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A HISTORY AND A DESCRIPTION OF THE PALATINE COUNTIES OF LANCASTER AND CHESTER, FORMING THE NORTH-WESTERN DIVISION OF ENGLAND, FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME By THOMAS BAINEs. gº MEMBER OF THE HISTORIC SOCIETY OF LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE, AND AUTHOR OF “THE HISTORY OF Liverpool.” © sº tº º º WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF MANUFACTURES AND COMMERGE, AND CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN THESE DISTRICTS. By WILLIAM FAIRB AIRN, LL.D., F.R.S. coRRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE; Ex-PRESID. OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL sociETY OF MANCHESTER, ETC., ETC. WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS FROM ORIGINAL DIRAWINGS BY H. WARREN, R.A., f AND A SERIES OF PORTRAITS, VO L. l l , WILLIAM MACKENZIE, 22 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON; LIVERPOOL, 14 GREAT GEORGE STREET; MANCHESTER, 59 DALE STREET: LEEDS, 27 PARK SQUARE; CARLISLE, 3 EARL STREET. —-TT -º-º-º-º-º-'dº •º * * --~~~~ v * * * w sº *A * s * * * * S *D, ~ ºf <--> g º --"- --- “sº → ~ ****… a --- ...---- ~~~~ ! j. - -e PRINTED BY WILLIAM MACKENZIE, 45 & 47 HOWARD STREET, GLASGow. |º E.- º ， ， ，aenae， …………… ……………… ………… 1 !! 0 ！! ！2 （ ） n n º| ， ، ، ، ، | || || W | N \\ 0 \ll \ I \ \ 5 || S. 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G 'C) : PE Ic- * * º : º sº * s s • * * – 'evie- - - - - - - - - - - - - -y-. N*,-- iN s N N § s s s sº-sº§ PAST AND PRESENT. - 353 ſ The West Derby Division from 1831 to 1861–The West Derby division is the suburban district of Liverpool, as the Chorlton district is a suburban district of Manchester, and the increase of population. in both has been enormous. At the beginning of the century the West Derby division had only 11,994 inhabitants; in 1831 it had 53,058; and in 1861 it had no less than 225,845. The average population in the division of West Derby was 1940 to the square mile in the year 1851. WEST DERBY DIVISION, Population. Division of f _^– Y - 1831. 1841. 1851. 1861. West Derby, . . . . . . 53,058 88,680 153,279 225,845 Subdivisions of 1. Toxteth Park, . . . . . 24,067 41,295 61,334 69,284 2. Everton, . . . . . . . 7,109 13,489 35,776 70,983 3. Walton, . . . . . . . 4,130 5,625 8,462 11,834 4. Crosby, . . . . . . . 2,462 3,194 3,669 5,075 5. Litherland, . . . . . . . 2,023 2,970 3,609 5,084 6. West Derby, . . . . . 9,655 16,921 33,014 52,740 7. Wavertree, . . . . . . 3,612 5,186 7,415 10,845 The Liverpool Division from 1831 to 1861–The growth of Liver- pool during the whole of the present century has been astonishingly rapid, and it continued to increase up to the last returns with a constant increasing rapidity. We shall speak of the town itself in the next chapter of the present work. At present we only refer to the old borough and parish, which do not contain much more than half of the population. It is a district of small extent, and is completely filled with streets and houses. At the first census in 1801 this district contained 77,653 inhabitants; in 1831 it contained 165,175; and in 1861 it contained 269,742. The increase was thus 87,522 in the first thirty years of the present century, and 104,567 in the thirty years ending at the census of 1861. The number of persons included in this very small space is extremely large, being not less than 74,446 to the square mile in 1851. LIVERPOOL DIVISION. Population. Division of ſ— –A– —) 1831. 1841. 1851. 1861. Liverpool, . . . . . . . 165,175 223,003 258,236 269,742 Subdivisions of L 1. St. Martin, . . . . . . Y 35,478 61,777 81,228 2. Howard Street, | 26,197 27,942 24,816 3. Dale Street, 35,861 31,763 29,078 VOL. II, 2 Y 354 LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : LIVERPOOL DIVISION−continued. Population. Subdivisions of ſ - —* Y - 1831. 1841. 1851. 1861. 4. St. George's, . . . . . ) (19723 19,823. 16,827 5. St. Thomas, . . . . . ! 34,972 33,957 29,142 6. Mount Pleasant. . . . . .” $33,042 A1997 47,410 7, Islington, . . . . . . J [37,730 40,977 41,241 Liverpool and West Derby divisions form the town and suburbs of Liverpool; and we shall speak of them more fully when we come to speak of the port and borough of Liverpool. The Macclesfield Division ſºom 1831 to 1861–The introduction of the railway system into the manufacturing districts of Cheshire, which has taken place during the last thirty years, has brought them into much closer connection with the industry of Lancashire. There are no navigable rivers in this part of Cheshire, and not many canals, so that the cost of transport was very heavy. The position of the Cheshire coal-field is chiefly amongst the mountains, or close to the foot of them; and it is only since the introduction of railways that it has been easy to convey fuel to the great manufacturing centres. The original manufacture of the Macclesfield district was that of silk —a branch of industry long supported by protective laws, and which sustained some temporary injury from the repeal of those laws. But all the elements of manufacturing prosperity are so abundant in this country as to insure ultimate success under a system of free competi- tion, if proper attention be paid to the education of those who are engaged in British industry. The natural taste of the French work- man, and the great pains taken to develop it, have hitherto given the French a considerable advantage in the silk manufacture; but with equal care in developing the taste and skill of the English artizan, there is no reason why he should not be able to take an equally good position. The increase of population in the Macclesfield district from the year 1801 to the year 1851, was from 24,215 to 63,327; but during the ten years between 1851 and 1861 there was a small decrease in comparison with 1851, the numbers of the popula- tion at the census of 1861 having declined to 61,517 persons. MACCLESFIELD DIVISION. - Population. Division of r —”— —) 1831. 1841. 1851. 1861. Macclesfield. . . . . . . 50,639 56,035 63,327 61,543 TAST AND PRESENT. 355 MACCLESFIELD DIVISION.—continued. Population. Subdivisions of f \ 1831. 1841. 1851. 1861. 1. Prestbury, . . . . . . 4,550 4,828 5,417 5,197 2. Bollington, . . . . . . . 6,751 8,949 9,776 10,357 3. Rainow, . . . . . . . 2,905 3,204 3,124 3,478 4. East Macclesfield, . . . . !23 129 } 11,192 12,289 10,901 5. West Macclesfield, . . . . ) " ' 12,945 17,359 16,574 6. Sutton, . . . . . . . 6,785 7,837 8,308 7,392 7. Gawsworth, . . . . . . 3,479 3,453 3,453 3,118 8. Alderley, . . . . . . . 3,040 3,627 3,601 4,526 Owing to the great facilities afforded by railway travelling, Alder- ley Edge, in this district, which is one of the most beautiful and commanding positions in Cheshire, has been covered with handsome villas, principally inhabited by the merchants and manufacturers of Manchester. Near the same spot valuable deposits of copper ore have been found in the new red sandstone rock. These in 1867 supplied 15,152 tons of copper ore, from which was extracted 301 tons of copper, of the value of £22,570. The Stockport Division from 1831 to 1861.-The cotton manu- facture is more extensively carried on in this district than in any other part of Cheshire, and the population has increased with equal rapidity. There are two great centres of manufacturing activity in this district, one of them being the borough of Stockport, of which Heaton-Norris is a great suburb ; and the second, the flourishing town of Hyde, which had only 3573 inhabitants in 1801, and had increased to 20,594 in 1861. Of this number 13,722 were in the town itself, and the remainder in the surrounding district. The mineral wealth of the Stockport district is very great, many of the richest beds of the Lancashire coal-field extending into this part of Cheshire. The increase of Bredbury is chiefly owing to the extended colliery operations and the manufacture of hats, whilst that of Hyde is owing to the extension of the cotton manufacture and the improve- ment of railway communication. There is also abundance of water- power in the river Mersey in this part of its course, and in numerous smaller streams. Although Stockport was connected by canal with the system of Lancashire canals, there was a geat want of means of cheap transport until the railway system was introduced, about thirty years ago. This has now opened out the district both to the north and the South, and has given a great impulse to industry and employment, and consequently to population and wealth. 356 LANGASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: Division of Stockport, Subdivisions of . Marple, Hyde, . Heaton-Norris, . . Stockport First,. . Stockport Second, . . Cheadle, . . Hazlegrove, . i STOCKPORT DIVISION. Population. C *— - —Y 1831. 1841. 1851. 1861. 70,144 85,678 90,208 94,360 4,399 5,281 5,308 5,128 12,980 17,375 18,195 20,594 12,098 15,817 16,915 17,696 22,199 25,310 27,593 28,224 10,857 12,973 12,783 12,860 3,866 4,660 4,679 4,941 3,745 4,262 4,735 4,917 The Coal Mines of Cheshire.—The coal mines of Cheshire are much less numerous than those of Lancashire. They are found chiefly around the towns of Stockport, Staleybridge and Dukinfield, and Macclesfield. The whole number of the Cheshire coal mines is thirty-nine, as will be seen from the following extract from the official return published in 1868:- THE COAL MINES OF CHESHIPE Names of Collieries. Adlington, Astley, Bakestone Dale, Barracks, Bayley Field, Berristall, Burned Edge, Bredbury, Bredbury Black Mine, Brookhouse, California Day Eye, Cliffe, Dane, Dukinfield, {{ Dunkirk, Eddisbury, Fire Clay, Greenhills, Hookerley, Hough Hole Day Eye, Hyde, Little Neston, Lower Sponds, Lymer Clough, Macclesfield Common, Middle Cale, Where situated. Adlington, near Stockport, Dukinfield, Pott Shrigley, Macclesfield, * * * ~ * it tº e º 'º e North- western Division. . 42,614 1,541,685 125,193 147,506 991,599 67,711 1,384,150 157,535 37,645 87,548 140,962 6,546 139,564 632,637 56,273 5,818 18,066 139,241 55,052 tº e º 'º º º e & tº e º ſº tº º is º 'º dº tº g º & © tº as a G = * * e - © tº tº º a s a e s a South- midland Division. 25,498 716,113 20,350 225,142 260,326 39,897 4,788 3,101 17,609 624,036 92,077 6,939 13,411 217,657 7,485 46,378 151,402 30,094 1,965 9,969 20,518 23,709 I. PROFESSIONAL :— 1. Local government:— 1. National government, . 2. Local government, . . . . . 3. East Indian and Colonial, . 2. National defence :- 1. Army (in England and Wales), 2. Navy (ashore or in port), . 3. Learned professions:— 1. Clergymen and ministers, . 2. Lawyers, . . . 3. Physicians, surgeons, and druggists, 4. Authors and literary persons, 110,299 77,993 SUB-ORDERS. 91,005 40,939 38,536 34,991 38,441 3,580 as a sº e º ºr a s tº e º º a & tº a tº & © tº e º º tº dº tº a º a * * * g º º tº ſº tº e º & * e º e º 'º as e e º º º 8,063 4,596 G - e º Lº * - e. e º º • * * * * * tº e º e s tº 8,072 8,116 2,162 2,528 98 2,824 277 3,277 1,889 2,115 309 PAST AND PRESENT. 379 5. Artists, . . . . . 6. Musicians and teachers of music, 7. Actors and actresses, . 8. Teachers, . ſº 9. Scientific persons, . II. DOMESTIC :— 4. Wives, mothers, &c. :— 1. Wives, 2. Widows, 3. Children, 4. Scholars, 5. Personal offices : — 1. Board and lodgings, . 2. Personal attendance, Males, Females, III. CoMMERCIAL :— 6. Dealers in money : 1. Mercantile, . 2. Other general dealers, 7. Transport :— 1. Carriage on railways, . On roads, . Canals and rivers, . Seas and rivers, . Storage, . : 6. Messengers and porters, IV. AGRICULTURAL :— 8. Management of land – 1. Fields and pastures, 2. Woods, . 3. Gardens, 9. Animals : — 1. About animals, W. INDUSTRIAL : — 10. Arts and mechanics :— . Books, . . . . . . Musical instruments . Prints and pictures, . . Carving and figures, . . Tackle for sports, . Designs, models, &c., : ocCUPATIONs—-continued. North- Western- Division. . . 2,008 .' ... 2,052 ... ... 647 ... ... . .11,914 ...... 484 South- midland Division. 369 672 162 8,599 218 149,762 13,026 243,940 217,278 12,199 79,878 3,347 3,592 3,278 4,937 2,041 497 260 2,398 206,794 885 9,978 2,087 111 47 I35 I06 38 781 . Watches and philo instruments, . . . 8. Surgical instruments, 9. Arms, . . . . . 10. Machines and tools, . 11. Carriages, England and Wales. 13,397 ....., 15,191 . . . . . . 4,068 ...... - 110,364 ...... 4,995 . ... ... 2,650,096 ....., 269,142 ...... 3,989,652 3,150,048 159,134 ...... 1,208,648 ...... 118,180 ...... 65,463 ...... 53.543 & 104,054 ...... 35,817 ...... 8,926 ...... 54,293 . . . . . 6,586 ...... 6,310 ... .. 8,749 ...... 4,187. ....., 2,810 ...... 25,623 ...... 1,029 ...... 13,744 ...... 117,418 ... .. 20,128 ...... 364,828 ...... 42,650 . ... ... 518,377 ...... 458,295 . . . . . . 23,001 ...... 134,534 ... ... 9,181 125,053 I2 1,215 2,316 1,113 380 LANCASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : 12 13 14 15 16 17 . Harness, . Ships, . Houses and buildings, . . Furniture, . . Implements, . . Chemicals, . 11. Textile and dress:— 1. Wool and worsted, . 2. Silk, . º 2. Cotton and flax, . 4. Mixed materials, (423). 5. Dress, . 6. Hemp and other 12. Food and drink :— 1. Animal food, . 