be. Obtuse u.
fore r.
scourge could
courteous would
courtesy should
Short u.
country
cousin
touch
ai
slain
pain
rain
ei
eight
skein
weigh
ay
stay
play
day
ey
they
obey
prey
lue
bouquet
al
calm
balm
psalm
ea
au
- haunt
daunt
taunt
aw
fawn
straw
raw
0
snort
north
lord
Oa
broad
groat
ai
air
chair
fair
ei
laeir
their
ea,
bear
pea'r
wear 
READING.-THIRD STEP.
5 The long sound of e is expressed by e, and by
eo     ey   ay
people key  quay
ee      ea
feet    reap
queen  heap
green   neat
6. The short sound of e is expressed by e, and by
eo       ie
leopard  friend
jeopardy
feoff
7. The long sound of i is expressed by i, and by
ai       eye
aisle      eye
ui or uy
buy
guy
disguise
8. The short sound of i is expressed by i, and by
y      ey      o
sympathy money women
symptom  journey
paroxysm coney
9. The short sound of o is expressed by o, and by
ow
knowledge
wast
wash
watch
10. The long sound of o is expressed by o, and by
oa
coal
board
loaf
au
hautboy
hauteur
hautgout
263
ei
receive
perceive
conceive
i
macl-iine
police
marine
ic
grief
piece
priest
ai ay
ao,ain says
C,
ao,ainst
1%
Said
ea ei
leather heifer
feather
endea-vor
u   ve a
bury guest many
guess an y
Tbames
ie
die
lie
pie
ei
height
sleight
eider
y
style
rny
deny
ye
]ye
eye
dye
,ui
biscuit
circuit
guitar
ai
curtain
certain
mountain
e
England
English
u
busy
lettuce
minute
a
00
door
floor
brooch
oc
foe
hoe
toe
olu
four
pour
soul
ow
own
flow
sow
ew
eau
eo
beau
bureau
plateau
sew
shew
strew
yeoman 
READING.-THIRD STEP.
11. The long sound of u is expressed by u,, and by
ew       eu
blew    feudal
mew    neutral
Jew      feud
12. The short sound of u is expressed by u, and by
oo
blood
flood
rough
touch
young
13. The middle or obtuse sound of u is expressed by u, and by
oU
could
should
would
14. The short u before r is expressed by u, and by
e i    ea
girl  dearth
twirl  hearse
mirth yearn
15. The sound of ou is represented also by ow, as howl, vow,
allow.
16. The diphthong oi is otherwise represented by oy, as boy,
coy, toy.
17. The sound of hw is represented by wh; as, when, whip,
whim, &c.
261
ie, u few
adieu view
lieu
purlieu
uc         ui
blue suits
glue juice
sue sluice
eau ewe
beauty - ewe
0
ou
06
does
come
done
dove
00
0
wolf
woman
bosom
book
good
took
ue
conquer
masquerade
e
ber
defe.r
prefer
0
word
worm
worth
ou
adjourn
scourge
journe,y
y
myrrh
myrtle
myrmidon 
DI CTATI O N.
'NTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
IMPORTSNT as it is that every one attempting to write in Eng.
lish should be able to spell correctly, it is but too manifest that
the painful exercises to which children in former years were subjected failed to give them the power of doing this. The learning
by heart of column after column of spelling lessons, in which many
words not in common use would constantly occur, as well as many
others in which the combination of letters is quite arbitrary, exercising only memory, has proved, to a great extent, a wearisome
waste of time. This plan of instruction is now happily superseded
by dictation lessons, which, when rightly given, call out close observation, and thus tend to fix the correct spelling of words in the
mind.
FIRST STEP.
Object.-At this step dictation may be considered an exercise
in writing.  The children first learn how to print letters which are
simple in form, as i, t, n, and to join them together, so as to make
words of two letters.
Plan. —1. The teacher to print a letter-the letter L, for instance-on the board, the children being required to observe carefully how it is done, to say what kind of lines are made, and also
their direction, a simple definition being sufficient. The children
to observe, further, where the teacher begins the formation of the
letter, and where the formation of it ends. The teacher then
12 
DICTATION.-SECOND STEP.
mnakes a second letter, 0, and joins it to the first, directing the
cltildrce's attention also to the mode of its formation.  The children to say what word is made.
2. The teacher to print the same word very slowly two or
three times over; to require the children to observe closely, and
to imitate the act by moving a finger as if writing in the air.
3. The teacher to require two or three children to print the
sanme word on the board, to compare the word they have printed
with the copy, and to say in what they are alike, and in what they
differ, and how they could be improved.
4. The children may then print the same word three or four
times over on their own slates, the teacher seeing that the copy is
constantly referred to, and also carefully and frequently examining
the slate. As improvement in writing mainly depends upon the
children attentively observing the copy, and comparing their own
work with it, the teacher should occasionally print on the board
an imitation of one of the children's productions-either a very
good or a very bad one; the rest of the children to say in what
the letters are rightly or wrongly formed; then to look at their
own slates, and see to which their own copy bears most resemblance.
SECOND STEP.
Object.-There are three points in which this Step is in advance upon the First Step: 1. The children are led to observe the
proportion between the different parts of letters; and 2. The position of the words printed on the slate. 3. They are taught to
hold the pencil properly.
Plan.-The teacher gives a word, the children spell it; then
this word is printed on the board, as in the First Step. The chil.
dren are then led to observe the relative position of the letters,
their size, and the proportion of their parts. They are directed to
begin to print the words at the top of the left-hand corner of their
slates, and to continue them successively in a straight line toward
the right. They are usually led to print such words as occur on
the boards from which they read. After the children have printed
266 
DICTATION.-FOURTH STEP.
two or three words, and these have been carefully examined, these
words, as well as those from which they were copied, are rubbed
out, and they are required to print the same words from dictation.
They are then instructed in the proper mode of holding a pencil,
practising this before they commence writing.
THIRD STEP.
Object. -To teach the children to substitute written for printed
characters. The daily practice of the children in reading the summaries of lessons written on the board, during their object lesson,
will assist in preparing them to pass from printed to written characters. The latter are introduced at this Step, together with the use
of the comma and period.
Plan.-1. The two different alphabets are written on the
blackboard, and the children exercised in writing the two forms
of the same letter on their slates.  The teacher next gives out the
first word of a sentence, the children spell it, and one of them
writes it on the board, being directed to begin with a capital letter; the rest examine the word, saying whether the letters are of
the proper height and inclination; any points not noticed by the
children to be taken up by the teacher.  All the words in the sentence are in succession similarly dealt with.
2. The teacher supplies the stops, and directs the children's
attention to their use and their position. The children are required to look at the sentence carefully for two or three minutes,
and to notice the spelling of each word.
3. The whole is then rubbed out, and the children write the
sentence on their own slates, at the dictation of the teacher.  The
slates are constantly and carefully examined by the teacher, and
faults or excellences pointed out.
FOURTII STEP.
Object. -To lead the children to a more close observation of
the spelling of words, especially that of some of the peculiar words
267 
DICTATION.-FOURTH STEP.
of our language. They are also exercised in the use of capital
letters, and of the notes of interrogation and exclamation, and
taught the rules which regulate the use of all these. Any dictation spelling book may be used as a text book.
Plan.-This is exemplified in the following suggestions:
1. Words are given, similar in sound, but differing in spelling
and signification; as, for example, all, awl; piece, peace, &c.
2. Words similarly spelt, but differently pronounced or applied; such as, close-shut fast; close-to join, to shut;  conductbehavior; conduct-to lead, to manage, &c., treated in the same
way as the former class of words.
3. Words spelt and pronounced alike, but differing in signification; as, hail-drops of rain frozen while falling;  hail-to call
out.
4. The children learn the distinction between vowels and consonants, and are made acquainted with a few simple rules of spelling; as, for example, under what circumstances a consonant is
doubled, as in beg, begging, run, running, &c.; when one 1 is to
be omitted, as in almost, made up of all and mnost; skilful, made
up of skill and full. During these lessons, the capital letters and
different stops are used.
The following plan may be adopted when the lesson is on
words similar in sound, but differing in spelling and signification:
1. Suppose the words to be see and sea. The teacher writes
see upon the board, directs the children's attention to the spelling
and meaning (the latter to be written opposite the word); and the
teacher asks whether they have heard a word of the same sound
used in any other sense? If not, to tell them that a portion of
the ocean is called sea. This word, sea, to be then written under
the other, the children to comparp. the two, to say in what they
are alike and in what they differ, and to give the meaning of
each:
See-to look.
Sea-part of the ocean.
2. The teacher to dictate the sentence, "I call see the sea;"
to require a clhild to write it upon the board; the rest of the chil
268 
DICTATION.-FOIRTH STEP.
dren to examine the sentence, and especially the spelling of the
two words, see and sea, and to say whether each is spelt correctly:
why, in that particular sentence, the last word is spelt sea, and
not see.
3. The teacher to dictate two or three sentences containing
both these words; the children to write them on their own slates.
After each sentence is written, all the slates to be examined by
the teacher. If the teacher meets with a sentence in which the
two words are not spelt correctly, to copy it on the board, and
submit it to the inspection of the class.  When they have decided
where and what the error is, they are to examine what they have
written on their own slates, and, comparing it with that on the
board, make the necessary corrections.
269 
ELEMENTARY LESSONS, PREPARATORY
TO GEOGRAPHY.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
THE elementary principles of geography are those which relate
to position or place, including both the relative position of places
with respect to each other, and also their position as determined
by the points of the compass.   Under this head may also be
arranged the idea of distance, as leading to the necessity of a
standard of measurement by which such distance may be estimated and described.
The second principle is that of form, which introduces the consideration of the outline or boundaries of countries.
The third is that of physical geography, which affords mnost
interesting materials for instruction; for by the help of models,
and by observation on the physical features of their own immediate neighborhood, even very young children may be led to appreciate the grander and more developed features of other countries. The study of topographical geography should commence
with the accurate observation of the locality in which the instruction is given, thus carrying out the Pestalozzian principle of pr-oceeding fromn the known to the unknown.  The following remarks
by Mr. Moseley, one of the inspectors of Government Schools in
England, are so very valuable, and so much in harmony with the
principles upon which all Pestalozzian instruction is based, that it
is thought well to repeat them here:
"In proposing that a course of instruction, addressed to an
elementary school in geography, should commence with the topography of the school district; that, aiming at the description of 
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.
nature under remote and inaccessible forms, it should begin with
the description of those under which it is familiar, and which are
at hand; that, in speaking of the social and political relations of
distant regions, it should begin by instructing the child in those of
its own, I take into my view the eminently educative character of
this course, and that natural process of the development of the
faculties of the child which is implied in it. In the first place,
that faculty of observation will have been practised which admits
of so vast an enlargement of its sphere of operation by habit.
The child will first have been led to observe the directions of lanes
and footpaths, the irregular figures traced out by the boundaries
of fields and farms, the varieties of surface level, the lines of direction of elevated grounds, and valleys, and streams, the plants and
trees, the crops of the neighboring lands, the mines and manufactories; and the questions addressed to him at school on these matters will have led him to observe these with precision and accuracy; for above all, and as a necessary condition to every other
valuable result, his attention will have been gained, because it is
directed to matters which he can understand, and which interest
him.  Next, his faculty of memory will have been constantly exercised under that form in which it ministers most readily to the
uses of life, i. e., concerning things rather than words. Then his
imagination will have been educated and directed, in its operation,
to legitimate objects.  To abstract-to separate the idea from the
object on which it has formed itself; to enlarge and to generalize
that idea; to compare it with others, and to combine ideas under
newv forms, giving order and proportion, and beauty of arrangement and disposition to the parts so assembled together in the
mind, and correspondence to some proposed model, or adaptation
to some result; this is the process of invention, and the work of
imagination. And what but this is done, when, from ideas collected from present objects, a picture is formed in the mind wholly
different in the arrangement of its parts and their distribution, and
vastly increased in its dimensions? It is in leaving this picture
on the mind of the child, vivid in its colors, and complete in all its
characteristic features, that consists the art of the teacher.
"N o single step in this process can be taken without some
271
l 
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHiY.-FIRST STEP.
exercise of the intelligence. It is, in fact, from one end to the
other, a process of induction, every element of which is linked to
another by an obvious causation. Independently of this relation
in everything made the subject of observation, there will moreover
be some adaptation of that particular thing-whether it be a sen
sible object, or a social or political relation, or a process of art or
manufacture-to an end or a result; an adaptation which, if it be
not obvious, will form a legitimate subject of instruction, and a
means of educating the reasoning faculty in the child.
"It is this educative character which gives to the course its
highest value; and it is, in point of fact, with a simple reference
to that character, that I have thought it worth while to record
here the exposition of it.
"Geography acquires its full value as a branch of education
only when it loses the character of an accumulation of facts, undigested by the child's mind, but heaped up in his memory, linked
by no association with the world of thought and of action which
immediately surrounds it, or with that which is within it. Tell
the child to observe the lines of the map which hangs perpetually
before his eyes, and talk to him only of the names of the places
indicated upon it, and you will soon weary his attention; but speak
to him of the living men who inhabit it; tell him of their stature,
and aspect, and dress, and ways of life, and of their forms of worship; speak of the climate of that country; of the forms of vegetable and animal life with which his eye would be conversant if
he dwelt there; of the trees and flowers that grow there, and of
the birds and beasts, and you will carry his interest with you.
That relation to external things which characterizes their mode of
being and condition of life, he will understand by a reference to
his own; and he will have acquired a knowledge of some of those
things, in reference to them, the like of which are of interest to
himself."
FIRST STEP.
Object.-1. To prepare the children to enter with intelligence
upon the study of geography, by first drawing their observation to
272 
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-FIRST STEP.
relative position or place, beginning with the situation of the things
which they see around them, and the distance of these from each
other.  2. To give the children a knowledge of the cardinal points
of the compass, and their use in geographical descriptions. 3. To
bring before them the mode of representing distances, and to teach
them a scale of measurement of distance, and the nature and use
of a map.
These points are carried out in the following
LESSONS ON PLACE.
LESSON 1.
I. POSITION OF OBJECTS.-Bring before the children three
objects, say two ink wells and a book. Place the book in the
middle, with an ink well on each side of it. Let a child do the
same with two other ink wells and another book, the rest to say
if rightly done. Alter the position of the objects, putting the ink
wells in line, and the book in front of them. A second child to
imitate, &c. Produce four objects, and arrange them, say the ink
wells in the middle, and the books on each side.  Then the books
in the middle, &c.  Then ink wells and books alternately.  Then
ink wells and books, one at each of the four corners of the table,
children always engaged in imitating, or deciding on the correct.
ness of another's imitation.
II. Having arranged the objects as before, disarrange them,
and let the children rearrange them from memory. After going
through the exercises before performed in this way, introduce one
or two new exercises; as, for instance, two ink wells behind, and
two books before.
LESSON 2.
.Relative Position of the Parts of the Rooim.
I. Let the children name the place in which they are sitting.
See if they can distinguish, by name, the parts of the room; as,
12*
2-73 
274      ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHIIY. —FIRST STEP.
floor, wall, ceiling. pointing to each as directed. To bring out the
position of these, let them point to that part of the room which is
nearest to their feet.  Name that part (floor).  S. R.:  "The floor
is below our feet." Teacher ascends a chair in the middle of the
room, desiring the child to point to that part of the room nearest
her head.  S. R.:  "The  ceiling is above our heads."  Require
the children to put their slates above their heads, also below their
feet. Lead them to observe where the ceiling is, with reference
to the floor; and the floor, with reference to the ceiling. Next desire them to point to the walls. A child to go round the room,
touching the wall as he goes.  S. R.:  "The walls go round the
room." In the same way develop the ideas of between, before,
behind.
II. Exercise the children in pointing out the position of various parts of the room, with respect to other parts of the room,
or to themselves, or articles of furniture, exercising thom in applying the terms learned.
LESSON 3.
Representation of Position.
Place upon the table five objects;  as, book, pen, slate, ink
well, india rubber. Require them to notice and describe the relative position of each of the objects on the table. Then draw an
outline of the table on the board, or on the floor, marking within, the
objects as they stand, according to the direction of the children;
e. g., the slate in the middle; the books in the farthest corner, on
the side nearest the wall, on the left hand; the india rubber in the
opposite corner, on the right hand; the pen and the ink well in
the remaining  corners respectively.   Exercise  the children in
touching first the objects, and then their representations, on the
board or floor.  Then alter the positions of the objects, putting
them in line, from the right-hand corner on one side, to the lefthand corner on the other side. Again mark them on the board or
floor, as directed. Lastly, rearrange the objects in any other way,
and let a child mark the po-ition on the board.  Several exercises
to be had in this way. 
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-FIRST STEP.
LESSON 4.
East and West.
When the children have been accustomed to determine the
relative position of objects, they must be led to consider places in
the same point of view, and to this end they should be made acquainted with the use of the several points of the compass. Begin
by collecting from them anything they may have observed with
respect to the apparent course of the sun; where they have seen
it rise in the morning, and where set in the evening; and tell
them that the place in the heavens where it rises, is called the
East; that in which it sets, the West. Then question them in
different ways, to see that they have understood the information
given, and that it is well fixed in their minds. Call out some of
the children, and tell them to place themselves with their right
hands to the east, and their left hands to the west. Bid them look
toward the east. Ask them what they might expect to see there
early in the morning? Desire them to look to the west, and say
when they would see the sun in that direction. Ask which is the
western, and which the eastern side of the room, and the same of
the playground. Through which windows will the sun shine in
the morning, and through which in the afternoon?  The other
afternoon, as I was walking, I saw the sun before me like a great
ball of fire, and then it gradually sunk, till I lost sight of it; in
what direction must I have been walking?  My bedroom window
is very nicely placed, for the sun shines into my room the first
thing in the morning, to tell me it is time to get up; to what part
of the heavens is my window opposite? By similar questions fix
well in the children's minds which are the eastern and western
points. Excite them to observe, both at home and at school,
where the sun may be seen at different parts of the day, and close
the lesson by a simultaneous repetition: "That direction in which
the sun rises, is called the East; and that in which it sets, the
West."
275
t-  
276     ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. -FIRST STEP.
LESSON 5.
N-orth and South.
This lesson should commence with a repetition of the preced.
ing one. Some children may then be called out, and bid to place
themselves with their right hands to the east, and their left to the
west, and then be told that the point directly before them is the
.Aorth, and that directly behind them the South.  Make them re peat together: "If we stand with our right hands to the east, and
our left hands to the west, the point directly before us is the North,
and that directly behind us is the South."  What must you observe, in order to find out where the east and west are? If you
know the east and west, how can you find out the north and
south?  Ask the direction in which the children who have been
called out must walk, if they wish to go to the north side of the
room, and in which if they wish to go toward the south? Let
them determine the north, south, east, and west sides of their schoolroom and playground. Call out one child, and bid him walk from
north to south, another from south to east, and another to walk in
whatever direction he pleases, the children in the room determining
which way he goes. Let the children place a stick or draw a line
with chalk upon the floor in the direction of north and south, east
and west.  Hold up two pieces of wood or card, crossing each
other at right angles, one of them pointing directly north and
south, and let the children say which end points north, and whic&
east.
Ill such exercises, the object is to occupy only so much time
upon each new idea as may suffice to fix it on the mind. The
manner in which it is presented should be varied, that the lesson
may be interesting. To effect this, the children should themselves
be actors as far as is consistent with tolerable order. A teacher
should recollect that it is both unnecessary and unwise to expect
little children to be always in precise order; this would be unnatural to the joyous and active habits of infancy. The teacher
should know when the strictness of discipline may be safely relaxed, while, on the other hand, the power of maintaining order
should never be relinquished. 
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-FIRST STEP.
LESSON 6.
Repetition of Preceding Lessons.
It may be desirable that this lesson should consist of exercises
on the points of the compass. Let the children determine the
position of the different articles in the room. Call upon some of
them to say in what direction they must move to go to these; in
what direction they must walk in order to reach their homes, and
in what direction on coming from home to school. The teacher's
own judgment must determine as to whether or not she bring a
new subject before the children in this lesson. This will depend
much upon the aptitude with which past lessons have been acquired. She must see to it that her children are firm on one step
of the ladder of knowledge, before they proceed to another; and
she must be careful not to weary and disgust them, by keeping
them too long on one idea.
LESSON 7.
Semi-cardinal Points.
In order to test the clearness of the children's apprehension,
the following questions might be put:
Suppose you wished to describe the particular direction of
some place, how would you do it?  Yes;  you would tell me it
was either to the north, or south, or east, or west.   And how
should I be able to find out which is the north, south, east, or
west? By observing where the sun sets or rises.
When we wish to represent the situations of different places
on paper or on a slate, we call the top the north; where, then,
will the south be represented? At the bottom of the blackboard.
Where the east? and where the west?  The teacher writes the
four cardinal points on the blackboard. How many points have
you learned? But are things or places always exactly at the
north, the south, the east, or the west? Where may they be?
They may be between any two of these points, and you should
know how to describe their position in this case. Now attend,
and I will teachi you this. A point halfway between the north
277 
2 7 8    ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-SECOND STEP.
and east is said to be northeast. What do you think halfway between north and west is called? Yes; northwest. And what
between south and east? Yes; southeast. And what between
south and west?  Yes;  southwest.   The teacher writes these
names on the board. How many points do you now know?
Repeat them together.   Where is the northwest?  where  the
southwest? &c. Call a child to point to these on the board, the
other children say what is pointed to.  Then  call upon  the
children to determine the place of these eight different points in
the room. Then call out a child, and tell him to take a position
at the northeast, another at the northwest, &e. Then desire a
child to go to any point he may please, and another to point out
upon the board the direction in which he stands. Such exercises
will show whether the children understand the direction of the
cardinal points, and those positions in a map which usually represent them. - The lesson should conclude with a simultaneous repetition of the names of all the cardinal points of the compass.
SECOND STEP.
LESSON 1.
The Necessity for Standard Points of Direction.-The Relative
Position of Objects.
Of how many points of the compass do you know the names?
Repeat them. Show me where you would look for each point,
and where each point would be represented on the board. When
we know where these points are, we can easily direct each other
here and there, which is very convenient. Can you tell me any
other way of directing a person except by these points? Yes;
by telling him to go to the right, or to the left. Let us try this.
Now direct me in which direction to walk; I wish to go to the
door.  You must go to the right.   The teacher turning half
round: Must I go to the right now? No. Is the door in all
cases to my right?  No.  What must you know before you can
direct a person to go to the right or left?  We  must know in 
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-SECOND STEP.
what position he stands. If, then, a person in the next room, or
at a distance, were to send and ask you how to find some place,
would it do to say, It is to your right, or left? No. Why not?
But if you tell him that the place he wishes to find is to the north
or south of the place in which he then is, will this help him to
know the situation of the place he seeks? Yes. Why? Could
his moving alter the place of the north or south? Your right
hand or your left hand may change their position, but the points
of the compass are always fixed, and this is the reason they are
so useful in describing the position of different places. You can
direct people how to travel, by telling them that the places to
which they go are toward the north or south, &c.  Now you shall
say where the different objects in this room are situated. Where
is the table? the stove? the windows? the door? the cabinet?
any particular picture? &c.  Now we will represent the position
of all these upon a slate.
Name something in this room. The cabinet. On what side
of this room is the cabinet? It is on the north side. Which
part of the slate represents the north side? I will put a mark
there to represent the cabinet. Now tell me what object is on the
west side of the room. Which side of the slate represents the
west? I will put marks at this side of the slate for those things
which you describe as being to the west.* In this manner the
situation of the principal parts of the room and its various con
tents may be represented on the slate. What have I done? You
have put marks on the slate which show where the different things
in the room are situated.  Yes;  whether they are toward the
north, south, &c.
LESSON 2.
Boundaries of the Schoolroom.t
Repeat the names of those points of the compass which you
have learned. One of you come and show me where each point
* The slate should be first placed horizontally, this being the natural posi.
tion of the earth's surface; afterward it should be placed in a vertical position,
opposite the class.
t It has been suggested that lessons on Physical Geography might be well
279
L
Fl
E 
280    ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-SECOND STEP.
would be represented on the blackboard. We will now draw on
the board the shape or plan of this room. How many sides has
the room?  Four.  Which is the north side?  Where must  I
place the line representing it? At the top of the board. Where
is the south side of the room? Where must I represent it on the
board? At the bottom. What length must this line be? The
same length as that which represents the north. Why? Be.
cause the north and south of the room are of the same length. In
what side of this room is the door?   It is in the west side.
Where must I draw a line, that it may represent the west side
of this room? On the left side of the slate. What length must
the line be? It must be longer than the other lines. What side
remains to be represented?   The east side.   Where  must I
draw the line representing it? To the right of the other lines.
What length must I make it?   The same in length as the west
side.   What sides of the room are alike?  What figure have
I drawn?   An  oblong.   What  do the lines represent?   The
walls of the room. How far does the room extend? As far as
the walls. How many walls has the room? These four walls
are the boundaries of the schoolroom; they bound it.  What are
the walls to the rooms?   They are its boundaries.   How  are
these boundaries represented on the blackboard? By lines. And
what figure do these four lines make? An oblong. And what
does this oblong that I have drawn on the board represent? The
shape of the room. I have drawn lines representing the boundaries of the room, and these show its shape. If, then, I wish to
draw the plan of any room or place, what must I do? You must
draw its boundaries.  The children should repeat together: "The
walls are the boundaries of the room. They are represented on
the board by lines, which describe its shape."
Introduced at this stage of instruction, before the consideration of the nature
of a map. On this point teachers should be guided by their own judgment and
experience. 
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHiY.-SECOND STE P.
LESSON 3.
Boundaries Continued.-The Playground.
What was the subject of the last lesson? It was on the
boundaries of the room. And what did the boundaries show?
The shape of the room.  By how many walls is it bounded?  By
four walls. The teacher calls a child to point out which line represents the northern, which the southern, which the eastern, and
which the western boundary. Now we will draw the boundaries
of the playground. This may be done in the same way as those
of the schoolroom.
LESSON 4.
The Relative Distances of the Various Parts of the Schoolroom
and its Furniture.
The plan of the schoolroom is presented, and the children
asked what it represents. The form of the schoolroom. What
determines its form? The boundaries of it. By how many lines
are these boundaries represented?  By four lines.  What more
do you learn from this representation of the schoolroom? We
find out where its different parts are situated. How would you
describe the situation of any one part of it? I would say, It is
to the north, the south, the east, or the west. Now that you have
learned how the parts of the room and the things it contains are
situated with respect to the cardinal points of the compass, tell me
the two things you have learned from this representation of the
schoolroom? We have learned the shape of the room as marked
by its boundaries, and the situation of the things it contains with
respect to the points of the compass. Repeat this together.
You may call this representation of the schoolroom a plan or
map of it. And now we will talk about the distances things are
from each other; as to which are near each other, and which are
far from each other. Point out to me two things which are near
each other. And now two things which are far from each other.
What object is near the table? What halfway between the tab)le
and the cabinet?  Where is the middle of the room?   Whichl
281
Fr 
282    ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-SECOND STEP.
parts of the room are farthest from the middle of it? One of you
go and stand halfway between the middle of the room and the
end. By how much are the ends of the room further from the
middle of it than the sides are? See, I will measure the distance
of each of these by my feet. In this manner the teacher must
endeavor to make the children determine the relative distances
from each other of the several parts of the room and its contents,
and also their relative positions.
LESSON 5.
The Relative Distance from each other of the Parts of the School
room and its Fu?rniture as Marked on a JIfap.
What was the subject of your last lesson? The distance from
each other of the things in the room. WVe will now mark their
several positions upon our map.   Which is the northern boundary
of the room?   Where on the map is this recess to be drawn?
What things are placed along the northern wall? Now show me
which line represents the northern boundary of the room, and tell
me where to put marks so as to show the place of each of the
things which stand near that wall of the room. Having marked
the relative position of the windows, doors, and school furniture,
and thus produced a map of the room, the children will begin to
understand its use, and what it is intended to represent.   What
have we been doing in this lesson?  Representing the situation
of the things in the room.   Did you not learn in a former lesson
how things are represented on a map? What did you learn in
that lesson? We learned how to determine whether they were
north, or south, or east, or west. And what have you now
learned?  We  have learned to notice the distance one thing is
from another. You learned in the former lesson how things are
situated with respect to the cardinal points of the compass, and
now you have learned to observe their situation as it respects each
other.
I 
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-SECOND STEP.
LESSON 6.
The Scale to which a Map is Drawn.
A map of the schoolroom on a large scale is shown to the chil
dren, and then another, drawn to a scale much smaller. What
difference do you observe in these two maps? Yes; one of them
is much smaller than the other, yet they both represent the same
room. Then a map may equally represent a place, whether it be
large or small. This idea may be further worked out by drawing
a large picture of some familiar object, say of a pair of scissors,
and also a small picture of the same. What are both these?
They are the representations of a pair of scissors.  Does each of
these represent the same pair of scissors equally well?   The
teacher draws another picture in which the bows are dispropor.
tionately large. Does this picture also properly represent the scissors? Why not? The bows are not in proportion to the other
parts. The children repeat: ": We may have a large or small
picture of a thing, but the several parts must be in proportion to
each other." So we may have a large or small map, but each
part must have its true proportion, and we will now draw such a
map of the schoolroom. What does this map of the schoolroom
represent? Its boundaries. Now we will measure the length of
the schoolroom by a foot measure. One of the children should
measure it, and another see that this is correctly done. How
many feet of length, then, are represented on this map? Let us
measure how many inches the map is in length. How many
inches of length on the map will represent the number of feet of
length in the schoolroom? How many feet will half the length
of thie room be? By how many inches will they be represented
on the map?  Now we will draw a line across the middle of the
room, and also across the middle of the map. How many feet
will there be in a quarter of the length of the room? We will
draw lines at the quarters. This may go on until a complete scale
of the map is made; and the exact position of each object may
be determined, and a mark made on the map for each, the number
of feet being represented by a corresponding number of inches.
The children may be asked a variety of questions as to the dis
283 
281    ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-THIRD STEP.
tances of the different parts of the room and the objects it contains, and where the points or figures representing them are to be
placed on the map.
THIRD STEP.
LESSON 1.
.Measurement by MIies.
When we drew the plan or map of the schoolroom, what size
did we find it? What was the length of the map or plan in
inches? How much, then, of the room, did each inch of the map
represent? But when we come in from a walk or ride, do we talk
of how many feet or inches we have walked?  No;  such distance is too great to be reckoned by inches or feet, so we estimate
it by the mile. Can any of you tell me the name of a place
which is a mile or half a mile from this place?  How many miles
can you walk in an hour? It is very important that the children
should first form a definite idea of a mile. If they know any two
places a mile distant from each other, they can compare other distances with this, thus following the plan taken from  "Geography 
for Young Children:"
"If practicable, a mile, or an aliquot part of it, as a quarter
or a half, should be actually measured by the pupil, which he may
do with ease by means of a string ten yards long, 44 of which are
a quarter of a mile, and 176 are a mile. Boys are found to take
great pleasure in such measurements. As mistakes are apt to arise
with large numbers, one of the pupils who is measuring, and who
goes first, should be provided with eleven bits of stick and four
pebbles. This first boy lays down one stick for each space of ten
yards, measured by the string, which the second boy picks up.
When the eleven sticks have been picked up by the second boy,
they must be given back for one pebble; and when the second
boy has got all the pebbles, the measurement of the quarter of a
mile is completed.  This may be repeated until a mile has been
measured. They may afterward try how long they take in walk 
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-THIRD STEP.
ing a quarter of a mile or a mile, and then from this calculate how
long it would take them to walk greater distances.
LESSON 2.
A  Jfapl of the A,eighborhood, with a Scale of Miles.
When the children have been well exercised in determining
the distances of places in their own neighborhood by the standard
measure of a mile and its aliquot parts, they should learn how an
idea of such distance is given by a scale.   Having  first determined how many miles she will represent by an inchl, let the
teacher draw the principal road of the locality, and, knowing the
distances of different houses or other points of interest, mark them
down according to her scale of distance, and thus work out before
her class a map of the immediate locality. The children may be
exercised on this for two or three lessons, as the calculations such
a subject involves, and the fact of its drawing out the knowledge
they have acquired by their own observation, will be sure to interest them, and prepare them to understand the construction of
maps embracing an area of many miles.
In larger towns and cities an outline map of the locality should
be presented to the class, containing the streets, the streams,
bridges, canal or railroad, the depot, the principal places of business, all public buildings and prominent points of interest. Preparatory to this, however, the children should draw a map of the
block or ward in which their school is situated, locating the homes
of the children. If practicable, then take them to some high hill
or eminence overlooking the town, and either make a rough map
of it on the spot, or, with an outline map before them, point out on
the map the objects seen in the landscape. This map should be
drawn to a scale, so that the children can calculate by measure
285
f 
286     ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-THIRD STEP.
ment the distance of one point from another. Question them as
to their relative position.  How long it would take them to go
from one locality to another, knowing the distance. Describe
various localities by the streets, and direction from other points;
the uses of the race, the canal, the railroad, the light-house, the
harbor; the object of the mill, the machine shop, the factory, the
various things manufactured in them; the uses of the public buildings, the parks, &c. In short, make them quite familiar with
everything connected with their own locality.
The following lessons are designed to introduce the study of
Physical Geography, by careful observation of the natural features
of the immediate neighborhood, or, in the absence of any local
exemplification, by the exhibition of models or pictures, or by the
construction of examples of the ordinary irregularities of the
earth's surface, in a box of moist sand. The usual verbal geographical definitions should be taught the children when they have
acquired a clear perception of the objects they describe. The following valuable suggestions on this subject are quoted from Mr.
Moseley's report:
"Violence is done to the intelligence of a child, hitherto limited to the narrow range of objects of which it is itself the centre,
and bounid up with associations so purely local, when, by a rude
attempt, its mind is made to expatiate over half the globe, and
pass to the conception of a region, placed, perhaps, under a wholly
different relation of external circumstances.  These things are not
to be approached by any such abrupt or compendious process, or
otherwise than by the steps of a slow and gradual progression.
Not, for instance, by teaching the child geographical definitions,*
* Taking into account, not only the entire ignorance of everything connected
with geography which the elementary teacher must suppose in the outset of her
task, b-it the poverty of the vocabulary of the children as to all forms of speech
which are not strictly colloquial, I cannot but think that a strange idea of the
world which a child would derive from a definition such as the following, which
forms the first paragraph of many books on geography:  "Geography is a description of the earth. The figure of the earth is that of a sphere or globe, slightly
flattened at the top and bottom, like an orange. A straight line passing throtlugh
its centre fromn the north to the south is called its axis, and the points in which
this line meets the surface of the earth are called respectively its no'-th and south,
poles.  The earth turns round upon this axis once in the coursa of twenty-four 
ELEAIENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-TIIIRD STEP.
or by accustoming it to recognize by their names places pointed
out to it on the map.
"To understand the distinction, we have only to consider how
many things go to our own conception of a distant region. The
map serves, indeed, to define the idea we have of it, to give it
vividness and completeness, but it does not originate it.
"We  already know what a country is, which the poor child
does not. WVhen a country is pointed out by name to him upon
the map, and he has learned to tell how, in respect to the four cardinal points, it is bounded by other countries, and what are the
names of its rivers, and mountains, and chief towns, his memory
may have been largely taxed, and yet his principal idea of the
country may, nevertheless, remain, in a great degree, identified
with an irregular figure upon a piece of paper. A vast chasm is
interposed in the child's mind between the objects with which he
is himself familiar, and those of which, in such instruction, he is
required to conceive the existence-a chasm which his imagina.
tion is not strong enough to bear him over.
"In truth, he has never accustomed himself to observe with
any precision or accuracy that part of the world which is close
around him. The whole scene has painted itself daily before him,
but has left no well-defined traces in his memory. His perceptions are too vague and too incoherent to be separated fromn the
material things on which they have been formed, or to be presented to the imagination, and made the subject of comparison, of
analogy, of accumulation, and of invention.
The first step in his education is to teachi him to observe.
Under the direction of a skilful instructor, many qualities of the
things around him, which had before altogether escaped his notice,
will, by more careful observation, be added to his knowledge, and
all his former impressions will acquire an unaccustomed distinctness and precision. This accomplished, and the child knowing at
hours, from which revolution follow the appearances of day and night." Notwithstanding that the acquaintance of the children who have learned geography
with the words of this or some similar definition, is almost universal, I never yet
was fortunate enough to meet with one who knew what the earth's axis really
is, or the earth'spoles.
287 
288     ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-THIRD STEP.
length adequately, for the purpose in hand, the characteristic fea.
tures of that portion of the earth's surface which is within his own
country, its varieties of elevation and aspect, its hills, valleys, and
streams, his attention may be directed to the divisions into towns;
also into fields, and the fences which bound them.   The boundaries
of these, with which his memory is familiar, being represented on the
blackboard by chalk lines, will convey to him his first idea of a
map and its uses; that idea will, moreover, be precise and truthful. The next step might make him acquainted with the general
features of the watershed of the district; and then the teacher
would bring under his view the useful productions which it is
made to yield by labor, whether pastoral, or agricultural, or mineral, associated as these are with the characteristic features of its
surface-level, its climate, drainage, aspect, and soil. Then the pursuits of its inhabitants, whether agricultural, or manufacturing, or
commercial, in alliance with these, and dependent upon them.
Next, the domain of natural history may be made to yield much
for his instruction, in respect to the infinite variety of animal and
vegetable forms which are assembled within the reach of his immediate observation; the birds which frequent that region, the
domestic and wild animals, some of the tribes of insects, the commoner plants which grow around him, and the different kinds of
trees. It is not proposed to burden the child's mind, in respect to
any of these matters, with scientific distinctions or a hard nomen
clature; all that is sought is a knowledge of them in their ordinary relations; such a knowledge as the child acquires in respect
to those other things with which he is most familiar."
Plan.-First, to call attention to the immediate locality, the
schoolroom, playground, street, &c., gradually extending the sphere
of observation by embracing the physical features of adjacent
places, noticing each point of variety, either in inequality of the
surface of the ground, or in the form of any natural collections of
water which may be accessible. This close observation of home
and its neighborhood will give distinctness and vividness to the
perceptions of the children, and enable them easily to conceive the
analogous natural features of other countries as similar in kind,
though on a larger scale.  The children should learn to describe 
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. —-THIRD STEP.
the different appearances of land and water, and their variety in
form and general character. They should also be made acquainted
with the various means of travelling, as on railroads, turnpike
roads, canals, rivers, and seas. Much attention should be paid to
accuracy of language in describing the different appearances of
land and water. The terms used should be thoroughly explained,
and repeated, till they become impressed upon the memory. Too
much importance cannot be attached to this idea of thoroughness
in all these exercises.*
LESSON 1.
The Earth on which we Live.
The teacher may first lead the children to see that the surface
of the earth on which we live may be divided into land and water,
the one solid and immovable, the other liquid and flowing.
They may then be led to consider the adaptations of land and
water to our necessities, convenience, and habits of life.
They will readily discover that we need the solid earth that
we may walk upon it, and build our dwellings on it, and also
for the production of food for men and animals.
Water is necessary to the life of man, and also to that of animals and vegetables. It supplies us with drink, and affords an
easy mode of conveyance.
The lesson may be summed up. God has covered our earth
with land and water, both of which are necessary to us; thus
proving to us His goodness, and His care for our happiness and
well-being.
LESSON 2.
The Division of Land into Mountains and Plains.
The teacher refers to the last lesson, proposing to find out
something more respecting the land. Ask the children whether,
* The teacher may derive considerable assistance in these exercises from a
little work called "First Ideas of Geography," published by J. W. Parker,
Strand, London.
