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MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS -1963

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HYDRAULIC FRACTURING AS A WASTE DISPOSAL MET
.
.
.
r
W. C. McClain
EN BRICES
JUN 1 3 1967
Health Physics Division
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Ha 13.00, MX 651
.
INTRODUCTION
For the past several years, the Oak Ridge National. Laboratory has
been developing a method of waste disposal based on the oil-field tech-
nique of hydraulic fracturing. +, This work reached fruition in Decem-
ber 1966 and in April of this year when the Operations Division of the
Laboratory injected 65,000 gal and 80,000 gal, respectively, of residues
from the new waste evaporator using the technique. This evaporator con-
centrates the normal laboratory wastes about fifteen to twenty times and
will be producing approximately 150,000 to 200,000 gal of waste mate-
rial per year containing up to 0.5 Ci/gal. This concentrate will be
disposed at the hydraulic fracturing plant on a routine basis in batches
of approximately 80,000 gal (320,000 liters) at 4- to 6-month intervals.'
The method consists of mixing the aqueous wastes with preblended
-
..
14.
.
TK
.
dry solids containing principally cement, and then pumping the result-
ing slurry down a well and out into a conformable nearly horizonta).
fracture in the thick shale formation at depth (Fig. 1). The cased well
is prepared for the injection by perforating the casing at the desired
,
Research sponsored by the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission under
contract with the Union Carbide Corporation.
ure:
C
For presentation at the IAEA Symposium on the Disposal of Radio-
active Wastes into the Ground, May 29 through June 2, 1967, Vienna,
Austria.
LEGAL NOTICE
.
.
TA
-
24
--
A
.
2
Thio report was prepared as an account of Government sponsored work. Neither the United
Statos, nor the Commission, nor any person acting on behalf of the Commissions
A. Makcs any warranty or representation, expressed or implied, with respect to the accu-
racy, completeness, or usefulness of the information contained in this report, or that the uso
of any information, apparatus, method, or proceso disclosed in this report may not Infringe
privately owned righto; or
B. Assumes any liabilities with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the
188 of any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this reporte
As vaad in the above, "person acting on behalf of the Commission" includes any om-
ployee or contractor of the Commission, or employee of such contriotor, to the oxtent that
such employee or contractor of the Commission, or employeo of such contractor proparos,
disseminates, or provides access to, any Information pursuant to bilo employment or contract
with the Commission, or bio employment with such contractor.
DISTRIBUTION OF THIS, DOCUMENT IS UNLIMITED
LLÜ
WTL
"
'
v
.
Une
.
1!.9
!!
Fig. 1. Pictorial Representation of the Hydraulic Fracturing Plant
and the Injected Grout Sheets (ORNL-DWG 63-3830).
2
SAL
ORNL-DWG 63-3830
.'"
DRY SOLIDS STORAGE BINS
PUMP HOUSEN
VALVE PIT
EMERGENCY WASTE TRENCH
WASTE STORAGE TANKS
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2
SWASTE PIT
ANA
tu
WELLHEAD CELLE
HIGH-PRESSURE PUMP
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SCALE IN FEET
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MIXER CELL
PUMP SPEED
GRAY SHALE DE
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GROUT SHEETS
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Fig. 1. : Pictorial Representation of the Hydraulic Fracturing Plant
and the Injected Grout Sheets.
11

2
-
.
.
E
ME
depth and pressurizing the well with water. This induces a fracture
in the rocks into which the waste slurry is pumped, causing the fracture
to extend. After completion of the pumping phase, the cement slurry is
allowed to harden, under pressure, to form a thin horizontal grout sheet.
This procedure can be repeated successively up the well, creating &
:
:
hi
:
stack of horizontal grout sheets.
The successful application of this method required research and
development in three main areas: (1) the design, construction, and
testing of the plant and equipment, including tanks, lins, mixers, and
pumps capable of safely handling the materials; (2) chemical development
of mix formulations providing, at minimum cost, a pumpable slurry and
a grout offering maximum radionuclide retention; (3) development of an
understanding of the mechanical behavior of the host rock under the in-
fluence of repeated injections and suitable instruments and techniques
for monitoring that behavior.