2. Vegetable food, . 3. Drinks and stimulants, . 13. Animal substances:-- 1. Grease &c., . . . 2. Skin, feathers, &c., 3 14. Vegetable substances:— . Hair, 1. Gums and resins, . 2 . Wood, . 3. Bark, 4. Cane, &c., . 5. Paper, . 15. Minerals — . Mining, I O . Coal, . Glass, . Salt, Water, ll. Zinc, . 12. 13. 14. Lead and antimon Brass and mixed metals, . Iron and steel, WI. INDEFINITE :- 16. Labourers :— . Stone and clay, . . Earthenware, . . Gold, silver, &c., . . Copper, . . Tin, &c., . fibres, Y, England and Wales. 19,418 43,779 505,671 63,916 39,623 20,009 238,814 117,989 563,014 83,170 1,205,747 22,883 141,185 136,354 152,681 12,040. 29,756 14,296 14,659 79,066 2,352 17,302 30,805 330,446 48,238 144,773 47,144 occupATIONS-continued. & e º & © tº © tº e g tº e * * * * * tº e º ºs e a tº e º e > * tº e º 'º º º & e º e º 'º © tº e º & © tº e o e - tº s - © e - tº e º 'º - tº * g e º & 4 is e º e º q * G g º e - is e e º e G tº º is a tº Q tº gº tº e º tº e e g º a 6 & © tº ſº º tº & e º ºr tº gº North- Western- Division. 1,529 7,611 69,257 8,437 6,513 5,776 16,224 48,020 414,419 18,389 131,502 4,083 19,954 16,171 20,148 1,566 2,766 1,486 1,602 10,071 345 1,768 4,280 46,827 7,175 17,947 2,315 3,469 1,821 350 635 831 2,757 26 206 4,378 50,504 • * c e º ºs tº º ſº e º 'º tº e º s a tº * e º ſº tº e * * * * * * & tº ºf ºn tº e & e º e º & ſº e º ºr e º º, º e º º e South- midland Division. 1,342 20]. 29,400 4,068 3,015 301 1,188 2,050 26,484 3,893 117,060 727 8,912 11,085 10,097 271 1,503 191 466 4,689 40 1,762 3,012 198 2,410 7,471 532. 28 5 114 260 98 550 15 28 642 8,167 1. General labourers, 2. Indefinite occupations, . 17. Persons of rank and property — 1. Rank and property, . 309,883 45,919 110,299 44,045 11,007 8,063 e e g tº e e 22,599 1,110 8,072. PAST AND PRESENT. 381 oCCUPATIONS—continued. { North- w South- Frºm western midland © Division. Division. 18. Paupers, &c. :- t 1. Parish and other rates, . . 72,724 ...... 4,076 ...... 7,812 2. Prisoners, . . . . . . . 3,366 ... ... 431 ... ... 85 3. Wagrants and gipsies, . . . 1,903 ...... 98 ...... 219 4. No stated occupation, . . . , 150,890 ...... 19,232 ...... 8,171 Property and Income of Lancashire and Cheshire at the last Census. --The property and income of the north-western district are even larger in proportion than the population, amounting in round numbers to from an eighth to a ninth of the whole property and income of Great Britain. The annual value of property and income assessed to the property and income tax in Great Britain, in the year ending April 5, 1860, was £259,667,562. Of this amount Lancashire was assessed for the sum of £27,468,744; and Cheshire for the sum of £4,907,502; making the assessment of the north-western district, consisting of those two counties, £32,376,266. Lancashire alone contains more than a tenth part of the property and income of Great Britain.” w On examining the sources from which the annual income of Lancashire and Cheshire is derived, we find the following results:— The value of the property of Lancashire, assessed under Schedule A, amounted, in 1860, to £11,453,851; under Schedule B, to £1,604,586 ; and under Schedule D, to £14,410,307. The value of the property of the county of Chester assessed under Schedule A, amounted, in 1861, to £2,673,756; under Schedule B, to £1,043,251 ; and under Schedule D, to £1,190,515. - On examining the Return of the various kinds of property in the two counties more in detail, we find the following amounts:— In Lancashire the yearly value of the landed property of the county, which extends over an area of 1,219,221 acres, was £1,604,276. The value of the messuages erected on the land was much greater than that of the land itself, amounting to £7,019,978. The number of messuages in Lancashire, according to the census return for 1861, was 446,740. The yearly value of the tithes of Lancashire was small, amounting to only £1514. The annual value of the manors was £44,344, and that of the fines (on renewals) was £106. The annual value of the quarries was £34,667; that of the mines, £336,430; and that of the ironworks, £5068. The value of the fisheries was only £426. The yearly value of the public works * * Return: Property and Income Tax, 13th August, 1860. 382 LANGASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: was very large, that of the canals being £197,499; that of railways, £1,564,366; and that of gasworks, £191,460. In addition to this there was other property and profits, producing £156,727. These are all included in Schedule A, and raise the annual value of the property included in that schedule to £11,453,851. The gross annual value of the property assessed in Lancashire under Schedule B, representing the farmers' profits on the cultiva- tion of the land, amounted to £1,604,586. - But the greatest source of income in the county of Lancaster is, of course, that derived from the profits of trade and commerce, charged under Schedule D; and that amounted, in 1860, to £14,410,307. - In Cheshire we find that the value of the land, which extends over an area of 707,078 acres, was £1,043,206. The value of mes- suages was somewhat larger, amounting to £1,137,851. The value of the manors was £929, and that of the fines, £1702. The value of the quarries was £5589, and that of the mines, £56,657. The value of the fisheries was but £80. The value of the public works was considerable, that of the canals being £15,484; that of the rail- ways, £262,970; and that of the gasworks, £27,037. There was also other property, of the yearly value of £122,251, making the gross annual value of the property assessed under Schedule A, £2,673,756. The annual value of the property assessed under Schedule B, consisting of farming profits, was £1,043,251. The net amount of profits derived from trade, and charged under Schedule D, was £1,190,515. - - From these items we obtain the sum total of £32,376,266, form- ing the sum of the yearly value of the property and income assessed to the property and income tax, in the counties of Lancaster and Chester, in the year 1860. . But in judging of the wealth of this most industrious district, it would be a great error to pass without notice the large income directly derived from labour. It is impossible to form any precise estimate of the aggregate amount of the earnings of this vast multi- tude of industrious people. No part of the British people is more steadily industrious; in no part of the kingdom are wages higher or employment more regular; and in no district of England is there so little pauperism, in proportion to the numbers of the people. All these things considered, the income derived from the wages of labour in the north-western division must be great indeed. PAST AND PRESENT. 383 Ecclesiastical Divisions of Lancashire and Cheshire.—The counties of Lancashire and Cheshire form portions of the three bishoprics of Chester, Manchester, and Carlisle—all of which belong to the pro- vince of York. In early times much the larger portion of these counties was in the diocese of Lichfield, which was then of immense extent. At the time of the Reformation they became portions of the newly formed bishopric of Chester, and in the present generation they have been again divided so as to form portions of the three dioceses above named. The diocese of Chester includes the entire county of Chester, except part of the parish of Threapwood; and also includes, in Lancashire, the extensive deanery of Warrington, which extends over nearly the whole of the hundred of West Derby, except the parish of Leigh. The diocese of Chester at the census of 1861 contained 217,350 inhabited houses, and 1,248,416 persons. The diocese of Manchester consists of those parts of the county of Lancaster which are included in the deaneries of Amounderness, Blackburn, Leyland, Manchester, Tunstall, and of the parish of Leigh. In 1861 this diocese contained 317,586 inhabited houses, and the immense population of 1,679,326 souls. The diocese of Carlisle includes those parts of the county of Lancaster which are comprised in the deanery of Furness and Cartmel. In 1861 this district of Lancashire contained 1378 inhabited houses, and a popula- tion of 6902 inhabitants. This is only a small portion of the diocese of Carlisle, which extends over the whole county of Cumberland except the parish of Alston, and over the whole county of Westmore- land, and in 1861 contained altogether 52,421 inhabited houses, and 266,591 persons.” - The following are the names of the parishes of Lancashire and Cheshire, with their extent in statute acres, and the amount of the population of each parish in 1831 and 1861, showing the progress of all the parishes in the last period of thirty years of which we have an official account. It will be seen that a number of new parishes have been formed during that period, by subdividing some of the larger parishes. - - * PARISHES OF LANCASHIRE, AREA, AND POPULATION IN 1831 AND 1861. Area of . Population. Area of Population. *: º Statute 2-——º-—— * Statute r- --~ - —) 8.TISI). Acres. 1831, 1861. 8 ſlSI), Acres. 1831, 1861. Aldingham, . 4,694 968 1,011 | Ashton-in- &-> 919 5,912 10, 181 Angerton, . . 1,250 tº- 31 Makerfield. } 7, } y * Census of England and Wales for the year 1861; Population Tables, vol. i. p. 29. 384 LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : PARISHES IN LANCASHIRE, AREA, AND POPULATION IN 1831 AND 1861—Continued f Population. Area of Population. * ºit. f— p -*- Y ºf Statute r p _A- Y e Acres. 1831. 1861. Acres, 1881. 1861. Altcar, 4,284 * = tº 540 || Manchester, . . 34,193 270,963 529,295 Ashton. under- 9,300 33,597 66,801 Melling, tº 23,474 1,962 2,013 Lyne, Michael. on Beswick, . . . 60 *=º 88.1 Wyre, St. } 18,114 4,708 4,509 Bispham, . b,865 1,256 4,344 || Middleton, . 11,903 14,379 19,635 Blackburn, . . 45,269 59,791 110,349 || Mitton, 18,103 5,277 3,403 Bolton-le-Moors, 30,062 63,034 97,215 | Newton-in- Bolton-le-Sands, 7,905 1,781 1,713 | Makerfield, } 2,692 — 5,909 Bury, o 24,320 47,829 80,558 || New church ſº Cartmel, . . . 22,960 4,802 5,108 || Kenyon, } 6,958 New Parish. 2,488 Childwall, 19,327 7,706 17,917 | North Meols, . 24,541 5,132 15,947 Chipping, 8,756 1,850 1,483 | Oldham, . . . 21,160 67,579 * Chorley, . — 1,967 — | Ormskirk, 30,832 14,053 17,047 Claughton, . 1,550 tº-º-º- 94 | Pennington, . 2,767 sº 879 Cockerham, . 10,480 2,794 2,922 Penwortham, 11,317 4,679 5,488 Coulton, . 13,330 1,786 1,794 | Poulton-le-Fylde, 20,666 4,082 8,665 Croft, with 1,851 *= 1,094 Prescot, . 36,554 28,084 63,540 Southworth, 2 } Preston, . 15,834 36,336 85,699 Croston, . . . 10,648 6,278 6,242 | Prestwich, 21,625 67,579 Il-7,961 Croxteth Park, . 953 — 46 || Radcliffe, 2,466 3,904 8,838 Dalton, 16,364 2,697 9,152 | Ribchester, . 8,150 4,283 3,885 Deane, 19,340 22,944 35,746 || Rochdale, 58,620 74,427 119,531 Eccles, 20,240 28,083 52,679 || Rufford, . 3,102 *=} 865 Eccleston, 8,361 6,068 3,496 | Sefton, 21,168 4,485 10,159 Flixton, . 2,549 2,099 2,050 | Standish, . 15,285 7,719 10,410 Garstang, 31,403 6,927 7,221 | Tarleton, . 5,405 & sºns 1,987 Halton, 3,738 834 670 | Tatham, . 8,501 *-* 588 Halsall, . 16,658 4,159 4,672 || Toxteth Park, Hesketh, with 3,632 tº-sº 804 extra parochial, }ºſes 24,067 cºs, Becconsall, 2 Tunstall, . 9,224 862 803 Hawkshead, 19,252 2,060 2,081 | Ulverstone, . 24,586 7,741 11,464 Heysham, 1,704 582 567 | Urswick, . . 4,100 752 1,080 Hoole, . 2,923 934 1,132 Walton-on-the- R Huyton, . . . . . 9,807 3,412 4,054 || Hill, } 29,233 22,575 85,058 Kirkby-Ireleth, 25,740 3,234 3,138 Warton, . . . 11,146 2,151 2,161 Kirkham, 48,530 11,630 11,445 Warrington, . . 12,168 12,260 26,960 Lancaster, 73,732 23,817 27,430 | Wigan, . 28,433 44,486 78,190 Leigh, . 13,194 20,083 30,052 | Whalley, . . . 105,249 97,968 167,456 Leyland, . 19,091 13,951 13,684 || Winwick,” . . 25,148 17,961 – Liverpool, 2,220 165,175. 269,742 | West Derby, 6,123 — 52,694 Lytham, . 15,542 – 3,194 4,322 * 421 Whittington, . * Winwick parish extended over 25,148 acres; has been subdivided by the earl of Derby, the patron, and now forms several parishes. Winwick itself, since the subdivision, contains 2,270 statute acres, and in 1861 had a population of 704 persons. * PAST AND PRESENT. 385 PARISHEs of CHESHIRE, AREA, AND POPULATION IN 1881 AND 1861. Population. Tsal, 1861. 3,928 3,125 1,338 1,418 1,710 731 2,078 4,507 14,673 19,351 2,978 2,287 * =º 272 487 525 2,523 3,002 678 *===º 2,193 15,105 3,438 2,154 *=s== 36,212 8,213 14,822 <- *- 592 449 1,279 4,373 4,727 458 425 8,154 10,852 — 724 m=º 392 345 325 498 8,981 1,409 1,006 4,515 6,855 742 1,146 899 814 1,580 2,641 36I 349 864 992 5,547 5,890 \- 713 2,607 3,586 15,955 18,852 389 364 *== I22 * 7,044 406 749 3,298 3,675 * 3,701 tºmºs t 58 3,599 4,194 * 582 5,565 $ººse 8] I *=mºs 4,785 4,752 * 1,245 rea of *::: §: - Acres. Acton, . 15,542 Alderley, . 6,173 Aldford, . 2,633 Ashton-upon- } 3,598 Mersey, - Astbury, . 19,602 Audlem, . 10,525 Baddiley, . 1,962 Backford, 3,109 Barthomley, . 11,035 Barrow, . 2,620 Bebbington, . 6,437 Bidston, . 4,248 Birkenhead - (Chapelry), } 1,265 Bowdon, . 17,971 Brereton, . 4,501 Bromborough, .. 3,612 Bunbury, . 16,830 Burton, , 3,497 Cheadle, . 