13
289 
290     ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-THIRD STEP.
when they walk across the schoolroom or the playground, they
can do so easily, and if they have ever, in other places, found it
more difficult to walk than it is there?  Then ask if they have
ever seen horses drawing a cart with ease along a road, and then
comning to a place where they could with difficulty drag it? thus
leading them to the recollection of some rising ground or hill.
What kind of land is that upon which it i$ teasy to move
along?  That which is flat and level.  And what kind of land is
that on which it is more difficult to move? What difference may
we then say there is in the land? Some ground is quite flat and
even, and some rises up.* Sometimes a large extent of land is
flat. We call such land a plain. If I talk to you about a plain,
what will you understand the word to mean? Repeat together:
"A large piece of land, that is quite flat and even, is called a
plain."  And what name do you give to those places at which
the land rises up? We call them hills. Can you tell me the
names of any hills you may have seen? When do you call the
land a hill? But sometimes the land rises a great deal higher
than the hills you have seen, so high that the top of it is in the
clouds; it is then called a mountain. In what are hills and mountains alike?   They both are rising ground.  In what do they
differ? Mountains rise higher than hills. Repeat together: "A
mountain is land that rises a great deal higher than a hill."
LESSON 3.
Mountains.
The teacher calls upon the children to say how the earth is
divided, and what differences they have already noticed in the form
of the land.  They may then be allowed to see a model or picture
of some country, and to determine which elevations represent the
hill, and which the mountains.
The teacher should then call upon them to find out the parts
into which a mountain may be divided.
What part of a mountain do we first come to as we walk
* Here referencq w'ay be made to spme adjacent hill or rising ground. 
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-THIRD STEP.
toward it? The bottom of it. This is called the base. Look at
this model of a mountain, and run your finger round the base.
Repeat together: "The lowest part of a mountain is called the
base."  When you go up a hill, where do you begin to ascend?
At the base. You may call that part of the base at which you
begin to ascend, the foot of the hill.  What part of anything do
we call its foot?  The lowest part.  Now point to the foot of the
mountain or hill on this model. Where do you begin to go up
the hill? At the foot.
Now point out to me some other part of a mountain. The
top.  This is called the,uimit.  What part of a mountain would
you call its summit? The highest part. Now tell me some other
part that you observe. Those between the summit and the base.
These are called the sides of the mountain. When you look down.
ward from the summit of a mountain, what appearance have the
sides?  They seem to slope downward.  And when you look at
them from the base, what appearance have they? They seem to
slope upward.*   The children should then repeat together the
names of the several parts of a mountain, and describe each of
them.
The teacher may now propose that the children should help to
describe a walk up a mountain, supplying whatever they may omnit
to notice.  We  came first to the-foot-of the mountain;  we
then began-to go up the side-with some-difficulty; at last we
arrived at the-sumnit,-where  the wind blew fresh, and we
could see the country on every side to a great distance.  When
we had rested, we-came down the side-of the mountain, which
we did much more-easily-and-quickly-than we went up, and
at last came again to the-base.
LESSON 4.
A  Chain of J~ountains-Valleys.
What do we call elevated portions of land?   Hills and moun,
tai,2s. A mountain seldom stands alone. Look at this chart.
* These questions may seem tedious and unnecessary, but it is by such teachnlug that children are led to realize that which is brought before them.
291 
292     ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-THIIIRD STEP.
What do you notice as to the mountains?   Many of them are
joined together.  Try to find out a word to express the idea of a
set of mountains of which one joins another, and that another,
and so on. What do you call a number of rings of metal, when
thus joined together?   A  chain.  What,  then, do  you think
would be a proper name for a set of mountains which are joined
together in a somewhat similar manner? A chain of mountains.
Now look at this representation of a chain of mountains, and
tell me anything you notice.
The children will observe that smaller mountains run from the
sides of the principal chain, and that deep hollows are left between
the several elevations.
You know what the land is called when it is flat or even for a
considerable distance?   A  plain.   And  you know  what it is
called when it rises up, but not very high?  A  hill.  And what
is it called when it rises higher than a hill?  A  mzountain.  I
think there are some parts of the picture you have just examined
which you can neither call a mountain, hill, or plain. The land
that lies between the mountains.   What can you say of it?  It
is deep and hollow. These deeps are called valleys. Now repeat
together: "The hollow land that lies between hills or mountains
is called a valley." If I were to tell you that I was going into a
valley, what would you know  there must be on each side of it?
Hills or mountains. Sometimes such mountains are very near
each other. Of what form will the valley be in such a case? It
will be narrow. And what if the mountains be far apart? It
will tihen be a broad valley.
LESSON 5.
3fountains, Plains, and Valleys-(Continuted.)
You  now can tell me three different forms of the land on the
earth's surface. It may be a plain, a mountain, or a valley. In
which of these do you think it would be most pleasant to live?
Supposing the wind were high, and it were piercingly cold, what
would be the feelings of people living on a flat open plain? They
would be very cold. Why? Because there would be nothing to 
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-THIRD STEP.
shelter them from the cold blowing wind or driving storm. A
large open plain is a very cold place in winter, but what will it be
in summer?  What are you glad to find when the sun shines very
powerfully?   Yes; something to shelter and shade you.   But
would you expect to find this in the open plain? There is no
rising ground in such places, nor will you find trees, for they do
not grow well in such exposed places.
Repeat together: "A plain is cold in winter, and hot in summer, because it is open to the cold winds and hot sun.  It has no
mountains or trees to afford shelter."
In what other place might you live? In a valley. Of what
kind of valleys have we spoken? Of narrow valleys and broad
valleys.  When is a valley narrow?  When the hills or mountains between which it lies are near each other. When a valley
is very narrow, and its direction north and south, what sunlight
will it have? The sun can shine fully upon it only when it is in
the south. Where is the sun in the morning? In the east. By
what will it be prevented from shining upon such a valley in the
morning? By the mountains on the eastern side of it. And
what will prevent the setting sun from being seen?  The mountains on the western side.  When, then, will the inhabitants have
any sun? Only for a short time in the middle of each day.
When do you think it is very cold in such a valley?  When the
wind blows from the cold north. Yes; the wind blows down
such valleys in strong gusts, and the air does not circulate freely;
and on these accounts such narrow valleys are not healthful. In
what does a broad valley differ from these?   The mountains
bounding it are widely separated. What of the air in such valleys?  It can freely circulate.  What advantages have such valleys over the wide open plain? The mountains afford a shelter.
Yes; in such plains you find the air pleasantly blowing, the sun
cheerfully shining, and still you may find shelter and shade. Now
tell me where you would like to live, and for what reasons? *
.,
lr;
* These lessons are not intended to complete the subjects treated of, but only
to suggest the mode in which they should be handled. A residence on a mountain might be considered.
293 
294      ELE3ENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-THIIRD STEP.
LEssoN 6.
Benefits Derived fromn _fountains.
W,e have still much to learn about mountains, for, like every.
thing that God has made, they exist for great purposes.   I will
try aud help you to find out some of these. When you are at tlhe
summit of a mountain, what appearance have its sides?  They
slope downward.   When the several summits of a chain of moun tains are joined togethler, they form a ridge.  Do you know any
part of a house which is like the ridge of a chain of mountains?
The roof. And why are roofs made to slope on each side? That
the rain may flow off from them. Into what is it received? Into
gutters. Something very like this happens upon mountains and
hills.  What do you suppose becomes of the rain which falls upon
them? It runs down the sides. There is always a great deal of
rain in mountainous countries, for the mountains attract the clouds,
and these often hang so heavily about them, that they hide their
summits from our view. As the water runs down, it wears away
the softer parts of the earth, and forms grooves or channels.  Look
for these on the chart, and tell me what you observe in them.
Several of them seem to unite. And what will they then form?
At first small streams, and then rivers.   And what will occur
when these come to a hollow?  The streams will fill it with
water. Yes; this constantly happens on mountains; these little
streams form little stores of water to supply our springs and
rivers.
But it is not the rain that flows down the mountains which
alone affords us water; the tops of very high mountains are covered with snow. Do you know the manner in which this does its
part in supplying our springs and rivers? What happens to snow
in summer? It dissolves, and becomes water. And what then
takes place on the mountains? The water from the dissolving
snow flows down their sides. Yes; and in the countries where there
are snowy mountains there are always rivers.  It is a beautiful
sight to see the little streams rushing down the hills and feed;ng
the rivers that run along the valleys, and to think they are all performing their appointed work.  What is ono great use of moun
'.. 
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-THIRD STEP.
tains? To supply our springs and rivers with water. Yes; we
may call them river-feeders.
LESSON 7.
Further Benefits Derived from Mountains.
The teacher recalls the ideas of last lesson by asking the children what benefits we derive from mountains.
We derive many other benefits from mountains besides those
we have noticed. They contain many treasures. Do you know
of what hills and mountains are formed? You know what this
is. It is a piece of chalk, and it is part of a hill.* We do not
find chalk in high mountains, but in hills. What happens to chalk
when it is rubbed? It crumbles. And what do you think happens to chalk hills when the water rushes down their sides?
Some of the chalk is carried down by the water. If water is
constantly acting upon a substance not very hard, what form does
it give the substance? A smooth form. For this reason chalk
hills are never of sharp and pointed outline, but are rounded and
gradually sloping. Here is a piece of a mountain. What is this?
It is a piece of slate.   Large portions of some mountains are
formed of slate, which is so useful for roofing our houses, and many
other purposes. Here is another substance, of which many mountains are composed; it is called limestone, and is most useful in
building.
The children should not at present be detained on the geological structure of mountains longer than they may gain an idea of
their formation, and of the benefit we may derive from them.
The children may repeat together: "Mountains are useful to
us as being river-feeders, and as containing abundant mineral
treasures."
LESSON 8.
Lakes.
Into  what  did we  say the surface of the earth is divided?
Into land and  water.   Have  you anywhere  seen  a quantity of
* Whilst these lessons are being given, the children's object lessons should
he on mineral substances.
295 
296     ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.r-THIRD STEP.
water? You have seen a pond; tell me what it is. It is a piece
of wvater. What must there be in the land to hold the water?
A hollow. There must be a hollow place in the land to contain
the water; and what will there be round the edge of the water?
Tile ground, or land. What differences have you noticed in
ponds? They differ in size. But in what are they alike? They
all consist of a hollow in the ground, which is full of water. The
water is bordered by the land. Yes; you can walk round a pond.
Sometimes such pieces of water are very large-so large that you
cannot see how far they reach; and it would require many hours
for you to go from one end to the other. These large ponds are
called lakes. In what are lakes like ponds? They consist of
water in deep hollows, with the land round them.
Repeat together: "A large piece of water surrounded by land
is called a lake."
LESSON 9.
Rivers.
What is a lake?  In what is it like a pond?  Have you ever
seen any water that is not surrounded by land, and round which
you could not walk? The children will in all probability have
seen a stream or a river; if not, the picture must be used to
give them an idea of it. They should endeavor to find out the
difference between a lake and a river. Tell me all you observe in
a river.  A river is long.  What do you observe of the land at
the bottom of the river?  It is hollow.  Is it like the hollow
place that holds the water of the lake? In what does it differ?
It is narrow, like a groove. It is called the channel, or the bed
of the river. Find some other parts of a river. The sides. Of
what are the sides of a river formed? Of the earth or land.
These are called the banks of the river. The banks of rivers are
often very green, producing beautiful flowers; do you know what
occasions this? The water of the river gently moistens the soil,
and makes it fertile.
Look at this picture, and tell me where the rivers begin?
They begin near mountains.   What  did we  call mountains?
River-feeders. Now tell me where the rivers end? Some end 
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-TIIIRD STEP.
in lakes, and others in the sea. The spot at which they begin is
called the source, and that at which they empty themselves illto
some large collection of water, as a lake or sea, is called tho
mouth.  Wvhat more can you say of the water of the river; is it
still water?  No;  it is flowing water.   The little streams rush
down the mountains, and open into the rivers; what must they do
to the rivers? They supply them with water. Through what
kind of land does the river flow? Often through valleys and low
grounds, receiving supplies from all the little streams as it flows
along.  And what good does a river do in its course?  It waters
the country through which it passes, and supplies animals and
vegetables with that which they need for the support of life. And
what more?   It supplies the inhabitants of the country with
water. Is it of any other use? Have you ever seen anything
borne on the water?  Boats and barges.  Why were they floating on the water?  They were going on the water from one place
to another. Yes; and there were people living on those vessels,
and travelling easily with their goods from place to place.
Now tell me the parts of a river.  The bed or channel, the
banks, the source, and the mouth. Now tell me the uses of rivers. To sustain the life of animals and vegetables, to supply us
with water for many useful purposes, to float us along from one
place to another.
LESSON 10.
The Sea.
Where is water found?  In ponds, lakes, and rivers.  Yes;
but there are places where you will find much more water than in
these.  Do you remember into what we said that the earth's surface is divided?   Into land and water.   There is more water
than land. Do you know what that very large body of water is
called, upon which so many ships sail?  The sea.  Can any of
you tell me anything about the sea? Do you know the taste of
sea water?  It is salt.  WThat can you say of the surface of the
sea?  It is often rough.  AVhat makes it rough?   The waves.
What are these? They are the water of the sea disturbed by the
wind.
13*
297 
298     ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY.-THIRD STEP.
In giving lessons upon the sea, much depends upon the local.
ity in which the children reside. If there is an opportunity of looking at the sea, some very useful lessons may be given, calling
observation into activity; but if the children have not seen the
ocean, it may be well to leave the subject, till, at a later period,
they take up a fuller course of physical geography, when their
conceptive faculties can be more fully brought to bear on the subject. At this early stage, it will be enough that they understand
that a large portion of our globe is covered with salt water, ever
heaving and flowing, and that in size and depth the sea is greater
than anything they can imagine; that the ocean, as well as every
other work of God, is formed for some wise purpose; that it also
has an office to fulfil, in which it obeys the laws of infinite wisdom, goodness, and power.
The children may now take an outline map of the county,
which may be treated in the same general way as the city map.
In the next step or grade they may take the outline map of the
State, and then of the United States, before going to the map of
the world. 
THE HUMAN BODY.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
LESSONS on the human body are a good introduction to the
study of the natural history of the animal creation. They form a
commencement quite in accordance with the Pestalozzian principle
of starting from the known. Children should be somewhat familiar
with their own frame; they ought to have correct ideas on that
which so nearly concerns themselves. The subject is also ever
present, requiring nothing for its illustration other than that which
is common to all. Such lessons will furnish opportunity for correcting any vague and imperfect notion the children may have
acquired, for supplying them with a vocabulary of expressive
terms, and for giving them such an acquaintance with their own
organization, as may make it a standard for comparison with that
of other animals, thus preparing them to understand many wonderful details in the modification and adaptation of the organs of
animals to their peculiar habits, propensities, and localities.
With this view, the following exercises are designed as First
Step lessons:
First Object.-To lead the children to a consideration of their
own organs, and to teach them a proper nomenclature.
Plan.-The children to touch any part of their body, when
the teacher gives the name; as, the eye, ear, shoulder, leg, foot;
the right hancd, the left hand; the arm, hand, fist, &c.
The teacher next to touch these different parts, the children
giving the names; as, You are touching your head, your eyes,
your chin, cheeks, legs, &c.; being required to express the idea in
a short sentence, instead of merely naming the part. 
THE HUMAN BODY.
Sketch cf a Lesson on the Parts of the Princil)al Parts of the Body.
The teacher to touch one of the arms of a child, asking the
other children to say what part of the person she is touching;
and then lead them to notice that the arm also has parts. Another child to point to some part of the arm-the shoulder, for instance-the others being asked its name. If they do not know,
they are to be told it is the shoulder; and so on with the other
parts.
The teacher next to desire the children to point to any part
of the body she may name, as the shoulder, the elbow, the upper
arm, forearm, wrist, or hand. If any mistake is made, the others
to correct it.
The children next to name the parts to which the teacher
points; as, the elbow, shoulder, arm, forearm, wrist, and hand.
Require them to give the name of each part.
The teacher next to question the children on the different
parts, as to their number. How many joints have the arms? also
the number of fingers on one hand, and the number of joints in
each finger? If they make a mistake in the number, they should
correct themselves by examining their own arms and hands.
The teacher to question the children on the use of each part
of the arm, commencing with the shoulder joint. To call upon
them to say what they could not do if they had not that joint;
asking them to try and lift their hand to their head without bending that joint, &c. In the same way, to ask them to tell the use
of each of the other parts of the arm, and lead them to discover
the action and utility of the joints of the arm and fingers.
Second Object.-To make the children well acquainted with
the principal parts of the body, and to lead them to compare them
with the different forms of the corresponding organs in other
animals.
Plan.-Shown in the following hints for lessons:
1. What is the upper part of the body called? * The head.
* In order that these lessons may be brought within a moderate compass,
the answers are not given where they are quite obvious. Teachers should remember that those which are put down are not to be told to the children, but
rather to be drawn from them.
300 
THE HUMAN BODY.
What is the largest part of it called? The trunk. What have
you besides a head and a trunk?   Arms  and legs.  What  are
these called? Limbs. Now tell me the three principal parts of
your body.   The head, the trunk, and the limbs.
2. The Limbs.
How many limbs have you? What are the upper limbs
called?   What  are the lower limbs called?  How many legs
have we? How many legs has the dog, the cat, the horse?
Tell me some other animals that have four legs.   How many
more legs have these animals than we  have?   What is the
consequent difference in their way of standing? In what does
the  position of our body  differ from  theirs?   How  is this
suited to our different manner of eating and habits of life?
What limbs have weve?  Two legs and two arms.   How  many
limbs have the animals we have been talking about?  What
are their limbs?   What difference is there then between these
animals and ourselves?   Yes;  they have two legs, where we
have two arms.   What  do  you call those legs which they
have in the place of our arms?  Fore legs.  What  do you call
the other pair? Ilind legs. Tell me some other animals besides
man that have only two legs.*  What have birds in place of
arms?  What can birds do with their wings, which they could
not do if they had only legs?  Where  are the legs of birds
placed?  Where are ours placed?   How is the body of birds
placed?   Compare its position with the position of our body.
What animals move without either arms, legs, or wings?  How
do worms move? What other animals besides worms and ser pents have no limbs?   Where  do fish live?   How  do they
move?  What have they where we have limbs?  Now you have
told me of some animals that have two legs, of some that have
four, and of some that have none; can you mention some little
animals that differ from any of these? How many legs has a fly
or bee? Tell me some other animals that have six legs. A but
* Children might here describe the actions performed by the leg in man,
and compare them with the different actions of other animals.
301
L
p 
TIHE HUMAN BODY.
terfly, a wasp a beetle, a lady-bird, &c. What do you call all
these animals?  Insects.   How many legs have insects?   Insects
have six legs. How do insects move on the ground? How do
they move in the air?
As a summary of this lesson, the children should state how
animals differ as to the number of their legs, and as to their movements, giving examples of each variety.
3. The Joints.
What can we do with our legs? In how many places can
we bend them? Try and find out. In three places. The place
where we bend a limb is called a joint. What can we do at a
joint?  Where  is the lowest joint of the leg?  Move your leg,
and find out.  At the ankle.   That is called the ankle joint.
How many ankle joints have you?   Which is the highest place
at which we move the leg?  At the hip.  That is called the hip
joint. How many hip joints have we? Where is the middle
joint of the leg? How many knee joints have we? Now tell
me all the joints of the legs? Two ankle joints, two knee joints,
two hip joints. How many joints have we altogether in the legs?
When do we make use of our legs without bending any joint in
them? When do we bend the knee joint only? When do we
bend both the hip and knee joint? When do we bend all three
joints of the leg? Describe our joints when we sit down. When
we sit down, we bend the joint at the hip, and that at the knee
also.
Summary.-The different joints; what they are; their use;
how many in each leg; whether the same in other animals.
4. The Lower Limbs.
What do you call that part of the lower limb between the hip
and the knee?   The thigh.   And what the part between the
knee and ankle?   The  leg.  What kind of substance is that
which is at the hinder part of the leg? What do you call that
fleshy part? The bone in front of the leg is called the shin bone.
What part is called the calf of the leg? That between the kneo
302 
THE HU]IAN BODY
and ankle, at the back of the leg. Where are the shin bones?
In front of the leg. Now tell me where the thigh is. Between
the hip and knee. Into how many parts may the lower limb be
divided?
5. The Feet.
Upon what do we stand?   Where  are our feet?   How are
we able to stand upon our feet? They are wide and flat, and so
placed on our legs as to rest on the ground. How many feet have
we? Think of all the different kinds of feet which animals have.
What kind of feet have birds? How do birds move with their
feet? What more do birds do with their feet? How have you
seen hens use their feet? Yes; scratching up the earth, which
they easily do with their long claws. And how do they use their
claws when they sleep? The claws of birds are so formed that
they cling more tightly when the bird is asleep, so that it does not
lose its hold. What differences have you observed in the feet of
birds?  In what respect do the feet of ducks differ from those of
hens? They have a skin stretched between the claws. Yes;
this kind of foot is called a web-foot. Of what use is a foot of this
kind to ducks? Why, then, have hens and ducks such different
feet?  What kind of feet have cats and dogs?  What kind of
feet have horses and cows? Tell me some animals having hoofs.
What is the difference between the hoof of a cow and that of a
horse or an ass? The hoof of the cow is a cloven hoof. Tell me
some animals that have cloven hoofs.   Upon what do animals
which have hoofs feed?  -"hat do cows, horses, &c., eat?  In
what way do they eat? They put their heads down to the grass,
and bite it off. Why have they no need of claws to lay hold of
their food? What kind of feet have cats? Tell me some other
animals having paws.  What  do lions, tigers, and wolves feed
upon? What are cats fond of catching?
Try and find out why God has wisely given claws to those
animals that have to catch the prey they feed upon, and hoofs to
those which feed on grass?  How  does God show his care for
animals in the different kind of feet which He has given them?
You see that God takes care that every animal has that which is
303 
THE,  HUMAN BODY.
necessary for it.  If He takes such care of animals, what may w&
feel sure He will do for us? And as we can speak, what should
we do when He gives us so much?
Now tell me a part of the foot. The toe. How many toes
have we on one foot?  How many on both?  What  can we do
with our toes?  What do you call the places where we can bend
our toes? What have our toes besides joints? What difference
do you observe when you hit or cut your nails, and when you do
the same to any part of your flesh? What can you then say of
the nails?  The nails have no sensation.  Why  are they placed
at the end of our toes? To guard that part which is most sensitive, and most exposed to injury.
Tell me some other part of the foot. The lowest part is called
the sole. Where is the sole of the foot? There are some other
parts of the foot which you have not mentioned.   Yes; the part
that rises up in front; it is called the instep. What causes it to
rise up?  Where is the instep?  The instep is in front of the
foot, and rises up between the toes and the ankle bones. What
is there at the back of the foot? Where is the heel? Repeat
the different parts of the leg and foot.
And now tell me what it is that makes the legs stiff and
strong, and able to support us. What covers the bones? What
covers the flesh? What makes the flesh look pinkish?
How do we use our feet? What is the difference between
running and walking?   How do we use our feet when we jump?
How when we hop? What do naughty children sometimes do with
their feet? What makes them kick? They give way to anger
and passion. Whom does this always displease? Why does it
displease God? All such misuse of useful members displeases the
great God whose eye is ever upon us, and who sees when we are
angry or in a passion.  Tell me some texts that teach us how we
ought to feel and act toward each other.
Sumnmary. -The use, position, and number of the feet in man;
the parts described; the differing feet of animals; and what we
learn in these things of the wisdom and goodness of the Creator
304 
THE HUMAlN BODY.
6. The Arms.
What  are the upper limbs called?  How many arms have
we? Where are our arms placed? At the upper part of the
body, on either side of the trunk. In what direction are they
placed? What advantage is it that they come forward? How
many joints are there in one arm? Try where you can bend
your arm. Which is the lowest joint of the arm? It is called
the wrist. Which is the uppermost joint? The shoulder joint.
Wilich is the middle joint?  The elbow.   That part between the
shoulder and elbow is called the arm; the part between the elbow
and wrist is called the fore arm. Point to the fore arm; to the
arm. Tell me where the fore arm is; where the arm is. What
is below the wrist?
7. The Hands.
Tell me the different parts of the hand. The inside of the
hand is called the palm of the hand. Show me the palm of the
hand. What do you call those bones on the back of the hand
which project? The knuckle bones. What use do we make of
the knuckles?   What,  then,  are the knuckles?   How  many
fingers have we? Tell me the different parts of a finger. How
many joints are there on each finger?  How  many on  all the
fingers of one hand? What is the use of the nails? Where are
they placed?  Why  are they so placed?   What  kind of sub.
stance is the nail?  Horny.   Find out some uses in its being
horny.   It guards the tender part of the fingers, making  them
most useful in various delicate operations. What other part of
the body is without feeling? What are those parts of animals
which have no feeling? What are the names of the several
fingers? The thumb, fore finger, middle finyer, ring finger, little
finger.  What do you call this hand (holding up the right hand)?
What this? Now tell me, as I hold up a finger, what particular
finger it is, and of which hand. Middle finger of left hand; fore
finger of right hand,  &c.    What is the shape of the fingers?
How do the fingers differ?   What can we  do with oir hands 2
In what manner do we pick up anything? How do we hold a
305
W- 
THE HIIMAN BODY.
needle? Why cannot we use our toes in the same manner as our
fingers? Because the toes are all placed in a row; but the thumb
can be brought opposite to the fingers, and thus the hand is fitted
to lay hold of things.* How can women fully employ their
hands? How can men use their hands in earning their daily
bread? What animals have hands? Monkeys. How many
hands have monkeys?   Where  do monkeys  live?   In trees.
What is the use of their hands? To lay hold of the branches.
How, then, are they well fitted to live in trees? They have four
hands to lay hold of the branches of the trees. Can the monkey
point at anything with the first finger, as you can? No; man
only can do this; he has on this account been called "the pointing animal."
Sumrnn2ary.-To repeat all the different parts of the arm and
hand; and the adaptation of hand and foot to their respective
offices.
8. The Hlead.
You have now told me about the arms and legs. By what
other name may we call our arms and legs? To what are the
limbs joined? Where is each placed? The arms at the upper
part of the trunk move forward ready to lay hold of things; the
legs at the lower part, and in a line with the body, to keep it
erect. What is at the top of the trunk? What do you feel when
you touch your head?  The bone of the head is called the skull.
WVithin the skull is the brain-a very tender organ; how is it
guarded?  AWhat is the front of the head called?  Tell me the
different parts of the face; begin at the top. The forehead.
'What are on the sides of the forehead? The temples. Where
is the forehead? At the top of the face, above the eyes; between the temples.  What is next to the forehead?
9. The Eyes, and Sense of Sight.
How many eyes have we?  What do you call this eye?  The
* It should be made obvious to the children, that as the foot is well formed
to support the body, so is the hand for an organ of prehension, that they may
be led to see how beautifully the Creator has adapted everything to its appointed
work.
306 
THE HUJMAN BODY.
right eye. And this? The left eye. Look at the eye of the
child next to you, and tell me the different parts of it. Look at
the middle of the eye. The dark spot is called the puupil. Look
and see if it is the same in every eye. What is it called? What
do you observe round it? That colored ring round the pupil is
called the iris. Look and see if the iris is the same in every eye.
In some it is blue, in some brown, &c. In what are the pupil and
iris placed? That part of the eye which is round like a ball is
called the eyeball. How many eyeballs have we? What have
we in the eyeball? In what part of the eyeball is the pupil of
the eye? In the front of it. Tell me exactly where the pupil
of the eye is?  The pupil is in the middle of the front of the
eyeball, and has the iris around it. Where is the eye placed,? In
a sort of cup in the skull.  This is called the socket or orbit of the
eye. By what is the eye covered-? How many eyelids have we
to each eye?  What do you call the eyelid nearest the forehead?
What the other?  What eyelid am  I touching?*  The upper
eyelid of the right eye. What is at the edge of the eyelids?
What do you call the hairs at the edge of the eyelids? Are
there any other hairs near the eye?   What  are these called?
What is the form of the eyebrows?  NVhere are they placed?
Now try and tell me what you think is the great use of the
eye? What do you call those who cannot see? When is it that
we who have sight, cannot see?  When it is dark.  What, then,
is necessary to enable us to see?  Where does light come from?
When do we lose the light of the sun? From what other natu.
ral object have we light? When does the moon give us light?
What happens when we have neither moon nor sun?  We  have
no natural light, and cannot see, when neither the sun nor moon
shines.
Now listen seriously to me, and I will tell you a truth like this
about our souls. God must send the light of his Holy Spirit into
our souls, or we shall not know what to do to please Him, or how
to walk in the way of his commandments. What, then, must we
* It is desirable to vary the lessons by a change in the kind of questions.
The hints here given may be followed out and extended as far as they may in
terest the class.
307
il, 
THE HUMAN BODY.
pray for? David, in Psalm xliii. 3, prays that God would lead
him by His light.
Now tell me all that we can do with our eyes, besides seeing
with them. What happens when we weep? Tears fall. Why
do people weep? Sometimes because they are hurt; sometimes
because they are sorry; sometimes from passion. Is it ever right
to weep? Try and find out the pleasures which we enjoy through
our sight. What are the uses of sight?
You see now that for many reasons the eye is very valuable
to us; and our kind Heavenly Father has taken great care to
guard it from accident, as you will discover, if you attend to me.
Where is the eye placed? It is lodged in a hollow socket, surrounded by bone, just as if it were in a box. Now tell me the
bones that project around it.  What is above it?  The forehead.
What on the sides? The temples and the nose. What below
it? The cheek-bones. These cheek-bones, like walls, guard the
eyes from being hurt.*  Now  tell me exactly how the eye is
placed. How does the eye act when anything comes near it?
Observe when I put my hand quickly near this child's eye. Yes;
the eyelids close before there is time to think that the eye is in
danger of being hurt. There is always dust floating in the air;
how is it that we are so seldom inconvenienced by it? The fringe
of the eyelashes preserves the eye fromnt dust; but if any should
fall in, what immediately happens? Yes; the tears at once begin
to flow, and carry it out of the eye.  The tears also keep the eye
constantly moist and clean.t If you wished to have something
that would roll about easily, of what shape would you have it?
And what shape is the ball of the eye? Hlow, then, is the eye
fitted to move easily? It is round in form.
* In giving this lesson, the teacher can enter into more details as to the
beautiful protection provided for the eye, and draw out other facts from the
children themselves.
t Should the party consist of very intelligent children, the teacher migl
lead them to see that the overhanging eyebrow protects the eye like the roof
a cottage; that the iris always dilates, making the pupil smaller, when a suddf
or strong light comes near the eye, so that less light enters; and that the super
fluous moisture of the eye is carried into the nose, where it moistens the linint,
membrane, and makes the sense of smell more delicate than it could other
wise he.
303 
THE HUMAN BODY.
Summnary.-Repetition of the parts of the eye, and their rela.
tive position; the manner in which it is protected fromn injury;
the wisdom and goodness of the Creator; the advantages  and
pleasures connected with the sense of sight.
10. The Nose, and Sense of Smell.
What is there in the middle of your face? What is above
the nose? what below it? what on each side of it? How does
the nose help in guarding the eyes from injury? Tell me the
parts of the nose. The holes are called nostrils. How many
nostrils have we?  How  are they divided?  By gristle.  The
end of the nose is called the tip; the high part of it, the bridge;
the outside of the nostrils, the wings.  To what do the nostrils
lead? There is a passage through them to the back of the mouth,
through which we breathe; and there is also a passage from the
eye to each of them, through which the fluid which cleanses and
moistens the eye flows.  Of what use is the nose?  Do we use
the nose in smelling only? How do we feel when we close the
nostrils? We cannot breathe freely. Tell me some animals to
which the sense of smell is very useful.  What animals are guided
in their search for others by the sense of smell? Dogs are very
remarkable for their good scent. A dog, having lost his master,
has been known to follow his steps, street after street, through a
crowded city, by his scent. What use does man make of dogs in
consequence of their fine scent? Not only dogs, but many other
animals are directed in finding their food by this faculty. Some
birds have wonderful scent, and can discover putrid flesh at a
great distance, even when they are high in the air; such birds are
very useful in clearing away that which would make the air very
unhealthy.  What animal has a long nose called a snout?  How
does the pig use its snout? Many animals besides the pig use the
snout in grubbing up the earth to get at roots or worms, and some
use it for making in the earth the holes in which they live. Can
you mention any of these? The hedgehog and mole; both these
animals have pointed snouts full of muscles, which make them
very strong. What has the pig at the end of its snout? This
ring of gristle helps it in grubbing up the earth.  What animal
309 
THE HUMAN BODY.
has a much longer snout than a pig?  What is it called?  How
can the elephant use its trunk? It can twist it about in every
direction. The elephant's trunk is most useful to it. Upon what
does the elephant feed? It feeds on vegetables, on the grass and
herbs that grow on the ground, and also on boughs of trees. Now
look at this picture of an elephant. Do you think it could put its
mouth down to the ground? or could it raise it so as to bite off
branches? No; it could not. You can tell, then, the use of its
long flexible trunk. With its trunk it uproots the grass and herbs
on the ground, and snaps off the young twigs from the trees above,
and then carries them to its mouth. And how does it drink? It
draws water into its trunk, and conveys it to its mouth. Tell me
what use we make of the nose.  Tell me the different uses animals make of it. What do you find, when the nose has to be
used for other purposes than smelling? That God fits it for its
special use by changing its form.
Summary.-Position of the nose; its parts and uses; the
diversity of its form in different animals.
11. The Jfouth, and the Faculty of Speech.
What is under the nose?  What do you call the edges of the
mouth? How many lips have you? What do you call the lip
nearest the nose?  What the other?  What is the color of the
lips?  What can we do with our lips?  Say what we do when
we smile?  How do we use our lips to show that we love a person? How do we use our lips in eating? Tell me the different
parts of the mouth. What is there within the lips? What color
are the teeth? Of what are they made? What use is there in
their being so hard? What are the parts of a tooth? The
naked part of a tooth is called the crown; the part fixed in the
jaw is called the fang or root.  What differences do you observe
in the teeth?  How many kinds of teeth have we?  Those nearest the lips are called the front or cutting teeth.   What sort of an
e'ge have they?  A  sharp edge like that of a ki(nife or scissors.
What use is there in their lhavinig such an edge?  Ilow many
cutting teeth have we? What sort of teeth collie next to the
310 
TlHE HIUMAN BODY.
cutting teeth?   Pointed teeth.   These are called the eyeteeth.
How many have we?  And what other teeth have we?  Those
at the back of the jaw are called double teeth, or grinders, because
we grind our food between them. In what are our teeth set?
How  many jaws have we?   What  are the two jaws called?
AVhich jaw do we move when  we eat?   How  do we  move it?
What covers the jaws?  The two cheeks.   What animals lhave
large teeth projecting out of their mouths?  Which of the teeth
are very large in some animals? They are called tusks; such animals generally use them either in defending themselves, or in destroying their prey. What sort of teeth have dogs or cats? * Lions,
tigers, and wolves have the same kind of sharp-pointed teeth.
Now call to mind what we said about the feet of these animals.
They are fitted to catch their prey. What, then, is the use of
their having sharp-pointed teeth? To tear the flesh of their prey.
What kind of feet have cows, horses, &c.? What do these animals feed upon? Did you ever see a cow lying down and chewing? How did it move its lower jaw? From side to side. What
kind of teeth has it? And by thus moving its jaw from side to
side it bruises its vegetable food between its great flat grinders,
till it becomes a soft pulp. What part of an animal should we
examine in order to find out what kind of food it eats? God,
who gives to every animal the desire for the particular food that
is suitable for it, gives it also the means of procuring that food,
and proper teeth wherewith to masticate or chew it. When have
we no teeth? What food has God provided for infants? Why,
then, do infants not need teeth? WThat is there in the middle of
the mouth, within the teeth? In what do we use the tongue?
In talking and eating. We not only use the tongue in talking;
but when we eat, we use it in bringing the food between the teeth,
and in helping us to swallow.  What use do some animals make
of their tongue? t What do you call that which the dog does
* If the children cannot answer such questions from their own knowledge,
thee slhoild not be told; but a cat or dog should be brought in for the nex. lessCnl, or they should be directed to observe the animal at home.
+ Some animals use their tongues as an organ of p)rehension.  The cow gathers the grass into its mouth with its tongue, and the cameleopard twists the
tongue round the boughs of trees.
311 
THE HUMAN BODY.
when he drinks?  What other animals use their tongues in lap.
ping?   What kind of tongue has the cat?   What  can we do
with the mouth? For what purposes do we open the mouth?
To eat, drink, speak, laugh, gape, scream, sing, whistle, &c. What
parts of the mouth do we use in speaking? Utter some words,
and observe. We open and shut the mouth. And how do we use
the tongue and lips? Observe what we do in sounding each of the
five vowels, and tell me. Observe what we do in sounding the dif.
ferent consonants, and tell me.* Can we utter a sound by merely
opening the mouth, and putting it in different positions? Try and
find out what more we need to do. To whom has God given the
power of speaking? Tell me the best mode of using this power.
When do we make a bad use of this gift of God?  What do we
call those who cannot speak? Tell me the different sounds that
animals make with their mouths.  What sound do we make when
we are happy? What when we are in pain? What sound is a
sign of mirth?
Summary.-Repeating the names of all the parts of the
mouth, and their position; the diversity in the teeth of animals,
as well as in their food, to suit their habits; how we use our
mouths in speaking, eating, &c.
12. The Chin, and Cheeks.
Where is the chin?  What is the shape of the chin?  Tell
me where the cheeks are?  WVhat is the general color of the
cheeks? When is the color of the cheeks lost? WVhat is the
substance of the cheeks?
13. The Ears, and Sense of Hearing.
Where  are the ears placed?    Iow many  ears have  we?
Tell me the parts of the ear.t The lower part is called the
* This may be made a very interesting lesson, and lead the children to the
habit of observing the details of the process by which they produce certain
Hounds, thus cultivating perception of the relation between cause and effect.
t The teacher must here, as in all such lessons, let the children point to the
part before its name is told them.
312 
THE HUMAN BODY.
flap; the edge that curls over it is called the hem.  Whither does
the inner canal lead? It is a passage which leads to the drum of
the ear, so called because it has a skin or membrane stretched
tightly over it, as the parchment is over a drum. What do you
observe in the ears of animals? What is their most common
shape? Like that of a trumpet. This is the best shape for collecting sound and conducting it to the passage of the ear. Did
you ever see a poor hare or rabbit, when the dogs were chasing
it? What was then the direction of its ears? They were turned
backward. What was it trying to hear? Those animals that are
liable to be pursued by others have their ears turning backward,
that they may hear whatever may be coming after them. What
kind of ear would best suit those animals that have to pursue
their prey? And so we find that lions, tigers, cats, &c., have
their ears pointing forward, that they may hear anything before
them.  What does all this teach us of God?   Who made all animals? And if God has taken such care for the comfort of animals, how much must He be displeased with those who hurt and
tease dumb creatures.* What is the use of the ear? What
sounds do we hear easily? what with difficulty? What do you
call people who cannot hear? Why is it a misfortune to be deaf?
When do we make a good use of the sense of hearing?
Summary.-The parts of the ear, and its position; how fitted
for receiving sound; peculiarities in the ears of different animals;
the uses of the ear.