THE PLANT AND ITS OPERATION
The essential components of the plant and their function are il-
lustrated in the schematic flow diagram of Fig. 2." Prior to the in-
jection, the dry solids are blended and temporarily stored at the site
along with the waste solutions. After the equipment has been checked
and the well prepared, the dry solids and liquid wastes ære vigorously
mixed, at a constant flow rate, by the jet mixer. The control of the
flow of these materials to maintain the proper proportion of solids to
liquid is one of the more difficult and critical phases of the injec-
tion operation. The slurry is then I imped to the wellhead, down the
well, and out into the prefractured shale. At ORNL this usually requires
+
Fig. 2. Schematic Flow Diagram of Hydraulic Fracturing Plant
(ORNL-DWG 63-397).
i
LO

ORNL-DWG 63-397 R-1
WATER
PRE-MIXED
SOLIDS
STAND BY
MIXER & PUMP
Thu
MIXER CELL:
INJECTION
PUMP:
:CELL
11
CO
WELLHEAD:
CELL
D
0
U
.
WASTE | PUMP
WASTE
PIT
WASTE
STORAGE
-
..-
Fig. 2. Schematic Flow Diagram of Hydraulic Fracturing Plant.
a pumping pressure ranging from about 2500 psi (1750 kg/cm?) down to
1500 psi (1050 kg/cm). The jet mixer, the high-pressure injection
pump, and the wellhead are enclosed in individual concrete cells to
provide shielding and for ease in decontamination. The arrangement of
- these. components at the ORNL plant is shown in Fig. 3 where the only
significant addition to the system shown in Fig. 2 is the emergency
waste trench. This trench and the 18-in. (45 cm) line connecting it
to the wellhead cell were installed to control the slurry that would
flow back out of the well in the event of a rupture in the piping
system at the wellhead downstream of the last shut-off valve. The
total capital investment represented by the installed physical plant,
including the cased injection well and several observation wells, was
approximately $500,000.
The actual operation of the mechanical equipment durirg an injec-
tion is performed under contract by personnel of the, Halliburton Company,
a major oil-field service organization, who also supply a stand-by pump.
Because most of the equipment and the operation itself is standard for
oil-field cementing and hydraulic fracturing operations, and because
of the infrequent usage, this arrangement was considered more satisfac-
tory than training ORNL personnel. The cost of this Halliburton Company *
service, including travel time, stand-by pump rental, check out and
maintenance of the plant, cleanup, and deactivation, averages $4000 per
injection.
Seven experimental injections were carried out at this site prior
to commencing the present routine operations. This series was used
(among other things) in test, prove, and, where indicated, modify the
Fig. 3. Layout of Shale Fracturing Experiment (ORNL-LR-DWG 78665
R-I).
ORNL-LR-DWG 78665 R-I
O
OITUDIO
-OBSERVATION
WELL
TI
VUJV
- EMERGENCY
WASTE TRENCH
W
!
775 -
-WASTE TRANSFER
LINE
WASTE
PIT
90
780
WASTE
PUMPS
BLENDING
TANKS
w
MOV
WATER
TANK-
WATER LINE
VALVE
PIT
MIXER
CELLS
X
-785
BULK STORAGE
TANKS
- WASTE STORAGE
TANKS
INJECTION
WELL-
-OFF-GAS

.
STANI
STANDBY
PUMP
INJECTION
PUMP
10
0
10
20
30
FEET
-
-
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
..
..
· Fig. 3.
Layout of Shale Fracturing Experiment.
7
installed equipment. Throughout this experimental series, the capabil-
ity of the equipment to handle the radioactive materials and to cope
with unusual situations was demonstrated.
MIX DEVELOPMENT
The cost of the dry solids to be mixed with the waste solutions
represents one of the larger fixed expenses of disposal by the hydraulic
fracturing method. The development of the slurry formulation was there-
fore nainly a search for less expensive materials and the establishment
of the minimum required quantities of these materials.“ The slurry spe-
cifications which had to be met were (1) a viscosity and thickening time
such that the slurry could be pumped and would remain fluid during the
entire injection phase which might last up to 8 hr, (2) the slurry should
harden into a grout having at least some strength within a reasonable
period, 7(3) all of the fluid should be taken up during the setting process
so that there would be no phase separation, and (4) the radionuclides
should be firmly retained in the grout in a reasonably unleachable state.
These requirements were met by developing a solids blend based on
Portland cement which provided the hardening and strength characteristics
of the grout sheet. The cement also combines chemically with the radio-
.strontium in the waste, providing satisfactory retention of that nuclide.
Since a high-strength grout was not necessary, the quantity of cement
used was approximately 5 lb/gal, about one-third the usual concentration.
Attapulgite clay was used to prevent any possible phase separation of
the slurry resulting from this low quantity of cement. Adequate pumping
time was assured by the addition of a small quantity of commercial organic
retarder (a sugar, delta gluconolactone). Retention of radiocesium, the
major radionuclide in the waste, was attained by the addition of illite
(Grundite) clay. Finally, it was discovered that highly siliceous
pozzolanic materials, such as fly ash, could be substituted for part of
the cement (up to 2.5 lb/gal) with a further reduction in cost and the
added dividend of an improved strontium retention capacity.