6,275 Church Lawton, 1,452 Church Minshull, 2,286 Coddington, . 2,957 Coppenhall, . 2,848 Cristleton, 3,191 Davenham, . 9,449 Delamere, 8,770 Doddleston, . 4,013 Eastham, 10,834 Eccleston, 2,402 Farndon, . 2856 Frodsham, 14,288 Gawsworth, . 5,442 Grappenhall, 2,550 Great Budworth, 35,920 Handley, . 1,796 Harthill, . 481 Hawarden, 17,695 Heswall, . 5,380 Holy Trinity, 268 Ince, . 3,895 Kingsmarch, 82]. Rnutsford, . 4,832 Little Budworth, 2,762 Malpas, *E* Marbury, 3,638 Middlewich, . 13,110 Mobberley, . 5,138 WOL. II. . Area * : Acres. Mott ram-in- iº 26,260 Nantwich, 3,165 Neston, 15,293 Northenden, . 3,716 Over, . 7,469 Plemonstall, . 3,131 Prestbury, 63,125 Pryors-Hayes, . — Pulford, . 2,567 Rosthern, 19,096 Runcorn, . 18,906 Sandbach, 16,310 Shocklach, 3,180 Shotwick, 3,574 Spittle-Boughton, * Stanlow, . 1,485 Stockport, 25,175 Stoke, . 2,749 St. Oswald, . 6,794 St. Mary - on - * th. Hill, " : 1441 St. John Baptist, 423 St. Olave, 4 St. Michael, . 9 St. Oswald, . 425 St. John (Little *E*-º-º: Hospital) St. Peter, . 6 St. Bridget, . I66 St. Martin, , 16 Sutton, Guilden, 934 Swettenham, 2,200 Tarporley, 6,057 Tarvin, 10,571 Tattenhall, . 4,134 Taxall, 5,038 Thornton, 4,866 Thurstaston, 2,762 Tilston, 3,644 Upton, 929 Wallasey, 17,775 Warmingham, . 4,730 Waverton, 4,027 Weaverham, 7,634 Wrenbury, . 11,665 West Kirkby, .. 34,286 Whitchurch, 15,380 Whitegate 4,384 Population. "1881. 1861." 15,536 * 5,357 6,763 3,518 4,049 1,420 1,430 2,928 3,454 737 2,019 47,257 55,680 — 15 289 354 3,730 4,058 10 326 16,457 7,214 9,046 431 *E-º-º-º: 799 931 $º I63 * 14 66,610 98,005 398 431 6,041 *s 3,545 5,464 * 9,835 *=== 480 * 922 * 9,845 *º-ºm- 61 — 798 *ms 1,040 *s 694 * 223 421 350 2,391 . 2,577 3,415 3,319 1,080 1,262 587 1,329 913 913 * l62 875 817 {-º-º-º: 293 3,247 10,723 1,167 1,205 720 736 2,321 2,782 903 2,505 I,289 2,059 5,819 * 790 1,535 386 LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : PARISHES OF CHESHIRE, AREA, AND POPULATION IN 1831 AND 1861.-Continued . Area of Population. Area of Population * i.f Statute r —*— Y * Statute a- ~~- . TISIle Acres. 1881. 1861. 8|I'lSIle Acres. , 1881. 1861. Willington, . . 910 * 106 || Woodchurch, .. 5,792 929 3,922 Wilmslow, . . 8,028 4,296 6,616 Wybunbury, . 18,414 4,193 4,985 Wistaston, . , 1,465 * 331 t Increase of Churches and Chapels and of Religious Instruction in Lancashire.—We learn from the Rev. Canon Raines' introduction to his valuable and interesting edition of Bishop Gastrell’s “ Notitia Cestriensis, or Historic Notes of the Diocese of Chester,” that the number of churches existing in the diocese of Chester at the time when it was formed by Henry VIII., in the year 1541, was 327, ex- clusive of the churches in that portion of the ancient diocese which is situated in the county of York, and now belongs to the bishopric of Ripon. - * * , It appears from the same authority that in the long period of nearly 270 years which intervened between the year 1541 and the year 1828 when Bishop Sumner, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, became bishop of Chester, the number of new churches consecrated in the diocese was 186. About that time the number of new churches began to increase with great rapidity, and has continued to do so to the present time. During the episcopate of Bishop Sumner no less than 233 new churches were consecrated by him, being on an average one new church in each month of his episcopate. He was the means of establishing diocesan church-building societies in his diocese, and Canon Raines states that “in the diocese of Chester this great and good prelate occasioned and witnessed the expenditure of £1,284,229, raised from local subscriptions and grants of public societies, exclusive of a very considerable amount expended by private individuals who sought no foreign aid.” The same reverend gentleman states, that the clergy have increased proportionately with the churches. In 1831 there were 672 clergymen in the diocese, at the close of 1847 there were 1033, all resident, and 49 non-resident. Nor has school accom- modation lagged behind. During the same episcopate 671 new schools were built, in 428 different localities, at a cost raised from public and local resources of £198,274, exclusive of many school- houses built, and in some cases endowed by benevolent individuals, . which swells the amount to little short of a quarter of a million. These statements refer to the diocese of Chester, as bounded since the Yorkshire portion (containing 120 benefices) was annexed to the new IPAST AND PRESENT. 387, diocese of Ripon, and before the entire diocese of Manchester was carved out of it, and a third curtailment effected by the addition of certain extremities of the counties of Lancaster, Cumberland, and Westmoreland to the see of Carlisle. In 1847 the diocese of Chester contained 2,435,644 inhabitants. Of these 1,390,287 were assigned to the see of Manchester, 117,022 were to be added to the see of Carlisle, and 928,335 remained to that of Chester. Of the 777 benefices which the latter see then contained, 320 formed the diocese of Manchester, 121 were annexed to Carlisle, and Chester was to retain 336. The total church accommodation was 535,166 sittings, “more than half of which is free.” Canon Raines adds, “The following summary may appropriately close this account of diocesan increase, during Bishop Sumner's eminently useful and laborious episcopate of twenty years, viz.:-233 new churches and ecclesiastical districts, 194,745 additional sittings in churches, 361 additional clergy, 671 new schools, and 769,587 additional inhabitants.” Taking the figures supplied by Canon Raines, it appears that the number of churches built in the most populous parishes in the county of Lancaster, from the accession of George III. in 1760 down to the year 1850, was as follows:–Ashton-under-Lyne, 8; Bolton-le-Moors, 12; Bury, 7; Deane, 7; Eccles, 7; Manchester, 46; Middleton, 3; Prestwich and Oldham, 13; Rochdale, 9; Radcliffe, 1; Childwall, 4; Halsall, 1; Huyton, 2.; Leigh, 3; Liverpool, 31; North Meols, 3; Ormskirk, 6; Prescot, 6; Sefton, 3; Toxteth Park, 7; Walton-on-the Hill, 8; West Derby, 4; Warrington, 2.; Wigan, 6; Winwick, 4; Blackburn, 12; Whalley, 24; Croston, 4; Leyland, 3; Penwortham, 1; Standish, 1; Bispham, 2; Cockerham, 1; Kirkham, 2; Lancaster, 5; Lytham, 1; Bolton-le-Fylde, 3; Preston, 9; Melling, 1; Ulverstone, 1; Urswick, 1.f It will have been seen that many of the parishes of Lancashire and some of Cheshire, are of enormous size, and that many of them now contain excessively large populations. The older parishes of Lanca- shire and Cheshire were formed many hundred years ago, and at a time when these two counties were the most thinly peopled districts of England. Most of these parishes have been long ago divided into chapelries and townships, for the purposes of religious instruction, the guardianship of the poor, and local government; but these sub- divisions were most of them made many years since, and did not in all respects answer the wants of a population which has increased so * Notitia Cestriensis, vol. ii. part 2, p. 62. f Ibid. p. 64. 388 LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : rapidly during the present century. But very considerable progress has been made during the last thirty years in forming new district. parishes and ecclesiastical districts, under the authority of various acts of Parliament. The object in these arrangements has been to divide the population, so that there should not be more than a few thousand persons in each district. Thus, for instance, the parish of Liverpool has been formed into twenty smaller districts; the district of West Derby, which exténds into Liverpool, has also been divided into about twenty districts; Prescot, into about thirteen; Ormskirk, into six ; Wigan, into eight; Warrington, into five ; Leigh, into five ; Bolton, into twenty; Bury, into thirteen; Barton-on-Irwell, into four; Chorlton, including some of the largest suburbs of Man- chester, into twenty-six; Salford, into fifteen; Manchester, into twenty-nine; Ashton-under-Lyne, into twenty; Oldham, into seven- teen; Rochdale, into eleven; Haslingden, into eight ; Burnley, into thirteen; Clitheroe, into four ; Blackburn, into nineteen; Chorley, into eleven; Preston, into fifteen ; Fylde, into seven ; Garstang, into five ; Lancaster, into twelve; and Ulverstone, into five. The whole of these subdivisions have been made since the year 1827, and much the greater part of them between the years 1841 and 1861.” In the county of Chester there has been a similar attempt to establish some reasonable proportion between the numbers of the population and the number of the new parishes, or ecclesiastical dis- tricts. In the Stockport district the number of divisions is fourteen; in the Macclesfield, eleven ; in the Altringham, eight; in the Run- corn, eleven; in the Northwich, seven ; in the Congleton, eleven; in the Nantwich, nine; in the Great Boughton, eleven; in the Wirrall, three ; and in the Birkenhead, nine. In addition to this, many separate ecclesiastical districts have been formed in various small towns and rapidly increasing villages. At the same time that the organization of the established church has been much improved in these two counties, the other Christian bodies existing in the same counties have also erected numerous chapels, and have organized extensive means of religious instruction. Unfortunately, no particulars were collected at the last general census of England and Wales either as to the numbers of the various bodies of Nonconformists existing in the kingdom at that time, or as to the number of the places of religious worship erected by them. But the Nonconformists have always formed a very numerous, * Census of England and Wales, 1861, vol. i. p. 584. PAST AND PRESENT. 389. intelligent, and influential class in the two counties; and have ever taken a conspicuous part in diffusing knowledge, morals, and religion amongst the body of the people. They have been for many ages, and still are, especially numerous in the large towns of those counties. The number of their chapels, many of which are built with a taste and an architectural effect quite unknown in former times, is very great, and almost every chapel has its schools for the education of the children of the poor. - Education in the Counties of Lancaster and Chester.—The re- ports of the “School Inquiry Commission,” appointed by the Crown at the request of Parliament, published in the year 1868, contains the fullest and most recent information with regard to the state of education in this as well as other parts of the kingdom. The report of Mr. James Bryce on the schools of Lancashire, of which we shall speak first, occupies more than 500 pages, and is very full and complete. It is, on the whole, satisfactory, especially as relates to the grammar-schools of the first and second class, and as to the pro- prietary and public, as well as to some of the private schools. The report, commences with the observation, “that there is no district of England where the contrast of old and new is more striking, nor where, within a narrow territorial compass, there is a greater variety, as well in the external aspect of the country as in the social and economical condition of the people. The division which naturally suggests itself to a stranger is not the political one, into north and south, but rather into the manufacturing district, occupying the south-east and south-central parts of the county; the agricultural, lying all along the coast; and the pastoral, in the north, on the borders of Yorkshire, and around the shores of Windermere and Coniston Water. The two great towns (Liverpool and Manchester), moreover, which dispute the honour of the second place in England, are in many respects most unlike, not only to the rural districts and the smaller towns, but even to each other. As in the nature of their business, as in the character and manners of their inhabitants, so also in matters of education, there is a difference between Manchester and Liverpool more easily felt than described, yet very real.” Thus there are virtually four or five different districts, the phenomena of each of which it is necessary to study separately and with equal care. “And the existence in all of them of schools notably various in position and character, and of several religious and political parties, with the views and schools of each of which it was proper to become 390 LAN CASHIRE AND CHIESEIIRE : acquainted, made the whole problem a very intricate, although a proportionately interesting one.” The author of the report states that, owing to the size and popu- lousness of the county, it was evidently impossible to see anything like the whole number of its schools. To have visited every school in Manchester or in Liverpool alone, testing each by the perform- ances of its pupils, would have consumed six months, and that to no great purpose. Finding, therefore, that it was necessary to make a selection, he determined to devote his chief attention to the endowed schools. He visited these, to the number of sixty-two; that the remainder were not visited was owing to the fact that they happened to be closed on the day of his visit. He examined their scholars in the principal subjects taught. Next in importance to these, he observes, are the new foundations, or, as they are commonly but somewhat loosely called, the proprietary schools— such as Stoneyhurst, Rossall, and the three great day schools at Liverpool. These, also, by the kindness of the governing bodies and head masters, he was enabled to inspect. Thirdly, there came the private schools, so numerous that it was impossible to visit the whole of them. Of these he visited about forty boys' and the same number of girls' schools, some in Manchester and Liverpool, one or two in each of the chief manufacturing and country market towns, and several lying in secluded rural districts, intended for boarders only. At the same time he sent out to the private schools the forms of inquiry with which he had been furnished by the commissioners, and obtained in course of time answers, more or less complete, from about eighty schoolmasters and one hundred and sixty schoolmistresses. Such are the sources and such the materials on which this report is founded. g The seventy-nine endowed schools thus referred to are divided into three classes:— - Class A.