14. The Hair and lead.
What covers the back and the top of the head? What is
there beneath the hair?  What under the skin?  Have any alimals besides man hair on their bodies? Where is the hair of other
animals?  What is the use of hair to animals?   What  can man
do to supply the place of a covering of hair? Is the hair of all
animals alike? What difference, then, do you find in the hair of
animals?  What do you call the hairy covering of sheep?  What
* A teacher of infants, while improving every opportunity of conveying
moral lessons, should take care to avoid introducing either these, or passages of
Scripture, when they do not naturally arise out of the subject.
a+
313
ml- 
THE HUMAN BODY.
kind of hair has the pig? what kind the cat? &c.  Name the
various'kinds of these coverings.  Hair, wool, bristles, fur.  What
is the shape of the head?  Are the heads of animals of the same
shape as ours?  What difference do you see?  Look at this picture of a dog, a pig, &c. What makes the heads of these animals
less round than ours? The nose and mouth stand out more.
15. The.Neck.
Upon what are our heads placed? What is the form of our
neck? The neck is like a pillar to support the head; but what is
it in fiont? It is a passage. There are two passages in the neck.
You know very well the use of one of these. But, in addition to
the throat, which is the passage for conveying the food to the
stomach, there is another called the windpipe, through which we
breathe, and which conveys air to the lungs.
16. The Bones.
Now feel the bones below the throat. That in front is called
the breastbone.  Feel the bones that stretch from the throat to the
shoulders. These are called the collar bones. Now feel the bones
on each side of the body in front. These are called the ribs.
Where are the ribs?  What is the shape of the ribs?  They
curve, and form a hollow for the lungs by which we breathe, and
for the heart, and for the stomach into which the food is received.
Feel the bone that goes down the middle of the back. It is called
the spine, or backbone.  Where is the backbone?  Can we bend
the backbone? How is the backbone formed? It is formed of
a great number of small bones, most beautifully joined together.
if our back were formed of one single bone, and were solid like
this stick, could we bend it? Can we now bend the back as we
may require?  What advantage is there in the backbone being
frrnmed of many small bones? What is the use of the backbone?
WVhat is the direction of the backbone?  In what position is it
when we lie down? In what direction is the backbone of most
animals?
Tell mae pow the names of the chief bones of the body as you
314 
THE HUMAN BODY.
have mentioned them. To what part of the body do they be.
long? What have we besides a trunk? How many limbs have
we?  What do our bones form altogether?  The skeleton, or
bony framework which sustains all the rest of our person.
SKETCH FOR A LESSON.
On the Differeznce between the Hland and the Foot.
1. Draw the attention of the children to the difference in the
position of these two organs; the hand being placed at the upper
part of the body at the end of the arm, and in a line with it; the
foot at the lower part of the body,  at an angle with the leg.
Again, the difference as to form; the hand thin, the palm capable
of being formed into a hollow cup;  and termiating in four long,
flexible, slender fingers, ranged in a row, with an opposing thumb
which can be brought to meet any one of them, so as to pick up
or grasp objects. The sense of touch, also, as being so exquisitely
delicate in the fingers, enabling women to do the finest needlework, and men to carry on the most delicate operations. The
foot thick and stiff; the instep arched for strength; the sole of the
foot broad and flat; the toes short and thick, the whole five being
arranged in one plane.
2. The use of the hand, to lay hold of things; that of the
foot, to support the body when in an upright position, or when
moving or standing.
3. How both these organs are fitted by their position and form
for their different offices. The hand, by its thinness and flexibility,
being capable of being formed into a hollow; its long, delicate
fingers opposed to the thumb, forming a complete organ for grasping and touching; the foot, by its thinness, flatness, and the
breadth of the sole, by the muscular power of the instep, and by
its position, fitted for its office of supporting the body in an erect
posture.
315
t 
COURSE OF LESSONS ON ANIMALS.
INTRODUOTORY REMARKS.
THE natural history of the animal creation furnishes abundant
materials for instruction. First, that of a religious character; for
the wisdom and goodness of the Creator are manifestly proclaimed
in the wonderful construction and beautiful adaptation of animals
to circumstances, evidencing design in a manner which no one can
gainsay. Secondly, that of a moral character; for, by awakening
interest in animals, kind and humane feelings are promoted, which
those who have witnessed the pleasure even very young children
take in tormenting creatures over which they have any power, will
acknowledge to be an object of no small importance. Thirdly,
that of an intellectual character; for the faculties of observation,
of comparison, and of conception, are brought into exercise, whilst
reason takes its part in tracing cause and effect, and drawing inferences and conclusions from facts.
In the First Step, the perceptive faculty is exercised on the
general appearance and external parts of animals. The teacher
must not seek either to promote precocious development, or to
store the memory with information, but simply to direct aright the
activity that exists; to form, and not to fill the mind.
In the Second Step, not only the perceptive, but also the conceptive faculty is exercised. The teacher directs attention to the
actions of animals and their mode of life, as well as to their forms,
parts, &c. Subjects of lessons are no longer limited to native and
domestic animals, but include such as are foreign; at least the
more prominent of these. 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-FIRST STEP.
In the Third Step, the reasoning faculty is exercised. Tho
teacher leads her class, already somewhat acquainted with the
structure and habits of animals, to see the wonderful adaptation
of one to the other. Sometimes this is best shown by comparison
of individual animals.
In the Fourth Step, the faculty of generalization is exercised.
The work of the last Step, which is consideration of adaptation,
is extended to classes of animals. More general comparisons are
made.
Moral lessons should constantly be drawn from these subjects,
not with cold, dry formalism, but in such a manner as to interest
and to improve.   In the lower steps, the object of the teacher
will be chiefly to excite feelings of humanity and sympathy for
the lower animals. In the higher steps, the thoughtful teacher
cannot help referring to the wisdom and goodness of the great
Creator and Adapter.
All that can be done to help teachers in carrying out this subject, is to furnish them with principles, give a few patterns of
model sketches and exercises, and to suggest hints. But if the
mind of the teacher be barren and uninventive, the instruction
will be dull and wearisome.
FIRST STEP.
I.-General conversation about an animal.  Observation of its
most prominent parts, as the children advance.
II.-More accurate observation; referring to,
1. Parts, names, and number and uses of these.
2. Distinction of parts, as principal and secondary.
3. Position of parts.
4. Characteristic parts, or those which especially distinguish
the animal.
Any one or two of these points may be taken up in a lesson,
as the subject may be best adapted to work them out. But as a
general rule, the teacher will commence the Step by working out
Point 1, and conclude it by working out Point 2.
317 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-FIRST STEP.
In preparing students to teach this subject, the teacher of
Method may begin by directing their attention to the pattern lesson on the " Hen and Chickens."
Let them examine the sketch, note what ideas are taken up,
in what order, and form a corresponding lesson on the "Cat and
Kittens."
1. Hen and Chickens. (Conversational Lesson.)
1. Present a picture. Let the children examine it, and determine what the animals are; what doing; what the hen is to the
chickens; the chickens to the hen; what the hen does for the
chickens (scratches up food for them all day, watches over them,
defends them from any dog or hawk that threatens them). This
gives her trouble, and exposes her to danger. Why she does it?
She loves her chickens. Children to say what their mothers do
for them, and why?   Refer to the goodness of God, which inspires mothers with so much affection.
2. Children compare the hen and chickens as to their ways,
&c. The hen is active, industrious, intent on supplying the wants
of the chickens. The chickens are weak, helpless, and can do
nothing for themselves. How they act on the approach of danger. How the hen behaves under the same circumstances. How
loving she is; how brave; how unselfish.  How we should feel
and behave toward the hen.
2. The ITurse.  (For Parts, their Names, and NVumber.)
IMATTER      METHOD.
1. Children name the parts when pointed to, and point to them when named.
(S. R.)
2. Children led to talk about the parts;
their number and kind.   Teacher gives
terms required to express ideas; as, handsome; fowing, by comparing the tail and
mane of the horse with the tail and mane
of the lion.   Pointed,  brought out  by
comparing the two ends of a cut pencil.
1. A          horse has legs,
body, head, eyes, ears,
mane, tail, and hoofs.
2. A horse has a
long round body, long
thin legs, a handsome
flowing tail, flowing
mane,  and   apright
pointed ears.
I
i
I
I
318
MATTER. 
LESSONS ON IANALS.-FIRST STEP.
Which end most resembles the ears of a
horse?   Upright, by holding the pencil in
different directions.
3. Children referred to the parts they
have before noticed.  Teacher bids them to
name some part of which the horse has
but one; some part of which it has two;
whether they can find any part of which it
has exactly three?   If not, let them find
parts of which it has four.
4. Children say who  made the horse.
How He would like to have us treat it?
To name  any ways in which they can
show it kindness.
4. We should             never
treat the horse unkindly, but always be good
and gentle to it.
Sumnmary.-Teacher asks each child individually to name a
part of the horse. Goes around the class a second time, asking
each the number of part he names;  i. e., the child who  says,
"The horse has an eye," should say how many eyes. Third time
each child is required to describe any part named by the teacher.
Students in training to construct a sketch on "The Mouse," as "The
Horse."
3. The Sparrow. (Parts.)
I.-Principal and secondary parts.  II.-Position of parts.
1.-I1. Principal Parts.-These are, head, body, wings, and
legs. (S. R.) Call on a child to touch a large part of the bird.
When body and wings have been found, cover them up, that the
remaiiing parts may be ditstinguished.
2. Secondary Parts.-(a) Of the head-eyes and beak.   [b)
Of the body-feathers, back, breast, and tail.  (c) Of the legsfeet and claws. (S. R.) A child to find a part of the head; as,
the eye.  How many eyes?  What the bird does with them?
The beak. How many parts? Its use? What children have,
instead of a beak? What, instead of the feathers? Why the
bird wants feathers? &c.
II.-Position.-1. Principal.  The head is at one end of the
body; the tail at the other end.  The wings are on either side, and
the legs underneath. (S. R.)
319
3. The horse has
one head, one body,
one tail, two eyes, two
ears, four le,s, and four
ZD
feet.
Fl- 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-FIRST STEP.
2. Secondary. The eyes are on either side of the head. The
beak is in front of the head, and below the eyes. The back is
the upper part of the body, the breast the under part.  The feet are
below the leys. The toes are at the end of each foot-three before, and one behind. The feathers are all over the bird, except
the legs, beak, and eyes. (S. R.) Children to notice where the
head is. Teacher give the proper expression, if needed. Question thus: What is at one end of the body? What at the other?
Then reverse the questions; as, Where is the head? Where are
the legs?  the feathers?  Children distinguish the unfeathered
parts.
Students in training construct sketch on "The House-fly," as "The
Sparrow."
The teacher, having led the class in training to decide on the
characteristic parts which are written on the board, requires them
to supply the method.
4. The Duck, (For Characteristic Parts.)
IATTER.-1. The duck has feathers of many colors-green,
blue, brown, white, and black.
2. The duck has thick, glossy plumage.
3. The duck has a flat, boat-shaped body.
4. The duck has strong yellow legs, placed far back.
5. The duck has broad, webbed, yellow feet.
6. The duck has a broad, fiat-toothed, yellow bill, rounded at
the end.
METHIOD.-1. Let children select colored cards to match the
feathers of the duck, and name the colors.
2. Unless there is a stuffed specimen, and not merely a picture, omit this.  With a specimen, bring out thick, by observation,
and glossy, by comparison with the feathers of an owl.
3. Present a card-board cylinder. Children bend it so as to
represent the general shape of the body.  Give term flat.  Draw
an oblong to represent shape, and ask what object they see on the
water nearly of the same shape?
320
I 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-FIRST STEP.
the diagram from end to end.  Mark it in the
4. Measure
middle.
Children to mark where the legs are placed.
5. Compare with feet of a hen.  Give the term wiebbed.
6. Compare with the beak of a hen. Give the term toothed.
Summnary.-Teacher names the parts.   Each child in turn
gives a term which describes the part named.
Students may construct a sketch on "The Hen," as "The
Duck."
Subjects for Lessons at th7is Step.
A Cat and Kittens.
A Cow and Calf.
A Sheep and Lambs.
A Donkey in Draught.
A  Pig.
A Duck.
A Hen and Chickens
A Dog.
A  Cat.
A Cow.
A Sheep.
A  Horse.
A Goat.
A Hen.
14*
321
v 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-SECOND STEP.
A  Cock.
A  Rabbit.
A  Mouse.
A  Newfoundland Dog.
SECOND STEP.
I.-Characteristic Parts continued.
II.-Mode of Life.
1. Habitation.
2. Food.
3. Actions; especially characteristic actions, including
Sounds.
III.-Disposition; involving special traits of character or intelligence. Lessons of this kind are best worked out by anecdotes. Moral lessons should be derived from them.
IV.-Uses of the animal, living or dead; our duties with
respect to it. The uses to be considered are those which have
direct reference to man. The uses of animals in the economy of
Nature is a subject in advance of the Step. When the lesson is
on a domestic animal, it should not close without asking the children what they can do for the comfort and pleasure of the creature.
V.-Comparative size.
As was the case in the First Step, any of these points may be
taken as the subject of a lesson. Thus: In the first exercises, we
have Characteristic Parts and Actions, with Uses; in the second,
Sounds;  in the third, Characteristic Parts and Traits;  in the
fourth, Form, and Use as depending on the food of the animal;
in the fifth, Mode of Life. The same, or other animals, would be
chosen to bring out the remaining points.
The teacher of method, in commencing the Step, may begin
with a pattern sketch on
1. The Cow.
I. Parts.-Bring a picture of a cow before the children, who,
322
A Mare and Foal.
A Goose.
A Rat.
A Guinea Pig. 
LESSONS ON ANIIALS.-SECOND STEP.
after describing its general appearance, according to the picture,
point out what distinguishes the cow from other animals: A
square bulky body, thin legs, broad head, curved horns, straight
back, rounded sides, dewlap, covering of short hair, long sle.nder
tail with a tuft at the end, and cloven hoofs. (W. B.)
II. Actions.-Let the children mention anything a cow can
do; then leave them to make out a list of actions proper to a cow.
Gathering the grass together with the tongue when  feeding;
chewing the cud, lying down meanwhile; tossing with the horns;
kicking; lashing its sides with the tail; whisking off flies wth its
tail; lowing; bending the fore legs first in lying down; standing
in the water. Children to say under what circumstances each of
these actions is performed.
III. Urses.-Children find out all the uses of the cow. She
gives milk; we eat her flesh; in some countries used for the
plough and for the draught; her hair is used in making mortar;
her hoofs make glue; her horns to make cups and knife handles;
her fat to make tallow. Children say in what ways the cow is
useful while living, and when dead. Who gave us this useful creature? How we ought to treat His gift? What the cow likes?
What she ought to have? &c.
Students in training may construct a sketch on "The Dog," as "The
Cow."
Exercises on this pattern should be continued until the students can readily select and arrange the points each involves.
"The Pig," "The Elephant," "The Cat," "The Lion," "The
Robin," and "The Ostrich," are good subjects.
2. The following general directions, involving the heads of an
exercise on the Sounds of Animals, are given, to which the students may supply the Matter and the Method:
HEADS.-I. Enumerate sounds made  by  different kinds  of
Birds. Draw a general conclusion from a consideration of these.
II.-Enumerate sounds made  by different kinds of Beasts
Draw general conclusion.
323 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-SECOND STEP.
III.-Enumerate  sounds made  by  Reptiles.   Confine  your
attention to the sounds made by vertebrated animals.
Students in training construct sketch on "Sounds of Insects."
3. The Parrot.   (Characteristic Parts.   Characteristic Traits.)
1. Children determine how they know a parrot. By its green
or gray plumage, with a mixture of red; its curved and curious
beak, the upper part loose; its strong legs; the arrangement of
its toes-two before, and two behind; also by its power of learning to talk.
2. Children name the birds that can be taught to speak:
Raven, magpie, daw, jay, starling.  (W. B.)  How  birds learn
to speak. Whether any one in the list speaks as well as the parrot?  Hlow much of what it says does the parrot understand?
Hlow children can talk, and learn their lessons, just like parrots?
Whether it is right to do so?
Lead children to see that, as God has given us a power of
reflection, not possessed by birds, we ought not to speak without
thinking.
Students construct a sketch on "The Crow," as "The Par
rot."
4. Lesson on the Sheep.   (For Uses.)
1. Form of the animal's body. Large trunk compared with
slender neck, and small head. Thick covering noticed.
2. Uses of the animal to man for food and clothing.
3. Food of the animal-grass, that grows plentifully everywhere, even on the tops of high hills, where corn will not grow.
4. The blessing this animal is to man. The goodness of God
in giving it to him.
5. WVhat the sheep likes. What we can do for it.
Students may construct a sketch on "The Ass," as'" The
Sheep."
After a sufficient number of individual lessons, a more genera]
lesson may be given. In the one that follows, the Matter is given,
that the students may write out the Method:
324 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-SECOND STEP.
5. Aninrals. (M4ode of Life.)
1. Where living?
2. How moving?
MAiTTER.-1. God made animals and plants. He made the
animals to move about, and the plants to keep in one place.
2. God made some animals to live and move in the air, some
on the earth, and some in the water.
3. To those animals that live in the air, God gave wings, and
they fly; to those that live in the water, He gave fins, and they
swim; to those that live on the earth, He  gave feet, and they
walk.
Comp)arative Sizes of Animzals.
As the Natural History prints are not constructed at all with
reference to their comparative sizes, to guard against any wrong
impression that may be formed by the children, it is well to call
their attention to this point.
For this purpose, it is desirable to have a chart to show this,
such as those sold by the Home and Colonial Institution.
The teachers of the children may exercise them in finding:
Ten of the largest animals.
Ten of the smallest animals.
Six not so large as the first ten, nor so small as the second
ten.
4. Ten animals of various sizes, to be arranged in order, beginning with the largest.
5. The same, beginning with the smallest.
6. Animals nearly the size of a horse; as, cow, bear, &c.
7.     "           "            a sheep;  as, goat, &c.
8.     "           "             a cat; as, rabbit.
9.     "           "            a rat; as, guinea pig.
10.   "           "             an elephant; as, the rhinoceros.
It were better, perhaps, that the lessons on size should not
come in series. They will make an agreeable variety if interspersed with other lessons on animals.  In each lesson, as the animals are chosen, their names should be placed on the board.
325
1.
2.
3.
r 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
When the children can readily give examples from the chart, they
may be required to do so from memory.
Subjects for Further Lessons.
All native animals that are familiar, and a few of the more
prominent foreign animals, as lion, elephant, &c., may be taken.
Lessons from Scripture Natural History may be included.
EXAMPLES.
Raven,
Serpent,
Camel,
Fish,
D)ove,
Lion,
Ass,
Sheep,
Bee,
Eagle.
See Religious Instruction,
Part 2.
THIRD STEP.
In this Step the instruction is more systematic than in the
former ones. The teacher selects her subjects from Class Mammalia, with a view to classification in the succeeding Step. Although the attention of the children is not directed to the animals
as forming different groups, they are led to trace the gradual
change that takes place in their organization; fitting them for
different habits, propensities, and localities. The faculty of comparison, as well as that of simple observation, is exercised.
In considering structure and habits with special reference to
the adaptation of the first to the last, it is often well to begin with
the mode of life, leaving the children to judge as to the kind of
structure this renders necessary.
326 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
1. Lesson on the Bat.  (Point-To Showt the Structure of the
wi?gs.)
1. Bid a child touch different parts of his own body, to lead
the rest to distinguish the head, trunk, and limbs. Children state
the number of limbs in a man.   How terminating?   Other animals that have four limbs. How terminating? Generally in feet
only. Give the term quadrupeds. Whether man is a quadruped?
WVhy not? By comparison with different animals, show that only
man has two hands and two feet.
2. Refer to a creature having four limbs, the hinder terminating with feet, the fore formed into wings. Children will think of
a bird. May be told that there is such a creature amongst beasts.
Produce a specimen. Direct attention to the wing, and explain
that an equal number of bones form the arm of man and the
wing of a bat.  Children to find out the bones in their own arms.
(W. B.)
1. From the shoulder to the elbow.
2. From the elbow to the wrist.
3. The hand bones.
4. The thumb bones.
5. The finger bones.
Draw a diagram of the arm, numbering the parts; then a dia.
gram of the bat's wing, numbering corresponding parts, which
children observe and compare.
1. Longest bone in man; shortest in the bat.
2. Shlorter in man; very long in the bat.
3. Scarcely appear in the bat.
4. In the bat terminating as a nail, serving as a hook.
5. In the bat thin; and extremely elongated, with extended
skin between. (W. B., in opposite columns.)
Lead children to observe, that they find no new part in the
wing, but an accommodation of common parts to special circumstances.   Children to say why the bat has wings at all-(it lives
in the air).   What its food is.   What it can find in the air.
Children may examine the beak, and observe how it is adapted
327
L 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
for catching insects. Tell them that at one time of the year the
bat seeks the hollow of a tree, or goes into the steeple of a church,
because torpid; remains motionless; folds its wings around it, and
hangs to some projection by its hook.  Children to say when this
would happen? And why then? Who gave the bat its wings?
WVhether any one can suggest any improvement? Let children
notice the size of the wing, extending down the side to the feet.
Why a smaller one would not do? Skin-why thin? Why
tough?  Color-corresponding with the body; appears black at
dusk. Why? Let us praise His wisdom, who gave the bat its
wings, and of whom we can say, " He hath done all things well."
2. The Hedgeehog.
I.  -1. Information given, where  the
children fail to supply it.
I. -1. -We'Will
speak of a little animal called a hedgehog.
It lives under hedges
or in gardens; sleeps
during the day; takes
its food at night, and
becomes torpid in the
winter.
2. It eats insects,
worms, and the soft
parts of the roots of
trees.
3. It burrows under
ground.
2. From the places which it frequents,
children to infer what its food would be.
3. Children to say what parts it must
have in order to  burrow- (snout  and
claws).
II.-1. Facts discovered by observation
of the specimen  now  produced.   Children judge whether a creature employed
in scraping away earth with its claws could
act better with long or with short legs.
In order to this, let the children imitate
the action of scraping, first with the arms
stretched out, and then with the elbows
bent. They will decide in which way they
could work the longer.
328
MATTER.
METHOD.
f
II.-l. The snout is
hard and bony; claws
very sharp; legs v cry
short. 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
2. Children to say whether the legs are
suited for running.  How the hedgehog is
to be defended from its enemies.
3. Children discover  why  the spines
need not cover the whole body.
3. When in danger,
it presents the spines,
and conceals the unprotected parts.
4. The tail is very
short.
III.-Summary.
4. Children observe the fact, and, from
what they know, find out the advantage.
III.- Children give from memory, first,
the habits; secondly, parts; thirdly, state
how adapted.
3. Comparison of Cat with Dog.
I. Resemblance.-Both are quadrupeds; have paws and claws;
three kinds of teeth; eat flesh.
II. Differences.
Structure.
DOG.
1. The dog's head is pointed.
2. The dog's teeth are large,
flat, and rounded.
3. The dog's claws not retractile.
4. The dog's hairy covering.
5. The  dog's skin with few
pores.
6. The dog's legs usually long.
1. The  cat's head is round.
2. The  cat's teeth  are small,
sharp,  and po int ed.
3. The cat's claws retractile.
H.abits.
1. The cat likes fresh meat.
1. The dog prefers meat in a
putrid state.
2. The dog eats any flesh he
finds.
3. The  dog  runs d             ow n         it s
prey.
4. The dog secures it by teeth.
5. The dog runs.
6. The dog has good scent.
7. The dog howls, and, when
dlomesticated, barks.
2. The cat, in a state of nature,
eats only what it kills for itself.
3. The  cat  watches  for  and
springs on its prey.
4. The cat secures it by claws
5. The cat leaps and climbs.
6. The cat has good sight.
7. The cat mews.
329
2. Its back is covered with spines.
CAT.
4. The cat's furry covering.
5. The cat's skin porous.
6. The cat's legs short. 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
8. The dog bites when angry.    8. The  cat  scratches  when
angry.
9. The dog wags the tail when    9. The cat purrs when pleased.
pleased.
10. The dog licks the hand to    10. The  cat rubs  the head
show affection.                     against you.
Children might also distinguish between habits natural to the
animal, and habits acquired by domestication, rearranging the matter accordingly.
The three previous sketches on "The Bat," "The Hedgehog,"
and the "Comparison of Cat with Dog," are given as examples
of the manner in which the succeeding lessons may be treated in
practice.
MAMMALS.
The Jfonkey.
First lead the children to describe the monkey, helping them
by showing stuffed  specimens and pictures, and by  bringing to
their recollection the living animals they may have seen.
Points to which their attention should be directed: The head
approaching in form nearer to that of man than the head of any
other animal, in consequence of the mouth projecting but little.
The slender, slight figure, adapted to agile motion; the long flexible limbs, terminated by hands fitted for grasping-that is, having four fingers, with a thumb which can be brought opposite to
each of them. They are called four-handed animals.*
Then their habits. They live in the woods and forests of
warm countries; they feed on nuts and fruits; they spring from
bough to bough, and from tree to tree, with surprising agility.
Next lead the children to consider how their form and organization fit them for this arboreal life. That they derive the power
of springing and rapid motion from their slender, flexiblie limbs;
and their facility in grasping from the form of their limbs and
teeth, aided often by the tail.
Consider next their disposition: cunning, intelligent, ridiculously imitative, lively, restless, chattering, and quarrelsome.
* Quadrumana.
330 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
In conclusion, lead the children to infer from the facts brought
out in the lesson, viz., that the monkey dwells among trees; is
peculiarly fitted for springing and grasping, and for feeding on
hard vegetable food, that the Being who made it, and fixed its
habitation, is as benevolent and kind as He is powerful and wise;
that lie is our God, and we are His creatures.
The Orang-outang.
First, its general appearance and form. It approaches nearer
to a human being, in form and attitude, than any other animal,
and can maintain an erect posture, though, owing to the different
position of its hinder limbs, and the fact of its extremities being
better fitted for prehension than support, it walks with difficulty.*
The fore limbs are of a great length, the hinder limbs sliorter, all
slender and flexible, and, from the peculiar construction of the
joints, possessing great freedom of motion.   The skin, except
that of the face and palms of the hands, is covered with long,
coarse hair.  They are less noisy and tricky than monkeys, but
equally intelligent and sagacious.
The monkeys of America might form the subject of a separate
lesson. They are remarkable, as possessing in their cheek-pouches
a most singular provision for enabling them to keep a store of
food; and in their long, prehensive tails, by which they can maintain the firmest grasp.  With these they also link themselves together in a chain, and when they wish to pass to trees at a distance, they swing this chain with a sudden jerk, so that the last
of them catches hold of the tree they wish to reach. Their throats
also are curiously formed, enabling them to utter a most terrific
yell. They often assemble together in great numbers, and join in
a tremendous howling.
In conclusion, the children should give a description of the
monkey; pointing out in what it resembles man, and in what
points he is altogether its superior.
* In such short sketches as these the subject only of the lesson can be suggested. The teacher must get up the information required, and collect illustrative anecdotes from books, such as "The Class Mammalia," published by the
London Tract Society, and "the Menageries" of the Library of Entertaining
Knowledge; also Smellie's "Philosophy of Natural History."
331
V.- - 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-HIRD STEP.
The JIole.
After a few questions to arouse the childrenr's recollection of
the characteristics of the animals already examined, they may be
told, if they do not know the fact, that the abode of the mole is
under ground.  What, then, should we expect as to its conforma tion? That it is fitted to burrow in the earth, and to live under
ground. What organ fits the monkey for its life amid trees?
What limb of the bat did we find accommodated to flying?
What enables the hedgehog to burrow in the earth?  In what
very different places have we found animals living? In trees, in
the air, under ground. Which organ is changed to fit each animal for its peculiar mode of life?
If, then, we would see that the mole is fitted to make its way
under ground, what ought we especially to examine?  Let the
children examine the animal, and describe anything they see. Let
them observe the beautiful adaptation of the fore limbs to the
work of digging and boring, and lead them to admire this. This
extremity is broad, strong, and spade-like in shape, being scarcely
divided into distinct fingers. It is placed obliquely, so that the
inner edge is the lowest, thus forming a complete instrument for
throwing the soil behind the animal as it proceeds in its excavations. The arm on which this hand is placed is thick, strong, and
muscular. How beautifully is all this contrived for a little mining
animal! Continuing the examination, we see other adaptations
no less admirable than these. The head is pointed; the end of
the snout is bone rather than gristle; the body is of a conical
form, and the chief strength lies in the fore part. The animal is
covered with a close, soft, velvety fur, which does not impede its
progress while burrowing, and which does not retain the wet and
mud. As the mole works in darkness, it therefore needs but little
sight; and we find its eyes are small, and are protected from injury by the fur which surrounds them. It is directed in the pursuit of its prey, and in escaping from its enemies, by the senses of
smelling and hearing, both of which are very acute.  Thus, by an
adaptation of thle same organ which in the monkey is a perfect
hand for grasping, and in the bat a wing for flight, the mole is
332 
LESSONS ON JIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
fitted by its Creator to live under ground. But why should its
habitation be under the earth? It finds there the food on which
it subsists, viz., worms, and the grubs of various insects. It be.
longs to the class called insect-feeders,* and, whilst satisfying its
own cravings, it also renders essential service to the farmer, by
clearing the soil of creatures that might injure his crops.
Under the mole-hills, which are often so abundant in fields,
are the nests of the mole.   These are of a conical form,  and,
being carefully lined with vegetable fibre, are made most comfortable for its young, which are reared with great care and tenderness. There are always several galleries leading to the nests,
which furnish roads of egress and ingress.
How beautiful an instance does this animal afford of the wonderful instinct implanted in animals, to guide them in the preservation of life! Remark to the children that God has given to
every animal just the particular organ that it needs. The bird has
wings, and flies; the monkey has four hands, and grasps the trees.
Animals do that which God intends them to do. What lesson
does this teach us? To use aright that which God gives us.
Animals know not who gave them the organs which are so necessary to them, but we do know who made us. What, then, is our
duty? To praise and bless God.
The Bear.
First call upon the children to state what organs undergo a
change to adapt each animal to its peculiar locality and varied
propensities, and then let them describe the changes they have
already traced.  Present them with a picture of a bear.   Call
upon them to describe its general appearance-it is thick, clumsy,
and shaggy, with short limbs and a lazy gait.   Now in these respects it is very different from the animals upon which they have
had instruction. Draw from them all they know as to the habits
of the bear. Let them examine especially the organs connected
with the procuring of food, and consequent preservation of life.
They should observe the manner in which the bear places the
* Insectivora.
333 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP
entire sole of the foot on the ground, in which it differs so much
from the cat tribe, and by which it is enabled to maintain an upright position.  Such animals are called, from their mode of walking, plantigrade.  Do we use our feet thus when we  run?  No.
When we run, we move on our toes.  At what pace do we pro.
ceed when we place the entire foot on the ground? Of what
character, then, must be the motion of the bear?  Might we expect a slow.moving animal to feed on vegetables, or on animals?
The bear feeds by preference on vegetables, such as roots, leaves,
and berries; it is also very fond of honey; and only when these
fail, has it recourse to animal food. Its claws are strong, blunt,
and well fitted for climbing trees, or for digging. It is found in
northern countries, chiefly in forests or inaccessible rocks, and in
solitary places. While the double teeth of animals feeding on
insects are pointed, those of the bear are obtuse.  During the
winter season, the food on which it subsists entirely fails. What
usually happens under such circumstances?
But when that all-wise and gracious Being who rules over all
creation, fixed the bounds of this animal's habitation, He made
provision to meet this periodic failure of his food.
What occurs to the bat under similar circumstances? In the
same manner the bear also falls into a deep sleep, during the continuance of which it is insensibly nourished by the fat in which it
is incased.'When in the spring it rouses from its slumber, it
issues forth from its cave thin and gaunt, and so ravenous that it
will face whatever falls in its way.
Recapitulate the peculiarities that distinguish the bear and
adapt its structure to its special propensities, and to the situation
it occupies.
The Bear-(continued.)
The polar bear may be the subject of a second lesson, and the
children may be led to see in what it differs fromn the brown bear,
especially in its color, which is white, with a tinge of yellow;  and
also in the form of its body, which is much elongated; and in
what manner its immense paws, covered underneath by coarse
hair, give it security in walking over the slippery ice; and that
331
v 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
the layer of fat in which it is incased is the best covering for preserving it from the injurious effects of the cold of a polar region.
It feeds of necessity almost entirely on animal food, such as the
whiale, the seal, the walrus, and fish. It is an excellent swimmer.
Bears are very remarkable for maternal affection. The following history, related in one of the polar voyages, develops this
trait in their character, and may be made use of by the teacher to
illustrate the affection bestowed on the children themselves by theii
own mothers; the trouble, anxiety, and pain they undergo, and
the return of obedience and love which such affection claims:
Early one morning the man at the masthead gave notice that
three bears were fast making their way across the ice to the ship.
They had no doubt been invited by the scent of the blubber of a
walrus, which had been set on fire, and was burning on the ice.
They proved to be a she bear and her two cubs. They ran
eagerly to the fire, and drew out from the flames part of the flesh
yet unconsumed, and devoured it voraciously. The crew from the
ship threw out great pieces of the flesh of the walrus. These the
old bear carried away singly, laid each piece before her cubs, and
dividing them, gave to each a share, reserving a very small portion for herself. As she was fetching the last piece, the sailors
levelled their muskets at the cubs, shot them both dead, and
wounded the dam in her retreat, but not mortally. It would have
drawn tears of pity from any but savage hearts, to have witnessed
the affectionate concern manifested by the poor beast, in the last
moments of her expiring young. Though she was sorely wounded,
and could scarcely crawl to the place where they lay, she carried
the lump of flesh which she had fetched, as she had done others
before, tore it in pieces, and laid it before them; and when she
saw that they refused to eat it, she placed her paws first upon one,
then upon the other, and attempted to raise them up: all the while
it was piteous to hear their moan. Finding that she could not stir
them, she went off, and when she had got to some distance, she
looked back and moaned; and that not availing to entice them
away, she returned, and smelling around them, began to lick their
woiunds.  She went off a third time as before, and having crawled
a few paces, looked again behind her, and for some time stood
335
t 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
moaning. Finding at last that they were cold and lifeless, she
raised her head toward the ship, and growled her resentment to
their murderers, which they returned by shooting her dead. She
fell between her cubs, and died licking their wounds." 
The attachment of the bear to her cubs, and her wrath when
deprived of them, is often alluded to in the Scriptures. In Hosea
xiii. 8, the Lord threatens to meet his people who had forsaken
him, "as a bear bereaved of her whelps." There is a similar
allusion in 2 Samuel xvii. 8: "For, said Hushai, thou knowest
thy father and his men, that they be mighty men, and they be chafed
in their minds, as a bear robbed of her whelps in the field."
A Weasel.
The recapitulatory questions may be put in the following manner, with a view to variety in the mode of presenting the subject
to the children. This is very important, as a means of keeping
up interest, and giving more exercise to the mind.
What animals have you found fitted to live amidst trees?
What kind of animal is suited to chasing its prey in the air?
What change in the formation of another animal renders it a good
miner, and suited to feed on insects?  What kind of feet are best
adapted to a heavy, slow-moving animal? Would such an animal be able to pursue its prey? Of what nature, then, may we
expect to find its food? But we now come to a bloodthirsty,
fleshl-eating race, of which the first family live upon vermin and
poultry; they must therefore be able to creep through very small
holes, to thrust themselves into crevices, to crawl under fences,
and sometimes to climb heights. The children should endeavor to
conceive what description of body and what organs would adapt
these creatures for such habits and propensities. Who ordained
their food to be of such a kind, and gave them the desire for it?
What, then, may we be sure of, as to their particular formation?
By such questions as these, the children may be led to see that
animals with propensities such as are implanted in the weasel, need
a slender, light, flexible, yet powerful body, with a small tapering
head, and short limbs armed with claws.   Let them observe that
336 
LESSONS ON &NIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
such is the form of the Weasel tribe, by the actual examination of
a stuffed specimen or a picture.  Prompt them to call to mind any
creatures they may kr.ow that force their way through the earth,
or wind about through the grass, and under stumps and fences.
What is the form of worms, and what their peculiar motion?
The weasel, and other animals of this tribe, are called wormshaped,* from their resemblance to worms in shape and movement.
Their limbs are short and strong; and instead of placing the entire
sole of the foot on the ground like the bear, they walk on their
toes.t This fact having been told them, the children should themselves draw the inference, that their step is consequently free, light,
and active. Their bodies are so tapering and flexible, that they
move with grace and rapidity. Their teeth, being pointed, are
fitted for seizing and tearing their prey.  They all emit a very unpleasant odor. We find that their disposition is bloodthirsty, and
that their form and organs are adapted to the gratification of these
propensities. Then, by similar instances of the form and organization of animals being suited to their several habits and propensities, of which the children themselves may remember several,
lead them to the conclusion, that in God's works all is harmony.
There is another point to which attention should be drawn,
viz., the providence of God in the creation of a race of animals,
which, while satisfying their own appetite, prove useful to man by
preventing the excessive increase of vermin that by feeding upon
grain do farmers so much injury.
The Stoat.
The children should compare this animal with the preceding
one, and point out any features in which they are alike, or in
which they differ. The stoat is larger than the weasel, and is
especially distinguished by the changes that take place in its fur
as winter approaches.  In summer this is of a reddish brown; brt
in those animals which inhabit northern countries it becomes of a
pure white in winter, except the tip of the tail, which is always
* Vermiform.
t They are called digitigrade, or movers on the toes.
1 5
337
p 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
black.   Why this change?  One reason is, that the gracious Cr,ator thus enables this creature to escape observation when the
ground is covered with snlow. The change has also another advantag,e; for its white coat enables it better to resist the intense
cold of Siberia, as the heat of its body does not pass off so rapidly
as it would if its color were dark. (The children may not understand the reason of this, but the fact is very interesting.)  Another provision for its comfort is, that the fur becomes thicker in
winter.  MAan, being possessed of reason, is able to provide for the
changes of seasons; but God administers more immediately to the
necessities of the brute creation.*  The fur of the stoat is called
ermine.  It is considered very valuable, and forms the robes of
kings and nobles. The hunter seeks it in the winter season.
Why?  The facts on which the answer to such a question depends have been already told the children.
The Ferret.
The children should describe the animal, its slender, worm-like
body, short legs, sharp claws, pointed teeth, and piercing eyes, and
then determine to which of the animals already examined it bears
the most resemblance. They should state any differences they
perceive, and be led to infer, firom the similarity of the organs and
form of this animal to those of the weasel and stoat, that its habits and propensties must be similar to theirs. The sanguinary disposition of this creature is turned to account, in using it to clear
our premises from vermin; but though employed and domesticated
by man, it seems quite incapable of attachment to its owner.
The Sable.
This digitigrade, vermiform, carnivorous creature, is interesting
from the high value at which its fur is estimated.
The sable is found in the forests and mountains of Siberia; and
owviig, to the extreme cold of this icy region, and the fact of the
* The children may be led themselves to notice such facts. They know that
man has reason, and animals instinct, and they will be able to see the reason for
this difierent nrovisioo.
338 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
chase being generally pursued in winter, the fur of the animal
being most thick and rich at that season, the poor hunter is exposed to extreme peril, and often perishes amidst the pathless
wilds. The chase of this animal is a punishment imposed on the
exiles of the Russian Government, who are required to furnish a
certain number of skins annually.
Points of interest to which the children's attention may be
directed: The beautiful provision made for the necessities of this
animal by a beneficent Creator, in the thickening of its fur in the
winter season, and in the continuation of this covering to the extremities of the toes; and also the fact of man being able to
appropriate such animals to himself so as to derive advantage from
them.
As a summary, the children should describe whatever is cornm
mon in the habits and organs of this race of animals. They
should also remark upon the office they perform in nature.
DOMESTIC DOGS.
Spaniels.