The development of this mix and the successive reduction in its
cost is illustrated by the last five of the seven experimental injections
shown on Fig. 4. The first two injections were primarily for equipment
and procedure checks and, therefore, are not relevant in this discussion.
The reduction in cost was obtained primarily by decreasing the quantity
of cement which is reflected by the successive reduction in the compres-
sive strength of the grout. The mix formula was usually modified slightly
for each injection because of small differences in the composition and
concentration of the waste, but, in general, it was composed as follows:
Portland Cement (Type II) - 3 1b/ga1 (0.36 kg/liter)
Fly Ash - 2 lb/gal (0.24 kg/liter)
Attapulgite - 0.75 lb/gal (0.09 kg/liter)
Illite (Grundite) - 0.45 lb/gal (0.05 kg/liter)
Retarder (Delta Gluconolactone) - 0.003 lb/gal (0.0004 kg/liter)
This blend met the slurry specifications and provided for about 99% re-
tention of all radionuclides as measured by water-leaching tests. The
raw materials for the blend cost about $0.06/gal, of injected waste.
ROCK MECHANICS
It was realized from the beginning of the developmental program
that the behavior of the shale near the injected grout sheets and the
rocks making up the rest of the system would exercise a controlling
A
.
-
.
Fig. 4. Summary of Mix Compositions - Experimental Inge ctions
(ORNL-DWG 65-11299).
.'
ORNL DWG. 65-11299
Fig. 4. Summary of Mix Compositions - Experimental Injections.
Injection
Number
Waste
Type
Mix
Compressive
Strength
(psi)
Pumping
Time
(Hr)
Cost
($/Gal)
Activity
(Curies)
None
30 Au 198
10X
None
2
0.01
0.07
10X
200
11.3
10X
50 Cs 137
0.15 C. 60
2700
9.7
0.16
Attapulgite
Cement
Attapulgite
CFR - 1
Cement
Attapulgite
CFR - 1.
Cement
Attapulgite
CFR-i
Cement
Attapulgite
CFR - 1
Grundite
1X
55Cs 137
0.05 C050
700
6.7
0.11
5
1x
4000 Ce
19.5
0.09
150 Cs 137
6
3X
3X
1700 Cs 137
- 150
15
0.06
7
Cement
Attapulgile
CFR - 1
Grundite
Flyash
Cement
Attapulgite
CFR - 1
Grundite
Flyash
1.25X
3300 Cs 137
100
g
0.06
45C060
·
10
influence on the general applicability of the method. The rocks over-
lying the injections provide both shielding and an isolation barrier,
the integrity of which must be maintained if the method is to be suc-
cessful. Each successive injection disturbs these overlying rocks as
can be seen by the measured uplifts of the surface occurring directly
over the seven experimental injections (Fig. 5). Obviously, it is not
possible to continue to inject grout sheets, one on top of another in-
definitely, with each injection adding an increment of rock deformation
and surface uplift. Eventually, the rocks must fail, resulting in the
outflow of the waste slurry on the surface or the opening of fissures
in the rocks leading to leaching of the grout by circulating groundwater.
Analysis of the stresses and deformations induced around the in-
jected grout sheets indicates that when a failure of the integrity of
the rock barrier occurs, it will be by the formation of a vertical, rather
than a horizontal, fracture. The orientation of hydraulically induced
fractures is controlled primarily by the state of stress in the ground.
Although a number of factors influence the orientation slightly, the
fracture will usually form perpendicular to the direction of the least
compressive stress; that is, where the least amount of work is required
to force the crack open. At the Oak Ridge site, the fractures are known ***
to be horizontal or nearly so, since the underground location of the
injected grout sheets has been plotted based on information obtained
from a large number of core drill holes intersecting the grout sheets.
An example of the recovered core is shown in Fig. 6. This and the meas-
urement of formation breakdown pressures sufficiently greater than the
overburden pressures implies that the horizontal compressive stresses
are greater than, or at least equal to, the vertical stress.
22
Fig. 5. Profile of Surface Uplift from Experimental Injections -
East-West Section (ORNL-DWG 65-13025).
ri
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.
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.
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9-8-65
10-21-6
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6-12- 6%
prozza
2-26.6
een toiminta
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(INJECTIONS)
INJECTIONS
2-6-64
er C-LAVE
2-4-64
8-LINE
.
1600
2000
.:::....::
:.