—-Grammar-schools in the Great Towns, such as Man- chester, Preston, Burnley. These give, in all but one instance (that of the Oldham school), a classical combined with a commercial education. The following is a list of the schools of this class, with the income of each school at the time of the former inquiry, in 1820-29, and the income of the same schools at the time of the present inquiry, which is fixed (by the date of the report) in the year 1865. The first list contains the large towns; the second, the small ones; the third, the rural parishes. PAST AND PRESENT, 391 CLASS A. LANCASHIRE-GRAMMAR-SCHOOLS IN GREAT Towns. SCHOOLS. Gº". Gross º Blackburn, . . . . . . . . . .8120 7 4 :8118 0 0 Bolton-le-Moors, . . . . . . . . 485 10 6 ...... 109 () () Burnley, . . . . . . . . . . 134 16 0 ... ... 276 O 0 Bury, . . . . . . . . . . 442 0 9 ...... 740 0 0 Lancaster, . . . . . . . . . 29 () () . . . . . . 30 0 (0 Manchester, . . . . . . . . 4,408 9 1 ...... 2,994 0 0 Oldham, . . . . . . . . . . 33 9 0 ...... 33. 9 0 Preston, . . . . . . . . . . 55 1 6 ... ... 55 1 6 Rochdale, . . . . . . . . . 39 19 0 27 O O Warrington, . . . . . . . . 551 18 0 ... ... bjö6 () 0 Wigan, “ . . . . . . . . . 229 4.10 ...... 285 0 0 Total, . . . . .86,529 16 0 :85,223 10 6 Class B.-Grammar-schools in the Small Towns, and occasionally even in country places. These are smaller than the former, but for the most part enjoy an equally good income. They are frequented by the sons of shopkeepers and farmers. The following is a list of these schools, with their incomes at the same periods, 1820-29 and 1865 — - * * CLASS B.-GRAMMAR-SCEIOOLS IN SMALL TOWNS. SCIIOOLS. Gº". dº Cartmel, . . . . . . . . . . $116 4 3 ... ... £127 0 O Colne, . . . . . . . . . . . 15 0 0 ...... 20 0 0 Chorley, . . . . . . . . . . 11 0 0 . . . . . . 10 0 0 Farnworth, . . . . . . . . . 15 8 4 ...... 15 8 4 Hawkshead, . . . . . . . . . 146 18 5 254 () () Rirkham, . . . . . . . . . . 595 9 0 ... ... 617 O 0 Leigh, . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 0 0 ... ... 25 () () Middleton, . . . . . . . . 0 0 0 ...... 37 0 O Newchurch-in-Rossendale, . . . . 60 12 8 ...... 67 0 () } Ormskirk, . . . . . . . . . 138 15 0 ... ... 114 0 0 Prescot, . . . . . . . . . . 159 17 4 ... .. 170 () 0 Widnes, . . . . . . . . . . 56 16 0 . . . . . . 56 0 0 Lea, . . . . . . . . . . . 90 12 6 ... ... 88 () () Stand, . . . . . . . . . . . 30 10 0 ...... 36 0 0 Great Crosby, . . . . . . . . 50 0 0 ... ... 380 0 0 Ulverstone, . . . . . . . . . 31 5 0 40 0 0 Warton, . . . . s • * * * 26 13 4 ...... Ö0 () 0 Clitheroe, . . . . . . . . . . 452 8 8 ...... 347 () 0 Upholland, . . . . . . . . 65 18 3 ...... 78 O. O. Total, . . . . . $2,088 8 9 £2,531 8 4 Class C.—Grammar and other Endowed Schools in Country Places. These schools are usually with small revenues, teaching .392 LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : * either a little or no Latin, and chiefly used by children of the labouring classes. These schools, with their incomes, are as follows:— & CLASS C.—GRAMMAR-SCHOOLS IN COUN TRY PLACES. schools. dº dº Bispham-in-the-Fylde, . . . . . . .870 0- 0 ...... .#113 0 0 Bretherton, . . . . . . . . . 112 5 8 ..... 75 O O Aughton, . . . . . . . . . . . 68 0, 0 ...... 90 0 0 Broughton (parish, Kirkby-Ireleth), . . 6 8 0 ... ... 6 8 0 Goosnargh, . . . . . . . . 65 0 0 ...... 62 () O Presall, . . . . . . . . . . 13 6, 8 13 6 8 Pilling (Lower End), . . . . . . 42 10 0 ... ... 100 0 () Abbeystead, . . . . . . . . . 41 0 0 ... ... 193 0 0 Wray, . . . . . . . . . . . . , 34 14 4 ...... 47 0 0 Great Marton, . . . . . . . . 91 0 0 ...... 129 0 0 Eccleston (parish, Prescot), . . . . 4 4 0 , ...... 57 0 0 Broughton (parish, Preston), . . . 128 12 0 a º e s a e 123 0 0 Great Eccleston (Copp School), . . 60 6 6 ...... 45 () () Great Eccleston (Lane-head School), 5 0 0 ...... 5 0 0 Tarleton, . . . . . . . . . . 29 6 0 ...... 35 0 0 Tunstall, . . . . . . . . . . . 26 9 6 ...... 31 O 0 Burtonwood, . . . . . . . . 12 l 8 ...... º Whalley, . . . . . . . . . . 51 4 2 ...... 35 0 0 Ashton-in-Makerfield, . . . . . 46 l 0 ..... 43 0 O Lowton, . . . . . . . . . . . 20 0 0 ....... 15 O O Blackrod, . . . . . . . . . . 140 4 0 ...... 266 0 O Rivington, . . . . . . . . . . .308 9 8 ...... 355 0 0. Bolton-le-Sands, . . . . . . . . 26 7 11 ...... 43 0 0 Bispham (parish, Croston), . . . . . . 161 18 0 ...... 137 () () Leyland, . . . . . . . . . . 27 10 6 ...... 27 10 6 Penwortham, . . . . . . . . . 669 4 9 ...... 966 0 O Winwick, . . . . . . . . . . 34 0 0 ...... 34 0 0 Cockerham, . . . . . . . . . 15 0 0 ...... 12 10 0 Standish, . . . . . . . . . . 114 4 4 ...... 92 O 0 Urswick, . . . . . . . . . . 15 O O ..... *==s Total, . . . . . .62,439 8 8 #3,150 15 2 With regard to the financial condition of the schools, it seems on the whole to be good. The income of most of them is increasing, though seldom at a rapid rate. The most common cause of this improvement is the rise—gradual, but almost universal—in the value of land. The most remarkable instance of a grammar-school whose revenue is decreasing is to be found where it was to be least expected, viz., at Manchester; but there the revenue is not derived from land, but chiefly from tolls on the grinding of malt within the manor, the profits from which have decreased with the establishment PAST AND PRESENT. 393 of mills outside the limit. This, however, is quite an exceptional case, and the income of the Manchester grammar-school is still very large. In general the properties of the Lancashire grammar-schools are very honestly managed. That is the result of Mr. Bryce's inquiries; but the management is in some cases anything but wise or skilful, especially in cases where the management of the property is left in the hands of the schoolmaster. But there are exceptions even in this respect ; for Mr. Bryce mentions that in one case the schoolmaster, a shrewd and active man, although very little of a scholar, took the school farm into his own hands, and, by draining and otherwise improving it, raised it in the course of thirty years to nearly double its original value. But even here, while the master made the farm better he made the school worse, and the practice is, on the whole, one which cannot be too strongly discountenanced. With regard to school fees, they are generally paid to the master, which is a very good arrangement, except in large schools where there is a regular clerk, secretary, or bursar. On the whole, the financial position of the Lancashire endowed schools seems to be good, and all that is necessary is that they should be well managed for the purposes of education. - In nearly all the ancient parishes of Lancashire there are endowed schools, which are capable, when well managed, of being rendered very useful for the purposes of general instruction. The larger schools are in general well managed, but many of the Smaller ones in country places are not nearly as useful as they might be rendered in more skilful hands. . The constitution of the governing bodies in the Lancashire schools is very various. In about half the total number of schools visited by the commissioner, the governing body consists of a cer- tain fixed number of trustees or governors, in whom is vested the property, as well as the patronage and management of the school, and who enjoy also the right of nominating their successors, either directly, or by recommending persons to be appointed by the Charity Commission or the Court of Chancery. In five cases the inhabitants, as represented by the rector and Qhurchwardens, or by the sidesmen (a modern corruption of the ancient word synodsmen), who are usually twenty-five in number, are the governing, or at least the appointing body. This is the case at Cartmel, Colne, Goosnargh (Threlfall's school), Ulverstone, and Widnes; at Widnes, however, the vestry act indirectly by electing trustees. Sometimes, again, as WOL. II. 3 D 394 - LANCASHIRE AND CHESEIIRE : at Broughton, near Preston, the latter plan is combined with the former; and at Prescot, a body named School-wardens are associated with the trustees of the general charities and the school. In two important schools—those of Preston and Lancaster—the mayor and the burgesses, acting through the corporation, are governors, and, indeed, owners of the schools. In two others—Great Crosby, near Liverpool, and Colborne's school at Goosnargh (which is virtually united to Threlfall's school at the same place)—companies of the city of London occupy this position. At Kirkham, the Drapers, though not practically the governing body, have certain functions in refer- ence to the schools. At Middleton, a college (Brasennose, Oxford) manages the school and pays the endowment. In several cases there are really no trustees at all, although there are persons legally or, by custom entitled to appoint the master: such are Rochdale, Chorley, Whalley, and Winwick. And in three well-known schools —those of Manchester, Warrington, and Rivington—the appoint- ment of head master belongs not to the trustees, but to extraneous persons; to the president of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in the first case; to Lord Lilford, the representative of the founder, in the second ; and to the master and seniors of St. John's College, Cam- bridge, in the third. The report of Mr. Bryce states, that it is not possible to institute a comparison of these various systems as regards their practical success. Municipal corporations and their dealings towards their schools are, according to Mr. Bryce, spoken ill of in most parts of the county; but, so far as he could judge, the corpora- tions of Preston and Lancaster have usually behaved to their respect- ive grammar-schools with judgment and generosity. The parochial management of schools by sidesmen is unwieldy, and all real power in such schools is with the rector and his two churchwardens. The schools without any trustees at all, although by no means the worst, yet seem to suffer from the want of some extraneous supporting and controlling authority. This is said to be especially true of the schools of Whalley, Chorley, and Winwick. The report states that it would no doubt be desirable to give such schools, as these, so far as it can be done with a due regard to vested interests, a governing body such as other schools possess; and Mr. Bryce gathered from the existing masters that they would be more likely to welcome than to oppose such a change. The same, he says, holds true of schools managed by governors at a distance, such as companies or colleges. The former PAST AND PRESENT. - 395 have probably neither local knowledge nor any qualifications enabling them to direct an educational institution. The latter might seem fitter; but, as a matter of fact, they appear to have cared very little for any school from the management or patronage of which they had nothing to gain for themselves. If they subscribe for repairs once in twenty years, or give the master ten pounds more salary than they are legally bound to do, they hold their obligations to be more than discharged. w The most prevalent, or, as the report calls it, the normal arrangement, is that of a board of self-appointed and self-continuing trustees. The defects of this system, according to the report, arise from three causes—undue restrictions, omissions, and vicious modes of appointment. The first restriction is that which requires that a trustee shall be a substantial inhabitant or holder of land of a certain value within the parish or town where the school is situate, without any reference to his fitness in other respects. The second, is the rule which requires that there shall be a certain fixed number of trustees—as, for instance, six at Rivington and fifty at Blackburn. The third, is the restriction as to religious creed of the trustees, under which, in five schools out of six, the trustees are all members of the Church of England; no