The children should again examine the picture of the varieties
of dogs, and then endeavor to make out what peculiarity distinguishes the spaniel from others of its race. It has a long head,
with a pointed muzzle; its ears are soft, long, and pendent, fitted
to gather the sound of footsteps from the ground; its hair is silky
and waving, and either of a red liver color, or black and white;
the tail bushy. Its scent is very delicate, and guides it in the
pursuit of its prey.  It is exceedingly docile, intelligent, and affectionate.  Many instances are on record of its attachment to its
owner. It has been known to preserve the recollection of its master, and to recognize him after an absence of so long duration that
his friends had forgotten him. There are several varieties of the
spaniel.  Some, as lap dogs, are very small; others are larger, and
are employed in field sports. One species, from its mode of marking its prey, is called the setter. The following account well describes the characteristics of this dog:  "A setter dog should be a
339
t 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
fine land spaniel that will range well, and yet at such absolute
command, that when he is in full career, one' hem' of his master
shall make him stand still, gaze about him, and look in his master's face, as it were expecting directions from him whether to proceed, stand still, or retire.  But the main thing he is to be taught
is, when he sees and is near his prey, of a sudden to stand still, or
fall down flat on his belly, without making any noise or motion till
his master comes up." What a lesson does such a dog teach children!  What is there in this animal they may imitate?  His
prompt obedience; his desire to please, and to do his appointed
work; his selfdenial, giving up his own pleasure to that of his
master.
The pointer is another dog also employed by the sportsman.
It resembles the spaniel, but it has less hair, nor is its hair waving.
This dog is trained to stop and to point to the spot where game
lies hid.  Its natural instinct is to approach its prey stealthily,
and then, pausing for an instant, to spring upon it with an unerring
aim derived from this pause. Education has converted this short
rest and rapid spring into a fixed and deliberate rest, which has
been thus quaintly described: "This semicolon in his proceedings,
man converts into a full stop."
The dogs called hounds are used in hunting the deer, fox, hare,
and otter. They are keen of scent, and are kept in numbers,
called a pack. Their fleetness is so great that the swiftest horse
alone can keep pace with them. The tone of their cry is deep
and mellow, but the neighborhood of a dog kennel is not very
agreeable, as they make a sad howling when fed. The feeding
of a dog kennel furnishes a proof of the complete obedience to
which these animals can be trained.   "They  are hungry,  and
know that they are about to be fed, but they manifest no rebellious impatience. The feeder stations himself at the door which
separates the outer kennel from the feeding room. On his arrival,
a cry of joy is set up by the whole pack, but it is instantly silenced
at his command.   He calls,'Juno'-Juno passes out;' Ponto'Ponto follows; and so on through the pack, even should there be
as many as thirty couples. If a young dog should attempt to
move out of his order, he is sent back; hlie recollects his punish
340 
LESSONS ON ANIALS.-THIRD STEP.
ment, and seldom transgresses again. The pack is brought to this
state of perfect discipline by gentle correction."
The greyhound is remarkable for the great beauty and elegant
lightness and symmetry of its form, peculiarly fitting it for fleetness and agility. Its head is very pointed, ears short and erect,
but pendent at their tips. Its limbs are slender, its body thin, and
standing high; its fur smooth, with short hairs. In disposition it
is gentle and affectionate. It is principally used in hunting the
hare, which it pursues chiefly by sight, not having so keen a scent
as other dogs of the chase.
The terrier is another of the sporting dogs. Two of these
dogs usually accompany the fox hounds. They are also most useful in catching rats. The terrier is a thick-set, brisk-looking ani
mal, with rather short legs, its muzzle not projecting so much as
that of the spaniel. Its short legs enable it to creep under the
grass and through brakes and bushes. There are two species:
one, the Scotch terrier, has very rough and wiry hair; the other
has a smoother coat, and altogether is more delicate in appearance.
It is supposed that the terrier is the native dog of the British Isles.
It is remarkable for the eagerness and courage with which it makes
its way into the earth after those animals, from the fox to the rat,
which are usually called vermin. It possesses great sagacity, and
is most daring in its attacks upon larger animals. It is used as a
guard to the house, as well as in the chase.
These lessons on the sporting dogs may be useful as exercises
for the children in drawing out a description of the various dogs
they may see in pictures, or with which they may be familiar, the
teacher supplying whatever  escapes their observation.   They
should be led to observe the education these dogs receive, and the
improvement it produces, and draw the inference that they should
themselves value education, and be thankful for being taught.
Not only are the senses of these dogs rendered more acute by
their being used in the service of man,',)ut they are also wonder.
fully trained to forego the indulgence of their own natural propen
sities, and to use their powers, not for their own gratification, but
for that of their master.   Their carnivorous appetites would
prompt them immediately to devour the animal which their scent
341
k.
p 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
has discovered, were they not trained to obey their master at the
sacrifice of their own inclinations.
DOGs-(continueed).
In what service are those dogs employed, upon which ymohave had lessons?  What organs are most useful in the chase?
How would you characterize their motion? How are their feet
adapted to fleet motion? Why, for instance, can they run more
swiftly than the bear?  In what respect are their bodies better
fitted for motion than that of the bear? They are light and slender, and their muzzle pointed. Now repeat together: "The dogs
of the chase are fitted for rapid motion by being digitigrade, and
by having a light, slender body, and pointed muzzle." What
sense is very important in directing their pursuit? How has the
Creator wisely provided for this necessity?  What do they need
in addition to the power of pursuing their prey? The power of
catching and eating it.  By what organs are these actions accomplished?  By the teeth and claws.   How  are their teeth and
claws fitted for seizing and eating animals?  What is essential to
the life of animals? What is the chief food of dogs? How are
they fitted for their flesh eating propensity? What are the lessons which their history affords you?  Tell me some other uses
of dogs other than that of the chase. They guard our houses,
our property, and our lives. Here is a picture of two dogs which
are especially useful as guards to our dwellings and property-the
bulldog and the mastiff.   What do you observe when you compare these with the spaniel tribe? The head is thicker, the muzzle
short, and the aspect very fierce. They are bold and ferocious.
HIow does man make use of this disposition? IHe turns it against
those who would injure him or his property. There is another
very useful dog, which perhaps some of you may have seen, which
is much used in the old countries in watching and guarding flocks
on the mountains, and in driving them from one place to another.
What dog is this? Tihe shlepherd's dog. What does the shepherd's dog do? Yes; he drives the sheep along the streets; he
keeps them together, and allows none to straggle. Looking at his
342 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
master, he receives his directions, and then faithfully and saga.
ciously executes his will. The dog you see thus employed in the
streets is called a drover. The dog that guards the mountain flocks
is a much finer animal, and it is very beautiful to see how he can
keep a very large flock of sheep within their proper bounds,
bringing up every straggler without any violence, and knowing
the sheep of his master from those of every other flock. Do you
think that it is natural to these dogs to take care of sheep? No.
How, then, do they become such a valuable help to the shepherd?
You remember what we remarked as to the dogs of chase, how
their natural instincts were turned to man's account. What, then,
is dene, should you think, with the drover and the shepherd's dog?
They are educated by man, who teaches them their lesson, and
that which they thus learn becomes a second nature to them.
How do these dogs carry out the lessons given to them? What
virtues do they display? What may children learn from them?
Is the dog useful to the rich only? No; he is also the poor
man's friend. Can you tell me how? Yes; he will guard his
clothes while he is at work, and will lead about the poor blind
man. The following is a remarkable instance of the docility and
sagacity of the dog: One of these animals was in the habit of
conducting a blind beggar through the streets of Rome. This
dog, besides guiding his master in such a manner as to protect him
from all danger, learned to distinguish, not only the streets, but the
houses where  the blind man was accustomed to receive alms.
Whenever the dog came to any one of these streets, he would not
leave it till a call had been made at every house where his master
was usually supplied.  When the beggar began to ask alms, and
was received, the dog would lie down to rest; but the master was
no sooner served or refused, than the dog rose, without either
order or sign, and proceeded to the other houses where the poor
man generally was successful. When a halfpenny was thrown
from a window, the sagacious animal went in search of it, carried
it in his mouth, and placed it in the beggar's hat.  Even when
bread was thrown, he would not take it unless he received a portion from his master's own hand.*
* A story renders the subject under discussion very attractive. There are
343 
LESSONS ON ANITALS.-THIRD STEP.
The Fox.
The most obvious characteristics of the fox may be discovered
by the children; as, its pointed head, its long narrow pupil, and
its long bushy tail. They may be told that the shape of the pupil
marks it as a nocturnal animal; and they may be led to under
stand why its eye should be so formed, by considering the effect
that light has upon eyes accustomed to darkness, and to admire
the goodness which, by thus enabling the eye to contract and take
in but few rays of light, provides for the comfort of the animal,
and affords another instance of the kind care that the Creator
bestows on his creatures.
Thle fox is distinguished from the wolf and dog by its longer
and more bushy tail, its larger head and more pointed muzzle, its
long body and short limbs, its triangular ears, and the form of its
pupils, which contract under the influence of light to a mere line.
The odor emitted by the fox is very disagreeable. The usual
length of the animal is about two and a half feet;* the height,
one foot. The color is fawn, intermixed with black. The fox
digs out holes under ground, to which our Saviour refers in Matt.
viii. 20.  It is a cunning, wily animal.  In the dusk of the evening it steals from its burrow with noiseless step, to prowl about
for prey. Its sense of smell and of hearing are very keen; it listens, and snuffs the breeze, attentive to every sound, and observing
every odor. With a crouching attitudet it advances on its prey;
it surprises the rabbits gambolling near their burrow, the hare in
her form, and the poultry on their perch. It slaughters all it finds;
and when its appetite is satisfied, it buries the remainder in the
earth, to supply future necessities. It is exceedingly particular in
the choice of its quarters. When it has selected the spot for its
many very interesting narratives illustrating the fidelity and sagacity of dogs.
The beautiful story of the dog at Bethgelert is well known. There is another in
the "Library of Entertaining Knowledge, Menageries," vol. i., p. 79.
* When the children are told the size of an animal, they may be required to
mark it on the board; and also when told the color, they may point to some
specimen of the color named.
t Attitude marks character. The wolf is bolder than the fox, and is more
erect.
344 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
abode, it explores the country to see what advantages it may
afford, examining every spot likely to prove a safe retreat in the
hour of danger. Its excessive suspicion and caution render any
new object a source of distrust and inquietude; it is uneasy until
it has discovered what it may be, and approaches for the purpose
of observation with slow and hesitating step, and by circuitous
paths.  It passes the day at the bottom of its hiding place, and
sallies forth in search of prey during the obscurity of twilight or
the darkness of night, gliding along stealthily to surprise the
partridge. When it cannot find game, it contents itself with field
mice, frogs, and even snails. It is very fond of honey, and its
liking for grapes is the subject of a well-known fable, and is also
alluded to in the Bible, Song of Solomon ii. 15.
The young are playful, and remain with their parent about
four months. She is tender, watchful, and most resolute in their
defence. The children may be told these facts, and then be questioned upon them, being required also to draw up from them a
sketch of the character of the fox; and to say what in the animal
we may imitate, and what avoid.*
There is an instance on record of the great sagacity of the fox.
The Earl of Thanet had a seat at Hothfield, in Kent, and another
in Westmoreland. At the former place an extraordinarily large
fox had been taken, and the earl ordered it to be conveyed to
Westmoreland. The following year, in Kent, a fox which had
run into the earth was dug out, and declared by the huntsmen to be
the very individual that had been taken to Westmoreland.   Lord
Thanet was incredulous, but having earmarked the animal, it was
again removed to Westmoreland. In the following season a fox
was killed at Hothfield, which proved to be the one in question,
and it is evident that it must have found its way twice from West
moreland to Kent, a distance of about 320 miles.
The Wolf
The children should first determine to which of the animals
already examined the wolf bears the closest resemblance, and in
* Teacners should especially avoid having one plan for all their lessons
Variety giv-es interest, and draws out different intellectual powers.
15*
345 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
what respect it is like the dog, as in its general form and appear
ance, its teeth and claws, &c. Which are the organs that mark
the habits of an animal? If an animal have claws and sharppointed teeth, what might we expect to be its food? And if it
feed on animals that it catches, for what kind of motion must it be
fitted?  How is an animal fitted for pursuing its prey?  Let the
children then consider the wolf, and say what they think its habits
must be. Its claws, sharp teeth, and light, pointed form, indicate
that it lives on animals which it pursues.  What sense guides carnivorous animals in the chase? The wolf has a very keen scent.
Let them compare the erect, forward ears of the wolf, with the
thrown-back ears of the pursued hare, and find out the reason for
those of the one being directed forward, of the other backward;
and acknowledge in this the wisdom and the goodness that fits
each animal in every respect for the habits that are special to it.
Having determined the points of resemblance between the wolf
and the dog, the children should discover in what respect they
differ, and so arrive at the characteristics of the wolf. The wolf
is stronger and larger than the dog; it possesses great muscular
power; its height at the shoulder is about two feet six inches, and
about two feet four inches behind; the length, from the tip of the
muzzle to the root of the tail, three feet eight inches;* its coat is
very rough and coarse, of a grayish yellow color, with a black
oblique stripe on the fore legs; its eyes are placed obliquely, and
its tail hangs down.   In character it possesses none of the noble
qualities of the dog; whilst it is ferocious, cruel, and sanguinary,
it is also cunning, wary, and cowardly. In former times this animal was the dread and terror of Great Britain. The month of
January was then called wolf month, because at that season the
wolves, not being able to find their usual food, used to come forth
from the forests and attack man. King Edgar did much to rid the
land of these pests, by changing the tax levied upon the Welsh
into an annual tribute of 300 wolves' heads. In the early settlements of some portions of this country they were also quite
troublesome. How thankful should we be that we are not now
exposed to such dangers! (The children should draw the corn
* The children should mark the size on the board.
346 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
parison, and say what feelings our improved condition should inspire.) There are many allusions in Scripture to the ferocious
character and nocturnal habits of the wolf. (See Matt. vii. 15;
Ezek. xxii. 27; Acts xx. 29.)
Though the wolf is in general a solitary animal, it unites in
troops for the purpose of securing its prey, and shows its cunning
in the stratagems it employs. When wolves attack the deer,
which is greatly their superior in swiftness, they arrange themselves in the form of a semicircle, and creeping slowly toward the
herd, they either completely hem them in and surround them, or
urge them by hideous yells over some precipice in the only direction they leave open to them.
This course may be completed with reference to the list given
at the end of the Step.
MISCELLANEOUS SKETCHES.
For the sake of variety, occasional lessons may be given on
animals belonging to various classes. Variety secures interest.
For sketch on a bird, see "The Ostrich."
1. Sketch of a Lesson on the Ostrich.
Adaptation of its structure to its mode of life:
1. The size of the head is adapted to its long and slender
neck.
2. The eye, furnished with an additional lid which can be
drawn down at pleasure, is peculiarly protected against the intense
heat of the sun, and the fine sand of the desert lands in which it
dwells.
3. The feathers of the wings, being loose, and not.furnished
with barblets, aid the bird in running.
4. The great strength of its large legs enables it the better
to take those long journeys which it is obliged to travel in search
of food.
5. The membrane of the foot, and the pad which it incloses,
give this bird lightness and buoyancy, and fit it for its passage
over sandy deserts.
347 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
6. The pad on the breastbone constitutes a safeguard against
injury from any hard substance when the bird is resting on the
ground.
The lesson should conclude by drawing the proper inference
from such complete adaptation of organs to the peculiar wants of
the bird.
Birds, as a class, are referred to the Fourth Step. It would
prolong the Third Step too much, did it include a full course on
birds as well as on mammals.
MIoreover, children, when they make the advance of a Step,
like new subjects, as well as new plans.
A class of students might construct "The Lion," "The Camiel," or "The
Eagle," as " The Ostrich."
2. ASketch on a Reptile-Thte Tortoise.
1. Habits.-The tortoise lives either on land or in water.  It
moves slowly on the ground, but swims beautifully.  It comes on
land to deposit its eggs, of which it lays a great number; scrapes
a hole in the sand, and leaves them to be hatched by the heat of
the sun. How their eggs may be distinguished? The eggs of
birds become hard by boiling; those of reptiles become soft.
The eggs of the tortoise become soft. What, therefore, would
you infer that it is?
2. Parts, &c.-The tortoise has a small head like that of a
serpent; four legs; a tail. Children to decide how it defends
itself. Name means of defence possessed by other animals. It
has no horns, no sharp teeth. Children to infer that it cannot
fight. Reference to the hare and the mouse; also other creatures
that cannot. What these do when an enemy approaches? But
the tortoise cannot run away. How, then, kept in safety? It
has a hard covering. Describe shell: Very strong, thick, and
hard; formed of many pieces. (Draw on the board, to show how
these are joined.) Draw a diagram representing the shell of the
back. There are thtirteen large pieces in the middle, and twentythree round the margin. Let the children count the number of
pieces which compose the shell. Under part also covered with
348 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
shell. What they can call the tortoise, and why? Compare
with crocodile, &c. Children to name the parts the shell does
not cover. Tail has a scaly covering of its own. Head and
four legs uncovered.   How  protected?  Can  be  drawn  into
shell. Picture out the tortoise on a bright summer day, floating on its back in a calm sea, and enjoying itself. No enemy
able to hurt it. How kind it is in God to create this creature
for happiness. After floating for some time, it will want to
swim.   With what?  How fishes swim?  How the tortoise will
be able to swim without fins? Show how beautifully its feet are
formed as "paddles" for this purpose. After a while it will
have to come to land to lay its eggs. Whether likely to go far
inland, and why not? Care it takes to find a safe place for its
eggs. Who enables it to do this? What would happen to the
eggs if this were not done? It scrapes away the sand: how
formed for doing this?
Summary.-The tortoise is a reptile. It is protected by a
hard, strong shell, which covers its body, and underneath which it
can draw its head and legs. Its feet are formed into "paddles,"
to enable it to swim, but furnished with nails hard enough to
scrape away the sand where it wants to make a hole for its eggs.
If time allows, tell the children that the shell is used for making
combs, &c.; that men catch tortoises by turning them on their
backs, with spikes, when they are on land; that they cannot get
up; they then take them away, and hold them over a very hot
fire; the upper shell loosens from the lower one, and falls off.
The poor creature is then set free, and in another year a new shell
appears.
Students in training may construct a sketch on "The Frog,," as "The
Tortoise."
For a sketch on an "Invertebrated Animal," see
3. The Earth Worm.
MATTER.-I. Habits.  II. Parts.  III. Uses.
I.-1. Worms live under ground.   They come to the surface
when disturbed; also in search of food.
349 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STIP.
2. Worms, when they appear above ground, keep their tails
firmly fixed in their holes, that they may retire on the least alarm.
Even when altogether on the ground, they adhere to the surface,
and are not easily removed.
3. Worms feed on a very fine mould, which contains particles
of putrid matter. They sometimes eject their food. What they
throw up is called worm casts.
II.-I1. The worm is boneless, and covered with a thick skin,
which is formed into more than a hundred little rings.
2. Every ring has four sharp, hooked bristles on the under
side. These the worm can lift up or press down at will.
3. The head is sharp and pointed. It has a mouth with two
fleshy lips, but no eyes, nostrils, ears, nor brain.
4. The worm has a large stomach, which runs along the body
to the end of the tail.
5. The worm has four holes down the back, by means of which
it breathes.
6. It has reddish blood, which is cold.
III.-1. It removes and consumes decaying vegetable matter.
2. Worm casts are a fine manure for grass.
3. It loosens the ground.
4. It serves as food to various classes-birds, moles, and fish.
METHOD.   I.-1.  Where  the children have  seen worms?
Where they hide? Disturbing causes likely to bring them to the
surface;  as, digging, uprooting of trees, &c.  Necessity of the
worms moving about in order to obtain food, brought out by comrn
parison of animals with plants.
2. Refer to previous observation and experiment.
3. Children to judge what food worms are likely to find under
ground-roots, slugs, grubs, &c. Why such food is unsuited to
the worm? It has no teeth, therefore its food must be soft. Give
information, and explain putrid.
ILI-1. Bring out boneless, by comparison with the arm, or by
letting the children feel the worm. Illustrate by means of a piece
of spring wire with a long needle put through the ring, to show
that while a boneless body can contract and lengthen, a body
350 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS. —THIRD STEP.
formed with a skeleton cannot do so. Show the use of this contraction and expansion, by explaining how the creature moves.
To show that the skin should be tough, refer to the effect of digging the ground with the hands.
2. The difficulty of lifting the worm from the ground. The
advantage of this to the worm.  Refer to the condition of a worm
on a street pavement, or in a stone quarry. Why, in such a place,
it must perish?
3. Head.-Why no eyes and ears? Refer to its habitation.
No nostrils. Finds its food by touch of lips. Compare animals
having brains, with brainless animals. Children draw conclusion
from examples.
4. Refer to the character of the food; whence children judge
of the small amount of nutriment it contains, and what difference
this makes as to the quantity consumed.
5. Refer to the holes in our face. Absence of nostrils rendering some other means of breathing necessary.
6. Refer again to the habitation of the worm. Compare it
with warm-blooded animals living under ground. The mole. Its
covering. The exercise it takes. The worm has no covering,
and no power of taking rapid exercise; but these are not needed
by it.
III.-I1. Refer to the nature of its food. Effects, if not re
moved.
2. Tell this.
3. Compare garden beds with garden paths, to show that in
loosened soil the rain penetrates. The fibres of plants expand.
4. Refer to previous observation.
IV. Summary.-Children write out what matter they can retnemnber under each head.
Students in training may construct "The Dor-Beetle," as "The Earth
Worm."
4. The Fish.
I. Habits.-Found in water; some in salt, some in fresh;
some emigrate from one to the other; some frequent shallow, some
deep water. Usually they move with great rapidity, and in direct
351 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
lines, discovering their prey by the sense of sight, darting on it,
catching it, and instantly swallowing it alive; red blooded, though
cold blooded; breathing air found in water by means of gills;
dying when taken out of the water; young produced from spawn;
hatched by the heat of the sun.
Let the children condense what has been found out.  Classify
the actions of the fish under three heads:
1. Moving (swimming).
2. Preying.
3. Breathing. (W. B.)
II. Adaptation of Par-ts to Habits.-1. How adapted to swim
ming?
(a) By its shape: Pointed muzzle; head set on shoulders,
without a neck; shoulders rounded; body rounded and tapering;
tail set edgewise.   WVhy?
(b) By its covering: Scales-strong, light, smooth, water
proof, often varnished. Why? Refer to the artificial flies used
by anglers-formed of many pieces. Refer to a suit of armor.
(c) By its limbs.  Fins-light, strong, flat, undivided.  Why?
Compare with position of the fingers when swimming, and with
the webbed foot of a water bird. How the fin offers resistance to
the water; also its use in balancing the fish. Refer to the instability of the element in which the creature moves.
Tail compared with the fins as to size and position. From
the difference in position, lead the children to infer that the use
would be different. Use of the tail in guiding the course of the
fish described and simply illustrated.
2. How formed for preying.
(a) Eyes-size, position. Absence of eyelid. Why?
(b) Mouth-its width.  Teeth-compare with teeth of mammals, and refer to the food of the fish. Number of rows, shape,
direction.
3. How formed for breathing in the water? Refer to the
human lungs, as a spongy substance, pervious to air, and full ef
veins, filled with blood, to which the air penetrates. Examine
the gills. How they differ. External organs, consisting of a suce
352 
LESSONS ON AN1IALS.-THIRD STEP.
cession of plates. The skin wrought into fringes at the end of
each, so as to expose the greatest possible quantity of blood to
the air. By experiment with a piece of sea weed, or of a buffalo
robe, show that the blood is brought into contact with the air only
when the gill is under water.
III. Sumnmary.-Children write out what they can remember
under each head and sub-head.
Students in training construct a lesson on "The Whale," as "The Fish,"
and then draw up sketch on "Comparison of Fish and Whale."
Lessons on Parts of Animals are sometimes advantageously
given.
EXAMPLE.
5. Horns of Animals.
Get the children to name any animals they know having
horns. Show the picture of a cowN, a goat, and a deer. Let
them find out the difference in the horns of these.
1. As to Position.-The horns of kine are placed in front of
the head, and extend upward and outward. (W. B.) The horns
of goats slant backward. (W. B.) The horns of stags branch
in different directions. (W. B.) Bring this out by drawing the
outline of a head, and let children represent the three kinds and
directions of horns.
2. As to Form.-(a) The horns of kine are round, broad
at the base, and tapering toward the point. (W. B.) (Compare with cylinder and cone.) They are curved. (W. B.)
(b) The horns of goats have the same general form, but are
larger than those of kine, and less curved. (W. B.) (Compare
them.) (c) The horns of stags spread out from the base, like the
branches of a tree. (W. B.)
3. As to Substance.-Horn is a stiff, hard, semitransparent,
yellowish-brown substance.   The horns of kine and goats have a
bony core, that fills up the interior space of the horn. Stags'
horns differ, in being solid. (W. B.) Children observe and describe the material of which horns are composed. Are told that
the cow's horns are sometimes used as drinking  cups.   Why?
353 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-THIRD STEP.
That goats' horns are the same in substance. How stags' horni
differ?
4. As to Uses.-Horns are given as a means of defence to crea.
tures that would otherwise be defenceless.   (W. B.)   (What
cows do with their horns?  goats? rams?   Refer to the poor
hunted stag when it stands at bay.) Why God has given horns
to these animals?  (Compare the teeth and feet of horned animals
with those of carnivorous animals.)
Students in training construct a lesson on "The Teeth or Feet of Ani
mals."
LISTS OF SUBJECTS.
Class _Mammalia.
I. Monkey.
Ourang-outang.
Baboon.
VI. Cat.
Lion.
Tiger.
Leopard.
Panther.
Hyena.
X. Buffalo
Cow.
Sheep.
Goat.
Antelope.
Camel.
Giraffe.
Deer.
Reindeer.
III. Mole.
Hegdehog.
Porcupine.
Ant Eater.
VII. Brown Bear.
Polar Bear.
VIII. Seal.
Whlale.
XI. Beaver.
Squirrel.
Hare.
Rabbit.
Rat.
IX. Hippopotamus.
Rhinoceros.
Elephlant.
T apir.
Pig.
\.  Domestic Dogs.
Spaniel.
Pointer.
Hound.
Terrier.
MISCELLANFOUS SUBJECTS.
Boa Constrictor.
Rattlesnake.
Viper.
Common Snake.
354
Horse.
Ass.
Zebra.
Fox.
Wolf.
II. Bat.
IV. -,Weasel.
Stoat.
Ferret.
Sable.
XII. Kangaroo.
Lobster.
Starfis.1-i.
Bee.
Ant.
Sliark.
Dolpliin.
Torpedo.
Cuttlefisli. 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-FOURTH STEP.
Alligator.
Turtle.
Tortoise.
Frog.
Toad.
Housefiy.
Beetle.
Spider.
Earth Worm.
FOURTH STEP.
CLASS OF BIRDS.
The teacher should begin by procuring a full set of pictures;
specimens are still better. The children give the name that ap.
plies to all; then, as far as they can, the name  that applies to
each.  Are told that it is the object of the lesson to put all these
birds into classes, or groups. Children exercised in finding points
according to which a classification may be made: According to
color; according to size; as wild or tame; according to hlabitation, food, or structure.  Children led to decide on the best basis
for classification-structure.   The  best points on this basis are
beaks and feet. They may then begin to classify. If they need
guidance, teacher may direct their attention.
I.-I1. To the eagle-the king of birds.   Why  so called?
How  characterized?  Size, beak, claws.  Children to infer the
habits indicated by this structure.   Select  birds with similar
characteristics; as, condor, hawk, owl. W. B. in column under
title of " Birds of Prey."
2. Children to find a distinct group of birds. They choose,
say the hen, turkey, peacock, on account of their resemblance,
having blunt beaks, strong legs, heavy bodies. W. B. in column.
Give the term  Ground Birds.   Children  say how  this name
applies.
3. A third set of birds to be found. Children select, say stork
and heron, for their long legs, bony beaks and necks.   Form
column under "Stilt Birds."   Name —why given?
4. Children may perhaps next select the duck, goose, &c.
May be told that'all birds that frequent large bodies of water.
whether fresh or salt, have one important characteristic, which
355
Salmon.
Cod.
Sole.
Herring.
Pike.
I
I 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-FOURTH STEP.
they must find out (webbed feet).  Write column under "Webfooted Birds."
5. To lead them to discover another class, they must be told
to compare the feet of the birds that remain unclassified. They
will soon distinguish the climbing birds.   Name  given, and
column made.
6. Children to be told that all the remaining birds are classed
together as Perching Birds.
II. Children mention various birds, and decide in which
column each name is to be written. The blackboard may appear
as follows:
ClZimbing
Birds.
Woodpecker.
Parrot.
Web-footed
Bird8.
Goose.
Duck.
Penguin.
Gull.
Frigate Bird.
Albatross.
Perching
Bir(sh.
Raven.
Magpie.
Pigeon.
Canary.
Lark.
Nightingale.
Thrush.
Wren.
Robin.
Kingfisher.
In recapitulating, the orders should be arranged as given by
naturalists, and the term order given. Whether or not to give
scientific terms, as Raptores, may be left to the discretion of the
teacher. The English terms would seem to be as good as the
Latin; thus,
1st Order.       2d Order.        3d Order.         4th Order.
Raveners.        Perchers.         Climbers.        Scratchers.
5th Order.       6th Order.
Waders.        Swimmers.
When the teacher names the order, the children should be
able to give examples. Examples given by the teacher; they
refer to the order. Lessons need to be given on the subordinate
groups; as,
356
Bird,g Of
Prey.
E a,,, I e.
Coiidor.
Hawk.
Owl.
Ground
Bird8.
Hen.
Turkey.
Peacock.
Quail.
Partridge.
Ostrich.
stilt
Bird8.
Heron.
Stork.
Flamingo.
Ibis. 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-FOURTH STEP.
Diurnal  Feeders on fresh flesh.
Raveners    Ntara Feeders on carrion.
Nocturnal.
The Crow tribe.
Perchers  The Swallow tribe.
The Finch tuibe, &c.
Refer to any good work on Natural History. For example
of Method, see sketch on
1. The Swallow Tribe.
I. Teacher tells the children that they are about to inspect a
species of bird which spends almost all its time in the air, and
hardly ever touches earth. Requires them to tell, first, what
organs will be in constant use (wings). Of what general character these must be (large and strong). Secondly, which organs
will hardly be used at all (legs). Of what character these (probably) will be (small and slender). Thirdly, what kind of food
the birds will be able to find in the air (insects). Fourth, what
birds will do when the cold winter comes, and no insects are to
be found? (go to a warmer climate.) Fifth, whether they (children) can name the species they have thus far described?
II. Teacher produces specimen of the swallow (also a specinlen of a bulfinch for comparison). Children will tell the structure: Long, slender, tapering, and light body (compared with
bulfinch); very long wings (compared with the body); broad and
forked tail; very wide mouth; very delicate beak (compared with
that of bulfinch); short, slender legs; delicate but long and curved
claws; thick plumage, smooth and glossy.
Children required to explain the adaptation of this structure to
habits. If they have been previously trained, it will no longer
be found necessary to question them on separate points. They
will at once give the required explanation. Thus: Body light,
that it may be easily sustained in air; long, slender, and tapering,
that it may pass through air more swiftly and readily; thickest
just below the neck: where the muscles of the wings are devel
357
L
t. 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-FOITRTH STEP.
oped, that the muscles may be large and powerful enough to
move them; tapering, for lightness;  tail expanded, to help to
support the body; length of wing, indicating the immense power
of flight; very wide mouth, for catching its prey on the wing;
delicate beak, corresponding with the general delicacy of the bird,
indicating the soft character of its food; slender legs, not required
for walking; thick plumage, to meet alteration of temperature;
glossy plumage, that little friction may impede its flight.  Teaches
directs attention to habits, which children do not so readily dis
cover: That of keeping insects in the mouth till many are col,
lected; that of clinging to roofs, &c., when resting for a moment
in flight.
III. Teacher presents specimens of swift and marten. Chil.
dren compare these with swallow. Find swift the largest; can
fly farthest; marten  the least.   Swallow distinguished by the
peculiar beauty and burnish of its plumage. Information given
as to the number of hours these birds pass in the air daily.
Character of their movements. (Exercise the conceptive faculty.)
Kind of nest. Special kind of food. Time of their appearance
and departure. Countries to which they migrate. Scripture and
poetical reference.
Summary. -Children write out lesson under heads:
I. Birds of swallow tribe. Hiow distinguished?
II. General structure.
III. Habits, and adaptation of structure to them.
2. Incidental Lesson on the TIIabitations of Birds.
I. Introduction.-Get a list from the children with reference
to the various habitations and localities of birds.   (W. B., sup~
plying their omissions.)  The list may stand thus: Eagle, owl,
lark, rook, magpie, ostrich, hen, swallow, heron, sea gull.
II. Let the children say what they know about  the eagle.
What sorts of places it frequents, or where it rears its young?
Give any information required, and help the children to form a
vivid conception of the craggy mountain top, far above the dis
358 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-FOURTH STEP
tant village; the few sticks that indicate a nest, &c.; the owl in
the church tower, covered with ivy, looking forth at night like a
sentinel; the lark hidden in the meadow, springing up, soaring,
singing; the rook, with its companions in the tops of the tall trees
near the mansion house; the magpie on the apple tree in the cottage garden; the ostrich, with even pace, faster than the gallop
of a horse, scudding over the interminable expanse of sand; the
hen in the farmyard, by the barn door; the swallow circling above
the pond; the heron on the edge of the marshy pool in the hol
low of the dark moor; the sea gull cresting the white waves, or
resting on the cliffs that border them. The children will recognize
the goodness of God in peopling the world with so many beautiful
and happy creatures.  They will be ready to say: "0 Lord, how
manifold are thy works; in wisdom hast thou made them all; the
world is full of thy goodness."
CLASS MAMfMALIA.
1. The children, having finished the course on birds, may be
required to draw on their previous knowledge of mammals, and
to make a classification of them on the blackboard. A record of
their work should be kept.
2. Next time teacher offers some help, directing their atten.
tion to the points which should guide them in classifying; as,
limbs, teeth. They make a second list.
3. Next time the teacher gives them the number of orders.
Children make third classification, which is compared with the
proper one.   Where this differs from theirs, and why?
The separate groups of mammals  may now be taken up, but
usually with brevity. Example:
1. The Dog Tribe.
I. Origin of dogs.   Other animals of the dog tribe.   Animals of the dog tribe named.   Their general characteristics.
Origin of the domestic dog.  Whether from the jackal? the fox?
tlie wolf? or an original dog?  Resemblance in habits to the
jackal, and in structure to the wolf.  Point of difference in posi
359 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-FOURTHII STEP.
tion of the eyes, and possible reason for this. Comparison of the
wolf and dog as to disposition.
II. Domesticated dogs. Different groups, and characteristics
of each.   European  dogs compared with those of the East.
Scripture illustrated. European dogs divided into three groups:
1. Arctic dogs.
2. Hunting dogs.
3. Watch dogs.
1. Arctic Dogs.-Where found?  From the name, children
decide in the north of Europe and Iceland, though also in Kamtchatka and China.   How  distinguished?  Very sharp muzzle;
pointed ears; shaggy hair, long at the neck; elevated curled tail;
color black, white, or black and white. How connected with the
second group (by the Newfoundland.)
2. Hunting Dogs.-Where found?   In all the temperate regions, but especially in Europe. How distinguished (large pendulous ears; large jaws; long legs; thick tails). What the
group includes (fox hound, stag hound, pointer, setter, terrier, and
Danish dog-spaniel a cross).
3. Watch Dogs.-Found in all temperate climates. Physical
characteristics not so marked as in the other groups.  Greater
variety in all respects. Reason for this. Includes all shepherd
dogs; also mastiff, bulldog, and greyhound; the two last at first
sight dissimilar, but nearly allied, having delicate feet, slender tail,
good sighlt, imperfect smell, ferocious disposition. Irish greyhound
called wolf dog. Anecdote of. How the third group is connected
with the first? By the shepherd's dog. How with the second?
By the greyhound.
III. Conclusion drawn as to the general characteristics of
each group.  The first are nearest to a state of nature; the second
show in the highest degree the effects of physical cultivation; the
third have most intelligence. Anecdotes proving this. Use of
the dog to man, in every state. Goodness of God in giving him
such a friend.
360 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-FOURTH STEP.
2. The Cat Tribe.
Animals of the cat tribe compared with those of the dog
tribe. (Terms feline and canine given.)
1. Compared with respect to structure: Body, limbs, feet,
shape of head, eyes, and teeth, covering, feelers.
2. With respect to habits: One found in packs, and the other
alone, or with its mate.  Character of food.  Methods of securing
their prey, &c.                                              8
3. With respect to appearance: Beautiful markings, spots, &c,
on the glossy fur of the one; shaggy hair of the other.
4. With respect to distribution: The canine tribe is found all
over the globe; the feline tribe chiefly in torrid regions, thinly
inhabited by man.   Wisdom  of this arrangement.   Species of
each tribe distinguished.   What  species are found in the Old
World, and what in the New?
INCIDENTAL LESSONS.
3. Animals Used in IIunting.
I. Animals of the Dog Tribe.-Draw from the children the
fact that animals hunt as well as men. What kinds of animals
hunt?  Dogs.  Children to say how the dog is adapted for hunting. Refer to the wolf as a natural hunter.
II. Animals of the Cat Tribe.-Tell the children that in Eastern countries animals of the cat tribe are used for hunting.  Let
them compare these with creatures of the dog tribe, and find out
which make the best hunters.  Creatures of the cat tribe (a) cannot run far; (b) are less docile; (c) are more bloodthirsty. Give
account of the chetah, and, from the facts before discovered, let
the children say why it must be brought in a cart to the field?
Why blindfolded?  Why allowed to drink the blood of its prey?
III. Animals of the Weasel Tribe.-Produce picture or specimen of a ferret. Refer to its tribe. Kind of animals it hunts
(rats and mice).  How adapted to this kind of hunting?  Tell
children that it is often muzzled, and set to hunt rabbits.   Compare the cat, dog, and ferret, as tameable creatures,  Refer to the
361
!,,6 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-FOU1RTH STEP.
otter and ichneumon, creatures of the ferret tribe, as employed in
India and Egypt.  Conclude with reference to the power given by
God to nman over the inferior creatures. How it should be used?
4. Sketch on Rodents.
I. Order.-Present stuffed specimen or picture of the squirrel,
rabbit, hare, rat, mouse.   All or any, with a picture of a beaver.
Children, who name each, are told they are grouped together, and
required to find the basis of classification.  It might be size, for
they are small animals;  or disposition, for they are timid; or
character of food, for they live on hard substances;  but the chil.
dren know that animals are classed according to structure, especially the structure of the feet and teeth.  Examination of the
feet presents no special characteristics.   We must  look to the
teeth. These creatures are named from the manner in which they
use these. They gnaw, and are therefore cailed rodents.
II. Structure of Teeth.-Teeth of specimens examined, and
diagram placed on the board.
1. Incisors: Sharp at the edge, chisel shaped, meeting the
opposite teeth in a semicircle.     Tell children that the front
surface is of the hardest enamel, the inner surface of softish bone.
What must happen to teeth that are constantly working against
very hard substances? They must wear away rapidly. How
this is provided for by constant growth of teeth, &c. Which sur
face will wear away the sooner? (The inner surface.) Effect of
this arrangement on the shape of the teeth-securing always a
sharp edge.
2. Grinders: Ridges-their direction, from side to side. Chlildren find in what direction the rodent must move its mouth to
grind its food. Are told the creatures are furnished with a strong
muscle, which gives great power to the movement of the jaw.
3. Canine teeth absent.  Rodents have no weapon of defence.
Children to find five means by which they are protected.