2000 - 6600 31200000.: 400
400 000 1200
... E DISTANCE intl ::...
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Fig. 5. Profile of Surface Uplifts E-W Section.
0.
:::..
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.:.
1
19
.......
Vs-
.
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...
10. NYS
:
.:.:
ICC
11
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Fig. 6. Core Sample Showing Intersected Grout Sheet (ORNL-PHOTO-
67319).

-
-
-
-
-
---
----
-
-
-
-
-
---
-
-
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+
7
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--
تفکیشن فنشن
Prywa
.
.
885.0 ft
0.27 in.
886.9 ft
0.1 in.
0.1 in.
888.0 ft
0.035 in.
885.2 ft
0.06 in.
887.9 ft
0.1 in.
Well NE 125
cm
Fig. 6. Core Sample Showing Intersected Grout Sheet..
.
.
..
Landon me.............
!
..
.
-
-
Insi:
a
.
,
.
The stresses induced in the rock around an injection can be analyzed
by assuming a very flattened circular ellipsoidal shape for the grout
sheet and a set of elastic physical properties for the surrounding rocks.
The induced stresses (Fig. 7) are maximum along a line vertically above
the center of the injection; that is, coincident with the injection well
where all future fracturing operations and injections will take place.
The induced stresses, shown on Fig. 7 in terms of the fluid pressure in-
side the fracture (P.), indicates a large vertical compressive stress
(o,) and a much smaller compressional or even tensional horizontal stress.
This induced vertical stress therefore increases the total vertical stress
and each injection creates a condition slightly more conducive to the
formation of a vertical fracture. Since the internal pressure (P) of
a single injection should be of the order of 8 to 10 psi (0.5 to 0.75
kg/cm) the induced stresses are quite small. However, the effects of
each individual injection are cumulative and appreciable stress can be
SAS
H
built up by a few tens of injection.
The total volume of injected grout required to produce a failure
of the formation can be estimated by this analysis if sufficient infor-
mation concerning the site is known. The principal item of information
needed is the value of the original state of stress in the earth's crust. --
Unfortunately, there is no known way to reliably obtain this information
in shale at these depths. Using the most conservative estimates of the
original earth stress at the Oak Ridge site, that is, a horizontal stress
just equal to the vertical stress, and the anticipated size of the in-
jected grout sheets of 500 ft (1.50 m) radius and 0.01 ft (3 mm) thickness,
an estimated minimum ultimate capacity of the shale formation of 4 x 10%;
II
gal is obtained. Because of the assumptions and the estimated values
4.
HT
Seinastuse
d
.......
..... or
"
wymi
enia
VEPOTA
Fig. 7. Stresses Induced Above the Center of a Circular Ellipsoidal
Injection (ORNL-DWG 66-7225).
XXXWTREGA
ORNL-DWG 66-7225

wir
DISTANCE ABOVE INJECTION / RADIUS OF INJECTION
. .
.
. .
Ox1 Pocoy/Po
.
.
..
..
- .
-
-
.
-
-
PO
0.4
. 2
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
0. o
-0.2 -0,4
TENSION
COMPRESSION -
CENTER. STRESSES IN TERMS OF Po
Fig. 7. Stresses Induced Above the Center of a Circular Ellipsoidal
Injection.
15
------.........om
used in the calculation, this is a minimum capacity. The actual ulti-
12 T4
mate capacity may be several times larger.
It is possible that a failure of the rocks by the formation of a
vertical fracture can be detected by examination of fluid pressures re-
quired to breakdown and extend the fracture in the formation. If
these pressures are less than the overburden pressure, a vertical frac-
ture is indicated, whereas pressures greater than the weight of the
overlying rocks is presumptive evidence o I a horizontal fracture. Since
the initial breakdown process is carried out using clean water, it is
EX
WUM
possible to avoid pumping the waste slurry into an indicated vertical
fracture. It is hoped that further information on the response of the,
f
overlying rocks to the disturbing influence of the injections can be
gained at the Oak Ridge site from the "rock cover" wells. These are
holes drilled into the upper part of the host shale formation. They
are designed to provide an indication of any gruss changes in the per-
meability of the shale which may precede a failure or the rock.
The behavior of the injected slurry and its effect on the surround-
ing rocks is only partially understood, and research is continuing on
this aspect of the method using the routine injections at the Oak Ridge
plant as an experimental tool. There are two main sources of data from
this program - the uplift of the surface over the injections as measured
by repeated levelings and the existing and planned core holes drilled
through the grout sheets. The surface uplift data remains one of the
best sources of data concerning the underground phenomena, ever though
it has been shown both theoretically and by experience that the uplift
is relatively insensitive to differences in the thickness and extent
:
of the grout sheet. A number of holes have been drilled through the
experimental sheets and cores containing the grout recovered (Fig. 6).