others, except in very rare cases and in a very few schools, being considered admissible. Mr. Bryce states that in many cases he found that the exclusion of dissenters was altogether opposed to the wishes of the trustees; who, however, felt themselves bound by the ancient rules of the schools. The report states that among the remedies suggested for these evils it was generally agreed that some measures should be adopted, which would give a distinctly public character to the schools, and induce the citizens or inhabitants to feel a real practical interest in all that belonged to them. In one case, the mayor and one of the leading aldermen of an important borough spoke in the strongest terms of the contempt wherewith the town and its wishes had been treated by the few magnates who composed the board of trustees. Some- times they had held no meeting for three or four years together. They had taken no steps to provide a proper building, the exist- ing one being confessedly disgraceful, and had even discouraged the repeated efforts of one of their number to do so. They had allowed part of the school lands to lie at quite too low a rent. They had always scouted the notion of admitting the townspeople to any knowledge of their doings. “How far this picture was over- 396 - LANCASEIIRE AND CHIESHIRE : * charged,” says Mr. Bryce, “I could not be certain; but it showed sufficiently the existence of discontent and suspicion, which an open and vigorous administration would have removed; and no demand appeared more legitimate than that the town—a place of great and growing wealth—should have some representative to protect its interests, and should be in a position to bring its public opinion to bear on the otherwise irresponsible governors. The value of such publicity may be seen from the cases, already mentioned, of Lancaster and Preston, where the school is the property of the town and administered by the council. There complaints can be at once redressed or refuted. Jobs cannot easily be perpetrated under the jealous eye of the newspapers—not those of the town only, but those also of Manchester and Liverpool; and every inhabitant, considering the school in a sense his own, has a pride in it and a motive to advance its welfare. It may safely be said that no public board can be so bad as some private ones have proved themselves to be ; and there seemed to be sufficient grounds for believing it desirable to have among the trustees of every town's School a strong representa- tive element.” It appears from the report of her Majesty's commissioners that the endowments of the Lancashire grammar-schools were chiefly effected during the century that followed the Reformation—from 1550 to 1650; and that the object of the founders of the schools was in general, to give to the children educated in them the best kind of instruction that was then known to exist. Several of the older schools were established previous to the Reformation, and very soon after the discovery of the art of printing, after the introduction of Greek and Latin learning into Europe, and after the great impulse given to the human mind by the discovery of America and by the opening of the new way to India. In Lancashire there were chantry priests teaching grammar-schools in Warrington, in Middleton, Blackburn, Leyland, St. Michael-on-Wyre, and at Liverpool, pre- vious to the Reformation; and it was chiefly out of the estates which had belonged to the chantries that the public schools founded by the governments of Edward VI. and Queen Elizabeth were established. In nearly all cases the founder's first idea was to set up some place of learning to prevent the people, rich as well as poor, growing up in absolute ignorance and brutishness. A second motive was, that there should be a due supply of persons qualified for the Christian ministry; and with a view to that object, the education of PAST AND PRESENT. - 397 schools was often intended to be preparatory to that of the univer- sities. Elementary and commercial education were little thought of in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; and the classics were taught because there was nothing else to teach. English literature did not then exist; the English language had no grammar, and was looked on as little better than a modern dialect, fit for conversation, but not for serious composition, Spelling, as every one knows, was a matter of indifference. Neither history nor geography was recog- nized as a subject of instruction; and even arithmetic, despite of the daily need of it, cannot have been systematically taught, since it is never mentioned in the foundation deeds and rules of the schools. There remained only Latin, valued not for the reasons urged on its behalf now—its utility as a means of intellectual discipline and of refinement—but as the one grammatical and literary language, the necessary preliminary to theological and Scientific study. But as the English language was enriched with the works of the great authors of the reign of Elizabeth and succeeding sovereigns; as science began to be cultivated, and as trade and commerce began to expand—other branches of learning besides Latin began to be regarded as necessary. In the case of Kirkby-Ireleth, in the year 1624, the founder of the school, Giles Brownrigge, directs that the master shall be “able to teach grammar, to write a fair hand, to cipher and cast accounts.” After the Stuarts, Latin began by degrees to be dropped in the new schools; and it is within the last hundred years that most of the numerous non-classical Schools of Lancashire have been established. Perhaps the most noticeable feature about the earlier foundations is, that in so many of them there is no specification of instruction at all. The founder requires his master “to keep grammar-school,” “to teach a free School,” “to fit boys for the university,” and so forth—phrases whose vagueness implies little attention to the exact subjects to be taught, but rather a desire to found a school of a certain well-known class. But when we come down to the eighteenth century the case alters. Bishop Pilkington was satisfied with directing the manner in which gram- mar, rhetoric, and literature should be taught in his school at Rivington; but when the excellent Roger Kay founded his school at Bury, in 1729, he was careful, after prescribing the study of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, to go further, and require the usher to teach writing and arithmetic in the lower School. As regards the class of boys which the founders of these schools 398 T.A.NCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE . desired to educate, it appears to be plain that the schools were intended for boys of all classes, though they were probably used by the poorest class to a far slighter extent than now. Instances are recorded of the sons of knights and noblemen being educated at the village school, and the statutes of several of the older schools, such as that of Rivington, give intimations of such a state of things. The best evidence, however, is to be found in the fact that this practice continued to prevail in Scotland till the present, and in the north of England until the last, generation. “Fifty years ago the son of a Lancashire squire sat on the same bench as the son of the plough- man in the free school of the hamlet, and was not supposed to take any harm by the contact. For although the distinction of classes was greater than it is now, the social separation of classes was far less rigid.” The general conclusions at which the author of the report arrives as to the objects for which these schools, taking them as a whole, were established, are as follows:–1. That the main object of the founder was to supply a good education as it was understood in his day—not any particular kind of education. 2. That he pre- scribed Latin or grammar only because it was then the staple of education, not from any peculiar fondness for classical studies. 3. That he did not wish to benefit any one class of the community rather than another, 4. That in particular he did not, by making his school gratuitous, intend to devote it to the poor exclusively. And lastly, as the education he designed to give was a good one, fitting boys for the university, an application of the funds to purely elementary instruction cannot be held to be conformable to his wishes. With regard to the actual instruction given in the endowed schools, it is stated in this report that in the endowed schools forty- one per cent. of the scholars are learning Latin; while in those private schools whose returns are sufficiently complete to make it possible to institute the comparison, only twenty-six per cent. are at Latin. So of Greek—the percentage in endowed schools of boys learning Greek, out of the total number of boys, is fifteen per cent.; in private Schools, one per cent. There are many of the poorer endowed schools where Latin is returned as being taught, but where it is little better than a name; where one may perhaps find two boys plodding away at the accidence, and a third nearly ready, after six months' work at his Delectus, to begin the study of Caesar's Wars in Gaul. For years there may have been no regular Latin class, but TAST AND PRESENT. g - 399 the shadow is retained, because the school is by tradition classical, and the master finds a harmless pleasure in the display of his recon- dite stores of learning. Even in those of the larger endowed schools, where Latin is enforced for every pupil, Mr. Bryce did not find it pursued with any special energy to the neglect of other subjects, although there is a general impression among parents that it is so pursued. Greek is almost extinct in the endowed schools of Lanca- shire, there being only five or six schools where any portion of the boys who learn it advance so far as to read the Greek Testament with tolerable ease. In other branches of study there is no con- spicuous difference between endowed and other schools, except it be that some of the larger grammar-schools have done rather less to introduce the teaching of natural science, and give less relative importance to the modern languages. But the commissioner saw no reason to believe that the results attained in French and German at the grammar-schools were inferior to those of their rivals. The greater attention bestowed on Latin seemed to compensate for the less quantity of time spent upon French. These remarks apply chiefly to the endowed schools belonging to classes A and B. The smaller schools under the remaining head, C, chiefly in country places, give for the most part an education scarcely differing from that of government schools before the revised code. Reading and writing are taught to all the scholars; arithmetic to most of them ; a little English grammar, geography, and history to the highest class, forming, perhaps, one-fourth or one-fifth of the whole number. Besides these subjects, the master, according to his own taste, teaches the rudiments of mensuration and algebra on the one hand, or of Latin on the other, to two or three boys whose parents suffer them to remain longer at School. On the whole the report is favourable to the Lancashire grammar- schools of the first and second class, though pointing out some defects which may be easily cured. It states that, on the whole, the foundation schools are not open to the charge of being antiquated and unequal to the needs of the times. Though there is some little tendency to regard classics as a palladium, they do not pursue Latin, and still less Greek, to the exclusion of other branches of study. “It would not appear, then,” says the report, “that there is any need for a violent interference, legislative or administrative, with their educational functions. They have adapted themselves to the changed condition of things—not always successfully, it is true, but •º - 2 - 2 ° 400 LANCASEIIRE AND CEHESEIIRE : with a sincere desire to be abreast of the age; and they may safely be left to introduce by and for themselves such further changes as may in process of time become requisite.” - After reporting very fully on the endowed schools of Lancashire generally, the commissioner proceeds to report on the state of educa- tion in the two great centres of population, activity, and wealth, viz., the port and town of Liverpool and the city of Manchester. Commencing with Liverpool, it is stated that Liverpool and Birken- head have not only a joint population at least equal to that of any town in England, London excepted, but may be considered to form the largest purely mercantile community on this side of the Atlantic. What may be called the upper section of this commercial middle class consists for the most part of merchants and brokers, especially those cotton brokers in whose hands is the staple trade of Lanca- shire; its lower, of a vast multitude of clerks and shopkeepers. At the desks of some of the great firms there may be found the sons, not only of the wealthiest Liverpool men, but of the landed gentry throughout England—persons who come to learn business in hopes of a partnership. But the mass are clerks by profession, receiving fixed salaries of from £60 or £80 to £300 per annum, and in a few cases, when the post is of great confidence, £900 or £1000. There are also many seafaring men householders in Liverpool, captains and mates of ships, whose families live there while they are away on a voyage; and over and above these, the usual proportion of pro- fessional men. Generally speaking, the most distinguishing feature in the social condition of the place, as compared with other towns, is the immense number it contains of persons ranking as gentle- men, but many of them receiving fixed salaries. The incomes of many of this class are very limited, though taking the inhabitants as a whole, they have larger incomes than those of any other town in the United Kingdom, with the single exception of London. The education which such a population as this desires is, of course, mainly commercial. Arithmetic and writing is the basis of every- thing else; but in Liverpool the most serviceable education hinges rather on mathematics than on chemistry or mechanics. English composition is also of great value, since business is done chiefly by letter. A knowledge of modern languages, especially of Spanish, French, and German, is very useful in Liverpool, though the practical commercial utility of such knowledge, unless when it is a familiar and colloquial knowledge, is not of much use anywhere. TAST AND PRESENT. 