1. They are small.
2. They are very timi4.
362 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-FOURTH STEP.
3. They have large eyes.
4. They have ears pointing backward.
5. They have long bodies.
Use of each point to the rodent?
III. Sumnmary.-Substance written on the board as dictated
by the children; the teacher, however, leaving ellipses for them to
supply in reproducing the lesson on paper.
Gnawing animals include.   They are so named because
.  They have sharp, which enables them to-.
The front surface is,  the under merely.  Constant
feeding upon         causes.    This is remedied by
The soft bone wears away, while the.  The advantage of
this is.  The grinders are, so that in masticating the
food the jaw must be.  The jaws have great power, owing
to.  Canine teeth are.  The rodents have many enemies; cannot, but often escape, because -
5. Clothing of Animals.
I. Introduction.-Let the children know the subject of the
lesson.  Get them to name animals having different clothing.  If
they are slow in giving examples, suggest the animal, and let them
say how it is clad. Put down each answer on the board, thus:
The cat is covered with fur.
The herring is covered with scales.
The horse is covered with hair.
II. Classification.-Help the children to classify the facts,
putting them on the board, asking where each creature lives, and
markig those that live on earth with fig. 1; those that live on
air, with fig. 2; those that live both on land and in water, with
fig. 3; give the term amphibious; and those that live in water
only, with fig. 4.  Children state the clothing of each set (W. B.)
from dictation.  Mammals are clothled with fur, hair, wool, or skin
only.  Birds are clothed with feathers; some have an undergar.
aent of down.  Reptiles with a thick skin, scales, or shelly plate,
Fish, with thin scales.
363 
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.-FOURTH STEP.
III. Adal)tation.-Let the children imagine a creature like a
horse, with a covering of feathers.   Why  they would  not suit
him? They would be much too warm. With a covering of
scales not warm enough, yet would check perspiration.  Refer to
the condition of horses after a gallop; the structure of their skin,
&c.  With a shelly covering; this, by its weight and stiffness,
would impede motion. The horse has a skin just suited to it. But
feathers are the covering for the eagle-why? Scaly plates for a
crocodile-why?  A thick, hairless skin for an elephant-why?
Scales for a mackerel-why? Why jointed? Go over the list,
leading the children to see the adaptation in each case. One can
not do this without reference to the infinite wisdom and goodness
of God manifested in this adaptation.
A series of lessons corresponding to the last should be giver,
thus:
1. Limbs of animals, and their movements.
2. Localities (general) in which animals are found.
3. Breathing, and circulation of blood.
4. Form in which the young first appear.
5. Finally, the children should be led to distinguish verte
brated animals from others, and to put them into the four great
divisions:
Reptiles.        Fishes.
The teacher can proceed in the same way with invertebrated
animals.  It is evident, however, that the later courses must be.
come less full, and more general, than the earlier ones.
In conclusion, the scholar should be led to recognize all the
groups as component parts of the one great system of animated
nature  See Mrs. Redfield's "Chart of the Animal Kingdom."
364:
Birds.
Mammals. 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
DESIGNED AS THIRD STEP LESSONS.
On the Nature of Plants.
THE teacher should be prepared with an object for the lesson
selected from each grand division of the natural kingdom; as, a
plant, an animal, and a stone. Call upon the children to observe
that the three are very different. Tell them to find out something
which may be said of all of them, but which could not be said of
a hat, a knife, or a watch. The plant, the animal, and the stone,
were made as they are by God; man did not make them. We
call them natural.*  To which of the three objects are you most
like? In what respect do you and the plant differ from the
stone? What will some day happen both to you and to the
plant, which never can happen to the stone? We and the plant
shall die. (See that the children understand, that when we speak
of death, as applied to plants, we mean that they cease to live,
and then decay.) In what, then, does the stone differ from animals and plants? The stone has not life. What can you say of
a vegetable? That it has life. What do living things need to
support their life? Food. Where do animals take in their food?
By what organ?  By the mouth.  Where do vegetables take in
their food? By what organ? By their roots. In what, then,
* It is not expected that the children will so immediately arrive at this conclusion, but the question is suggested in order to show that the idea is to be
drawn from them, their minds being stimulated and directed by the questioning
of the teacher. The answers are inserted in order to indicate the point to which
they are to be brought. 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
do animals and vegetables differ from stones? Animals and vege.
tables require food to support life; but stones have no life which
might need support. In what do animals differ from vegetables?
Animals take in their food by the mouth, but vegetables by the
root. What other benefits do these derive from food? Besides
that of being kept alive by it, it makes them grow.   What are
animals able to do, that cannot be done by vegetables?  VWhat
does a lion, when he is hungry?  What a hare, when pursued by
dogs?   What do you in the playground?  For whose pleasure
do you run or jump? You move about when you like. Thus
you find that animals can move at pleasure from place to place.
But is this the case with vegetables? Suppose a plant drooping
for water, and that there was water near, could it get at it?
Why not? Because it is fixed to one spot in the earth.
Tell me all that you have found out regarding plants, by coin,
paring them with animals and stones.  Vegetables are made-by
God;* we therefore call them-natural; they have-lfe; their
life is supported by-food; this they take in at their-roots; food
makes them-grow; they are fixed to one spot in-the earth, and
cannot-move about-as-they please.
There should be a simultaneous repetition of this by all the
children, to fix it well in their memories.
The Several Parts of a Plant.
Commence with questions on the preceding lesson, as to how
a plant is distinguished, with a repetition of the summary; then
lead the children to find out the principal parts of a plant. These
are, the root, stems, leaves, blossom, fruit or seed vessel, seeds.
The names of these should be written down, and frequently simultaneously repeated. The relative position of the different parts,
and the period in the existence of the plants at which they severally appear, might form the subject of conversation.
* The words in italics are to be given by the children.  The ellipsis is very
useful in maintaining attention and interest in the summing up of a lesson.
366 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
THE ROOT.
1. The Use of the Root to the Plant, as an Organ of Aourishment
The children should have several roots and pictures of roots to
examine. They should be led to observe that they all have fibres,
and they may be informed that these fibres are the true roots, and
that at the end of each of them there is a substance like sponge.
If questioned as to the properties of sponge, and as to the use of
such a substance to the plant, they may be led to discover that
these spongioles, as they are called, suck up from the earth, as so
many mouths, the moisture which nourishes the plant. The class
may be led to observe how very suitable such a substance is for
the office it has to perform, and that, while God has withheld from
plants the power of moving about to get their food, Hlie has provided a beautiful compensation by furnishing them with a multitude of mouths, each of them placed at the end of a long fibre,
and that these stretch out in all directions. The observation of
this fact, and the proof it affords of the providential care of the
Creator, should be drawn from the children. They may also find
out the reason why gardeners, when they transplant roots, are
careful not to injure these fibres.  If all the fibres of the root
were destroyed, the plant must die, for it could not obtain nourish.
ment.
2. The Use of the Root in Fixing the Plant in the Earth.
The children, having considered the root as an organ of nourishment, should next consider it as to its office of supporting the
plant while growing in the earth.  Its position is under ground;
it is the lowest part of the plant. When a seed begins to grow,
it sends downward a root, avoiding light, and seeking moisture.
The children should find out of what use the root is in consequence of its position.  They may be led to see that things will
not stand firmly, if the top be not well balanced by the base.
How is a plant balanced and fixed firmly?   The roots extend in
the earth in proportion to the size of the upper part. The roots
of large trees branch out in all directions, and spread to a very
367 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
great distance.* Draw upon the board a tree with its roots, that
the children may perceive that the wide-spreading branches of the
root act as a counterpoise to the head, and even extend beyond the
boughs. Lead them to see that there is a reason why the mouth
of the roots should stretch beyond the foliage, for they are thus
enabled to obtain the moisture which the earth receives from the
rain, which does not penetrate generally through the foliage near
the trunk. How wise a provision for the plant is this extension
of its roots! Let the children gather from this where a large
plant should be watered; not, of course, just at the stem, but at a
short distance, that the water may reach the spongioles of the
roots.
3. The Use of the Root in carrying off Waste and Injurious -Iatter.
The plant not only receives suitably nourishment, but also
throws off waste and hurtful matter by the root; it is not, therefore, desirable to continue sowing the same seed year after year in
the same spot, because the soil has been rendered unfit for the
growth of the new plants by the matter rejected at the roots of
former ones.  Some different kind of seed should be chosen for
each spot under cultivation, for it has been found by experience,
that matter which one kind of plant rejects as injurious, is often
suitable for the food of plants of a different species.t The system
of agriculture pursued by the Israelites might here be mentioned,
and the law as to land remaining fallow every seventh year might
be read to the class. They might be led to see the value of this
law to this people, who knew neither the advantage of a rotation
of crops, nor the mode of enriching the earth by manures. This
law, also, conveyed to them a spiritual lesson, for they were taught
by types and shadows.
* Teachers may give great interest to their lessons by drawing on the board
before the children diagrams of the subject of them.
t This fact is beyond the sphere of the children's observation; it must, therefore, be told them; but the observation on the consequences may be drawn front
them, as a reason for a rotation of crops
368 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF ROOTS.
The Globose Root.
The children should be shown specimens of different kinds of
roots, and pictures of others. VWhlat have all roots? W5hat is
there at the end of the fibres?  What is the use of the spongy
substance?  Why do plants require so many mouths?  Attention
should now be drawn to the different forms of roots. First give
a lesson on the turnip, for instance. The children will observe its
two principal parts-the fibres, which are the true roots, and the
thick part, like a globe, from which the root is called the globose
root. The children already know the use of the fibres and spongioles, but what is the use of this globe? It contains a store of
nourishment for the plant, by means of which it brings its flower
and seed to perfection. Where are turnips cultivated? Of what
use are they?  What part of the plant is eaten?  When are the
roots fit for food? Before the store of nutritious matter which the
globe contains has been exhausted in maturing the flower and
seed. All farmers and gardeners are aware of this, and act accordingly.
The Tapering Root.
Let the children examine the pictures of the various roots;
then tell them to select a root of a very different shape from the
turnip-the carrot-and let them describe this root, its parts and
shape; and when it has become familiar, tell them its name-the
tapering root.  They will at once see why it is so named.  WVhlicl
are the true roots?  The fibres and their spongioles.  This root,
though of such a different shape, performs the same important
office to the plant as the globose root. The children can tell what
this is, and also determine when carrots should be dug up.   Let
them give a list of the tapering roots which are usually cultivated,
describing the peculiarities of each of them, and how it is distin
guished from others.   The list should then  be written on  the
board. The more common tapering roots are the carrot, parsnip,
radish, beet, mangel-wurzel, and horse radish.
16*
369 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
Tuberous Roots.
Let the children next examine the roots of the potato plant
and of the dahlia, whlich are similar in kind.  What are the two
principal parts? The fibres and the knobs. How do these roots
differ from those already considered? They are composed of several knobs joined together.  Yes;  and these knobs differ from
those of the turnip and parsnip. Find out in what respect they
differ. Ask the children if they know in what way farmers and
gardeners plant potatoes?  If they do not, they should be shown
the little specks on the potatoes,  called the eyes.   These  are
buds, of the same nature as the buds we see on trees in the spring,
and at that season they begin to sprout, and the potato in this state
is not fit for food, being full of black spots. Question the children
as to the cause of these black spots, and why potatoes at that
season are not good to eat. They ought to be able to reply, that
the nourishing matter which made  the root a wholesome  vegetable, is expended in the shoots.  The gardener, when he cuts out
the eye for planting,* takes a portion of the potato with it, which
affords nourishment to the bud till it has formed roots to obtain
nourishment for itself. The children will now be able to find out
the use of the knob (called a tuber) to the plant, and in what state
the potato is best for food.  These roots are called tuberous roots.
Describe a tuberous root.  The dahlia root is of this kind.   In the
spring the tubers send out sprouts, which the gardener cuts out,
and from these new plants are raised. What a beautiful provision
it is that the nourishing matter stored up for plants in their roots,
should be so pleasant and so good for the use of man! What a
blessing to the poor that so wholesome a vegetable as the potato
is so easily cultivated, and that it multiplies so very abundantly! t
* A teacher would greatly increase the interest ofthe lesson, by putting into
practice what is here described; planting some potatoes and dahlias, allowing
somne of the children to give assistance, and then observing their after growth.
t These observations should be drawn from the children. It is the art of the
teacher to lead them to draw right conclusions and moral reflections from facts
observed.
370 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
Bulbous Roots.
The children should mention the different roots upon which
they have had lessons, describing and pointing out each several spe.
cies.* Does the picture contain any root like those on which lessons have been given? Yes; the onion. Show them also a
tulip, crocus, and snowdrop root. In what respect do they seem
like the turnip? Though they appear to be like it, they are really
different; for these knobs of the onion, tulip, &c., which are called
bulbs, contain within them during the winter season the young t
plant, though of course it is then very small. These bulbs have
been compared to a winter cradle, as they keep the plant shut up
snug and warm within them during cold weather. This root is
called a bulbous root. Describe it.
Fibrous Roots.
Let the children say what they observe all roots to havefibres. Let them give examples of roots that have fibres only.
Let them find a good name for such roots-fibrous roots. Some
trees have a large tapering root, called the tap root. It descends
straight into the earth, and from it proceed great branches, terminating in fibres. A root of this description should be drawn on
the board, and the children, from what they have before learned,
will be able to say why such a root is necessary for a tree.
The concluding lesson on roots should be recapitulatory. The
children should tell the names of the different roots on which lessons have been given, and these should be written on the board;t
then they should be questioned somewhat as follows: What are the
two principal parts of the globose root? Of what use are the
fibres? Of what use to the plant is the globular part? When
is it best for food? Describe the tapering root. What are its
principal parts and uses?  In what does it differ from the globose
* In the first lesson the roots should be brought in and shown the children;
but in the subsequent lessons, when they are only referred to, the teacher should
draw them on the board.
t In the spring time, if a root of a tulip be cut longitudinally through the
middle, the plant may be seen within the bulb.
I The questions might form the subject of a home exercise.
371 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
root? Of what is the tuberous root formerd? What is the use
of the tubers? How are plants raised from them? What is the
most common of these roots? What is a bulbous root? What
use is the bulb to the plant? What are the different uses of roots
to plants? How are they fitted for their different uses? When
any one makes an instrument well fitted to perform a difficult
work, what do we say of him? And if, in addition, we find that
he has made it for the use and benefit of others, what more do we
say of him?   But who  made plants, and gave them different
parts, fitting them to perform different offices, to contribute to the
comfort of man?   What, then, must we acknowledge God to be?
Wise and kind. What does the Bible tell us of the work of
God? Do you remember what God said of everything when first
made?  "Behold, it was very good."
STEMNIS.
The children should be shown various kinds of stems; as, a
piece of a tree, a straw, and a succulent stem-that of a geranium,
for instance. Let them arrange stems under three heads, describing each, and finding examples of it. A name should then be
given by which they may distinguish each division, and these
should be written on the board.
1. FLESHY  OR  SOFT  STEMS, as in herbaceous  plants and
annuals.
2. STRAW, as in grains and grasses.
3. WoonY STEMS, as in trees and shrubs.
Show the children several specimens of these different stems,
and encourage them to bring others, and to say to which of the
three divisions they belong. Draw from them what difference
they perceive in these stems.
THE FLESHY STEM is soft, full of juice, generally of a green
color, and lies down on the ground in winter.  What stems of thlis
description do we eat? Celery, rhubarb, sea-kale. Some of these
stems are very fibrous, and are very useful on this account, the
fibres being manufactured into articles of dress and furniture.
This subject should be enlarged upon.   A stem of flax and hemp
372 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
should be produced, together with a picture of the plant, the un
manufactured fibre, and the various substances made from it. The
children should find out what qualities in the fibre make it thus
useful.
STRAW  is stiff and hollow, having hard joints at regular distances, which give it strength, so that while it bends to the wind
and rises again by its elasticity, it is also able to support the ear.
From the possession of these properties the grain is continually
brought under the drying influence of the air, and the ripening
influence of the sun. Straw is used for bonnets, baskets, mats;
for thatching, litter in farmyards, &c.
The sugar cane is a kind of straw, full of a sweet juice, which
is squeezed out, boiled, and made into sugar.
WOODY STEMS.-The children should have some specimens to
examine, that they may describe this stem, and tell its parts.  It
is hard, dry, strong, and stiff; its parts are bark, wood,  pith.*
Let them describe a tree. A tree has an upright supporting stem,
called a trunk; this is of cylindrical form, tapering upward like a
pillar, and is admirably suited for supporting a heavy weight.
From this trunk proceed smaller stems, called branches, and from
these others still smaller, called twigs, upon which the leaves grow.
The children should see pictures of the various trees and their
parts, that they may observe the different manner in which the
branches grow.   After having had lessons on form, they would
of themselves observe, that the boughs of the oak form nearly a
right angle with the trunk, whilst in the poplar they form a very
acute angle; and they will perceive that it is this which causes
the great difference in the form and appearance of trees. Let
them give a list of the names of forest trees, to be written on the
board, describing also the use of each; and then give a list of
* It is needless to point out exactly what the children will be able to tell
from their own observation, and what must be communicated: well practised
teachers will find but little in these lessons which they will not be able to get
from their elder division of pupils, provided they bring in the necessary specimens, and direct rightly their attention, commencing with questions upon what
is familiar to them. Whatever information is given should be well engrafted
upon what was previously known, and the latter should be reproduced by questions, answered either viva voce, or at home on paper.
373 
LESSONS ON.PLANTS.
trees that furnish us with eatable fruit. Lead them to observe the
comfortable shade afforded by trees in the summer, and their exceeding beauty. Let them next describe the different parts of the
woody stem.
BARK.-Its qualities: Rough, hard, and fibrous, fitted to act
like clothing to the stem, and to protect it from the effects of the
weather. Try to discover what the children know of the uses of
different kinds of bark.   Specimens should be brought before
them, that they may point out the difference in their appearance.
Show them some tan-it is the bark of the oak. They know its
use-to tan leather.  What  effect has it upon the leather?  It
draws the fibres closer together, -causing the leather to keep out
wet. Some barks are used as strengthening medicines, and affect
the human frame something in the same way that tan strengthens
the leather. Cork is the bark of a peculiar kind of oak. A piece
of the bark in its natural state should be produced, and the qualities of cork elicited.
WooD.-Its qualities: A  new circle is formed every year in
the wood of a growing tree; this is seen by the rings; its uses
for fuel, for buildings of all kinds, and for furniture; the qualities
that fit it for its various uses.* Different woods used for differing
purposes; as, oak for ships, posts, &c., on account of its durability
and hardness; mahogany for furniture, on account of its beautiful
color; pine for housebitilding, &c., on account of its lightness,
softness, cheapness, and abundance.
PITH.-A branch of the alder tree should be shown the children, that they may examine it, and give its qualities. Rushlights
are made of the pith of rushes dipped in tallow. The poor people
of England often make their own lights by dipping pith obtained
from reeds in tallow.   Sago, of which nutritious  puddings are
made, is the pith of a palm tree.
CIRCULATION OF SAP.
The children should be questioned as to the circulation of the
blood, its journey from the heart throughout the body and lungs,
* It is to be recollected that these lessons are only hints for the assistance
of teachers.
374 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
supporting life. They may then be told that plants also have a
fluid which in a similar manner flows through them, supporting
and nourishing the life of every part. The root absorbs moisture
from the ground; this ascends into the plant, and reaching the
leaves, undergoes a change, becoming suitable food for the plant;
it then descends again, this fluid supplying nourishment to every
part in its course. It is called sap.
In addition to food for the plant, juices, which vary in their
nature in different vegetables, are produced from the sap, some of
them very useful to man.   The children should be questioned
whether they ever saw juice oozing out of a tree?  They may
have seen this in fruit trees, or in the oozing of turpentine out of
deal. The chief of these vegetable juices are gum, resin, vegetable milks, acids, oils, tar, turpentine, and water.
GUmS.-Some gum, soft from the tree, and some gum arabic,
should be shown to the children, and they should say all they
know of gum, and the trees which yield it. How does it appear
whlen oozing out?'VWhat  effect has the air upon it?  What
qualities distinguish it? Its adhesiveness; its solubility in water;
its use as a cement.
RESINS are vegetable products, which ooze out of pines, firs,
&c. The more common resins are pitch, tar, turpentine. The
children should see them, and describe their qualities and uses.
Resins are distinguished from gums by dissolving in spirit of wine,
but not in water, as the gums do.
FRAN-KINCENSE-mentioned in Scripture, and used as an incense, a type of that intercession of Christ which makes our
prayers acceptable to God-is an aromatic resin.
BAL.M  OF GILEAD,  also mentioned in the Bible,* and celebrated for its healing properties, is another resin.
OILS are also vegetable liquids, peculiar to some plants. The
perfuime sent forth by various plants is caused by volatile oils.
These, when pressed out of the plants containing them, afford us
fragrant scents. The oils in common use are chiefly obtained from
* The teacher should refer to the Scriptures, in which these substances are
spoken of.
375 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
seeds, in which they exist as nourishment for the tender plant,
when it first begins to shoot forth. A great deal of oil is obtained
from nuts, and much also from the seed of flax; the latter is called
linseed oil. The oil we use in food is pressed out of the fruit of
the olive. Lead the children to observe how all nature contributes
good things to promote the comfort and pleasure of man. It is
our duty to receive all these as God's gifts.
The children should have some oil to examine.   They should
find out those qualities which distinguish it from other substances,
and make it so useful; no information being given till all they
know or can discover has been drawn from them. The mind hav.
ing been thus brought into an active, inquiring state, they will be
interested in hearing anything new concerning ally object which
may be the subject of instruction.  Lessons should always conclude with a summary, in which, by means of the ellipsis, the children should reproduce all they have heard.
VEGETABLE MILKs.-Tlie children may form some idea of the
milky substance which is found in many plants, by breaking the
stem of a spurge. In this plant the milk is of a caustic nature,
and used to remove warts. The milky fluid of plants is often
poisonous, producing fatal sleep. It is so in the case of that obtained from the poppy and lettuce, from which are prepared opiates, which are used in small doses to relieve pain and to cause
sleep.
IXnDIA RUBBER is obtained from a kind of laurel tree.  When
it flows out of the tree it is a milky fluid, but it soon becomes
thick, and hardens in the air; it is then dried over the smoke of
a wood fire, which makes it black. The children should name the
qualities and uses of India rubber.   This vegetable substance has
of late years been extensively used in rendering cloths imperious
to air and water, and also in the formation of instruments in which
elasticity and flexibility are required.
There is a liquid that flows out of a tree in America, which
very much resembles the milk of the cow, and the tree is called
the cow tree. It is a great blessing to the people of that country,
for it grows in rocky, dry, and barren places, which would not
376 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
produce herbage for cattle. During many months no rain falls
there, but the tree has dry leathery leaves, which live very long
without any moisture; and when the branches look quite dry and
withered, if the trunk be pierced, there will flow out a sweet,
nourishing milk; and at sunrise the natives may be seen hastenimg with their bowls, which are generally the shells of some fruit,
to obtain this nice vegetable milk. All this must be told the children; but having previously seen what a vegetable milk is, they
will be the more interested in the subject. The use to be made
of the history is the leading them to see how beautifully God provides for His creatures, and how exactly He adapts both animals
and vegetables to the countries in which He places them.*
HONEY.-This is a familiar vegetable juice.  The children well
know how the bee obtains it, and treasures it up in waxen cells,
and they will be able to tell its qualities. A reference may be
made to the promise given to the Israelites in the wilderness, that
the land which God would give them was to be a land flowing
with milk and honey. They may be led to see that this involved
its being a land rich in vegetation, possessing abundance of flowers for the bees, and herbage for the cows, to make both honey
and milk abundant. We are told that Palestine abounded in these
aromatic flowers which produce the best honey.
THE STINGING POWER of such plants as the nettle, resides in
a poisonous liquid contained in a little bag at the bottom of a sharp
hollow bristle. When the bristle is struck, this fluid is pressed up
through it, and flows out through it into any wound the bristle
may have made in the skin, causing the pain and irritation of the
sting.
The children should now name the peculiar juices of plants
* These facts must be communicated to the children, but the reflection should
be drawn from them. They should be trained to perceive and acknowledge the
goodness of the Creator in his works. We are all ready enough to find out defects, and to express discontent at blessings withheld, whilst our innumerable
daily mercies are received as a matter of course, without a thought. What we
have to encourage in children, is, a quick perception of the wisdom and goodness manifested in the creation and providence of God, and the habit of grate
fully acknowledging these; for feeling is increased by expression, and it is also
thus communicated to others.
377 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
which they have learned, and, by the help of questions, recapitu.
late the lessons on this subject. They may also be reminded that
all that would be injurious to the plant is separated from the sap
and thrown out at the root, and that this, though bad for the plant
producing it, may not be so for another; indeed, in some in
stances, that which is injurious to one kind of vegetable, is beneficial to another.   Thus leguminous or podded plants, such as
vetches and tares, prepare the soil for corn and grasses.  How
this variety in plants shows the wisdom and goodness of our Great
Creator I
BUDS.
A variety of buds should be placed before the class, the chil.
dren being helped to describe what they are. They are little
bodies which are formed on the surface of vegetables, sometimes
containing a future shoot, sometimes leaves, sometimes flowers,
and in some cases leaves and flowers together.  They preserve
the new parts of the plant from the severities of winter, and
therefore, are sometimes called winter cradles.
The leaves are often curiously folded within the bud, where, as
the children may discover by examination of each on the outside,
are generally hard scales. These are only the outer leaves, which,
having been chilled and checked in their growth, become stiff and
hard, and curve inward, thus forming scales that protect the inner
leaves. This occurs only in cold climates, where such protection
is necessary, and thus a simple yet beautiful provision is given the
plant for self. preservation. Besides this, the young leaves are
often surrounded wlithin the bud by a cottony substance, which
resists the cold.  They are also sometimes covered with a clammy
varnish, which protects them from the rain, as is the case in those
of the horse chestnut.  In what position are buds formed?  The
children may discover that it is at the angle formed between a leaf
stalk and a stem.  The reason of this is, that here the sap, when
passing from the leaves, does not flow so easily.  It is stopped,
and a little accumulation is formed, which is the cause of a bud
being produced. This takes place in the summer and autumn.
In spring the warmth of the sun causes the bud to expand, and to
378 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
draw up the sap from the parts below, which are again supplied
by the parts still lower, and thus the sap in the plant is set in motion, and this is what is called the flowv of the sap. This might be
made clear to the children by drawing on the board a plant with
buds, and pointing out the course taken by the sap.
THE USE OF BUDS.-They are not only useful in keeping the
future shoots alive during the winter season, but they afford also
the means of multiplying plants. Each bud is a complete little
plant in itself, having within it everything necessary for the existence of the plant that springs from it, together with the power of
sustaining life under favorable circumstances.* Gardeners know
this, and cutting off the bud from one plant, they place it in a cut
upon the stem of another, the sap of which flows into the bud,
causing it to grow.  This operation is called budding.  Plants are
also raised by laying a branch under ground, that the buds it cointains may send roots downward and shoots upward;  then, when
the branch is cut off from the old plant, it becomes a new plant.
It is from this power of life in the buds that plants can be raised
from slips. Vegetables, indeed, are full of buds, and this is a most
wise provision for their preservation. They cannot defend themnselves, or flee from their enemies as animals can, for they are fixed
to one spot. How has God made up for this? He has furnished
them with a multitude of buds, each of which is capable of repro.
ducing life, so that a plant may be cut in every direction, or
stripped of all its branches, and yet, if any bud remain, there still
is left a source of life, from which new shoots may be produced.
When a shrub has been cut down to the ground, it will often
spring up vigorously the year following, because some buds have
been left on its stump. How beautifully has the all-wise Creator
suited everything to the situation in which it is placed, and to the
work it has to perform! Each leaf and each bud proclaims His
wisdom and goodness. When we see His wonders of creation,
shall we not praise and glorify him?  Yes.  He has declared that
* Some of these facts may be rather difficult for the children to understand;
at,thing that may prove to be beyond their capacity may be omitted; but it is
v,,y desirable to give them a reason for the common operations they may see
pMoctised by gardeners and farmers.
379
a W' 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
His praise shall come even out of the mouth of babes and sucklings!
There are three kinds of buds: those which produce the flower
only, others that produce only leaves and branches, and a third
description which develop both leaves and flowers. A good gardener knows how to promote the formation of the flower buds,
which afterward produce the fruit. When the sap flows through
the tree rapidly, it forms the most leaf buds; but when it flows
more slowly, it becomes richer and thicker, and forms flower buds.
By training the branches of the tree horizontally, the gardener
causes the sap to flow more slowly than it would do were they lupright, and thus he obtains more flower buds, and, consequently,
more fruit.
The picture of the garden will be found useful in explaining
and illustrating these and other occupations of the gardener.
LEAVES.
The children should examine some leaves, and find out the
parts of a leaf; as, the upper and under surface, the leaf stalk, the
limb (that is, the whole expansion), the point or termination, the
edge, the mid-rib, the veins. They should next be led to observe,
from some well-selected specimens;* how these parts are characterized, and in what they differ in different plants. The upper
surface of the leaf is generally smooth and bright, and of a darker
color than the under surface, which is dull; the middle rib is furrowed or grooved at the upper surface, and keeled or ridged at the
under surface. The course of the veins is sometimes direct from
the leaf stalk to the termination; in other cases they form quite a
net-work. Whenever a vein pushes out very strongly, it forces
out a part of the limb, and in this way is caused the variety in the
form of leaves.t All this, under a little guidance, may be discovered by the children themselves.   The edge of a leaf is sometimes
* The children's interest will be increased if they are encouraged to bring
specimiens for their lesson.
t The more of these facts the children discover themselves, the greater will
be their pleasure in the lesson; in this way also an inquiring habit of mind will
be promoted.
380 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
quite plain or entire, sometimes very finely toothled, and sometimes
the teeth are large; sometimes it is scallopped, sometimes jagged,
sometimes hairy. The shape of leaves varies greatly. The children should determine, as nearly as they can, the shape of differ.
ent leaves.
Leaves are curiously arranged on the stalks which bear them.
Each of them has generally a leaf stalk, but sometimes they grow
on the stem without this, and are then said to be sessile, or sitting.
Sometimes they sheathe the stem, as in the grasses; sometimes
two leaves are joined together, and the stem pierces through the
pair; sometimes they grow in opposite pairs on the stem, sometimes on alternate sides, sometimes scattered, sometimes they surround the stem in a circle or whorl. The knowledge of these
facts is of very minor importance, but such subjects furnish teachers with the means of calling out the observation of their pupils,
and of encouraging habits that tend to render all nature interesting, thus putting the mind in possession of cheap and improving
pleasure.
THE USE OF LEAVES TO THE PLANT.-Ask the children what
effect exercise in hot weather produces upon the skin? Plants
also perspire, and it is by means of their leaves that this healthy
operation is carried on. Plants thus lose two thirds of the moisture absorbed at their spongioles. The fluid they perspire is nearly
pure water; the thicker and more nourishing portions of the sap
remain in the plant.  Vegetables perspire the most in the sunshine; it is on this account that gardeners always protect newly
transplanted plants from the rays of the sun, because, as the roots
are not at such a time in a state to suck up much moisture, it is
desirable that the leaves should not be giving off much fluid; for
if the plant part with its moisture more rapidly than it is able to
replenish it, it will wither and die. The children will be able to
give the reason for this when they are told the fact.
Leaves perform to the plant the same office which the lungs
perform for animals; they draw in that particular air which is
good for their support, and throw off that which is waste and inju rious. It is in the leaves also that the sap is made fit for nourish
381 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
ing the plant; just as in the stomach, food is rendered suitable foe
the sustenance of animal life.
USE OF LEAVES TO MAN.-The children will be able to find
out much on this subject. It is the leaves that make trees so beau tiful and so valuable for shade and protection from the weather.
Our gracious Creator has given to trees such differing leaves as
adapt them to different climates. On mountains where the snow
is constantly falling, grow the firs and pines, the clusters of whose
needle-shaped leaves allow the snow to fall between them; for the
weight of the snow would soon break down boughs that were
covered with broad leaves. Again, Ceylon, which is a country at
one season deluged with rain, and at another parched with heat,
has a tree called the fan palm, a single leaf of which is sufficiently
large to afford shelter for twelve or fifteen people.
LEAVES USEFUL FOR FOOD.-Many kinds of leaves are good
for food, as those of the cabbage, spinach, endive, lettuce, parsley,
turnip, mustard and cress, &c. The leaves of the tea plant produce an agreeable drink; those of the senna, and others, are used
as medicine.   Tobacco and snuff are formed of leaves.   Cattle
feed upon grass, clover, turnip leaves, &c.
THE FLOWER.*
Lesson 1.
A variety of flowers being produced, the teacher tak'es up one
of them, and asks, What is this? It is a flower. A perfect
flower has four principal parts; try and find them out. W-hat do
you observe in these flowers? The teacher holds up a wall flower
and a primrose. The colored leaves. These colored leaves of
the flower form what is called the corolla. What is the first part
of the flower that I am to write down on the board?   The
"corolla."
What  else do you see as I hold up these flowers?  Some
* The two following lessons on the flower were drawn out fully at the request
of the teacher, and may serve to show the mode in which it is intended that such
instruction should be given.
382 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
green leaves at the bottom of the corolla. Are they green in the
wall flower? No. What is their general color? They are most
frequently green. Of what use do these little leaves seem to be
to the corolla?  They hold its colored leaves together.  What
vessel do you think these leaves at all like? They are something
like a cup. Yes; that part of the flower that holds the blossom
is called the cup.*   What shall I now write under the word
"corolla "?  "The cup."
Now observe what I do to this flower, and tell me.   You
have pulled off the corolla and the cup. I did this that you might
see what was within them. What do we find there?  A little
thing in the middle, with a round ball at the top.  That little
thread-like thing in the middle is called the pistil. Repeat this
word together.  What shall I write down?   "The pistil."  Now
we will look for the pistils in the other flowers. Where shall I
find them? In the middle, within the blossom. The pistil is a
very important part of the flower. We will talk a little more
about it some other time.
Do  you see anything besides the pistil within the corolla?
Yes; several little things like threads round the pistil. These are
called stamens. Repeat the name together. Let us find out the
stamens in the other flowers. What shall I write on the board?
"Stamens."
Of how many parts of a flower are the names now written
down? Of four parts. What are these four things which I have
written on the board? The four principal parts of a flower. Re peat them over together. Name each part as I touch it. You
shall tell me now where each part is placed in the flower Where
do you find the pistil? Within the corolla, in the middle of the
flower.  Where do you find the stamens?  Within the corolla,
and round about the pistil. Where is the corolla? It surrounds
the stamens and pistil.  Where is the cup?  On the outside of
the corolla, at the bottom of it; the corolla rises out of it.
What part of the flower seems to be the most carefully pro tected?  The pistil.  How  is the pistil protected?  By hlaving
all the other parts of the flower placed around it. Why is it so
* Calyx.
383 
.LESSONS ON PLANTS.
carefully guarded? You said that it was a very important part
of the flower.  Can you tell me when it is that the blossom and
cup still more carefully guard the pistil and stamens, by being
folded close around them? When the flower is in bud. When
do your mothers take the most care of you, and are most afraid of
any harm coming to you? When we are little babies. Yes;
when you are young and helpless, then your mothers take the
most care of you, and try to keep you from all harm; and so
when the pistil and stamens are very young and tellder, they are
beautifully covered and folded up within the corolla and cup.
Look at this bud. See how nicely the leaves are folded around
the pistil, sheltering it from cold and rain.
Who made this pretty flower?  God.  Do not use that word
lightly; think of what you are saying, and speak with reverence.
The great God, who made the world we live in, the sun, and the
moon, and the stars, made also this little flower; and what does
the examination of this little flower teach us about the great God?
That He takes care of that which He makes. And what does the
Bible teach us-if He takes care of the flowers, what will He do
for us? Much more will He care for us. Now tell me what you
have to-day learned about a flower? We have learned its four
principal parts.  What are these?  The corolla, the cup, the pistil, and the stamens. What more have you learned? We have
seen where the several parts are placed. What did you learn
from the consideration of the flower? That God takes care of all
His works.
Lesson 2.
What are the four principal parts of a flower?  Where is each
part placed? Each of these principal parts of a flower has also
some smaller parts belonging to it.  Look at the corolla of this
wall flower; of what is it formed? Of leaves. In what do those
parts of a plant which are generally called its leaves differ from
these? They are generally green, and are larger and thicker than
these. And what can you say of these in the corolla of these
flowers? They are of different colors. Where are green leaves
placed?   On  the stems of plants.  Where  those of different
384 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
colors? On the flower itself. These leaves that form the corolla
are called petals. Write the word on the board under the names
of the other parts.
The teacher shows the children several flowers, and says, Tell
me in what other respect these petals vary, as well as in color.
They vary in shape. Find out something more in which the
corollas vary, besides in the color and shape of the petals. They
vary in the number of their petals. How many petals has the
wall flower?  Four.  How many the heart's-ease?  Five.   (The
teacher pulls the petals off one by one to show the number.)
Now observe when I pull off the corolla of the primrose or that
of this periwinkle. These flowers have each but one petal. The
primrose has but one colored leaf, but does it look like one petal?
No, teacher; it looks as if several petals had been joined together.
Yes; the petals are so joined together as to form one.
Then you find that a corolla may consist of-petals-that are
-oined together,-and form only-one portion; of-petals-that
are-separate. I shall be pleased with any one who will bring
me to-morrow a corolla with its petals joined together into one
piece, and another with its petals separate.  In what respect have
you found out that a corolla may vary?   In the color, form, and
number of its petals, and in their being joined together or separate.
What is that part of the flower which is outside the corolla?
The cup. Of what is the cup formed? Of small leaves. These
little leaves you may call leaflets* of the cup. Repeat this name
together. What shall I write down as another part of a flower?
"Leaflets of the cup."'Where shall I write this name?  Under the
word "petals."  What is the general color of the leaflets?  They
are green.  Now observe these cups, and you will find out in themr
something like that which you remarked in the blossom.  In some
of these the leaflets are joined together, in others they are separate.
Tell me the name of another part you noticed in the flower.
The pistil. And what did I tell you was a very important part
of the flower?  The pistil.  Now observe its parts: here is the
large pistil of a tulip; but as, perhaps, you will scarcely perceive
385
* Seipals.
lT 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
the different parts, I will draw one on the board. How many
parts do you observe in the pistil?  Three.   Which are these?
There is something at the top of it.  That is called the s,igyma.
R. peat tihe word together.  Whilat more?  A kind of stalk.   You
may call it the stem* of the pistil.  What is the other part?  A
thicker part at the bottom.   That is the seed vessel.t   Now tell
me the names of the three parts of the pistil, that I may write
them also on the board.   Taie stigm?a, the  stelit, the seed ve,6,l.
Now can you guess why 1 said that the pistil is a most important
part of the flower?  Because it contains the seed vessel.   Where
do we learn that God provided for the continuance of plants, by
giving to each of them its own seed? In the first chapter of the
Book of Genesis. God tells you this in His Word, and by examinilng His work you find what care He has taken to preserve
the seed vessel.  How  is it protected?   By  its being placed
within the corolla and the cup. Which is the more delicate of
these two parts?  The corolla.  And where is the corolla placed?
Within the cup.  All the works of our Heavenly Father, from
the smallest flower up to man himself, display His wisdomn and
goodness.   Now  repeat the names of the several parts of the
pistil. The stingma, the stem, the seed vessel.
Which of the principal parts of the flower have you not yet
examined?   The  stamens.   WVhere  are the stamens  placed?
Round the pistil. Here is a stamen taken out of this tulip; but
see, I draw it on the board. What several parts do you observe
in this?  A  thick part at the top.  This is called the anther.