These core holes provide a sampling of the thickness, elevation, and
extent of the grout sheets. The holes are then cased and can be logged
using a gamma probe for indications of intersection by future injections.
COST SUMMARY
method of waste disposal is intended for comparison purposes only.
The
plant was designed and, except for the last two injections, operated as
an experimental facility. Detailed costs of this experimental program
are not available nor would they be a realistic estimate of the costs
of operating a disposal facility.
The only operating expense not previously discussed concerns the
Laboratory's cost of preparing for the injection and includes: determin-
ing the exact mix formula for a particular batch of waste, blending the
dry solids, pumping the waste solutions to the site, and such items as
electrical power and radiation surveys during the actual injection.
The
total cost of these activities is estimated to be $4000 per injection.
The total estimated cost of disposal by this method is based on
its anticipated use for the disposal of ORNL waste evaporator residues;
that is, injection of 80,000-gal batches at 4. to 6-month intervals with
no interest charges fox the capital investment and with the calculations
carried out for both a 4 x 10° gal ultimate capacity and a more realis-
tic 10' gal capacity. These total estimated costs are shown in Fig. 8.
The total cost of $0.20 to $0.30/gal can be compared with an estimated
$0.30 to $0.35/gal for permanent tank storage of ORNL intermediate-level,
wastes
culated on a somewhat different basis).
what different basis).
It should be pointed
·
Fig. 8. Summary of Cost Estimate (ORNL-DWG 67-3873).
17
.
.
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ORNL D'NG. 57-3871
-
-
-
-
-
-
Fig. 8. SUMMARY OF COST ESTIMATES FOR DISPOSAL OF ORNL
WASTES BY THYDRAUTIC FRACTURING.
.
Unit Costs
$/gal of waste injected
Cost per 80,000
gallon injection ($)
4 x 109 gal. total capacity
10' gal, total capacity
Capital Investiment Amortization ($500,000)
Dry solids
Halliburton Contract
ORNL Direct expense
4800
4000
0.125
0.060
0.050
0.050
0.050
0.060
0.050
4000
0.050
Total
0.285
.
0.210
12,800
(operating only
costs = $0.16/gal.)
(2
.
18
out that tank storage does not solve the waste disposal problem, only
postpones it. Some of the ORNL waste tanks had an estimated life of
20 years when constructed. They are now 22 years old. Hydraulic frac-
turing therefore appears to be not only slightly less expensive than
tank storage, but it also has the added advantage of permanently remov-
ing the radioactive materials from the biological environment.
SITE EVALUATION
Although the practicability and value of disposal by hydraulic
fracturing has been demonstrated for the Oak Ridge site, its applica-
bility at other locations is not automatic. This is primarily because
of reservations about the possible fracture orientation. Three generali-
zations of the wide oil-fiell experience with hydraulically induced
fractures can be made: (1) Horizontal fractures are more likely in
those geological regions characterized by compressive features, such
as thrust faults and folding, while vertical fractures favor geological
areas with tensional features, such as normal faults; (2) horizontal
fractures seem to be more likely at shallow depths, and vertical frac-
tures appear more likely at greater depths; and (3) it is not possible
to make an a priori prediction of the fracture orientation at any given
site without previous hydraulic fracturing experience in the immediate area.
This means that at any proposed site for disposal by hydraulic
fracturing, a test program involving the actual fracturing of the rocks
to the normal geological and geophysical investigation of the site. Cur-
rent research at ORNL is directed toward the design of a site-testing
procedure which will provide a maximum amount of data related to the
19
applicability of hydraulic fracturing and an estimate of the total ca-
pacity available with a minimum expenditure.
REFERENCES
1. DE LAGUNA, WALLACE, Disposal of Radioactive Wastes by Hydraulic
Fracturing: Part I, General Concept and First Field Experiments,
Nuclear Engineering and Design 3, 338-352 (1966).
2. DE LAGUNA, WALLACE, Disposal of Radioactive Wastes by Hydraulic
Fracturing: Part II, Mechanics of Fracture Formation and Design
of Observation and Monitoring Wells, Nuclear Engineering and Design
3, 432-438 (1966).
turing: Part III, Design of ORNL's Shale Fracturing Plant, Nuclear
Engineering and Design 4, 106-117 (1966).
4. TAMURA, TSUNEO, Disposal of Radioactive Wastes by Hydraulic Frac-
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8. BLOMEKE, J. O., private communication.
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