401 Liverpool, we are told in this report, stands, as respects her educational institutions, in a very peculiar position. All the other great towns of England—Manchester, Birmingham, Bristol, Leeds, Sheffield, Newcastle, Preston, Wolverhampton—possess endowed grammar-Schools. Liverpool alone has none. The want, however, is more than made up for by the existence of three great public day schools; the College, formerly called the Collegiate Institution, the Institute, and the Royal Institution, the two former of which are of a size scarcely equalled, and certainly not surpassed, elsewhere. In none of the three is the course of study so predominantly classical as in schools like Harrow, Rugby, and Cheltenham, or as in many of the grammar-schools of the second rank. The Royal Institution School is of the three the smallest, and the most purely classical. It numbers about a hundred boys, who enter usually at from eleven to thirteen years of age, and leave at from fifteen to eighteen. The fees are £26 5s. per annum, including everything except drawing, with an entrance fee of £2 2s.; the sons of proprietors, however, pay only £21. The course of study is chiefly classical and mathematical, intended to prepare boys for the universities, whither two or three proceed annually. The great majority, however, enter merchants' offices at fifteen or sixteen, or leave for professions at seventeen. Considerable pains are there- fore bestowed on the commercial instruction, especially upon modern languages—French, for example, being very well taught. Both the head and second masters are teachers of conspicuous ability and suc- cess, and the school therefore enjoys and deserves a high reputation in the town and the surrounding district. “Under the energetic administration of the present head-master,” says the report, “the school has for a number of years maintained itself in a flourishing state, and acquired, as well by the performances of some of its more ambitious pupils at the universities, as by the general efficiency of the teaching shown in the case of those boys also who enter business or professions, a reputation which I believe to be thoroughly well deserved. The head-master pays merely nominal rent for the use of the buildings during the day; but otherwise the school is self- supporting, all the salaries being defrayed out of the fees. No dividend is paid ; and thus, although the subscribers are so far bene- fited that their sons are admitted at a charge of £5 5.S. less than other pupils, the school can hardly be called proprietary.” The College—or Collegiate Institution, as it was till lately called VOL. II. 3 E 402 LANCASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE: —is on a far larger scale. It consists of three wholly distinct Schools (under one roof and one head-master), the pupils of each of which meet only for prayers in the morning, and are even then not suffered to mix with each other. The distinction between them is one both of fees and of the kind of education provided, and the line of social demarcation is very sharply marked, especially as between the upper and middle schools. The upper school (about 180 boys: fees, £23 2s.) corresponds to the Royal Institution School; its course of instruction is mainly classical and mathematical, and it possesses exhibitions to the universities. Of the forty boys, however, who leave it annually, not more than four or five go to Oxford and Cam- bridge; the rest are absorbed by business, and seldom remain later than sixteen or seventeen, although for the most part the sons of persons in easy circumstances. The middle school (about 300 boys) is filled by the children of the easier class of shopkeepers and clerks; its fee is fixed at £11 11s., and the boys usually leave it for business at fifteen. Latin, French, and mathematics (Euclid, and the earlier part of algebra, with occasionally a little trigonometry) are taught throughout ; great stress is laid upon arithmetic, and something is done towards natural science and German. Greek is not taught. The education given in the lower school (fees, £5 5s.) is commercial in a narrower sense of the word; there is no Latin nor German, and not very much mathematics. French, however, is taught to all boys who remain long enough, as are the elements of natural science (chemistry or physics) and drawing, and in so far the course of instruction is distinctly superior to that of the Privy Council schools, from which many of the pupils come. There are about 370 boys in this department, the children of small shopkeepers, clerks, and the better class of mechanics; and the average age of leaving school is fourteen. The author of this report, while giving much praise to the educational system of the Liverpool college, considers the spirit in which it is conducted, or rather in which it was founded, too exclu- sive. On this subject he observes—“It appeared to me that there were certain changes which might with advantage be made in the organization of the college, The constitution may appear somewhat too elaborate, but it seems to work very well; and offensive as is the way in which the boys of three different social classes are brought together yet kept apart—taught to imbibe in youth those very feelings of social antagonism which it is the object of the statesman, the moralist, and the minister of religion to extirpate—there is no PAST AND PRESENT. 403 doubt that Liverpool people are well satisfied with a system under which the sons of the rich mix with none but their equals. An eminent clergyman, on my asking him whether he did not think the system of the three schools in the college objectionable, replied, “No ; it seems to me a proper recognition of those social distinctions which Christianity was meant to establish.’” The Liverpool Institute schools are also divided, though into two instead of three departments. Its lower, the commercial school, corresponds to the lower school of the college; its upper, the high school, answers in the main to the middle school of the college, though to some extent to the upper school also. The studies in the high school (fees £8 to £16, in the preparatory section 4:6) are Greek, Latin, mathematics, French, German, chemistry, and the ordinary branches of an English education. All the boys learn Latin, and many of them either Greek or German. In the highest class the boys must learn one or other of those languages. There are about 230 boys in the school, the sons of merchants or of the richer shopkeepers and clerks. In the commercial school (fees £4 4s., in the preparatory section #3 10s.) the course is more restricted. Latin and French are extras, £1 10s, each. Mathematics are taught in the four highest classes (285 boys). The total number of boys averages 700. They are the sons of shopkeepers, clerks, and artisans, and seldom remain at School after thirteen and a half to fourteen years of age. The high school of the Liverpool Institute is classical, Latin being taught throughout, and Greek to all who do not learn German. The ordinary English subjects are also taught, together with mathematics in the four highest, and chemistry in the six highest classes. In the latter of these branches the schools have acquired a high reputation from the success of their pupils in the university local examinations. A fundamental rule of the institution forbids any religious instruc- tion of a sectarian or dogmatic kind to be given, and at present no religious instruction of any kind is given in either school. “I was told,” says the author of the report, “that some parents were unwilling on this account to send their children; but as there are already rather more than 900 boys in attendance—a number quite as great as one head-master can overlook, and greater than the present building can well accommodate—this cannot be thought to have affected the prosperity of the establishment. In fact, the success of so purely secular a school points either to an indifference 404 LAN CASHIRE AND CHIESHTRE : on the part of parents to religious instruction, or to a feeling that religious instruction is better given at home or in the Sunday school.” The author of the report is of opinion that the fees in this school are too low, fully to secure the advantages of a thoroughly good system of instruction. He says—“The fees are very low; the income available for payment of the teachers is therefore too small to make it possible to offer proper salaries. It is true that the school pays no rent ; but then a considerable part of its income, not less than what would pay rent and other necessary outgoings, is taken from it and devoted to the support of the institution generally. Thus very few indeed of the masters receive more than £200 a year, and a great many receive less than £100, many as little as £30 or #40, some as little as £15 or £20.” The author of the report, how- ever, adds the following observation in a note—“Since the above, which refers to the state of the school in 1865, was written, I have been informed by the present head-master (under whose active management the school maintains its numbers and efficiency) that no under master now receives less than £50. This increase has, however, been gained by diminishing the salaries of the upper masters, which were already too small.” The report adds, that “neither the Institute nor the College can be cited as an instance to prove that a self-supporting School can give a sound plain educa- tion, to cease at fifteen, at a charge lower than £6 per annum.” The girls' school of the Liverpool Institute is a separate building, which stands at a distance of 150 or 200 yards from the boys' school, and is rented for the purpose. It is managed by a distinct com- mittee of the general board of directors. The fees are £5 12s. per annum (daughters of members, £5 2S.; instrumental music, £6 6s. per annum; French, £2 10s.; drawing, £2 2s.; and calisthenics, £1, are extras). The education is of a plain and solid, rather than of an ornamental description; in point of quality it is much better than is to be found in most girls' schools, and in some subjects, particularly arithmetic, it attains high excellence, French is learned by about twelve per cent. of the total number of pupils; German by three per cent.; instrumental music by 14 per cent. ; drawing by eighty per cent. As in the Institute boys' School, no religious instruction of any kind is given. No prizes are offered, nor are any punishments inflicted, except the loss of good marks and privileges. For a good many years past the school has maintained its number of pupils at 300, and might no doubt greatly exceed this number if it were 12AST AND PRESENT. 