Repeat this word together.  The anther is like a little bag.   Did
you ever notice, that when you shlake a flower, something comes
out of it? Yes; some yellow dust. This dust or powder, which is
very often yellow, comes out of these little bags; it is called pollen.
Repeat this word. What is the pollen? It is a kind of yellow
dust.  Where is it found?   Upon the anther.   Th-e use of this
pollen is to perfect and nourish the seeds; as it falls from the
anthers, it is caught upon the stigma of the pistils, which is always
a little sticky, and porous like a sponge.  The children shoild try
and find out the reason for its being sticky, and also for its being
* Style.            t Germ, or Ovary.
386
L
w
r 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
porous. But there is another part of the stamen you have not
mentioned; what is this? The stem. What, then, are the three
parts of a stamen? The anther, the pollen, and the stem.
Now you shall repeat all you know about a flower. How
many principal parts has a flower, and what are they called?
There are four principal parts of a flower, called severally the
corolla, the cup, the pistil, the stamens. How are they placed?
The cup outside everything, the corolla within the cup, the pistil
in the mniddle of the flower, and the stamens round about the pistil.
Of what is the corolla composed?    It is composed of petals.
How do petals differ? They differ in form, color, number, and in
being joined or separate. Of what is the cup formed? Of leaflets. What did you learn about leaflets? They are generally
green, and, like the petals forming the corolla, are sometimes
united and sometimes separate. What are the parts of the pistil?
The stigma, stem, and seed vessel. What are the parts of the
stamen? The anther, the pollen, and the stem. What did you
learn about the stamens and pistil? That the pollen falls on the
stigma of the pistil, which is sticky and like a sponge, and the use
of the pollen is to perfect the seeds. What did you learn of God
from examining a flower?  That even a little flower shows His
wisdom and His goodness.
FRUIT.
'What law was made by God in the beginning of all things, to
provide for the reproduction of vegetation? That herbs should
yield seed, and the fruit tree fruit after his kind, whose seed is in
itself. Each plant, by the law of God, is to produce its own seed,
that it may be continued on the earth, and the seed is contained in
a seed vessel.  When are the seed vessel and its seed found on the
plant? After the flower has been perfected, and has perished.
IL is by means of the flower that the seed is brought to perfection.
The children are to be led to perceive, that when the different
parts of the flower have performed their work, they wither and
fall, and are succeeded by the seed vessel and seed.   The former
is the increased germ of the pistil; when matured, it is properly
387 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
called the fruit, though that name is generally confined to such
seed vessels as are eaten. The children should be shown a variety
of seed vessels. They will see that they vary much in different
plants. They should try to describe them. Inl many plants the
seed vessel is nothing more than a dry case to contain the seeds, as
in the poppy, the violet, the convolvulus. In the pea plant it is a
pod.  The particular pod of the cruciform flower is called a sillicle.
The drupe is a fruit or seed vessel, formed of a soft, pulpy substance, which incloses a nut with a kernel, as the cherry, plum,
peach, &c.  The nut is a hard shell inclosing a kernel.  The pome
consists of a fleshy substance, inclosing a core containing cells in
which the seeds, called pips, are placed; as, the apple, pear, &c.
The berry contains the seed inclosed in a soft pulpy substance; as,
the currant, the gooseberry, &c. Sometimes a number of berries
are joined together to form the fruit, as in the raspberry, blackberry, &c. The cone consists of hard stiff scales, each covering a
seed, as in the fir. Let the children name all the fruits that are
eaten.
THE SEED.
What seems to be the most important work a plant has to
accomplish? To bring its seed to perfection. Let the children
try to find out the means taken to accomplish this.  The richest
sap goes to the production of the blossom. The parts of the blossom that form the seed are beautifully protected; the seed is in.
closed in a case; the pulp of the fruit is for the nourishment of
the seed, as well as for its protection.  There are many beautiful
contrivances for scattering seed over the face of the earth, in all
of which the careful providence of the Almighty is manifested.
The children will be able to recollect instances of this in the dandelion, groundsel, and thistle. The down that surrounds these
seeds acts like wings, and the wind wafts them over the fields;
they also adhere to the shaggy clothing of sheep, and other animals, and are carried to other spots by them; and also by birds,
and even by insects. Though these plants are considered only as
weeds, they form the food of many birds and quadrupeds, and
when they decay they prepare the earth for more usefil  veoeta
388
I 
LESSONS ON PLANTS.
tion. The seeds of some trees are furnished with a thin scale, and
the wind easily wafts them here and there. Everything in crea.
tion manifests the contriving wisdom of the Almighty, and His
care for all His creatures.  What  should this teach us?   To
praise HIim, and to trust in Him. The children should name all
the seeds that are useful to man. The growth of the seed. What
part has man in making it grow? He prepares the earth, and
puts in the seed. What more does it need? Warmth and mois.
ture. Who alone can send these? Whose blessing, then, should
we seek when we sow our seeds? Whom should we thank, if
they yield a plentiful supply? The seed, when it is placed in the
ground, begins to swell and decay; it then sprouts, and its own
decaying matter at first feeds the young shoot; this sends a root
downward and a stem upward. Through the porous earth it receives the air and moisture it requires, and is kept from the light,
which would prevent its growth.
In all the above lessons, the parts spoken of should invariably
be presented to the class.
It would be desirable that the children should learn to distinguish a few of the principal families of plants; as, the corns, peas,
the cruciform, rosaceous, liliaceous flowers, and others, which
should be taken uip in the next grade or Step.
389 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.
~r  axiom enunciated by Pestalozzi as the basis of his systemrn, is, that "education has to deal with the heart, the head, and
the hand;" and therefore, to be complete, it must be moral, intellectual, and physical. He wisely gives the heart the first place;
the wise Solomon also says, "' Out of it are the issues of life."
All moral instruction must be founded on the truths of the
Gospel.
In the First Step, the teacher seeks to awaken the moral
sense; to lead the child to distinguish right from wrong; to make
moral impressions, thus preparing for religious impressions.
In the Second Step, the child learns to distinguish, appreciate,
and name moral qualities.
In the Third Step, the child is led to consider moral conduct,
and to distinguish moral character. He continues to observe moral
qualities, not as isolated, but as constituting character.
In the Fourth Step, the child proceeds to consider the relations
of moral qualities, the basis on which moral conduct ought to rest;
its results. In short, he commences the study of moral principles.
FIRST STEP.
MORAL IMPRESSIONS.
1. Sketch on hIabits of Order.
I.-Bring before the children several objects; as, a cup, sau
cer, spoon, chair, tray and snuffers, candle and candlestick.
LE1
Flr. 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-FIRST STEP.
Let a child arrange them properly; i. e., the cup in the saucer,
the spoon in the saucer toward the right hand, the chair against
the wall, the candle in the candlestick, and the snuffers in the
tray.
Show them, that if the cup, spoon, &c., were placed on the
table instead of in the saucer, the table would not look tidy.
Show them how disorderly it is to leave chairs in the middle of
the room; also how untidy it appears, if, instead of finding the
candle in the candlestick, and the snuffers in the tray, we find
them on the table.  S. R.: "Things used in the house are to be
kept in their places."
Teacher mentions different things; as, broom, tea kettle.
Children mention their places.
II.-Exercise the children in folding different articles;  as,
dusting cloth, papers. Ask what they do with their clothes when
they go to bed? Some children drop them on the floor, and leave
them in a heap; some fold them  up; others smooth them, and
hang them over the back of a chair. Children say what ways
are wrong, and what right; also where clothes not in use ought
to be kept.  S. R.   "Clothes not worn are to be folded up and
put away." Children name articles they can fold.
III.-Exercise the children on the proper way of sitting in
their seats. Lead them to observe how much nicer they look
when sitting with their hands folded, each child behind another,
than when they are spread over the seat irregularly.   S. R.:
"Children to sit upright and evenly in their seats."
Childrenii show what is meant by sitting uprightly; by sitting
evenly.
Students in training construct sketch on "Habits of Obedience," as
"Order."
2. Sketch on a Bird's Nest, and Bird-nesting.
Object of the Lesson.-To illustrate the cruelty of robbing a
nest.
First, exhibit the picture, and let the children point out the
391 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-FIRr STEAKP.
various objects represented in it, and tell the name of each of
them.
I. The Nest.-What is it?  The place where the bird lays
her eggs, and the home of the young birds when they are hatched.
WVhat kind of a home is it, and of what shape?  Why is it hol.
low, and why so soft inside? By whom is it made? How does
the bird make it; has it hands? How is its beak fitted for mak.
ing a nest? The nest is made of moss, hay, pieces of wool,
straw, hair, leaves, feathers, &c. Why is it not built of stone, or
of wood? How is the bird able to make its nest? It is taught
by God how to build it. It obtains the materials for the nest by
flying here and there to seek them, and then weaves them to.
gether with its beak. It places its nest between the branches of
a tree, or in a hedge, or against a house, or sometimes even on
the ground.
Tell the children that a little bird once built its nest in a lofty
tree, and laid five eggs in it. When the eggs were hatched, the
?nung birds came out of them. At first they had no feathers, and
were very, very small. The old bird used to fly away to get them
food, and when she returned, she found them all with their mouths
wide open to receive it. Then this good mother used to cover
her little ones with her wings, and keep them warm. One day,
while she had gone to seek a meal for her hungry little ones, two
boys, who were seeking for birds' nests, came to the tree in which
this nest was, and soon perceived it; so they climbed up the tree,
and just as one of them had seized the nest, and torn it from its
place, the poor mother bird returned.  What sorrow must she
have felt, when she saw her little ones carried away by cruel,
thoughtless boys, who did not leave her even one to nurse and
watch over I And the poor little birds, taken from their mother's
tender care, what will become of them?
II. Application.-Question the class as to the conduct of the
boys.  What  did they do?  What was there in their conduct
that was wrong? What disposition did they manifest? If any
child should ever feel tempted to take a bird's nest, what should
such an one remember?
392 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-FIRST STEP.
Students in training construct a sketch on "Saving Crumbs, and Feeding Birds," as "Bird's Nest, and Bird-nesting."
" Bird-nesting.
3. Jlatter of a Sketch on Behavior in Different Places and Cir.
cumestances.
I.-Children are sometimes in schoolroom, sometimes in play.
ground, at home, at church, and sometimes in the streets.
II.-At school, it is right to sit still and pay attention to what
the teacher says, or to speak when questioned; to put out the
hand before answering; to keep one's own place. It is wrong to
play, to talk to each other, to eat apples, &c., to be in any way
inattentive.
III.-In the playground it is right to have a good game; also
to go immediately into the schoolroom the moment the bell rings.
It is wrong to push another down, or to keep the swing all the
time, when others want it.
IV.-In church to be very quiet, to kneel during prayer; to
repeat prayers, and to sing aloud; to pay attention to what the
clergyman says; to try to remember something of what they hear.
The opposite of these things is wrong.
V.-At home, it is right to listen to parents, and elder broth
ers and sisters; if any one be sick, to wait on her (or him), and
to make as little noise as possible; to help mother; to fetch a
chair for father when he comes home from work. The opposite
of these things is wrong. It is wrong, also, to keep the best chair
or the warmest place by the fire, to make a noise in bed, &c., &c.
VI.-In the streets, it is right to go straight on; it is wrong
to loiter, to throw stones, call people names, or shout after them.
Students in training construct matter of sketch on "The Kindness
shown by Parents, Teachers, and Companions, to Children," as sketch on
"Behavior."
4. Sketch on Picture of "Saturday Yight."
I. Point Examined.-Get the children to mention what they
see in the picture-several people. Their number, sex, and rela                 17*
393 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-FIRST STEP.
tionship-there are father, mother, and four children; viz., a little
boy, two girls, and a baby. What each is doing-the mother is
nursing the baby; how tenderly she holds it; how careful she is
of it. Refer to the kindness of their mothers when they were
babies. The elder sister is washing the younger; in what manner she would do this-kindly, so as not to be rough, or hurt the
little one; neatly, so as not to make the room untidy. Who is
coming into the house?   Who  runs to meet him, and why?
What the father does to the little boy?   What  this shows?
How the girls look? These children love their father, and he
loves them. What the father has been doing all day, and the day
before, and all the week, ever since Monday morning? But now
his week's work is done, and he will have a day's rest.  On what
day he will rest?  What day comes before Sunday?  This picture shows what people do on Saturday night, to be ready for Sunday. What the mother has prepared for the father (shown by
reference to the two cups and saucers on the table). She will
take tea with him; she has waited till he came home. What
else is on the table? What on the fire? What in front of the
fire? (the cat.)  How she looks?  How  the children will treat
her? Refer to the bundle the father brings in with him. Children will say what they think it contains-food for their dinner
on Sunday. How the father has prepared for Sunday? How
the mother? Refer to the appearance of the room. She cleared
it up before she sat down at the fireside. How the children are
preparing- they will be nice and clean when Sunday comes.
How pleasant it will be when they have their clean things on,
and are ready for church.
II. Application.-From this, try to impress the children with
a conviction that no work should be done on Sunday that can be
helped; and that everything that can be done on Saturday to provide for Sunday, ought to be done. Let the children enumerate
all the things they can do on Saturday, to prepare for Sunday.
"Students in trainling construct sketch on "Picture of Sunday Morning,'; as sketch on " Saturday Night."
394 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-FIRST STEP.
5. Sketch on Picture, " The Blind Girl."
I.-Exercise perception, in letting the children describe the
picture.   How  many persons drawn?   In what alike?  Both
girls. How they differ? One is older than the other. What
the elder girl is doing? Walking on a narrow piece of wood
placed across a stream. Let them look at her face; her eyes;
they will see she is blind.  What the little girl is doing?  She
takes the other's hand, and guides. What would almost surely
happen to the elder girl, if the younger did not guide her?
II.-Exercise conception, by calling out one of the children,
bidding him shut his eyes, and walk to the door, &c.  Why he
could not go directly and quickly? Another child sent with closed
eyes to some other place. Let them all shut their eyes, and by
such exercises try to lead them to conceive of the nature of blindness.  Lead them to recount things they could not see, if they
became blind-the sun and moon, the green fields, the beautiful
flowers, their kind mothers, fathers, sisters, or brothers. Whether,
in such a case, they would be able to play, and run about as they
do now?  If they did, what might happen to them?   What they
would want, whenever they wished to go out? How sad to be
blind I Having excited their feelings of sympathy and compas.
sion, let them think of circumstances under which they can help
poor blind people; as, when they are crossing a street, where
they might be run over; or going along a bridge, where they
might fall into the water. Whom would they then imitate? (The
little girl in the picture.)   Who  would like to imitate her?
Whom does such conduct please?
Students in training construct sketch on picture, "The  Little
Pilferers," as sketch on "The Blind Girl."
Plan.   I.-In giving a lesson on a picture, it is necessary first
to exercise the perceptive faculties. Let the children note,
1. Objects-whether persons or things.
2. Actions-what each person is doing, &c.
Children to determine the character of the actions delineated.
39 5 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-FIRST STEP.
II.-Then deduce the story from the observations made, in
such a manner as will excite interest, and call out sympathy.
III.-Apply the lesson to their own conduct and circumstances.
LIST OF SUBJECTS.
1. Duties to parents:  To love them; to do all they desire;
to try to keep in mind their counsels when absent from them; to
try to please them; to speak and act properly toward them; to
pray for them, &c.
2. Duties to teachers: These are to a great extent the same
as those to parents, with the additional duty of attention to their
instructions, and of seeking their forgiveness after ill behavior.
3. Duties to brothers and sisters. Particular acts of kindness
to schoolfellows and companions.
4. Duties to the poor, the aged, the infirm, the blind, &c., or
to those whom they can help in any way whatever.
5. The duty of doing as they would be done by; this called
the " Golden Rule."
6. The duty of being careful to avoid injuring the property of
another.
7. The duty of children to refrain from taking for their own
use anything, however small it be, that is not clearly their own
property.
8. That of avoiding quarrelling and fighting.
9. The duty of refraining from calling ill names, and from
using wicked words.
10. That of being ready to forgive any unkindness done to
them by another.
11. The duty of respect to superiors, with conversation as to
the various occasions on which this is called for, and the mode of
evidencing respect.
12. That of not returning evil for evil.
13. The duty of avoiding selfishness and greediness.
14. That of behaving rightly and suitably in different places,
and under different circumstances.
396 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-SEOOND STEP.
It is essential to right moral training, that the instruction bearing on these several points should be based on the Scriptures; the
Word of God being ever made the standard by which to estimate
good and evil.*
SECOND STEP.
MORAL QUALITIES.
1. Sketch on Industry.   (Watts' Hymn, "The Busy Bee.")
Question the children on each verse, endeavoring to make
them feel the force of each epithet; for it is on the appropriateness of such expressions that one of the chief beauties of poetry
depends.
Verse 1 (read).-What creature is here spoken of?  -What is
a bee? Hiere the children should describe it, as to its color, the
form of its body, legs, and wings, and its humming noise. What
is here said of the bee? How does it show that it is busy?
-What are the hours it improves said to be, and why are they described as shining?   When  does the bee work?   What is its
employment all the day?
Describe the honey.  Where  does it get the honey?  How
are the flowers here described?  Why does the bee choose the
fresh-blown flowers?
What is the character here given of the bee? It is active,
industrious, and never idle. How does it prove itself thus industrious? What instincts does it show in thus storing up honey for
after use? Those of prudence and forethought.
After such questioning, call upon some of the children to relate in their own words all that is said of the bee in this verse,
and to decide what those good qualities are of which it is an
example.
The force and beauty of this verse consist in the qualifying epi thlets-" the little busy bee "-" the shining hours "-" the opening
* A set of twelve prints, suitable for this step of Moral Instruction, may bo
boughlt at the publishers.
397 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-SECOND STEP.
flowers," those just unfolding themselves, and as yet unrifled of
their sweets.
By such questions the children will be enabled to form a vivid
conception of the little active bee, humming as it gaily flies from
flower to flower, busily collecting sweet honey while the sun
shines.
Verse 2. —What is the bee here spoken of as doing, in addi
tion to gathering honey?   Of what does she make her cells?
What does she manifest in building her cell?  What is a cell?
What does she do with the wax? What does she show in
the manner in which she spreads the wax? What two qualities,
both of them necessary to a good workman, does she display in
her work?  How does she work?  For what purpose does she
labor?  How  is the food described?  What does she exhibit in
making this provision for future wants?
The beauty of this verse consists in the appropriateness of the
epithets, skilfully, neat, hard, sweet. The children should here
describe the character and work of the bee; as active, employiIg every bright hour in collecting honey; forming its cells in
regular order with skill and neatness, and laboring hard to fill
them with suitable provision. The children may be asked what
those points are in which they may imitate the bee? They should
strive to be as skilful and neat as this little insect is.
Verse 3.-In this verse some good little child is supposed to
speak. What does he say he will be? In what kind of works
will he be busy?  What will be then imitate?  Who will tempt,
if we are idle?  What will he tempt us to do?  What other
fault generally accompanies idleness? The children's experience
may be appealed to on this point.
Verse 4.-How should little children employ their time?
What should they be when at their books and work?  What is
here said of play?  VWhat advantage do the young gain from
play? What dispositions should children manifest when at their
play? To whom must every one give account of the manner in
which each day is spent? Of what should this make us careful?
Students in training construct sketch on "Honesty," as "In.
dustry."
398 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-SECOND STEP.
tSubject-Jlatter.)   "The Honest Woolcutter."
(1) A man, with many a hearty stroke,
Was cutting down an ancient oak,
When, as he smote, his axe's head
Far from the handle sped,
And, to the woodman's great dismay,
Into the river found its way.
(2)   Now tell me why," the rustic cried,
"Thou couldst not on the stick abide?
Thou surely mightst have stayed with me,
At least till I had felled the tree."
(3) Thus did the man his thoughts express,
And sat him down in great distress;
(4) But had not long reclined himself,
Before appeared a sprightly elf,
Who asked "the reason of his grief,"
(5) And said, "I'll quickly bring relief."
The man explained; the sprite withdrew,
Intent his magic power to show.
Forthwith he dived beneath the stream,
Full many a fathom, to redeem
The woodman's hatchet. (6) But, behold!
He found one made of solid gold.
"Is this the tool you lost?" said he.
"Oh, no; that ne'er belonged to me,"
The man replied.   "Then," said the sprite,
"I'll try again to get the right."
(7) Again hlie plunged, again emerged,
And now a silver hatchet urged
On the poor rustic. (8) He, though lone,
Too honest was even that to own.
"Well," said the fairy, "Ill persist,
Till I obtain the one you've missed."
Again withdrew, again returned     The man with joy his axe discerned.
399 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-SECOND STEP.
(9) Said he, "Thou art a friend in need;
This is my very axe indeed."
"Pray, take it, then," the elf replied,
And gave the other two beside.
2. Skcetch on Keeping the Sabbath.
MATTER.
I.
Haste! put your playthings all away;
To-morrow is the Sabbath day;
Come, bring to me Noah's ark,
Your pretty tinkling music cart;
Because, my love, you must not play,
But holy keep the Sabbath day.
II.
Bring me your German village, please,
With all its houses, gates, and trees;
Your waxen doll, with eyes of blue,
And all her tea things, bright and new;
Because, my love, you must not play,
But holy keep the Sabbath day.
III.
Now bring your Sunday pictures downKing David, with his harp and crown;
Good little Samuel on his knees,
And many pleasant scenes like these;
Because, you know, you must not play,
But learn of God upon His day.
IV.
Here is your hymn book; you shall learn
A verse, and some sweet kisses earn;
Your book of Bible stories, too,
Which dear mamma will teach to you.
400 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-SECOND STEP.
I think, although you must not play,
We'll have a happy Sabbath day.
METHOD.
1st Stanza.-Read by paragraphs, leading the children to see,
(1) the particular meaning of the words; (2) general meaning of
the poem.
(a) "Haste,"  "playthings,"  "to-morrow,"  " Noah's  ark,"
"music cart."
(b) Question why these are to be put away? Meaning of
Sabbath. Who appointed it, and why? Read each stanza over
after explanation.
2d Stanza.-(1) German village to be shown the children, if
possible; if not, drawn on the board.   "Waxen doll," "bright."
(2) Why the playthings are given to some one else to keep?
3d Stanza.-(1) "Harp," "crown," "holy."
(2) Who David was?  What he did with his harp?   Whom
he used to play before?  What he was when a boy?  when a
man? What he wrote? Why pictured with a crown? Draw
from the children what they know of Samuel. Why pictured on
his knees?  How they may imitate him?  Where  we learn of
David and Samuel?
4th Stanza.-(1) " Hymn book," "earn."
(2) Why mamma should read a Bible story out of a book?
Why not the child herself? What this shows about her? What
sort of a Sunday such a child will spend, with mamma reading,
and the pretty pictures to look at? Try to impress the children
with the idea of the peace and happiness of such a Sunday. Let
them repeat any portion of God's Word which shows how He
would have His day kept.  Text: "Remember the Sabbath day
to keep it holy."
Students in training construct sketch on "The Little Ship on
the Waves," or "Looking to Jesus in Difficulties and Dangers"
(Hymns and Poetry), as sketch on "The Sabbath Day."
401
r 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-SECOND STEP.
3. Sketch on Reverence.   (The Athenians and Spartans.)
I. Introduction.-Ask the children to name any nations of
whom they have heard that lived a great while ago. If they
mention the Jews, tell them that there were others of whom we
have no Scriptural account; among these were some people who
lived in Greece.  Point out the country on the map, and then its
relative position with respect to Palestine. Explain that it was
divided into several States.   One of these States was called
Athens. The people who lived in Athens were called Athenians.
They were lively people, fond of games and shows of all sorts.
Another of these States was called Sparta, and the people were
called Spartans. They differed from the Athenians, being very
plain in their way of living, and plain in their habits. They used
to take their meals altogether in the open air, that no one might
have good things which others could not share.
II. Story Told.-l1. One day the Athenians were going to
have a play performed at their principal theatre. All the seats
were soon taken. Whlen the theatre was fiill, an old man came
in, and looked round for a seat. He was old and infirm; could
not stand long.  (Picture out his distress.)  He looked first one
way, and then another.  There were several young men seated.
(What they should have done?)  At length the old man saw a
party of young Athenians beckoning to him. (What we meani
when we beckon?)  He tried to get to them, but had to climb
over seats, and push through crowds; and when at last hlie reached
them, they sat down, and instead of giving him the seat he had
expected, took up all the room. The poor old man was still left
standing.  How he must have felt?  What can be said of the
young people? Who they were? (Athenians.)
2. In this theatre were some seats fitted up for strangers.
These were filled by young Spartans, who, when they saw the
behavior of the Athenians, were much displeased, and beckoned to
the old man to come to them. When he was near, they all rose,
and received him with the greatest respect. The Athenians, seeing this, coul,l not help bursting into a shout of applause. (Mean
402
L 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-SECOND STEP.
ing of "applause.")  The old man heard, and said, "The Athe
nians know what is right, but the Spartans practise it."
3. Contrast the conduct of the Athenians and Spartans. Who
behaved rightly?  In what respect the Athenians were wrong?
in what right?  What feelings actuated the Spartans?  What
Bible rule, though heathens, they fulfilled?
III. Application.-Get from the children various ways in
which they can show honor and respect toward persons who are
older than themselves: Giving up a place; standing; bowing;
speaking in a quiet tone. What we call this behavior? Refer
to God's approbation at seeing the young honor the aged, and His
displeasure at seeing the aged treated with disrespect.   Text:
Lev. xix. 32.
Students in training construct sketch on "Filial Piety," or
"Self-devotion of the Servant," as sketch on "Reverence."
Subject-M,atter for Filial Piety.   (Chambers' Moral Class Book.)
Anecdote.-Etna is the principal volcano in Europe. Hundreds of years ago, an unusually violent eruption took place.
Burning matter poured down the sides of the mountains in various directions, destroying whole villages. The air was thickened
with falling cinders and ashes. The people fled for their lives,
carrying with them their most valuable goods. Amongst these
were two young men, named Anapias and Amphinomus, who
bore a very different burden on their backs. They carried only
their aged parents, who could by no other means have been preserved. The conduct of these youths excited great admiration.
It chanced that they took a way which the burning lava did not
touch, which remained verdant, while all around was scorched and
barren. The people, who, though very ignorant, were possessed
of good feelings, believed that this tract had been preserved by
miracle, and ever afterward called it the " field of the pious."
Subject-.Mfatter for Self-devotion. (Chambers' Moral Class Book.)
Anecdote.-In the winter of 1776, Count and Countess Podotsky were travelling in the Carpathian mountains. The cold was
403 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-SECOND STEP.
very severe, and the wolves were more bold and savage than
usual. These came down in hordes, and pursued the carriage.
Of two servants, one had been sent on to the next town to pro.
cure post horses. The other, seeing the wolves come nearer and
nearer, proposed to leave his horse to satisfy them, that so the
travellers might gain time to reach the town. The count consented. Thie servant mounted behind the carriage, leaving the
horse, which was seized and torn into a thousand pieces. Meanwhile, the party proceeded with all possible speed toward the
town, which was not very distant. But their horses were tired,
and the wolves, with appetites sharpened by a scanty meal, had
almost reached the carriage.
In this extremity, the servant said, " Provide for my wife and
children; I will go and meet the wolves." He got down, and
was devoured. While the wolves were feasting upon him, the
count and countess reached the town in safety.
4. Sk-etch on Faithfulness to Prom?ises.  ("King John of France.")
I. Story Narrated.-The relative position of France and England, and the wars between King Edward  III. of England, and
King John of France, to be spoken of.   Mention the battles
fought, dwelling especially on that of Poictiers; the success of the
English; defeat of the French, with the capture of their king;
his removal to England, and imprisonment.   Endeavor to make
the children realize the sad change in King John's condition:
before, a king over a large country and a great people, possessed
of riches and power, surrounded by every luxury; now, deprived
of all-his house a dungeon, his fare that of a prisoner. What
would be his feelings under such circumstances?  What his grief?
What his great desire? Liberty. His proposal to King Edward,
and the conditions upon which he was released. His return to
France; the effort to collect the money fixed upon as his ransom;
its failure. What this might have led him to do? What he
did?  His return to England, and to prison.  Why?   Let the
children give their opinion on his conduct, and learn the term by
401
I 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-SECOND STEP.
which it is expressed-faithfulness to promise.  What  is there to
admire in the conduct of King John?
II. Application.-Do you ever make promises?   How should
they be regarded? What should you do before making a promise?
In what way should you act when a promise has been made?
However much may be the inconvenience, whatever trouble it
may give, still a promise must be kept. Why? First, and
mainly, because God requires this; secondly, because such conduct
will give satisfaction and peace of mind in the end, though it may
produce temporary suffering, as it did in the case of King John;
thirdly, because of the effect such conduct will have on others.
As the lesson proceeds, the principal points of it may be written on the board.
Students in training construct sketch on "Candor," as "Faithfulness to Promises."  Subject-matter, "Story of George Washington and the Cherry Tree."
5. Sketch on Patriotism.   ("Siege of Calais.")
I. Story Narrated.-Begin by referring to the last lesson.
What was said of the battles fought in the reign of Edward III.?
Point out the importance of Calais from its position: it was like
a key to open the way into France and the Netherlands; it was
well fortified, surrounded by strong walls. Edward encompassed
the city with his brave soldiers; none of the people of Calais
could therefore get out to obtain provisions.   When  they had
consumed all their store, what must follow?  Still they foughtstill they resisted Edward's demand that they should yield their
city into his hands.  At last, when nothing but starvation awaited
them, they submitted.   But Edward, instead of admiring their
bravery and patriotism, was so angry at their long resistance, that
he demanded the lives of six of the principal inhabitants. The
suspense and anxiety of the people!  How  must their joy and
gratitude have been mingled with deep sorrow, when six of their
greatest men freely offered themselves to save the lives of the
rest by the sacrifice of their own!
W5h.at virtue did these men show?  Of what qualities do they
405
_r 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-SECOND STEP.
set us an example? They held not their lives dear, so that they
might save their poor countrymen. What would you say of such
men?  They were generous, and loved their country.  Imagine
these brave, generous men, brought with halters round their necks
before the angry king, who was so determined to punish them for
the trouble that had been given him. O how sad is anger! Happily, there is one of a different spirit there-Edward's wife, the
gentle Queen Philippa; she pleads for the noble sufferers. What
feeling led her to do this? Compassion. This made her plead
their cause, and with power. She succeeded. And how do you
think she must have felt, when these brave warriors were set free?
She felt the luxury of doing good.
II. Application.-What evil dispositions are manifest in the
circumstances brought forward in this lesson,? Anger and revenge
in the king. What good dispositions? Generosity and patriotism in the six citizens; compassion in the queen. Which of these
would you desire to imitate?
Students in training construct sketch on "The Galley Prisoner
of Toulouse" (see Cowdery's  "Moral Lessons," page 75), as
sketch on "Siege of Calais."
6. Sketch on Gratitude. (" The Lion and the Mouse.")
Point.-To develop the idea of gratitude.
I. Introduction.-Bring before the children a picture of a lion
and of a mouse, and lead them to draw a comparison between the
two as to size, strength, and habits. The peculiar disposition of
each: the one wild, fierce, strong; the other gentle, timid, and
weak. Speak also of their food, and the manner in which they
obtain it.
II. Fable Related.-Read or relate the fable of "The Lion
and the Mouse," and help the children to realize the story. The
forest; the thick, shady oak, under which the lion, faint with
heat, is resting; the little insignificant mice running over the back
of this king of beasts; the anger of the lion at being thus dis.
turbed; the escape of all the mice but one; the lion's intention;
406 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-SECOND STEI.
the distress and supplication of the mouse; effect of these upon
the lion; the feeling thus excited in the mouse toward the lion.
When the children have gained the clear idea, give the name for
this feeling-gratitude.
Continue the subject, telling the children the danger in which
the lion was afterward placed; his voice of distress heard by the
nmoutse; the manner in which the mouse proves its gratitude; its
readiness to repay the kindness of the lion. In what way can the
mouse help the lion? Ill one way only, but this is sufficient; he
gnaws the net with his hard, sharp teeth, and sets the lion free.
III. Application.-What lesson may be learned from this
fable? That we should be grateful for kindness shown to us,
especially if we have deserved otherwise. That none are so small
or feeble but that they may be able, in some way or other, to
return a kindness. That none are so great or so powerful, but
that they may at some time need the service of their inferiors, and
be helped by them. Of what virtue does this little mouse set us
an example?
Students in training construct sketch on  "Affectation," as
"Gratitude," taking for subject-matter, "Jackdaw and Pigeons."
(See "-Esop's Fables.")
7. Sketch on Ingenuity and Perseverance.  (" The Crow and the
Pitcher.")
I. Story Related.-A crow, suffering greatly from thirst, perceived, with much joy, a pitcher at a distance, and flew to it, but
found very little water in it.  The children should determine what
then was its difficulty-its beak was too short to reach the water
at the bottom. The crow, however, does not fly away in despair.
What can it do? Here the children should endeavor to think of
plans by which the crow might accomplish its object; their practicability may be canvassed.  First, the crow endeavors to upset
the pitcher, but this it cannot accomplish; next, it patiently sets
to work to fill the pitcher with pebbles.   What is the effect of its
doing this?  The water rises to the top.   Why?   The pebbles
are heavier than the water; they sink to the bottom, and cause
407
Er 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-SECOND STEP.
the water to rise to the top. The crow is rewarded for its labor
by getting a draught of water, of which it stands so much in
need.
II. Application.-The children should determine the merit of
the crow. What was its conduct? and then, how they can imitate it? When they have some work to accomplish which appears
to them difficult, they must not say they cannot do it, but consider
what means they can adopt. If the first plan fails, as that of the
crow did, try another; find some new and better plan; persevere
till they succeed. Consider, first, what to do, and spare no pains
to succeed in what they feel is right to be done.  Ingenuity and
perseverance will have their reward. This to be repeated, and
the children to sing, "'Tis a lesson we should heed."
Students in training construct sketch on " Discontent," subjectmatter, "The Frogs who Wanted a King," as sketch on "Ingenuity and Perseverance."   (See " sop's Fables.")
8. Sketch on Self-Reliance.  (" The Lark and her Young Ones.")
I. Introduction.-Comrnence by asking the children what kind
of bird the lark is, and showing them a picture of it.  Its habits:
building its nest on the ground in a corn field, and soaring over it;
ascending very high; singing most joyously.
II. Fable N-arrated.-A lark had a nest of young birds in a
wheat field. When the wheat became ripe, they were still unable
to fly.   What was likely to be the consequence?   The men
would come with their reapers, and the poor little birds would be
trampled on by them, or they might even be cut in pieces by
the scythes.   How would the mother bird feel, when she expected that the farmer would commence reaping?  She told her
little ones to listen attentively to all he said, and to tell her every
word. Whilst she was away procuring them food, the owner of
the field came to look at the grain, and seeing it so ripe, told
his son to go and call his friends and neighbors to come and cut
it on the morrow. The young birds were greatly alarmed, but
the old one thought there was no cause for fear.  WN-hy?  If the
farmer depended upon others to do his work, it would not, sh0
408 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-SECOND STEP.
tlonght, be done. She gave again the same command to her
young ones; and the next day they reported that they heard the
farmer tell his son to invite his cousins to come and cut the wheat.
What would the wise old bird say to this?   No cause for fear.
Why? The next morning the birds heard the farmer say to his
son, "Since neither our friends, neighbors, nor cousins will do
our work for us, go, get a reaper, that we may do it ourselves."
When the old lark heard this, she said, "We  must be gone without delay; for when a man undertakes to do his own business,
then it will surely be done." So she removed her little ones, and
the field was reaped.
III. Application.-Draw from the children the lesson which
the fable enforces-that if we wish our work performed, we must
not depend upon others to do it, but set about it ourselves. Question them as to what disposition it is which leads us to give up
our proper work to others.
Students in training construct sketch on "Mockery," subjectmatter, "The Shepherd  Boy and Wolf," as sketch on  "SelfReliance." (See "IIEsop's Fables.")
A LIST OF MORAL QUALITIES, AND SUBJECTS FOR THEIR ILLUS
TRATION.*
Obedience.... The Rechabites. Jer. xxxv.
Disobedience... Absalom.  2 Samuel xv.
Kindness.... David and Mephibosheth.
Respect.....     Solomon and his Mother.  1 Kings ii.
* In the various series of books published by the Educational Societies, many
excellent and appropriate stories of useful tendency will be found; and also in
the "Simple Lessons" and the "Moral Class Book," published by the Messrs.
Chambers, of Edinburgh. But teachers should be prepared to supply the appeal
to religious motive, and constant reference to the revealed will of God as the rule
of action, in which most of these are defective.  "A Kiss for a Blow," is a little
work written in an excellent spirit, from which teachers may select several pieces.
In Mrs. Tuckfield's "Book of Proverbs and Maxims," and also in her "Evening
Readings," there are many interesting anecdotes, written in a Christian spirit.
Some stories may likewise be selected from "Evenings at Home;" but the same
caution is necessary here, as in the little work of Chambers. "Aids to Catt.
409
t,
vu
j8 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-THIRD STEP.
King Alfred and the Beggar.
.o  Achan.  Joshua vii.  Gehazi.  2 Kings v.
..Murder of the Innocents.
..Joseph and his Brethren.  Gen. xxxvii.
.  Fable of the Lion and the Mouse.
.  Song of the Busy Bee.
.  The Fable of the Crow and the Pitcher.
Story of King Robert Bruce and the Spider.
.  The Little Girl and the Beads.  Cecil.
The Woodman and the Axe.
FABLES.
The Vain Jackdaw.              The Tortoise and the Hare.
The Dove and the Ant.         The Wolf and the Kid.
The Husbandman and his Sons.  The Ant and the Grasshopper.
The Dog and the Shadow.       The Dog in the Manger.
THIRD STEP.*
MORAL CHARACTER.
1. Sketch on the Errand Boy.
HEADS.-I. Duties.   II. Qualifications.   III. Making appli.
cation.
I.-Require the children to define the work of an errand boy.
1. Taking letters, messages, and parcels.
2. Lighting fires, sweeping, dusting, cleaning windows, taking
down shutters, &c.
3. Tending the store.  (W. B.)
II.-Draw from the children, that whoever enters a situation
chetical Teaching" contains a number of stories founded on right principles,
and which may be used without fear, as may also Cowdery's "Moral Lessons."
For appropriate hymns and pieces of poetry, teachers are referred to the
third edition of "Hymns and Poetry," published by the Ilome  and Colonial
School Society. There is a selection of fables published by the Tract Society,
whlich is cheap and good.
* If the Lessons of this Step are found too difficult, they may be deferred
to a later period.
410
Generosity.
Covetousness
Cruelty..
Envy..
Gratitud,o.
Diligence.
Perseverance
Faith...
Honesty... 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-THIRD STEP.
must possess qualities which will fit him for it. Tell them these
qualities which fit us for our situations, are called qualifications.
Refer to what is written on the board. What a boy must have
before he can find out streets, or know how to leave a parcel at
the place to which it is directed, or how to give a receipt. A
knowledge of reading and writing.  (W.  B.)  Speak of the advantage of going to school. How much they owe their parents
and teachers. How a boy should listen to a message he has to
delis-r.  He must be attentive.   (W.  B.)   Show,  by example
(anecdote), how necessary it is to give the exact message, to prevent mistakes. He must be exact. (W. B.)
What plans might be adopted to help him to remember what
he has to say? After listening attentively, to repeat it over to
himself.  Refer to a boy doing something else first, when told to
be quick.   The probable consequence.   lie must be punctual.
(W. B.)