405 thought desirable to do so. This is a sufficient number to fill the existing rooms, and to permit of a complete organization by classes; and the head-mistress thinks that it might prove difficult to admin- ister with success a much larger establishment. “The school deserves to be remembered,” says the report, “as an instance of a victory over the prejudice common among parents against sending girls to a place where they must mix with a great number of com- panions; and it may be in some respects held up as a model for imitation in other cities where, for want of such an institution, girls who do not belong to the wealthier class are left to pick up a meagre education in ill-taught private schools.” - In addition to the above three great public institutions, the report mentions favourably the school belonging to the frigate Conway; the schools belonging to the Congregational body; the schools founded by societies; and the convent schools for girls. Our limits will not allow us to enter into the details of these schools. The report also describes the private schools in and around Liverpool, though in a much more general manner. Of these it says that “in the private schools, both of the higher and lower grade, there may occasionally be found active and painstaking men who do much good to their pupils, especially to the elder ones, who come more directly under them. But the average standard of knowledge and intelli- gence in the private schools, is stated to be distinctly inferior to that of the three public schools. Birkenhead, Claughton, Tranmere, Rock Ferry, and other adjacent suburbs on the Cheshire side of the river, are stated to be the places where we must look for schools com- parable to the most expensive of the Manchester private schools. In conclusion, it is stated that in Liverpool about one-half of the boys above the rank of labourers are educated in the three public schools, and one-half in private schools. The private Schools are used chiefly by the lower middle class, who leave them at fourteen or fifteen. They are apparently superior to those in other parts of Lancashire; yet, on the whole, inefficient, since their teaching (in the opinion of the author) wants thoroughness, spirit, and intelli- gence. The three public schools provide for, and are used by, all sections of the middle and upper class. They supply an instruction sufficiently comprehensive, and, in the main, sound and good; and they supply it at prices which, considering the absence of endow- ment, are at least as low as is compatible with their efficiency. But the number of persons who derive the advantages of 406 LANCASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : education from the endowed, proprietary, and private schools of the higher class, though considerable, forms a very small proportion of the numbers who receive instruction at the various schools of Lanca- shire and Cheshire which are aided by parliamentary grants, and which are intended to give a certain amount of education to the whole people. The number of children and young people returned as scholars in the north-western division at the census of 1861 was about 400,000, or between a sixth or a seventh part of the whole population of the district. The number of schools aided by parliamentary grants in the two counties of Lancaster and Chester amounted, according to the report of the Committee of Council on Education, to 1133 in the year 1867-68. Of these schools 862 were in the county of Lancaster, and 271 in the county of Chester. The number of schools of this description varied, in the different towns and villages of the two counties, with the amount of population; the number being generally one or two in most of the villages, increasing to four or five in each of the smaller towns, to fifteen to twenty in the larger, and to seventy and eighty in the manufacturing and commercial capitals of the county, Manchester and Liverpool. The following table will show the number of schools of this description existing in all the large towns, and in most of the more considerable villages of the two counties, in the year 1867-68 — NUMBER OF SCHOOLS AIDED BY PARLIAMENTARY GRANTS IN THE PRINCIPAL TOWNS AND WILLAGES IN LANCASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE SCHOOLS IN LANCASHIRE, Number of Schools at Number of Schools at Accrington, . . . . 6 Bury, . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Ardwick, . . . . . . ... 4 Cartmel, . . . . . . ... 2 Ashton under-Lyne, . . ... 4 Charlestown (Pendleton), 3 Aspull, . . . . . . . ... 2 Chorley, . . dº º º ... 4 Astley, . ar’ s ... 2 Chorlton-on-Medlock, . 4 Audenshaw, . ... 2 Clitheroe, . tº tº ... 4 Bacup, . . . . ... 6 Collyhirst, ... 3 Barton-on-Irwell, ... 3 Colne, . a 4 ... 3 Baxenden, ... 2 Crosby (Great), . 2 Blackburn, . 13 Denton, º ... 2 Blackpool, . 4 Didsbury, . 2 Bolton, . . l 5 Eccles, . 4 Bootle, . ... 3 Eccleston, . 3 Brindle, ... 3 Edgeworth, 2 Burnley, * . 12 Ellel, 2 Broughton-in-Furness, ... 3 Everton, 6 I’AST AND PRESENT. 407 Number of Schools at Fairfield, . 2 Openshaw, 2 Farnworth, . . . 3 Ormskirk, 2 Fleetwood-on-Wyre, & 2 Oswaldtwistle, . 4 Garstang, . 2 Paddington, . 2 Gorton, . . . . 3 Padiham, . 4 Habergham Eaves, 2 Patricroft, ... 2 Haliwell, . 4 Preston, . 23 Harwood, . 4 Radcliffe, . . 7 Haslingden, . 4 Rainhill, ... 3 Haydock, . 2 Rawtenstall, . ... 3 Heaton Norris, . 2 Ribchester, ... 2 Hindley, 3 Rinford, wº ... 2 Helens, St., 9 Rochdale, . . . . 11 Heywood, . ... 8 Royton, ... 2 Hulme, . . 14 Salford, tº tº . 21 Hurst, . 4 Southport, . . . ... 6 Ince, . . 4 Sutton (St. Helens), • 3 Kirkdale, . 4 Swinton, . . . . - 4 Kirkham, . 2 Tarleton, . ... 2 Lancaster, . 6 Tottington, ... 2 Leigh, . 3 Tyldesley, . • 1 Litherland, ... 2 Ulverstone, ... 2 Liverpool, . . 70 Upholland, ... 4 Lytham, 2 Waterloo, . . . ... 2 Manchester, . , , 55 Warrington, . 8 Marsden, Great, l Wavertree, ... 3 Marsden, Little, ... 2 Westhoughton, . ... 2 Mawdsley, 3 Westleigh, ... 2 Middleton, 5 Widnes, ... 3 Milnrow, . 3 Wigan, . . 11 Mossley, e 2 Woolton, . ... 3 Newton-Heath, . 4 Worsley, . • 4 Oldham, 8 Number of Schools at Number of Schools at Birkenhead, . . 17 Marple, 2 Chester, 12 Mottram, . I Congleton, . 5 Nantwich, 2 Crewe, . . - 5 Northwich, 3 Dukinfield, • 5 Runcorn, . 5 Frodsham, • .. 2 Sandbach, . . . 2 Hyde, . ſº 4 Seacombe, . ... 2 ICnutsford, tº e 3 Staleybridge, . • 3 Macclesfield, . . . 8 Stockport, . 7 SCHOOLS IN LANCASEIIRE—-continued. Number of Schools at . SCHOOLS IN CEIESHIRE. There was also one, and in some cases there were two, schools at each of the following villages, or other places, in the counties of Lancaster and Chester. In Lancashire there was a school or schools 408 LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : *- at Abney (Mossley-Brow), at Adlington, Admarsh, Aigburth, Ains- worth, Aldingham, Alstonelane, Altcar, Altham, Antley (Day), Apple- ton, Ashton-in-Makerfield, Ashton-le-Willows, Ashton-St.-Thomas (in Makerfield), Ashton-on-Ribble, Atherton, Aughton, Balderstone (St. Mary, Rochdale), Bamford, Bank-Meadow, Bardsea, Bardsley, Barrow-in-Furness, Barrowford, Bedford-in-Leigh, Belfield (Messrs. Benecke's), Besses-o'-th'-Barn, Bickerstaffe, Billinge, Birch (St. Mary's, in Middleton), Birchley, Birkdale, Bispham (parish church), Brad- ford-cum-Beswick, Brathay district, Bretherton (free endowment), Briercliffe (St. James), Brierfield, Brownedge (St. Mary's), Buck- hurst, Buckley-Factory, Buersill, Burnage, Cadishead, Castleton (two), Caton, Chadderton (St. John's ch.), Charnock-Richard, Chat- burn, Cherrytree (Blackburn), Chipping, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Church Coniston, Churchkirk, Churchtown, Clayton-le-Moors, Clayton-le- Woods, Clifton, Cockerbrook, Cockerham (free), Coldhurst, Colton, Coppull, Cornholme, Cottam, Cowhill, Crawshaw-Booth, Croft (endowed), Crompton (East), Crompton (High), Crossens, Crumpsall (Lower St. Thomas), Culvert, Cunscough, Dalton-in-Furness, Davy- hulme, Deane (at Rumworth), Dendron, Ditton (St. Mary’s), Doals, Dolphinholme, Downham, Droylesden, Eagley Mills, Earcroft, Earls- town, (district), Edenfield, Egerton, Elton (All Saints), Euxton (two), Ewood Bridge, Facit, Failsworth, Fallinge, Farsawry and Hawkhead, Fence, Fernyhalgh, Flixton, Foulridge, Freckleton, Garston, Gilmoss (St. Swithin's), Glasson (ch. ch.), Glodwich (ch. ch), Golborne, Good- shaw Booth, Goodshaw and Loveclough, Greenbooth (Mills' works), Green Howarth (ch.), Grimshaw (Park), Haigh, Halewood, Halsall, Halton, Hambleton, Hamer (All Saints), Harpurhey, Haughton (Dale Mills), Hawkshead, Hawkshaw-lane, Healey, Heap Bridge, Heapey, Heaton Mersey (St. John's), Hey-houses and Sabden, Hey- side (St. Mark's district), Higham, Hippings, Hoddlesden, Halcomb, Holden Fold, Holker, Hollinbank, Hollins, Hollins Green, Hollin- wood, Hollin Mount, Hoole, Hornby, Horwich, Hulton (Little, St. John the Baptist), Inskip, Irlam-o'-th’-Heights, Irwell (or Bury, Peel Street), Kersley Moor, Kensington (Fairfield) Kersall (St. Paul's), Rersley (New Jerusalem), Kirkby, Knotty Ash, Knowsley, Lam- berhead Green, Atherton (two), Lathorn (St. James), Lea, Lack, Leasfield, Lees, Levenshulme, Little Lever, Leverbridge, Leyland, Lindale (in Cartmel), Lindale (in Marton), Littleborough, Longridge, Longsight, Lowick, Lowton, Lidiate (two), Maghull, Marsden (Great), Marsden (Little), Marsden Little Somerseat, Mayfield, Mellor, TAST AND PRESENT. 409 Brook, Meols (North), St. Michael's-on-Wyre, Micklehead Green, Moor Park, Moorside, Mossbank, Moston, Musbury, Nelson (in Marsden), Newbarns, Newburgh (Ormskirk), Newbury (Bolton), New Church (Mechanics' Institute), New Church (in Rossendale), New Church (near Warrington), Newhay, Newsham (St. Mary's), Newton (in Makerfield), Norden, Oakenroad, Oakenshaw, Orford, Orrell, Over Darwen, Padgate, Park Lane (Ashton-in-Makerfield), Parr (Brookfield), Parr (St. Helens), Parkbridge (Leasfield), Peasley (two), Pemberton, Pendlebury (two), Penketh, Pennybridge, Pickup Bank, Pilkington (Park Lane), Pilling, Pimhole, Pits-o'-th'-Moor, Pleck Gate, Poolstock, Poulton-le-Sands, Prescot, Prestwich (two), Quernmore, Ramsbottom, Ravenhead (two), Rawcliffe, Read (in Whalley), Reddish, Rhodes, Rishton (two), Risley, Rough Lee, Rusholm, Ryecroft, Sabden, Salem (Moravian), Salesbury, Samles- bury, Sankey Chapel, Satterthwaite and Rusland, Scarisbrick, Scor- ton, Scotforth, Seaforth, Sharples (Messrs. Ashworth's), Shaw (two), Shevington, Shuttleworth, Silverdale, Singleton, Skerton, Small- bridge, Smithill (Deane), South Hill (Whittle Woods), Southshore, Spotland, Stand, Standish (grammar), Stanley, St. Ann's, Staveley (in Cartmel, endowed), Stonefield, Stretford, Stubbylee, Summerseat, Symstome, Thornham (two), Thurnham, Tochholds, Todmorden, Tonge-cum-Alkrington, Townley, Trawden, Tunstead, Turncroft, Turton, Tyldesley, Ulnes-Walton, Unsworth (two), Urmston, Urswick (grammar), Walkden Moor, Walmerley, Walmersbridge, Walmsley, Walton Breck, Walton Higher, Walton-le-Dale, Walton- on-the-Hill, Wardale, Wargrave, Warton (two), Waterhead, Weeton, West Derby (two), Whalley (two), Welton, White Coppice, Whit- tington (two), Whittle-le-Woods, Whitworth, Wingate, Withington, Withnell Mill, Witton (St. Mark's), Woodplumpton, Worsthorn, Worth Mills and Yealand-Conyers (two). The following is a list of the endowed schools of Cheshire, with their net income from endowment, as given in the first volume of the Reports of the commissioners of School Inquiry; but the more detailed report with regard to the Cheshire schools has not yet appeared — ENDOWED SCHOOLS IN COUNTY OF CHESTER. Graduates at Ox- Schools in Places called Cities and Not Day *g Boarders. ford and Cam- Towns in Census 1861. Income. Scholars. bridge in 1867. £ Stockport, . . . . . . . . . 278 ...... 165 ... ... 7 • * * * * * Macclesfield, No. 1, - 1. Grammar-school, . . . . . 800 . . . . . . 39 . . . . . . 8 ...... 2 \" () [.. II. 3 F 410 LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : ENDOWED SCHOOLS IN COUNTY OF CHESTER.—Continued. Graduates at Ox- *:::::::::::::: * : *, *, ºr :8 2. Modern school, . . . . . . 400 ...... 101 ... ... *T* , , , , , tº- Chester, . . . . . . . . . . 280 ... ... 52 ...... 2 - tº- Congleton, . . . . . . . . . 23 ...... 59 ... ... * • * * * * * Nantwich, . . . . . . . . . 21 g = c & G G 23 ... ... 2 … - Knutsford, . . . . . . . . . 29 ... ... 18 ... ... *T s = < . . s - Sandbach, . . . . . . . . . . 215 • * > *g e e 54 ...... 40 ... ... * *s Schools in Places not called Towns or Cities, in 1861. Frodsham, ... . . . . . . . . 47 ...... 146 - . . . . . . - Bunbury, . . . . . . . . . . 50 ...... 102 ...... 6 ...... - Lymm, . . . . . . . . . 115 ... . . ll ... ... 3 ... . . — Witton (Northwich), . . . . . . 337 * * * g tº 45 ...... Tº e º a . s e * Over, . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 ...... 90 ...... tº- —— Mottram (township), . . . . . . 89 ...... 37 ... .. 2 ... ... *- Marple (township), . . . . . . 3 ...... In abeyance..... --- ...... e-re Tarvin, . . . . . . . . . . — - - - . . . . . . - 1. Tarvin School, . . . . . . 20 ..... School closed..... — ...... - - - 2. Hargrave school, . . . . . 47 ...... 140 ...... - . . . . . . - Acton, . . . . . . . . . . . 10 ...... 46 . . . . . . 8 ...... - = Weaverham, . . . . . . . . . 45 ... ... 54 • * * * * *T* > , , , , -- Audlem, . . . . . . . . . . . 40 ...... 11 ..... "T" s , , , e. - West Kirby, . . . . . . . . 66 ...... 65 ...... T . . . . . . -- Halton (township), . . . . . . 37 ...... 88 ...... "T" ... • , , , , - wº Wallasey (township), . . . . . . 146 ...... 95 ... ... * , , = , = tº- Malpas, . . . . . . . 25 ...... 30 ...... T . . . . . . — Burton, . . . . . . . . . . 46 ...... 66 ...... - . . . . . . -* Daresbury, . . . . . . . . . 54 ...... 72 ...... - . . . . . . - In addition to yearly income a few of the endowed schools have also exhibitions, such as Manchester, É595; Preston, £40; Bolton- le-Moors, £25; Lancaster, É105; Leigh, £40; and Ashton-in-Maker- field, £43. - * The following is a complete list of the endowed schools of Lanca- shire with the net income of each, the number of day scholars and boarders in each, and the number of graduates furnished by each to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge in 1867:— ENDOWED SCHOOLS IN COUNTY OF LANCASTER. Graduates of Ox- Schools in Places called Cities and Net Day Towns in Census 1861. Income. Scholars. Boarders. §: #. £ e Manchester and Salford, . . . . 