Contrast the appearance and behavior of two boys, one dirty
and idle, the other tidy and quick.  Which boy would people
wish to employ? What objections would they make to the dirty
and idle boy? He would be likely to soil what he had to carry,
and to fail to bring it in time. The errand boy must be clean and
industrious.  (oW. B.)  Refer to the money or goods he may have
intrusted to his care.  He must be honest.   (W. B.)  Children
to decide on the way he should speak to his employer, or to
his employer's customers.  He  must be obliging and respectful.
(W. B.)
III.-Remind the children that some of them may be errand
boys, or girls. Ask what situations they would like to fill? Let
them decide whether any of the qualifications written on the
board can be dispensed with in the situations they select. Lead
them to see that in all positions these qualities are needful. Ask
what will help them to acquire these qualifications? Try to inspire them with a wish to possess these, not only to please employers, but that God may  say to them, "Well done, good and
faithful servant."  S. R.:  "Servants, be obedient to your masters; not with eye service."
411
F. 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.THIIRD STEP.
Students in training construct sketch on "The Factory Girl,"
or "The Kitchen Girl," as sketch on " The Errand Boy."
2. Sketch on "The Fisherman."
I. Introduction.-Ascertain who of the children  have  seen
men and boys fishing. Question, so as to bring out the particular
mode adopted; i. e., How many fish caught at a time?
II.-Tell them there are some men who get their living by
fishing. They are called fishermen, and they catch fish in a different place, and in a different way, from those last spoken of.
Where, and how?   Show a picture of the net.   Children say
how used. Different proportion caught by net and line. Lead
children to contrast and calculate this.
1. The angler fishes for amusement.
The fisherman fishes for bread.
2. The angler fishes with a line.
The fisherman fishes with a net.
3. The angler fishes in the river.
The fisherman fishes in the sea.
4. The angler stands on shore.
The fisherman goes out in a boat.
III.-Question as to the different kinds of fish caught.  Her.
ring, mackerel, cod, soles, salmon, &c. (W. B.) Tell at what
parts of the coasts the most common fish are found. Herring and
mackerel come in shoals at certain times of the year.   Who
sends them, and why? The salmon is caught in some of our
rivers, and is plentiful off the coast of Scotland, and off the north
coast of Ireland.
IV.-Refer them to the waves of the sea. Height to which
these swell. Picture out the fisherman in his little boat, in the
midst of the waves. What they would do in such a situation?
The fisherman must be a good sailor. (W. B.) What often
happens at sea? Dreadful storms. Kind of man he must be to
face such-bold. (W. B.)
Picture again the uncomfortable little boat in which he has to
412
L: 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-THIRD STEP.
sit.   How  often he gets drenched with rain.   The effect this
would have on themselves. The fisherman does not mind it at
all; he shakes his wet jacket, and works on. People who can
bear such hardships, we call hardy. (W. B.)
Tell them that the fisherman carefully examines the weather
before he ventures forth. Of what use this is. He must understand the signs of the weather. (W. B.) And ff he is a good
man, he will ask God to give him His blessing and protection in
his daily work
V. Summary.-Children, from memory, contrast the fisherman with the angler. Mention different kinds of fish caught, and
where found, and enumerate the qualifications of the fisherman.
Students in training construct sketch on "The Soldier," as
sketch on "The Fisherman."
3. Sketch on "Expedition of Sir John Franklin."
I. Introduction.-Let the children name any countries they
know. How different countries have been found out; as America,
Australia. Bring a map of the world, and let the children find
in what ways they would get to Asia by ship from New York.
Either round Cape Horn, or round Cape of Good Hope.
Let them try to find another way of going by ship. If they
fail, point out to them the northwest passage. Compare this route
with the others as to length, to find the advantage of going by it.
Refer to the climate, to show the disadvantage.
Picture out the Polar Sea. Immense masses of ice; a white bear,
perhaps, on a peak of one of them; another mass floating toward
the ship. The intense cold. So many inconveniences and dangers were there, that people did not know whether they could go
that way or not.  Who would be willing to try?  What kind of
men they must be?
II. Story Told.-A sailor, called Sir John Franklin, was asked
to go.  He went, taking two ships.  Why two?   He was not
expected to return in a year. Perhaps there would be much ice
in the winter, and he would have to wait till the next summer's
sun melted some of it. His wife hoped to see him back in two
413 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-THIRD STEP.
years; at most, in three. Children to say how the ship must be
provided for so long a journey.   The ship sailed.   One year
passed, another, and another; still the people were not afraid.
Why not? Then another year passed away, and again another.
What people would think now? How would Lady Frankllin
feel?  What Sir John Franklin and his crew would be likely to
want now? They were kept out much longer than they ever
expected. What could be done for them? The queen of England
sent other ships, with plenty of food and clothes, to look every.
where for them, but in vain. The people, too, of other countries,
sent ships to try and fihd them, but they could not. At last all
parties said they must give up the search. It was useless to send
more ships and men, to perish, too, in the icy sea.   Could Lady
Franklin give up? Could she rest, and not know whether her
husband was dead or alive?  She sent out ship after ship, till she
spent so much money that she was only able to send one more.
This went, and returned to tell her that she would never see her
husband again. He was dead. He was taken ill in the ship, and
died.
Would children like to know what became of the ships, and
the rest of the men? The ice crushed the ships; so the men got out,
and tried to walk over the ice, in hopes of finding some other ship.
Of all those that were sent, they met none. It was terribly cold,
and they had no shelter, no food, save what they could carry; so
they perished one by one. Let us hope those poor men loved
God, and are now with Him, safe and happy forever.
The children should be led to sympathize with the courage of
Sir John Franklin and his crew, and admire the affectionate perseverance of his wife?
Students in training construct sketch on " Dr. Kane's Arctic
Expedition," as sketch on "Expedition of Sir John Franklin."
4. Sketch on "IIenry II. and his Children."
Point.-To show the consequence of filial ingratitude and disobedience.
I.-Character of Henry II. as a father.
414 
MORAL INSTRUCTION. —THIRD STEP.
II.-Conduct of Henry's sons, and their punishment.
III.-Application.
I.-Children to name any eminent kings of England.* Select
Henry II. as the subject of the lesson. Refer to the period of his
reign; his descent. Give the names of his queen and children.
Describe Henry's conduct as a father during the childhood of his
sons.  His love for them.   How parents show their love?  How
Henry showed his love?   1. By his indulgence;  the readiness
with which he entered into their sports. 2. By the pains hlie took
with their education, getting them the best teachers, that they
might be ignorant of nothing befitting their station to know.
3. By the provision he made for them, appointing Henry to succeed himself; giving Brittany to Geoffrey, and Guienne and
Aquitaine to Richard;  making John, Lord of Ireland.   Chief
points put on the board, at the dictation of the children.   Children to say what so kind a father might expect his children to be.
To decide, from the fact to be given, whether they were dutiful,
affectionate, grateful.
1I.-Il. Consider Prince Henry;  his ardent wish to reign before his father's death; his disputes with his brother Richard; the
part the king took in the affray; its results; Prince Henry's illness and death (the ring); effects of this on the king.
2. Prince Geoffrey. Narrate briefly his career and fearful
end.
3. Note briefly the dissensions between Richard and John.
The distress these caused the king. Henry's death; Richard's
visit to the tomb of his father; his bitter repentance. Picture out
the scene with reference to Mrs. Hemans's poem on the subject.
His career as king of England.
4. John, king of England; his meanness; cruelty; tyranny;
its results; his death.  Write on the board, at children's dictation,
11ow each son of Henry II. died.
III. Application.-Children to say to what the mournful fate of
Henry's sons may be traced.  What caused the remorse they felt?
Let children find examples of disobedient children from the Bible,
* For account of this, see "Little Arthur's England."
415 
3MORAL INSTRUCTION.-THIRD STEP.
and refer to texts which speak of this sin, and its punishments
In what respects they may be guilty of the same faults? What
children must expect who persevere in acting thus? In disobey.
ing their earthly parent, they sin against God, and God signally
punishes such rebellion even in this world. Repeat together the
Fifth Commandment.
Students in training construct sketch on anecdote,  "Messrs.
Adams and Quincy" (see Cowdery's "Moral Lessons," page 197),
as sketch on "Henry II."
5. Sketch7 on "The Gunpowder Harvest."
1. Story Told.-A  tribe of Indians dwelt near the Missouri
River, in North America. These had but little intercourse with
Europeans.
Ideas worked out. Point out the locality on the map. Describe the country-covered with forests. The people; their com-rn
plexion, dress, mode of life-hunters.   Explain E uropean and
intercourse.
2. A merchant went into their country; sold them muskets
and gunpowder, taking fur as an exchange. Whether the man
would be likely to give his muskets away?  What he would ex
pect?  What the Indians would be able to give?  Why they
would particularly value firearms? Explain merchant, musket,
gunp)owder, and exchange.
3. After a time, a Frenchman came to the same country to
sell gunpowder. The Indians had plenty-would not buy. What
the Frenchman wanted?  How the fact of the Indians having
gunpowder affected him?
4. He told them gunpowder was a seed, &c. What seeds
do? Motive of the lie? The sin of the lie? The effect of the
lie? Try to make the children sympathize with the simplicity of
the poor Indians.
5. So the Indians bought the gunpowder; sowed it; placed
a guard to protect the field from wild beasts; waited for the harvest.  What they expected?  Why they placed a guard?  When
416 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-THIRD STEP.
they would find out the cheat? Lead the children to sympathize
with their anxiety, while waiting for the gunpowder to sprout.
6. Next year the Frenchman, who did not choose to go again
himself, sent his partner to the Missouri, with many things to exchange for furs. Why he did not go? Make the children understand he was afraid to meet the poor men he had wronged. Show
that fear is a consequence of guilt.  Explain partner.
7. Somehow the Indians found out that these goods belonged
to the man who had cheated them. Straightway they gave him
a hut, in which all his goods were set out. When this was done,
they helped themselves, &c.
He demanded justice from the chief, and was promised the
skins of all the beasts that should be shot with the produce of the
gunpowder  harvest.   With what feelings the Frenchman  displayed his goods? With what feelings he saw them disappear.
Refer again to the manner in which the Indians had been deprived
of their property. Refer to Exodus xii., and show that after the
Egyptians had made the Israelites work without wages, God
bade his people demand return.
Children to say whether, if a schoolfellow took something from
them, it would be right to snatch something of his? What they
can do? Appeal to the teacher. What a man who is robbed in
the street can do? Appeal to the magistrate. Show the differences in the position of the Indians. There was no one to whom
they could go for redress of wrong; they had a right to redress
it themselves. Children to say what is to be condemned in the
conduct of the Frenchman. What those who injure others must
expect. "He that diggeth a pit, shall fall therein." Also Luke
vi. 38.
Students construct sketch on the "The Moravian Farmer"
(Chambers's "Moral Class Book"), as sketch on "The Gunpowder
Harvest."
6. Sketch on "The Shepherd."
I.-Duties, and mode of life.
II.-The Shepherd of the lost.
III.-Character of a good shepherd.
18*
417 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-THIRD STEP.
I.-Children say if they have ever seen a flock of sheep.
Where?   What the sheep were doing?  Who was with them,
and for what purpose? The shepherd watches the sheep, to see
that they do not lose themselves, and that no one steals them.
He leads them to water, and to different meadows where they
can find fresh grass.  What he has to do every evening?  Put
them into a fold. Call on some of the children to describe this,
and on others to tell its use. What he does every summer, when
it is very hot, and the sheep can hardly run about under their
heavy woollen coats? He takes them, one at a time, to a pond,
and washes their fleeces, which are then clipped off.  Why this
is done?  With what instrument?  Whether the shepherd can
do it all by himself?  How the sheep behave?  How they feel
after it is cut off? What they will do in winter, having their
wool cut off in the summer?   What happens before winter?
Who causes this to happen?  What the shepherd always has to
help him, and how?  What we can say of his dog?
II.-Children name any shepherds mentioned in the Bible.
Tell them that in countries the Bible speaks of, it is very hot, and
there is little rain. What difference this makes to the sheep?
So the shepherd has to look carefully for water and green grass.
Refer to the fierce wild beasts that infest these countries. When
they are most likely to come out of their dens?  How to secure
the flock? Luke ii.
III.-Let children picture a lion, first in ambush, then springing on one of the flock. What the bad shepherd would do?
What the good? "The good shepherd giveth his life for the
sheep." Again, picture out the shepherd during a hot summer's day,
leading his flock to some shady place, and playing a tune to them,
as David did. Tell them that David made songs referring to this
subject, and repeat some part of Psalm xxiii. Children say what
kind of a man a good shepherd must be: patient, tender, strong,
courageous. Who is called our Shepherd? What He calls little
children who love Him? (His lambs.) Speak of His patience and
tenderness; of the safety of His flock. Would not each child like
to be one of Christ's lambs?
418 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-FOURTH STEP.
FOURTHI STEP.
MOBAL PRINCIPLES.-INTRODUCTORY TO MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
1. Sketch on the Analogy of Spring and Childhood.
I.-By questions, endeavor to draw from the children a de.
scription of spring. In what part of the year the spring comes?
What they notice, when taking a walk in the country in spring?
Flowers peeping above the ground. (Children give the names of
some early flowers.) Buds sprouting on the trees; grass looking
fresh and green. (W. B.) Everything is growing. Question
as to the things done in spring. Laborers dig the ground; put
seed into it; the gardener lays out his beds and plants; birds
build their nests; bees collect honey from the early flowers; every
creature is cheerful, and busy at its work. (W. B.) All are preparing for a future time.
Refer to the weather in spring.  How the air feels?  Warm,
soft, and fresh. How the sky looks? Bright, though with some
clouds scattered here and there. Children decide on the general
state of the weather. To do this, let them compare it with the
dry harvest time, the rains of later autumn, and the frost of winter.  In spring, the weather is neither hot nor cold, neither wet
nor dry; showers are common, but not long. (W. B.) Showers are soon followed by sunshine.
II.-Children read what is written on the board. In spring,
everything is growing; all things are preparing for a future time;
showers are soon followed by sunshine.
Tell them that wise men have compared spring-time to childhood, and help them to trace the analogy as to each point.
1. They are growing. Their bodies grow. They are taller
and stronger than they were. (Refer to the babies at home.)
Their minds grow; they know more than they did. Refer to the
time when they first saw them.   How  little they knew then.
What now?
2. They are preparing for a future period.  As the laborer
sows the grain in spring, so the seed of instruction is sown in
youth. Children to say what is compared to the soil? What to
419 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-FOURTH STEP.
the seed?  What happens, if the seed is bad?   What will come
up, if no seed is sown? Dwell on this point until the analogy
is clearly traced.
3. Showers are compared to tears, sunshine to smiles. Refer
to things that have happened to trouble them during the week.
Let them notice how soon these things have passed over, leaving
them as happy as before. The sun has shone out. Close the les.
son with a few serious words, referring to the duty of being diligent and attentive in youth. Warn them, that where there are
no blossoms in spring, there will be no fruit in autumn.
Students in training construct sketch on "The Analogy of
the Course of a River and the Course of Human Life," as sketch
on "Analogy of Spring and Childhood."
A course of lessons on Symbols, Emblems, &c., might advan.
tageously be given here.
LIST.
Omniscience, repre
Adoration,
Welcome,
Friendship,
-Royal Power,
Military Power,
Immortality,
Life,
Health,
Eternity,
by an Eye.
a Censer containing Incense.
a Hand stretched out.
Clasped Hands.
a Rod, or Sceptre.
anciently, a Horn; recently, a Sword.
a Serpent.
(rIt"    a Circle;  often a Serpent, with ita
Tail in its Mouth.
a Balance.
o   an Anchor.'
Justice,
Hope,
Faith,
Sorr ow,
Humiliation,
Victory,
-The Trinity,
oro,"     a Cross.
Ito"      a Wreath.
an Equilateral Triangle enclosed in a
Circle of Rays.
420 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-FOURTH STEP.
The two succeeding examples are not sketches, but bona fide
reports of lessons given by two of the principal teachers in the
Home and Colonial Model Schools.
1. Report of Lesson on "The LAightingale and Glowworm."
I. Point.-To work out the moral lesson; i. e., God gives to
different persons different talents for their general good.
II. Heads.-1. Introduction. 2. Stanzas read, questioned on,
and explained. 3. Moral lesson and application.
III. Plan of the Lesson.-1. Lesson introduced, by drawing
from the children such points in natural history as will bear on the
subject. (a) Account of the nightingale, and its habits. (b) Of
the glowworm, and its habits.
2. Stanzas read in separate paragraphs.   (a) Questions put
on each, to bring out the general meaning. Examples: What
had the bird been doing?  Why was he hungry in the evening?
What effect was the glowworm's argument likely to have on the
nightingale?  Whose task was it to beautify?  Whose to cheer?
(b) Questions put on the meaning of the more difficult words,
which the children were allowed to explain, either by definition
or by synonym    Words  explained:  Keen,  demands, eagerly,
hawthorn, crop, admire, power. (c) Questions put, to call out a
sense of the exact appropriateness of certain words, and their
superiority over their synonyms.   Children led to see that no
synonym would have the force of spied, right (as an adverb),
harangued, minstrelsy, warbled.
3. The children, being told that this is a fable, and not a mere
narrative, concluded that it contained a moral lesson. To help
them to find it, teacher bade them name the subjects of the story,
and put the names on the board. Children decided that these
meant different people.
What the nightingale possessed, and what the glowworm pos.
sessed, discovered, and put upon the board.  Children decided that
these meant different gifts or talents.
By comparison of the nightingale's full power of song, with
the glowworm's little twinkling light, children decided that talents
421 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-FOURTH STEP.
differed in character and in importance.   Gave, as examples of
talents or gifts, riches, mental ability, bodily strength. Relative
value of these gifts touched upon.
4. Teacher next put on the board the heads of the glowworm's argument, as discovered by the children, thus:
(a) The glowworm states that he admires the nightingale's
song.
(b) He argues that the nightingale ought in like mannier to
admire his lamp.
(c) He states that God gave to each his separate gift.
(d) That these gifts were bestowed for the general good.
The propositions, a, b, c, having been clearly made out before
d was worked out, by special reference to the pleasures and benefits we derive from the labors of the highly gifted.  (Eminent
men, and their works, named, including the poet Cowper himself.)
IV. Application.-Made chiefly by reference to the different
points in which they succeed or fail.  How those who make much
progress may be tempted to feel toward those who are slow?
How those who are slow might be tempted to feel toward those
who are more talented? What considerations would tend to prevent wrong feelings on the side of the more advanced? of the less
advanced?  Reference to "the Parable of the Talents."
In giving this lesson, the teacher exercised the conceptive
faculty in the introductory descriptions, and the reasoning faculties
in drawing out the analogy.
2. -Report of Lesson on " StArife."
I.-Definition of the term. Draw from the children its vari
)us meanings;  as, contention, disagreement, quarrelling.  Show
the origin of the word, in connection with strive. Shlow the difr
ference implied-one may strive;  for strife, there must be two,
Show the senses, good and bad, in which the term may be used.
Write on the board, from dictation of the children, " Strife is the
effort to obtain victory. It requires two for strife. The worj
implies disagreement, opposition, and contention."
422 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-FOURTH STEP.
II. First Example.-1. Refer to Exodus  ii. 13.  Touch on
what we know.  The similarity of race; faith; condition; sotr
row. Touch on what we do not know. Who was strong, and
who was weak? who was right, and who was wrong?
2. Cause of Strife.-Refer to Proverbs xvi. 28.  Define fro
ward, as contrary. A froward person is one bent on having his
own way, right or wrong; inclined to contradiction, and always
ready for a quarrel. Compare this with Exodus ii. 13, to show
that the violent man was the one to blame. General conclusion
drawn.
3. Consequence.-The flight of Moses, who had come down at
that time seeking to free them from their bonds. So far as it depended on the combatants, the result was an addition of forty
years to the length of Israel's captivity.
Secon(d Exarnple.-1. Strife of Jacob and Laban. Account
given by the children.   Progress of Jacob  from  Padan-aram
shown on the map.
2. The Cause.-Covetousness of Laban.
3. The Consequence.-As  Laban was  stronger than Jacob,
Jacob, his wives and children, were in danger of being brought
back, never permitted to go to the land of Canaan, or meet Isaac;
deprived of their property; forced to become servants. To prevent such injustice, God himself interfered.
Third Exanple.-1. Strife between the servants of Abraham
and the servants of Lot. Example drawn from the children.
2. Cause.-Rivalry.   Compare this with the strife amongst
the disciples, when they strove who should be greatest.
3. Consequence.-The separation of chief friends.
Fourth  Example.-1.  Strife  between  Jephthah  and  the
Ephraimites. Account given as before.
2. Cause.-Pride and jealousy.
3. Consequences.-(Threatened) ungrateful murder, dreadful
massacre; (actual) civil war and slaughter.
III. Causes of SAtrife.-1. The causes already discovered
summed up, and written on the board.
4_'3 
MORAL INSTRUCTION.-FOURTH STEP.
2. Other causes found. Whether mentioned in Scripture, or
drawn from observation?
LIST.
Frowardness.
Covetousness.
Rivalry.
Pride.
Jealousy.
Envy.
Tale-bearing.
Foolish Jesting.
Drunkenness, &c.
IV.  Consequences.-Drawn from the children.
LIST.
Loss of Time.
"   Property.
"    Life.
"    Peace.
"    Power of Doing Good.
From St. James, "Confusion, and every evil work."
V. Application.-How to avoid strife?  Consider who is the
author of strife. Consider the conduct of those who refuse to be
disturbed by it. The conduct of Abraham, and its effect. The
conduct of Gideon. Compare this with that of Jephthah. Refer
to texts: "'A soft answer turneth away wrath," and' Blessed are
the peacemakers."
424 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.*
INTRODUCTION.
Principles of this Course Developed.
PESTALOZZI, the great and successful advocate of more natural
methods of teaching, considered that form, number, and sound
supplied materials for the development of the principal faculties
of the mind.   Moreover, he considered the communication of
knowledge of little importance, unless tending to the development
of the mind on the basis of given facts.
Drawing, the subject of this treatise, belongs to form, and presents means for the most elementary instruction. In its first stage
it may even be preparatory to writing, as letters are mere compositions of straight and curved lines, for the performance of which
the hand should have previously attained a certain degree of firmness and dexterity.
Let us now consider what are the faculties that are developed
by drawing. In consequence of the way in which this art is usually taught, many think that it only exercises the faculty of imita.
tion. We admit that imitation cultivates the hand and the eye,
but doubt whether it cultivates or draws out talent and ingenuity.
For even in copying the products of masters, we ought to be able
to appreciate their merits, not merely in the aggregate, but also in
detail.
Schelling, the great German philosopher, expresses himself
thus: " In a time when people believe it possible to proceed with
* By Hermann Krusi, the inventor of this system. 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.
one leap from the first to the last step of the ladder of knowledge,
the sentence may appear hard, that art, like everything possessed
with vitality, must go back to the first elements. We must see
how every original product of art rises from the depth of imagination, branching out into an infinite variety of forms, and combining at last into a graceful whole. This power of invention cannot
be communicated, for it is the pure gift of Nature, reflecting herself in the mind. A true artist can only follow the law which
God and Nature have implanted in his mind. There is but little
help from outside; every genius ripens by its own strength."
Thus Schlelling, in this noble passage, recognizes the power of
Invention as,the principal mover and creator of art.
In the present elementary treatise, we intend to trace the pro.
gressive steps on which this important power may be cultivated,
and to associate it with its natural ally, Taste; which latter is not
such4 an arbitrary ruler as is generally believed, but subject to
fixed laws.
But the object of this method, far from tending only to amusement, is an eminently practical one.  Whilst acknowledging that
the principle of invention is vastly encouraged in this country in
all the improvements which administer to gain and comfort, we
find occasionally a woeful absence of taste, and are obliged to borrow the finest patterns for ornament from France and Germany,
in both of which countries drawing is introduced as a popular
branch of instruction.
If the schools of this country will admit drawing as the most
elementary, the most distinct and pleasing branch of instruction,
they will become more practical than they have hitherto been,
and apply more to the wants of the present generation.
The first exercises belonging to this course are of such an elementary character, that they may precede the knowledge of letters and of writing. Even geometrical forms may be introduced
at this step, because the increase in the number of lines in every.
succeeding exercise, leads necessarily to all the forms on which the
science of Geometry is built. Since, however, the elements of
formn  have already been described under a separate  head, the
teacher is referred to it whenever she finds definitions necessary.
426 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-FIRST STEP.
In case the children have already an idea of the geometrical forms
which arise from the combination of several lines, the teacher
must not neglect the opportunity of putting appropriate questions,
by way of repetition. There are, no doubt, many combinations of
lines which cannot be designated by any name, and which, as a
product of the children's invention, must be received as readily as
those which have been adopted as symbols of form. In order to
show the plan of teaching, the first exercise will be introduced as
a model lesson. It is supposed that the children are already acquainted with the ideas of vertical, horizontal, slanting, parallel,
&c.* Although it was stated that this knowledge was not absolutely necessary to begin this course, it cannot be denied that, at
the age at which children are required to possess the power of
drawing lines with tolerable accuracy, an acquaintance with the
most prominent geometrical forms may be expected, or, at any
rate, will be very desirable.
FIRST STEP.
EXERCISES WITH STRAIGHT LINES.
EXERCISE 1.- Combinations with Two Lines.
The teacher provides herself with two thin sticks, and asks
the children what they see? Two sticks. Placing them vertically against the wall, she asks, How are the sticks placed?
They stand. If you wished to represent these sticks by means of
lines, what kind of lines would you use? Straight lines. Very
well; and what direction would you give the straight lines?
They must be vertical.
The teacher then may place the sticks horizontally on the
floor, and ask, How are they now situated? They lie on the
floor. W'Vhat lines would you use in order to represent them
thus? Horizontal lines.
The teacher then places the sticks so that they are parallel to
each other, and incline to the right, and asks the children what
they call say about their position, and what lines they would use
* See page 78.
427 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-FIRST STEP.
to represent them. She inclines them to the left, and asks similar
questions. After this she makes them incline toward each other,
and draws from the children, that they approach each other at one
end, and are further apart at the other. By making the sticks
meet, an angle is produced, which the children name, and tell by
what kind of lines they would represent it. If the end of one
stick is placed against the side of the other, two angles are produced, which can be either right angles, or one angle acute and
the other obtuse. By making the sticks cross, four angles are
produced, which must be either all right, or two angles acute and
two obtuse. This exhausts the combinations which can be made
with two sticks or two lines. (See Plate I.)
The children, having thus obtained a clear insight into the
forms they will have to delineate, are told to draw upon their
slates the combinations which the teacher forms with the sticks.
In doing this, they should be instructed not to change the
position of their slates. When each has drawn one or more
figures, the teacher, selecting a number of those exhibiting the
most taste and ingenuity, puts them on the blackboard.   She
then calls their attention to them, making such suggestions or
remarks as may occur to her. The figures should now all be
erased, both from the board and from the slates, and the children
called upon to reproduce them from memory as far as possible,
thus cultivating the conceptive faculty.
Plate I. represents all the combinations with two lines.
PLATE L
428 
INVENTIVE DRAWING. —FIRST STEP.
* XL  I
EXERCISE 2.- Combinations with Three Lines.
Although the first exercise was conducted entirely under the
direction of the teacher, this was only done for the sake of making the children aware of the variety of positions which two sticks
or two lines can assume. Now the children will be able to make
these combinations for themselves. It is, however, advisable, not
to dispense with the sticks as yet, but, placing three of them in the
hands of a child, request him to arrange them on the floor, or
against the wall, in as many ways as he can. When his power
of combining them is exhausted, another child is called upon
to arrange them in some other way, the teacher all the while
repeating questions like these: What form do these sticks represent?  What lines would you use to copy it? &c.  Occasionally
the teacher may infuse new life into the exercise, by suggesting a
new application. For instance: combining the sticks in the fol.
lowing manner,
K
she may ask whether they recognize this form? As a conse.quence of this hint, several other letters will probably make their
appearance, suggested by the children themselves. If the children make a combination of the triangle, it is for the teacher to
suggest some varieties of triangles produced by the difference in
the angles.   The  question  may  occasionally  be  brought up,
whether, for instance,
429 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-FIRST STEP.
and
have to be received as different combinations-the one being only
the reverse of the other. The answer to this is, that, geometri.
cally considered, they are the same, but different as objects of
drawing. Nevertheless, considering the immense variety of forms
which the combinations of even a few lines afford, the teacher
would do better to dispense with designs which are merely the
reverse of others, or are simply modified by having their lines
somewhat shorter or longer.
After the combinations have been made, by means of sticks,
before the eyes of the children, they are required to draw them
from memory upon their slates. After this, the teacher goes
round, selects the best ones, and draws them on the blackboard.
If she finds some that are wrong, she may submit them to the
criticism of the class, by asking them in what they are wrong?
Plate II. contains combinations with three lines.
PLATE IL
~J11\  VLJ H N
lilA
EXERCISE 3.- Combinations with Four Lines.
The use of the sticks will not be found any longer necessary,
in order to illustrate this and the following exercises.  The teacher
may simply tell the children to combine four lines in as many ways
as they can, and collect their best productions. The blackboard
will soon be filled with little designs.  As  before  hinted, the
430 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-FIRST STEP.
teacher would do well to suggest occasionally a four-sided figure,
or a letter formed of four lines,
I
or givC a rough outline of an object,
F
since these designs will be productive of others.
Plate III. contains combinations with four lines.
PLATE III.
VILMYLD
(I
the[I Io
These exercises should be extended to figures composed of
five, six, seven, and eight lines successively.
Before leaving the method of conducting these exercises en
tirely to the discretion of the teacher, we will make a few suggestions:
1. The principle of combination  is that of invention.  The
inventive power is not, in the strictest sense, a creative power,
< 431 
INVENTIVE DRAWIING.-SECOND STEP.
but simply the power of forming a new aggregate by the different
application of the same elements. The feeling with which the
child regards his productions, which probably he never saw before, and which, perhaps, never existed, is one of intense joy and
gratification.   This gratification is shared by the teacher,  who
sees, in many instances, combinations arise which surpass her ex.
pectations, and which surprise her as an entire novelty.
2. Invention, at this Step, will not thrive in a healthy manner, unless the teacher gives occasionally some useful hints and
suggestions, by indicating the directions in which the inventive
talents of the children may be exerted to the greatest advantage.
Again, she must discourage tasteless combinations, and contrast
those that show unity and distinct arrangement of parts, with
those that are loose and disjointed.
3. It will be seen, that in the combinations of angles, triangles, four-sided figures, &c., the number four, and its multiples,
eight, twelve, sixteen, &c., will be the most appropriate for regular and tasteful combinations.
SECOND STEP.
EXERCISE 1.-Combinations of Four Right Angles.
The combination of four right angles will suggest two principal forms of arrangement-that of the square, and that of the
PLATE IV.
2
V
V
V
F17         F
I
[.....  I
-   --  -,   -    - I
I                  i.
!
i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
_____ —   i
r.................i........ i
1 _.............. i
432
i I
I I
I i 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-SECOND STEP.
cross-as seen in Plate IV., figs. 1 and 2. Besides these, other
forms of a mixed character may be produced. After the teacher
has collected a great number of designs of the children, and
drawn them on the blackboard, she may make an interesting
examination as to their innate feelings of taste, by asking which
of these designs they like best? She will generally find their
answers in accordance with the judgment of educated persons.
Without reasoning, at this Step, upon the laws of taste, she may
nevertheless practically let them see, that in all the good designs,
the removal of but one part would destroy the unity and beauty
of the whole; whilst in those which are disjointed, the effect is
hardly perceptible.  For instance:
J<J
7
Such combinations hardly deserve the name of designs, and must
be rejected, not on the principle of combination, but on that of
taste.
EXERCISE 2.- Combinations of Four Acute Angles.
PLATE V.
A
KM'I
A
\(
433
m'
19 
INVENTIVrE DRAWING.-SECOND JTEP.
EXERCISE 3.-Combinrations, of Four O.tuse Angles.
PLATE VI.
EXERCISE 4.  Combinations of Four Right and Four Acute Angle,
PLATE VIL
.......
,,/
i                                  L
\x/
\,I'
4~..... 
X - 1    -   --.,   -'= -  i
/L
EXERCISE 5.- Combinations of Four Right and Four Obtuse Angles,
PLATz VIII.
1!                 1 
I,          i                                                                                                                                                                                   I
I_ f.,
--  -                                              t --- -7 -- 
434
I -
T!I
,i.  
FL,TIC IM
-/1
~                 I'~f ~$
~'                         I
I
I            \,/   j\
I
zL~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ II
e I                  I,  
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-SECOND STEP.
EXERcSsE 7.- Combinations of Triangles.
.We  will onlv alllude to the order of these combinations, with.
out (riving dc r s, sinc  e the children can produce them  now
with ease:
(a) C(obn;nation of four rectangular triangles.   (Plate X.) 
(b) Combination of four acute-angular triangles.  (Plate XI.)
(c) Comrbination of four obtuse-angiilar triangles.  (Plate XII.)
(d) Com' ination of all thle above kinds of triangles, indiscriminately united. (Plate XIII.)
PLATE X.
I \      A?    0
LI....
j_7 ~~~~~//\~\~1I
~j     ~
PLATE XL
V77 
PLATE XIL
/:
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~                      I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~     ~                  I~~,   |-    *...
i   /':
I/..-. I         i
-.
_ f. y
436
- --....
\ \ <~~-i
i             t                A
.n -. i.
"I e 
INVENTIVE DRAWIN(}.-SECOND STEP.
PLATE XIII.
I'J -'x
,I"~ >'..                                          L
,L<' <~7z FA ~ \\~;;t/~ i~                                               ~~~I;:;:,1
EXERCISE 8.- Conmbination of Quadrangular Fiures.
(a)  Combination  of  squares.   (b)  Of  rectangles.    (c) Of
rhombs.    (d)  Of  rlorrl)oilds.   (e)  Of  tr.peziums.    (f )  Of
trapezoids.   (g) (f all tile above kinds of quadrangtular figures,
indiscriminatelv uliled.
NOTE.-  ome of the above-named forms are less adapted to
combinations than others.  Of those that are very applicable to
architectural designs, we will name the rectangle, in connection
with the trapezoid, as seen in Plate XIV. All, however, can be
used for orn.amental purposes as seen in Plate XV.
PLATE XIV.
II
Cit'                        i 
D      1'I           i,
i                     in
I-! I
,,..____~J
F__
I
i
iI
i
I
I
437
LIm
I i....
"~i     i /
I    }E
m
{I
-i
I 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-SECOND STY'.
PLATE XV.
//i~~
,/\ ~\
_\\
47\\j
~
7   y\/,TTh,.~
We have only shown a few designs that can be obtained by
each exercise; but any observing teacher will be astonished at
the multiplicity and beauty of the designs that may be obtained
from children of even medium capacity. It will convince any
one, that childhood is the age for combinations, and that the imagination at this age is more fertile than in the adult.
The limitation of the number of forms under the preceding
heads was at first necessary, in order to cause their inventive
power to keep pace with their power of execution. Hereafter,
the number need not be limited, but it will be subject to the fitness
required in its application.
438 
INVENTIVE DRAWING. —HIRD STEP.
THIRD STEP.
COMBINATIONS OF CURVED LINES.
EXERCISE 1.-The Idea if Concate and Convex Developed.
The line whic   i, a3cd iL all the exercises of this Step, is a
part of the circle, called at; arc.  (See exercises on "Form.")
Some properties of the curved linre have already been discussed
under the head of "Forrn."  Th'.re remains, however, one property to be developed. namely, tnat,)f concave and convex, which
the teacher can do somewhat after the 5:),]lowing Toan
The taelicr presents to the class a. -:i ect in the form of a
hollow henisphere, arid asks whether they t.ee any difference between onie side of the object and the other?  The children will
probably say that oite of +s sides is hollow whilst the other is not.
If the teacher    v    (i::l )s to illustrate te, subject in at still more strik
ing manner, she may  hsow that the hollow side acts as a cup, and
is capable of holdi,g oth er objects, whilst they would roll off from
the other side.  SIhe iwag show them.  sc;lii sphere, and ask them
whether the surface thev see is hollow, or not? A watch gladss
PLATE XVI
439 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-THIRD STEP.
may also serve as an illustration of the idea of hollow, and its
opposite. The teacher may then draw an arc on the blackboard,
and ask them to point out its hollow side, and the one which is
not hollow. She then gives them the name of concave, instead of
hollow, and of convex, to designate the opposite of the line.
After this, the children might draw the arc in different posi
tions, as seen in Plate XVI.
ExERCISE 2.- Curvilinear Angles.
Whilst the different sides of straight-linear angles are based
upon the width of their opening, we shall find that the distinctive
feature of curvilinear angles is based on the concavity or convexity of its lines. In order to develop this idea, let the teacher draw
the angles (see Plate XVII.), and ask the following questions:
Suppose, in fig. 1, you were placed in the inside of the angle,
viewing the sides of its arcs, which sides would be turned toward
you-the concave, or the convex sides?   The concave sides.
Let us view fig. 2 in the same manner. What sides of the arcs
do you see?  The convex sides.  And in fig. 3?   One arc shows
its concave side, and the other its convex side. The teacher then
gives the name of concave angle to fig. 1;  fig. 2 is called the
convex angle; fig. 3 would, according to its properties, be called
concave-convex angle; but in order to have a shorter word, and on
account of its mixed character, let us call it a mixed angle.   The
children may now draw these different angles in different positions,
anid -with their openings of different degrees.
PLA~IE XVII.
ZN
\ - 
V 
4-40
I
.,,.l/
f
i
i
i
I 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-RD STEP.
Curvilinear Combinations
The curved line is in preference the line of grace and beauty,
and offers a greater variety of pleasing designs than the straight
line. The child will delight in the increased scope which its exercises will afford to his imagination. A curvilinear angle, for
instance, will present to him the image of a cup, which, with the
addition of some marginal ornaments, may branch out into the
likeness of a flower. The effect of this discovery is twofold: it
must lead the attention of the child toward nature's fairest productions-the flowers, &c.-and the treasures of art; and, on the
other hand, he may easily be led to apply his inventive talent to
the production of tasteful patterns, for domestic use as well as for
the requirements of industry. The true educator cannot but approve of means given to him to develop that eminently moral
power, taste, for which our schools have been unable hitherto to
contribute even the smallest mite, unless by the slavish imitation
of copies in drawing. This, however, considers taste but as an
acquired faculty, whilst the means presented here propose to expand the innate germs of a divine power into evergreen branches
of grace and loveliness.
EXERCISE 3. —Combination of Four Concave Angls.
PLATE XVIII.
~ \~
19*
441
ir\
I  
INVENTIVE DRAWING.THIRD STEP.
EXERCISE 4.-Combination of Four
PLATE XIX.
V
E
1,-ok
I7
EXERCISE 5.-Combination f Four x.fix,An,gles.
PLATE XX.
4' /J
~\(
\~ \Q\\j) Ly))
EXERCISE 6.- Combination of a Certain lumber of  Concave
Convex, and Mixed Angles.
PLATE aXX.
442
Convex Angles. 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-THIRD STEP.
EXERCISE 7.-Combination of Two.sided Figures.
There are three kinds of them, as seen in Plate XXII., figs.
A, B, c, a definition of which must be made by the children them.
selves. The form of A is sometimes called a double convex lens;
that of n, a crescent.  Fig. c has a peculiar feature, in having both
angles outside.  These angles are called, in geometry, reentrant
angles.
PLATE XXIL
After this explanation, the pupils proceed to the combination
of the above figures.
ExERcIsE 8.-Combination of Triangular Figures.
WVe content ourselves with giving the different kinds of triangles which can be used for these combinations.   (See Plate
XXIII.)
The children will take pleasure in using them for the invention
of many tasteful designs.
PLaTE XXHI.
X
443
B
A
i 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.THIRD STEP.
$TEP
EXERCISE 9.-Conmbination of Four-siled Figures.
We give, in Plate XXIV., a variety of four-sided figures obtained under this condition. Figs. 1, 2, 3, have all their angles
inside. Figs. 4, 5, 6, those which have one re-entrant angle.
Figs. 7, 8, 9, have two, three, or four re-entrant angles.
PLATE XXIV.
~~ ~~ j;~ j)>
i
\>\LI:I                   V           Q}
Of the immense variety of combinations which this exercise
affords, we can only give a faint idea in Plate XXV.
444
I
2
5
7
I \
r van
1-1. 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-THIRD STEP.
PLATE XXV.
1
PThIA)
2
445 
INVENTIVE DRAWNG.-THmRD STEP.
The fig. in Plate XXVI. combines three and four-sided figure&
PLATE XXVI.
II
A>\H\)
The design in Plate XXVII. shows how easily curvilinear
figures can be shaped into flower-like forms, which are often found
in patterns for manufacturing purposes. To draw, however, a design of the above kind correctly, and with the attributes of good
taste, several powers besides that of invention must necessarily
co-operate.   Of these, we mention particularly a mathematical
appreciation of the laws of Regularity and Symmetry, to supply
which will be the object of the next Step.
446. 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-FOURTH STEP.
PL.TE XXVIL
FOURTH STEP.
DICTATION OF REGULAR AND SYMMETRICAL DESIGNS.
Introduction.
When we allowed the inventive faculties of the children a
scope unfettered by exact measurement, it was done with the ex.
pectation that their sense of taste would guide them almost unconsciously to give to their designs the necessary exactness of delinea
tion. It becomes, however, at this Step, the teacher's duty to
develop, in a systematic manner, a mathematical conception of
exact measurement, which will enhance the merit of the productions of her class. To do this, she must begin with the division
of the simple line.
447
AS 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-FOURTI STEP.
EXERCISE 1.-Division of Lines into Equal Parts.
The exercises under this head may be treated in the following
order:
1. Let the children divide given lines into two, four, eight
equal parts.
2. Into three, six, and nine equal parts.
3. Into five and ten equal parts.
NOTE.-The  lines may bo straig'ht  or curvied.   };,,:oi~(,S Of
this kind will also afford a practical illustration of tae n-t!iiu        nd
relation of fractions.
Designs Bctsed ot  thle Divis/.;  of  i.,;cs ojt(;0 tc ar I TFo. l,(.  e (
pr (7'ts.
Some Laws of Taste Developed.-The object of this exercise is
to fix certain points in a given square, from which other lines may
be drawn, till we obtain a simple design.
In order to introduce the pupils to this new kind of construction,
we advise the teacher to make them draw the first design under
her dictation, as will be shown in the next model lesson.
EXERCISE 2.-Dictation.
Teacher (dictating).-Draw a square; then divide each of its
sides into two equal parts, and draw from each of the points of
intersection a line to the opposite point. How many squares have
you thus obtained?
Children.-Four small squares.
Teacher.-Now draw two diagonal lines; that is, lines which
are drawn from one corner of the square to the other.  How
many triangles have you now  got?   What  kind of triangles?
How do you like the design?  (See Plate XXVIII., fig. 1.)  Let
us try to improve it somewhat, by removing some lines according
to my further dictation.   Rub out the right half of the upper
horizontal side of the original square.   Do  the same with the
448 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-FOURTH STEP.
lower half of the right vertical side; the same with the left half
of the lower horizontal side; the same with the upper half of the
left vertical side.   (Plate XXVIII., fig. 2.)  What have you
now left? Do you like the design better than before? Why?
PLATE XXVIII.
2
~ \'
/~~' \;/x/ I
a/
The reason for liking a thing better, or for giving a preference
in matters of taste, seems at first above the capacity of children.
And yet such a question might elicit very sensible answers, and
not the less true from not being scientifically given. Each child
sees that the four remaining triangles are now more distinctly seen,
because they have been separated from each other. Again, those
triangles are all situated in different positions with reference to
each other, which affords a pleasant variety to the eye.   Distinction of parts and variety of position therefore form an important requisite of good taste.
EXERPCISE 3.-Dictation of Design in Plate XXIX., Fig. 2. 
Draw another square. Divide each side into four equal parts.
How is this to be done? Next draw from all these points (ex.
cept from those in the centre of each side), lines to points directly
opposite.   Describe the parts of the figure as it appears now.
What form do you see in the centre of the figure? And what
forms are situated on each side of that central square? What forms
!
449
1 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-FOIJRTH STEP.
are situated at the corners of the original square? (See Plate XXIX,
fig. 1.) Now draw a line from the left upper corner of the central
square, to the centre of the upper horizontal side of the large
square; next from the right upper corner of the central square a
line to the right upper corner of the large square; after this, from
the same corner of the central square, a line to the middle of the
right vertical side of the large square; again, from the lower
right corner of the central square a line to the right lower corner of the large square, &c. &c.  The  teacher will easily see
how the dictation is to be completed, as shown by tihe light
dotted lines in fig. 1.  When  all the necessary linii }e   been
dictated, it will be found that t'e design lacks that it.:          to
which we have alluded in Tu 1,,r,er dictation.  I:,   r 1o effct
this, some lines, or rather,)crns of lines,:-::  he removed.
The teacher may now co::;ti:        4 Remove  ti: -:s?hlf  1 e
upper horizontal, and the   ii;t ialf of' the l we r..iz.o? to;   de
of the large square.   Againi remo-f  the  Ipr halo of:'  r,ht
vertical and the lower half ot the Ifft vertic  4,a;il  oI a,nc large
square."
The children will now see more clearly the plan of the proposed design; but there are still some superfluous lines.  In order
to test their feeling of taste, the teacher might ask the class what
lines they think should be further erased?   Very probably some
children will propose to remove  all the pieces marked  a  (see
Diagram).   In addition to this, the teacher may  tell them  to
erase all those lines which form continuations of the sides of the
central square. It now stands as seen in fig. 2.
The design being now completed, the teacher wishes the class
-o describe all the portions of the design. Of what does it consist?   Of one square surrounded by four rhomboids.   Repeat
this.
For the sake of improving their crude notions of taste, a judi
cious teacher may ask questions like the following, if her class is
sufficiently advanced: Of what did you say the design consists?
Are the parts all uniform, or is there some variety in themn?
Are the rhomboids all placed in the same manner? Before you
erased some of the lines, did the rhomboids appear  distintly?
450
L 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-FOURITH STEP.
Did they afterward? When did they show to best advantage?
If I removed one of the rhomboids, would the design look so
well as before?  Why not?
The teacher may also take occasion, if she finds a design badly
drawn, from a want of accuracy in dividing the lines into four
equal parts, or for other reasons, to contrast such a design, as seen
in Plate XXIX., fig. 3, with one that is correct, and ask which
they like best?  Why?
PLATE XXIX.
8
. \I                                          i
k  S'\~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
I
L_!. -!....
;                *                 *    |                           L                                                  / am/
Without wisliig to anticipate the answers of the children, we
would remind the teacher, that the size of the central square in
fig. 3 is too large, at the expense of the rhomboids, and thus prevents the design from being symmetrical.
It has already been suggested, that in these questions on taste,
the teacher must neither reason nor lecture before the children,
but simply ask questions, and lead them to discover the right principle, by  using language which  they  can comprehend.    But
whether this is found practicable or not, one thing is sure: the
teacher who would cultivate inventive talent in the children, as
well as her own judgment about designs, must clearly comprehend
that unity, variety, distinctness, and symmetry are the great leading principles of taste, as exemplified by all the works of the
Creator.
It is not intended that the teacher should dictate all the designs of this kind, but that the children should ultimately be
induced to invent others. The teacher may occasionally suggest
a beginning, and allow them to finish the design. The next exer
451
t'
I
I
I
.7i
i
i
I
tI
I.,
i,,
f \
II )
I
I
i
I
I
l
i
I
— i 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-FOURTH STEP.
cise will render the path of invention so easy, that the children
will not fail to enter upon it.
EXERCISE 4.-Dcsi'ns  Based upon the Division of Lines into
Thre Equal Parts.
To show the variety even in simple designs, let us assume
each side of a square divided into three equal parts, and indicate these divisions by dots.
Now we will make a condition, that lines may be drawn from
these dots to those opposite, or situated on some other line. The
following diagrams show figures that may be thus produced after
erasing portions of the original outline. (See Plate XXX., figs.
1, 2, 3, 4.)
PLATE XXX.
1       2               4
W~\1' \(,'I 
~L7  ~LXj
i
i-r:
L          -i
Suggestions in regard to Inventing Regular Designs.
If we wish to add more details to these simple designs, it can
be done in two ways: (a) By the subdivision of the lines in the
design. (b) By the repetition of the same design. We will give
examples of each:
(a) By Subdivision.-By this method we consider the simple
design as the one intended to receive the additional details, which
are dependent on the division of its lines. For instance: selecting fig. 1, in Plate XXX., as the fundamental design, we obtain,
by the subdivision of its lines, and the addition of new ones,
the designs seen in Plate XXXI. Or, selecting fig. 2, in Plato
452
4 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-FOURTH STEP.
PLATE XXXI.
1~~ "I
\I
key fJ ~
I__
PLATE XXXII.
~
XXX., for a similar purpose, we obtain the designs seen in Plate
XXXII.
(b) By Repetition.-By this method we repeat the same design a certain number of times, like a pattern. The object of
such an arrangement is, to get an enlarged design round an apparently new centre, of which, however, some superfluous parts will
have to be removed.
We  have chosen fig. 2, in Plate XXX., to be repeated four
times. (See Plate XXXIII., fig. 1.) But now the question
arises, whih lines are to be removed, in order to give the re
453
1
I
i / 
INVEN IV DRAWING.-FOURT STEP.
PLATE XXXIII.
1               2
A
F        \/47
I    \              I
-  I'         I
C     _   I    \
I
/  \/i
<I
maining parts a more  -:{nct and               a arance.   There
will be three ways to pc:'.rm. -ii operation. Pa.ely:
1. We  may remnove, ie mi(d]e piart of e, id   e of one of the
small squares (Plate XXXIII., fig. 2); or
2. The extreme parts of each side of th.-  4ne squares.
3. The two middle parts of each side of tlhe large square.
It may also be appropriate to remove the( lines A B and c D.
These examples will show what a scope there is for the variety of
designs. They are innumerable, and each scholar with but mod.
erate talent will find some new ones which he may call his own,
and will appreciate the more as the result of his inventive power.
It is always a pleasant feeling to invent; but when invention
combines taste with utility, it will be doubly pleasant.
Care must be taken to change the outlines of designs, so as to
produce more variety. Many of our patterns that are applied to
practical purposes are within a triangle; others within a rectangle,
hexagon, octagon. The latter of these figures, which is easy of
construction, and affords much scope for variety, will here receive
some consideration.
Construction of the Octagon.
The teacher dictates to the children: Draw a square with two
diagonals, and mark the middle of each side of the square by a
I
454
2 
INVENTIVE DRAWING. —-FOURTH STEP.
dot.  Measure the distance from this middle to the centre of the
square (where the diagonals meet), and mark off the same distance from this centre on the diagonal lines. Finally, unite the
pc.ints obtained by the last operation w;.ti the points ill the centre
of the sides of the square, by lines, the sum of which constitutes
tlh( regular octagon.  (Plate XXXIV.)  The square may now be
removed, having only served for the construction of the octagon.
PLATE XXXI.
There is another method, which dispenses with the square, and
only makes use of the bisection of the right angle. It is this:
Draw a cross, by means of a vertical line bisecting a horizontal
line of the same length at right angles.   Bisect these right angles,
by lines of the same length as the other two. Lastly, unite the
ends of these lines, and we have the octagon.
The teacher would do well to point out to the class, that the
four long lines alluded to in the second construction of the octagon, are in reality but diagonals of the same.   These diagonals
will be an important aid for dictating or making a design, since,
fi'om their equal distribution, it is possible to fix many other points
i,pon them at regular distances.
In proceeding once more to the dictation of a design, in order
to induce the class to produce others, the teacher will find that it
is possible, by one well-applied remark, to produce the drawing
455 
INVENTIYE DRAWING.-FOURTH STEP.
of several lines at once, instead of giving directions for the drawing of every separate line.
Dictation of a Design in the Octaon.  (See JPlate  XX V., Tfj.. 1.)
Draw an octagon, and let the four lines stand which were
necessary for its construction.   Fhlat are these  lines called?
How are they divided by the point of intersection?  Now d(ivide
each half of the diagonals into two, eq(4ual parts, as also each side
of the octagon.   Next dra-w from  ath  (!i tle points w,lieh fre
situated halfway between  he p)int of iltersecti(,n anof tlhe (ends
of a diagonal, two small lines to the centres of the two nearest
sides of the octagon.  How many such lines have you to draw?
Now let us remove all the superfluous lines. Erase the two extreme quarters of each diagonal, and the design is completed. Of
what parts does it consist?  What  do we  call the four-sided
figures round the centre of the design? What those situated near
its corners? Now erase your figure. Who could draw it entirely
from memory, and better than before?
In Plate XXXV., fig. 2, tlhere is another design, made by the
PL.Trz XXXV.
I I
same construction, with a few modifications, and resulting in what
the children might call "a wheel," formed of eight trapezoids.
In Plate XXXVI., fig. 1, the design is based upon eight diagonals
(different from those used in the former design), which, after interiecting each other, are slightly modified  by erasing some of their
interior pa.rt,
456
1
2 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-FOURTH STEP.
PLATE XXXVI.
2
i. \X. \
Is
., _I
1'                      11/     \
I               ~, \\
~                            1w/i
j/ 
'7,
~]
I                                \'i'I//
EIaht dia,onals, different from those used in the preceding dia
grams, wCere necessary to obtain the ingenious design in Plate
XXXVI., fig. 2. After drawing these eight diagonals, which
will form two squares, a smaller octagon will appear, the sides of
which are to be divided into three equal parts. After uniting the
opposite points of these sides by parallel lines, and removing their
central portion, we obtain eight small squares entangled within
each other. D)oubling these squares, in order to make them appear like solid frames, the effect becomes motX striking.
The pupil vill easily invent many it- il  (           b'leSignh, br div-iding
the sides of the octagon illto three equal })t;:',,     and (Trawving from
the points of intersection lines to the 0:',,ite points.
CTR-VILiNEAR DESIGNS, WITH DUE ]I'Ei1) TO TIlE LA'WS OF
REGULARITY AND:,;. iTIY.
J.lfeasurement of  i.:
Since the invention of curvilinear designs has alreadyv been
treated in the Second Step of this course, a fesv words only may
be required respecting the measurement of curves, and their proper
application.
In drawing or copying an arc in a regular manner, it will be
found convenient to suppose it subtended by a straight line, from
the middle of which a perpendicular is erected, as seen in the
following figure.  The straight line which forms the base, indi
23Q
457
1
11
I/ t       -        -;-o
As-            - 1          1 
.    I                X
j,           <  H  
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-FOURTH STEP.
cates the direct distance froml one point of the arc to the other,
whilst the perpendicular measures the concavity of the arc.
In drawing, for instance, the shape of a cup or vase, a recti.
lihI'r triatngle will be found of great advantage, to support the
curves.   (See figs. 1, 2.)  If two of the lines, are bisected, Lhe
FIG. 1.                  FIG. 2.                   Fl G. 3.
curves may assume a graceful waving character, as seen in fig. 3.
It is easily seen how the designs suggested in the previous
Step may be used for the regular application of curvilinear designs.
The design in Plate XXXVII. is based upon thie cross-shliaped
figure in Plate XXX., fig. 2. Let the class find others.
PLATE XXXVII.
(~'
/1
$
458
f
/J 
INVENTIVE DRAWING.-FOURTH STEP.
Drawing of the Circle.
We  conclude tl*  course wvithli thle circle, which displays the
greatest regularity and symmetry of outline, and which on this
am-ount it is difficult to draw correctly without the aid of a mathematical instrument. Since, however, the circle, or figures resembling it-the ellipse, oval, &c.-are often required in making illustrations, or in delineating artificial and natural objects, it is desirable to train the hand in drawing this difficult figure as accurately
as possible.
In doing this, it is safe to support the circle  by the same
lines which were necessary for the construction of the regular
octagon.   Consilderi,r th'.eir l- oiut o)f i'tersection as *lie  centre
of the circle, these lines will form  eig't radii, over t   ends of
which the circumference may be drawn.   (See fig,. 1, below.)
Another method, which will at the same time he found convenient for drawing hemisphere  maps with  meridians, requires
merely two equal lines intersecting at right angles. If we draw
an arc erected on d f of the height of a c, a-id afterward others
at stated distances, till the last one passes ever e (the end of the
radius a e), we have in the last line produced a semicircle.   Repeating the same operation on the other side, another semicircle is
produced. Thus we obtain the whole circle, intersected by arcs,
which in a map might be termed meridians.
FiG. 1.
d A
i.
I 
11 3
1,   f'
I ",i I                ~'* 
\"#'em~~~~,1
46
459
FIG. 2. 
INVENTIVE DRAWVING.-FOURTH STEP.
It need hardly be said, that many beautiful designs might be
drawn in a circle, on the basis of its diameters, and assisted by a
regular division of its quadrants, and hence of the angles round
the centre. These designs must necessarily display an endless
variety, since all the elements of form may be arranged around
one rallying point, branching out in all directions.
460 
PROGRAMME
OF
COURSE OF ORAL INSTRUCTION,
FOR
FIRST THREE YEARS IN THE OSWEGO SCHOOLS.
$to
First Year, or C Class, Primary.
FIRST TERM.
1st Fortnight.-Lessons on Human Body and Mammals.
2d     4"         "    Form and Color.
3d          "    "    Elementary Geography, or Place and
Size.
Objects and Inventive Drawing.
Moral Instruction and Birds.
Hiuman Body and Color.
Form and Geography, or Place.
SECOND TERM.
l1st Fortnig7ht.-Lessons on Size and Objects.
2d            "    "      Inventive Drawing and Moral Instruc.
tion.
3d     "            "     Mammals and Human Body.
4th    "            "     Color and Form.
4th
5th
6th
7th
i I
i I
it
i 4
I 9
I I
it
It 
PROGRAMME OF STUDIES.
5th Fortnight.-Lessons on Place, or Geography, and Objects.
6th     "           "      Inventive Drawing and Moral Instruc
tion.
t ""  Human Body, Fishes, and Reptiles.
"      Sounds and Weight.
THIRD TERM.
1st Fortnight.-Lessons on Color and Form.
2d            "     "     Geography and Objects.
3d     "            "      Human Body and Mammals.
4th    "            "      Size and Weight.
5th    "            "     Sounds and Moral Instruction.
6th    "            "     Inventive Drawing and Geography.
Second Year, or B Class, Primary.
FIRST TERM.
1st Month.-Lessons on Form and Inventive Drawing.
2d       i"    "        Mammals and Color.
3d    "           "     Objects and Geography.
4th   "          "      Sounds and Weight.
SECOND TERM.
1st Jfonth.-Lessons on Size and Geography.
2d'"          "      Mammals, Insects, and Objects.
3d    1     "    "      Form and Color.
4th   "          "      Moral Instruction and Drawing.
THIRD TERM.
1st Jfonth.-Lessons on Objects, Mammals, and Birds.
2d  ("           "     Elementary Geography and Color.
3d   "           "     Form,  alternating with  Drawing  and
Moral Instruction.
462
7 t7i
8 th
I 4
ti 
PROGRAtME OF STUDIES.
Third Year, or A Class, Primary.
FIRST TERM.
1st Jfonth. —Lessons on Objects and Inventive Drawing.
2d   "           "      Plants and Language.
3d   "           "      Color and Elementary Geography.
4th   "          "      Form and Moral Instruction.
SECOND TERM.
1st Month. —Lessons on Geography and Inventive Drawing.
2d  i"           "     Objects and Plants.
3d "       "            Color and Language.
4th   "          "     Moral Instruction and Form.
THIRD TERM.
1st Month.-Lessons on Geography and Language.
2d   "          "     Objects and Animals.
3d i      "    "      Form and Color.
Exercises in Reading, Spelling, and Number daily, with each
class. All new words occurring in Second, Third, or Fourth Step
lessons to be spelled by the class. Any portion of the school not
employed in recitation, should be occupied with their slates in
printing or writing, inventive drawing, making out tables, or reproducing lessons. Some definite work should be assigned to all
the divisions of the school for every hour in the day.
It will be remembered that all First Step lessons belong to the
first year of the child's school-life, the Second Step to the second
year, &c.  This, however, can only be considered as a general
direction.
Teachers may find it necessary not unfrequently to vary somewhat this arrangement, to adapt it to the varying ages and capacities of children. We cannot too carefully study the character of
the children we have to educate, observing the effect of each les
463 
PROGRAMME OF STUDIES.
son on their minds. If the lesson fails to interest the children,
we may regard it as a very sure indication that the lesson is either
not properly presented, or not adapted to them. It may be above,
or it may be below them.   The skilful teacher will carefully ob.
serve these things, and change the character of her lessons to
adapt them to the children before her.
464 
DAILY PROGRAMME
OF AN
OSWEGO PRIMARY SCHOOL.
C Class, or First Year.
A. M.
9: 15.-Opening Exercises.
9: 35.-Sub. 4, Phonic Reading.
9: 40.-Physical Exercises.
10: 00.-General Lesson.
10: 20.-Sub. 3, Phonic Reading.
10: 35.-Recess.
10: 55.-General Lesson.
11: 00.-Marching.
11: 20.-Sub. 2, Phonic Reading.
11: 35.-Recess.
11: 50.-Sub. 1, Number, with Objects.
11: 55.-Singing, and Dismissal of Youngest Chil.
dren.
11: 55 "12: 10.-Sub. 2, Number, with Objects.
12: 10 " 12: 30.-Sub. 1, Phonic Reading.
12: 30 to 1: 30.-Intermission.
P. M.
1: 50.-General Lesson.
2:  5.-Sub. 3, Number, with Objects.
2: 10.-Physical Exercises.
20*
.4.
9: 00 to
9: 15 "
9:35 99
9: 40 ii
10: 00 "
10: 20 "
10: 35 "
10: 55 "
11: 00  4
11: 20 ",
11: 3 5 "
11: 5 0 1,
I: 30 to
I: 50 11
2: 5 ii 
PROGRAMME OF STUDIES.
2: 10 to  2: 25.-Sub. 4, Number, with Objects.
2: 25 "  2: 35.-Singing, Roll-call, and Dismissal of Young.
est Children.
2: 35 " 3: 00.-Reading from Books.
Children not engaged in Class exercises are occupi;ed with
their slates in printing, or drawing.
B Class, or Second Year.
A. M.
9: 00 to  9: 15.-Opening Exercises.
9: 15 "  9: 40.-Sub. 1, Reading.  Sub. 2, M ng Tables
on Slates.
9: 40 "  9: 45.-Physical Exercises.
9: 45 "10:  5.-Sub. 2, Reading.  Sub. 1, Making Tables
on Slates.
10:  5 "10: 20.-Phonic Spelling, both Divisions.
10: 20" 10: 35.-Recess.
10: 35 "10: 55.-Examine Work on Slates.
10: 55 " 11: 20.-General Lesson.
11: 20 " 11: 35.-Recess.
11: 35 "12: 00.-Sub. 2, Number.   Sub.  1, Print Phonic
Spelling.
12: 00 "12: 5.-Singing, and Dismissal of Sub. 2.
12:  5 " 12: 30.-Sub. 1, Phonic Spelling from Slates.
12: 30 to 1: 30.-Intermission.
P. M.
1: 30 to  1: 50.-General Lesson.
1: 50 "  2:  5.-Inventive Drawing.
2: 5 "  2: 10.-Physical Exercises.
2:10 "  2: 25.-Sub. 2, Phonic Spelling.  Sub. 1, Drawing,
or Printing.
2: 25 "  2: 45.-Sub.  1, Number.   Sub.  2, Drawing, or
Printing.
2: 45 "  3: 00.-Examination of Work on Slates.
466 
PROGRAMME OF STUDIES.
A Class, or Third Year.
A. M.
9: 00 to  9: 15.-Opening Exercises.
9: 15 " 9: 40.-Sub. 1, Reading. Sub. 2, Preparing Read                    ing Lesson.
9: 40 " 9: 45.-Physical Exercises.
9: 45 " 10:  5.-Sub. 2, Reading.   Sub. 1, Preparing Tables
on Slates.
10:  5 " 10: 20.-Sub. 1, Phonic Spelling.  Sub. 2, Prepar.
ing Tables on Slates.
10: 20 "10: 35.-Recess.
10: 35" 10: 55.-Sub.  1, Number.   Sub. 2, Drawing  on
Slates
10: 55 "11: 20.-General Lesson.
11: 20 "11: 35.-Recess.
11: 35 "11: 55.-Sub. 2, Number.   Sub. 1, Drawing  or
Slates.
11: 55 "12: 00.-Singing.
12: 00" 12: 30.-Examination of Work on Slates.
12: 30 to 1: 30.-Intermission.
P. M.
1: 30 to  1: 55.-General Lesson.
1: 55 "  2: 10.-Tuesday and Thursday, Inventive Drawing.
Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, Read                   ing Stories to the Children.
2:10 " 2: 15.-Physical Exercises.
2: 15 " 2: 35.-Sub. 2, Phonic Spelling. Sub. 1, Occupied
with Slates.
2: 35 " 3: 00.-Examination of Slates.
467 
PROGRAMME  OF STUDIES.
The following Programme will show more minutely the work in
Object Lessons.  It is taken from the books in.Model School,
being a Programme for the Second Month of the First Term,
from Jfay 20th to June 9th.
C Class.
BIRDS.
REDBREAST.-Parts that distinguish.   General conversation;
cultivate humane feelings.
PEACOCK.-How distinguished. Moral lesson.
LARK. —How  distinguished.   Number  of parts-Two eyes,
two wings, one body, one tail, &c.
PARROT. —How distinguished. Names of parts.
STORK.-How distinguished. Position of parts.
FALCOX.-How distinguished.  Principal and secondary parts,
or parts of parts.
DOVE.-Number and position of parts.
NIGHTINGALE.-Names  of parts which  are distinguished as
principal and secondary.
PLACE.-,First Step.
1. Objects placed in different positions by the teacher;  cildren to imitate with minute accuracy.
2. As l.
3. Objects placed in different positions; teaching the meaning
of the term to express the position; as, beside, between, under;
and the children imitate and apply the terms; then place the
objects as directed, without a pattern.
4 and 5. As 3.
6. Objects placed; their position described, and represented
on the blackboard.
7 and 8. As 4 and 5.
SIzE.-First Step.
1. Idea of large and small.
2.     "    long and short.
468 
PROGRAMME OF STUDIES.
of wide and narrow.
thick and thin.
deep and shallow.
deep and high.
Various objects described with reference to all their
3. Idea
4.      "~
5.
6.      "4
7 and 8.
qualities.
B Class.
COLOR.
1. Yellow, Red, Blue, Orange, Green, Purple, Citrine, Olive,
Russet, distinguished, named, and matched.
2. Children form patterns with colored cards.  First, like
those made by the teacher, and then as they will. They are,
however, limited as to the colors they put together, in order to
accustom the eye to harmonious combination of colors merely.
Yellow and Purple.
Red and Green.
Orange and Blue.
3. Orange and Purple.
Green and Purple.
Orange, Green, and Purple.
4. Citrine and Red.
Citrine and Blue.
Citrine, Red, and Blue.
5. Russet with Blue.
Russet with Yellow.
Russet with Blue and Yellow.
6. Olive with Red.
Olive with Yellow.
Olive with Red and Yellow.
7. Black with Red.
Black with Yellow.
Black with Red and Yellow.
8. Black with Orange.
Black with Green.
Blackl with Oraingle and Green
469 
PR,OGRAIME OF STUDIES.
Though the exercises in Color Patterning are not exhausted,
and must be referred to again, it will be better now, for the sake
of variety, to proceed to the Third Step in Color.
1. Re-calling Color.-Lesson on Red.
2.                         "     Yellow.
3.                         "      Blue.
4.                         "      Green.
5.                         "     Orange and Purple.
6.                         "     Citrine, Russet, and Olive.
7. General Term.-Beauty of Color, &c. Color of Inanimate
Nature.
8. General Term.-Color of Animated Nature.
PLACE.- Cardinal Point&.
1. Idea of Eyast and West.
2. Idea of ATorth and South.
3. Idea of Cardinal Points.
4. Idea of term, Cardinal Points.
5. Exercises on the term, Cardinal Points.
6. Exercises on all the Points.
7 and 8. Necessity for having Four Points.
A Class.
BIrDS.
1 and 2. Eagle.
3. Condor.
4. Falcon.
PLACE.
Practice in drawing to Scale.
Schoolroom, adjoining rooms, school building.
Schoolroom with furniture, &c.
LANGUAGE.-Betide the Coui'se.
Forming sentences with the name of an Object.
4TO 
PROGRAMME OF STUDIES.
Forming sentences with a word expressing Quality.
Forming sentences with some part of the verb "to be."
EXAxPLE.-The Pencil is Sharp.
Forming sentences in which different qualities are ascribed to
the same object; as,
Sugar is sweet.
"     white.
brittle, &c.
The different sentences afterward contracted into one.
Forming sentences in which the same quality is ascribed to
different objects; as,
Glass is brittle.
Chalk is brittle.
Coal is brittle, &c.
The different sentences contracted into one.
THE END.
471 
I 
1
PROVIDE YOUR SCHOOLS
WITH
GEOGRAPHICAL APPARATUS.
m        t
p,0                                         o
p.t m       Q       ii;/           ~~ 
M.   
0
4      0
P 0
~~~~ ~~    (Z 714
a) a tt K
~~ ~;~~~~;~~~~/~;~4:    ~~~W -
e/~
"  "4.      4' -
Guyot's:tlaps are accurate and artistic.
Guyot s'I3aps show the Earth's Surface as it is.
Gutyot's 3Iaps are ttp to the timnes.
Guyot's rIaps stand without a rival.
Guyot's -Saps teach True Geography.
Guyot's Mcaps are simple and easily understood.
With Perce's Magnetic Globes and Objects
Geography becomes a most fascinating study.
Geography is made clear to the simplest mind.
Geography becomes a livirg reality.
Tha World itself is brought into the School Rcom.
The World and its inhabitants can be studied.
The World and its phenomena can be understood.
Nlo school room should be without them.
No child should be debarred from therm
They are simple in principle.
They have no complicated machinery.
They never get out of crder.
And are durable, serviceable and economical.
CHAS. SCRIBNER & CO., Publishers,
654 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
I
I
i
i
i
i
I
i
i
I
I
I
'WE  N oST
— 4 0,.
~ 4 ~  
-             -~~~~~~~~~
ETIC GLOBES.
Ld
L,4
bJ
SIZES AND PRICES.
r'ive inches in diameter, plain stand, style as above, - $6.00
Seven   "          "            "          "                 12.00
Twelve        "                 "                            20.00
ONE DOZEN MAGNETIC OBJECTS,
Representing Men of different races, Ships) Steamers, Li,ght            Hlouses and various Animals, and
MRS. SMITH'S GLOBE MANUAL,
Accomnpany each Globe without additional oost.
For additional Styles see pages 3 znd 4
I
i
i
2
A C-i N
zt
rq
to
rq
4
0
4)
4)
i
I
I
I
I 
3
PERCE'S MAGNETIC GLOBES.
to
0
ni
a)
4
u1)
4 —
O4
SIZES AND PRICES.
Five inches in diameter, Semi-Meridian, style as above. $8.00
Seven  "           "        "       "       "       "    15.00
Twelve"'       "       "       "       "I   I  25,00
(For additional styles see pages 2 and 4.
.MAGNETIC GLOBES AND GLOBE MANUAL,
Accompany each Globe, free of charge.
MRS. SMITH'S GLOBE MANUAL.
Lassons 011o the Globe, Illustrated by Perce's Magnetic
Globe and Magnetic Objects. By MARY HOWE
SMITHI, Teacher of Geography in the Oswego
Normal and Traininig School.
This little Manna, pre3ents P series of valuable exercises mde pos.
sible and l-ractical by the invention of the Magnetic Globe, which places
before the eye of the pupil a mirnatuire world with objects held by attrac.
tion to its surfac; and revolving wi,h it.  The book contains many sug.
gestions of great value to teachexs, who are so fortunate as to possess one
of Perce s excellen Magnetic Gibes."-choo Slhool Journal.
I
I
I
I
IC\
w
%4
td
0                  t:4
w
L'i
:d
Fi
Id
t'i
0
R 
PERCE4S MAGNETIC GLOBES.
PERCE"S MAGNETIC) GLOBES.I
"i.
tt,
rq
:4
Sizes and Prices.
Seven inches in diameter, full meridian, style as above, $20,00
Twelve  "        "I "                   "         "  35.00
For additional Styles see pages 2 and 3.
MAGNETIC OBJECTS AND GLOBE MANUAL,
FREE WITH  EACH  GLOBE.
Extra Magnetic Objects for Perce's Globes.
I. bAniinals of all Climates."  Elegantly colored, and moun      ted on Magnets. 1. Giraffe. 2. American Buffalo or
Bison. 3. Camel. 4. Whale. 5. Hippopotamus. 6.
Gorilla. 7. Seal. 8. Tiger. 9 Reindeer. 10. Musk-Ox.
11. Llama. 12. Kangaroo. Price, $1.25.
I *A"Id'aional Plagn."  Beautifully and correctly colored, and
mounted on Magnets.  Price, $1.50.
These Objects a(re p)acked securely in neat paper boxes,
ai f(t -wilt be seft by ma-i (rOSTAGE PAD,) on receipt ofprice.
i.1
I
i
i
I
11
i
I
I
I
i
i
i
I
o
t,i
Ad
.w
H
0
UP
I 
5
C_ UOT'S
WALL NAPS.
With Teacher's Guide, or Key to slaps.
GUYOTiS MAPS are incomparably superior.
Prof. L. AGAssIz.
GUYOTiS MAPS are eminent for their clearness.
Prof. JAMES D. DANA.
GUYOT'S MAPS are greatly superior to any other works of
the kind.                     Prof. JOSEPrH HERY.
GUYOTi'S MAPS are the most important aids ever published.
Prof. SANBORN TENNEY
GUYOTiS MAPS are unsurpassed.-Mass. Teacher.
GUYOT'S MAPS are most striking and truthful.
Wis. Journal of Eccation.
GUYOT'S MAPS form a new era in the study of Geography.
Penn. School Journal.
GUYOT'S MAPS will become a necessity
New York Teacher
GUYOT'S MAPS we highly and heartily commend.
Illinois Teacher.
GUYOT'S MAPS are eminently fitted for class-instruction.
American Journal of Science.
GUYOT'S MAPS are elegant and accurate.
R. I. Schoolmaster.
GUYOT'S MAPS-absolutely necessary.
Eansas Ed. Journal.
GUYOT'S MAPS are universally pronounced
THE BEST.
i
I
I
I
I 
6
GUYOT"S
Outline, Political and Physical
SCHOOL MAPS.
Price Eighteen Dollars pear Set.
INCLUDING "A KEY TO GUYOT?S MAPS."  1 VOL., 12mo.
(PRIVAY SERIES.)
These elegant Maps are mounted on muslin and are enclosed, for safe keeping, in a neat portfolio, from which they
may be removed as occasion requires. The series consists of
Ten Maps, as follows:
1. Large Map of the Uuited States, in sections.
2. Large Map of the Hemispheres.
3. Map of the World on Mercator's Projection.
4. Map of Northt America.
5. Mfap of South America.
6. Map of Europe.
7. Map of Central Europe.
8. Map of Asia.
9. Map of Africa.
10. MIap of Australia or Oceania.
These Maps have been prepared by the famous Geographer,
Prof. ARNOLD GUYOT, especially for the use of the Public
Schools of this country, and the attention of Trustees, School
Directors and Teachers is respectfully called to them, in the
firm belief that Guyot's Maps will be found to be
THE BEST.
I 
7
PERCE'S MAGNETIC GLOBES,
P ennsylvania has bought 3000 Magnetic Globes.
E  very Teacher should have one.-Hon. I. T. GOODNOW.
R  egarded as a most important invention of the age.
Hon. S. P. BATES.
C  learly comprehended by the youngest Pupils.
N. Y. CITY TEACHERS.
E  legant, Portable and Complete.-Prof. GEo. S. BLAcKIE.
S  uperintendents indorse these Globes:
Hon. VICTOR M. RICE, of New York; Hon. C. R. COBURN, of Penna.; Hon. D.
STIEVENSON, of Ky.; Hon. J. P. WICHEiRSHAM, while Principal State Normal
School, Millersville, Pa.; Hon. E. E. WHITE, of Ohio; Rev. B. G. NORTH   RtOP, of Conn,; Hon. W. R. WHITE, of W. Va.; Rev. Dr. L. VAN BOKKELEM,
of Maryla.nd; Hon. G. W. Hoss, of Indiana, and many other eminent
Educators have testified to the merits of" Perce's Magnetic Globe.
M akes plain what otherwise is a mystery to every child.
R. I. Schoolmaster
A n admirable instrument of instruction.-Brooklyn Eagle.
C  ratifies and instructs the children.-Hon. Y. M. RIcE.
N othing so simple and yet so beautiful. -Hon. D. STEVENSON.
E  xhibits palpable proofs of many strange thin,gs.
Wis. Scol. Joule
T eachers you need this Globe.-Indiana School Teacher.
| shall make it my traveling companion.-Prof. J. WILKINSON.
C  hildren love to see it.-Prof. O. R. BOUTON.
o  eographical Truths most forcibly impressed.
Prof. P. A. CREAGER.
L  ight of Truth breaks upon the child.-Kansas Ed. Journal.
0   ur children see it and rejoice thereat.-Hon. E. W. KEYLS.
B  eautiful and Instructive.-Penn. School Joturnal.
E  ducators owe unqualified thanks for this invention.
Prof. J. SHERMAN.
Of all School Globes, Perce's Magnetic are pronounced by all who have used them
"Z" H                    e4 IE"t
I
I
Ii
i
I
I
i
i
i
I
l
I
-I
I
I
I
i
i
i
i
i 
8
GUYOT'S PRIMARY WALL MAPS.
Combine all the essential qualities of good School MTaps.
1st. The?A are correct.
2d. Disti) gui,hed by clearness and simplicity.
3d. Due importance is given to the Physical Features.
4th. Political Boutndaries, etc., distinctly designated, thus
5th. They are both Political and Physical.
6th. The Proportion of parts asfoutndin Nature are preserved
7th. They are actual PICTURES of the Earth's surface.
:xrice, S03.QO 3ex  cst.
I
k
II
I. C2EAR _
PE CE'S MAGNETIC GLOBES.
STYLES AND PRICES.
Fiveo inches in Diameter........ Plain Stand,    $ 6.00
",, ",......,...S emi-Meridian, 8.00
Seven inches in Diameter.........Plain Stand      12.00
"........Semi-Meridian,               15.00
"... " "....Full Meridian,  20.00
Twelv  iniolhes in Diameter.......Plain Stand,    20.00
".. "......Semi-Meridian,      25.00
".......                      F ull Meridian,   35.00
ONE DOZEN MAGNETIC OBJECTS, representing men of different
races, ships, steamers, light-houses, and various animals;and Mrs. Smith's
Globe Manual accompany each Globe without additional cost.
ClARLES SCRIBNERP  & CO., Publishers,
654.BBOADWAY,.New York.
I
-i