2480 ...... T • . . . . . 252 ...... 36 Oldham, . . . . . . . . . . 30 ...... 39 ...... T . . . . . . *- Preston, . . . . . . . . . . 55 •,• * * * * 98 ...... 12 ...... l Bolton-le-Moors, . . . . . . . 349 ...... 67 ...... TT • . . . . . *- Blackburn, . . . . . . . . . 113 ...... 83 ... ... 13 ...... l PAST AND PRESENT. 411 ENDOWED SCHOOLS IN COUNTY OF LANCASTER—Continued. *º sº. º. º.º. ºf º Il COIſle, Scholars. bridge in 1867. Rochdale, . . . . . . . . . % is tº ſº tº g is 37 ...... 3 ...... * Wigan, . . . . . . . . . . . 222 ...... 48 ... ... * = gº Bury, . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 ... .. Ilö tº º ſº tº ſº a 6 . . . . . . *-*. Burnley, . . . . . . . . . . 240 ...... 53 a s , s a s T' s e e s a e tº-º-º: Warrington, . . . . . . . . . 373 tº s tº tº . . . 47 tº tº $ tº 4 3 ... ... tº-º Lancaster, . . . . . . . . . – ...... tº-º- • * * * * * * T = e s , , * * 1. Royal grammar-school, . . . 30 ...... 84 ... ... 74 ...... | 1 2. Friends’ school, . . . . . . 48 ...... 38 ...... * e s , s a , sºmeºm Chorley, . . . . . . . . . 10 ... ... 22 ... ... - . . . . . . - Leigh, . . . . . . . . . . . 25 ... ... 58 ...... l • . . . . . T Middleton, . . . . . . . . . 37 ...... 37 ..... * e s = e s = * Farnworth, . . . . . . . . . 15 ... .. 31 ... .. *-* • , s , s = "T Clitheroe, . . . . . . . . . . 284 ...... 39 ... ... 33 tº & 8 º' & 2 Ulverstone, . . . . . . . . . 35 ...... 82 ... ... * . . . . . - Ormskirk, . . . . . . . . . 72 ...... 75 ...... 3 . . . . . . sms Colne, . . . . . . . . . . . 19 * . . . . . 36 ...... * e e s e a s *ms I2 Prescot, . . . . . . . . . . 132 ...... { 72 } ... . . - ...... g-º- Widnes, . . . . . . . . . . 50 ... ... 43 ... ... 10 ... ... *E=º Kirkham, . . . . . . . 452 ...... 99 ...... 9 ... ... * -º Newchurch (in Rossendale), . . . 48 ...... 38 ... ... 8 ... ... ºmº Dalton, elementary information very meagre. Schools in Places not called Towns or Cities in 1861. North Meols, . . . . . . . . 35 Elementary: no information. Pilkington, . . . . . . . . . 38 ...... 10 ..... 9 . . . . . *=s Eccleston (Prescot), . . . . . . — ...... Not stated ...... * * * * * * * ... ºsmºs Standish, . . . . . . . . . . 80 ...... 93 ... ... *T* e s = e a s * Ashton-in-Makerfield, . . . . . 43 ...... 52 . . . . . . Tº e a e s a e sºmºsºms Penwortham,. . . . . . . . . 370 tº gº tº 83 ... ... *T* = a s e g a - Cartmel, . . . . . . . . . . 80 ... ... 16 ... . . . 12 . . . . . . * Halsall, . . . . . . . . . . 13 Paid to national school e-gº- a • e e º Tº St. Michael-on-Wyre, . . . . . 7 ...... 52 ... ... *T* e s a e s tº cº-ºmrº. Aspull, . . . . . . . . . . 15 ...... Not stated ...... * e s a e s a * -º-º-º: Great Crosby, . . . . . . . . 379 ...... 65 ...... T = . . . . . *-*. Leyland, . . . . . . . . . . 28 ...... 48 ...... T • , , , , , *g Upholland, . . . . . . . . . 74 ...... 17 ...... 6 ...... tº-m Lathom, . . . . . . . . . . 35 ...... 80 ...... T • . . . . . — Cockerham, . . . . . . . . . 11 ...... 154 ...... T • . . . . . wº-ºº: Blackrod, . . . . . . . . . 254 ...... 58 ..... . T = . . . . . l Lowton, . . . . . . . . . . 14 ...... 34 ...... Tº e s = • , a * Warton, . . . . . . . . . . 15 ...... 36 ...... T • , , , , , sº-º: Hawkshead, . . . . . . . . . 224 ...... { $ ...... 11 ...... 2 6.1 - 8 } Tarleton, . . . . . . . . . . 31 ... ... 69 ... ... * e s a , s a * Colton, e & 8 . . . . . . *T* e = e e s a **E* ... ... – Finsthwaite school, . . . . . . — ...... 30 • * * * * * T . . . . . . * Bolton-le-Sands, . . . . . . . 43 ... ... 39 . . . . . * s e e s a . gº-ºº: Marton, . . . . . . . . . . 55 ... ... 63 ... ... * * * * * * * * * * Goosnargh, . . . . . . . . . 60 ... ... - . . . . . . - . . . . . . *sº 412 - T.A.NCASHTRE AND CHESEIIRE : ENDOWED SCHOOLS IN COUNTY OF LANCASTER– Continued. Graduates of Ox- ols in Places not called Towns C Ay Schools i. in º T º sº. - Boarders. : #. Colbornes and Threlfall schools, . . — ... ... 119 • . . e s a T- . . . . . - Broughton (Kirkby-Ireleth), . . . 6 ... . . . 54 ... .. Tº e g º a s a * Urswick, . . . . . . . . . 15 . . . . . 94 • . . . .'s "Tº e = < e < * sºmº, Burtonwood, . . . . . . . . — tº s = & ºr 49 . . . . . . * * g o e s e w * Lea, . . . . . . . . . . . 80 ... ... 23 ...... * e s a , , a * Preesall, with Hackensall, . . . . 13 ...... 65 . . . . . . . — ...... * Whalley, . . . . . . . . . . 35 ...... 6 ... ... 26 ...... gº º Tunstall, . . . . . . . . . . 28 ...... 35 ...... - . . . . . . ** * Wray, . . . . . . . . . . . 45 * † = ſº a º 70 ...... - . . . . . . * * Bretherton,. . . . . . . . . . 69 ... ... 61 ... ..., — . . . . . — Broughton (Preston), . . . . . . 106 ...... 61 ....., — . . . . . . *ms , Clayton-le-Woods, . . . . . . 9 ...... Not stated ...... - . . . . . . * * Winwick, . . . . . . . . 34 ...... 6 ...... 23 ...... * Halton, . . . . . . . . . . — ... .. * . . . . . . T . . . . . . º Aughton School, . . . . . . . . 78 ...... 14 ...... **T* s , , , , º “mº Eccleston, St. Michael’s-on-Wyre, . -- ...... * - , , ,- e - T - - , , , — — . 1. Copp school, . * tº gº 45 . ... Not stated ..... - . . . . . – 2. Lane-head School, . & 5 ... ... Not stated ...... – ...... * Over Wyresdale, . . . . . . . — ...... - . . . . . . -- . . . . . . * Abbeystead School, . . . . . . 110 ...... 72 ...... 6 . . . . . . - Stalmine, . . . . . . . . . . 94 ... ... 51 ... ... - . . . . . . * Clifton, with Salwick, . . . . . 13 ...... 23 ... . . . . . . . . * * Heskin, . . . . . . . . . . 45 * G & gº tº 72 ... .. - . . . . . . —- Bispham, with Norbreck, . . . . 70 ... ... 75 g a º e is 2 a w w = a a T- Kirkland, . . . . . . . . . 24 ... ... 37 ... ... - . . . . . . * Bleasdale, . . . . . . . . . 22 ... ... Not stated ....... — ... ... — Rivington, . . . . . . . . . 281 ... ... 137 . . . . . . 16 ...... * Bispham, . . . . . . . . . 121 ...... 72 ...... 5 . . . . . . - Kirkby-Ireleth, . . . . . . . 18 ...... Not stated ...... Tº s = e s is s sm-mº The Cotton Famine and its Influence on the Condition of the People of Lancashire and Cheshire.—Having traced, in previous parts of this chapter, the rapid growth of industry, wealth, and comfort amongst the inhabitants of the cotton districts of Lancashire and Cheshire, from the time when the first great impulse was given to the manufactures of the north-western district by the invention of cotton machinery in England, and by the extensive growth of cotton in the United States of America, to the census of 1861, at which time the manufactures of this district and country had risen to the highest point of prosperity ever attained by any branch of industry; we now proceed to trace the history of the heavy mis- fortunes which pressed so severely on the people of this district for some years subsequent to the census of 1861, and which were caused by the interruption in the usual supplies of cotton, caused by the civil war in America, the long-continued blockade of the Southern PAST AND PRESENT. 413 ports, and the sudden transition from slave to free labour in the cotton-growing states of America. Of all the disasters which have befallen the manufacturing districts of Lancashire and Cheshire in modern times, this, whilst it continued, was the most trying ; for its effect was to deprive several hundred thousands of the most indus- trious operatives of this district of all regular and certain employ- ment for three or four years; to reduce them to involuntary idleness and to dependence on public and private relief; and to deprive them of nearly all those comforts which they had so long earned by their own industry and skill. Nor were the disastrous effects of this great political and social convulsion confined to the labouring classes, although they fell most heavily on them. The result of the scarcity of cotton was to raise the price of that and all similar articles, and of the goods manufactured from them, to prices previously unknown by the present generation; and to introduce into all the operations of trade and commerce, connected with this greatest branch of indus- try, those sudden fluctuations and dangerous risks which always attend extravagantly high prices, especially when they arise from political causes, and not from the ordinary operation of the law of supply and demand. Yet it would be wrong to overlook the fact that these great evils were attended with some mitigating circum- stances, and that many great and permanent benefits have arisen out of the sufferings and difficulties of those times, which may ultimately compensate the people of this district, and all who are either directly or indirectly connected with the cotton trade, even for their long and severe sufferings. It is owing to these events that the cotton manufacture has ceased to be dependent on slave labour for its supplies of raw material, and has thus obtained a security for the future permanency of its operations, which it could never have had so long as it was dependent on slave labour, which is everywhere giving way before higher views of justice and human rights than those prevalent in former times. Another great benefit which has arisen from what we may venture to hope is only a temporary scarcity of the supplies of cotton from America, is, that the high prices which that scarcity produced have given a great impulse to the production of cotton in British India, in Egypt, in Brazil, and in other countries, and have thus considerably diminished the danger of an almost total failure of supplies, which always existed so long as nearly the whole of our supplies were drawn from a single source, and were at the mercy of the changes of climate in a single country, 414 LAN CASEITRE AND CHIESEIIRE : or depended on the continuance of uninterrupted intercourse with a single nation. Whilst the events produced by the failure, or rather by the withholding for a time of the American crops of cotton, have given a great and, it is to be hoped, a permanent impulse to the production of cotton in other countries, the long- continued and deep distress caused in this country by the loss of the usual supplies of cotton, has taught the English nation, and especially that portion of it which is connected with this district, some lessons which are well worth knowing, but which nations, like individuals, learn only in the school of adversity. The patience and fortitude with which the people of the manufacturing districts bore their sufferings during the cotton famine, when com- pared with the violent and dangerous discontent of former times, showed how much the spread of intelligence amongst the people, and the introduction and enactment of just laws by Parliament and the Government during the last twenty years, have done to strengthen the foundations of society in this country. The warm sympathy in the undeserved sufferings of the people of the manu- facturing districts shown by all classes, from the sovereign on the throne and the first nobles of the land, through every class, including the artizans and labourers engaged in other branches of industry, also showed how closely the different ranks of society in this country are united by common sympathies, and has itself strongly tended to draw those different classes still more closely together. In addition to these noble manifestations of patience and fortitude on one side, and of generous sympathy on the other, both the local authorities of the more populous districts, and the government of the country, have learnt the lesson of dealing with the difficulties caused by a great and sudden failure of employment amongst large masses of the people, in the manner best calculated to relieve distress, without producing degradation and pauperism. The period of the cotton famine will long be remembered, not merely as the time at which public and local charity were most generously displayed, but also as the period at which the greatest improvements were made, by means of public works, in the sanitary arrangements and the internal condition of the towns and villages of Lancashire and Cheshire. During that period the permanent condition of all the manufacturing towns, and of most of the large villages of the two counties, has been greatly improved by the employment of the people on public works of the highest utility. These were effected, in the first instance, by PAST AND PRESENT. 415 means of loans from the government to the local authorities of all the principal towns and manufacturing villages of the two counties. In this manner very nearly two million sterling has been expended in paying wages for useful work, chiefly to men who would other- wise have had to be supported by the poor rates as paupers. The whole of the money raised by the government, and lent to the local authorities, was advanced at a moderate rate of interest, on the security of the rateable property of the towns and places to which it was lent, and was made repayable in yearly instalments extending over a period of thirty years. Considerable portions of the advances have already been repaid, and the rest is held on large and increas- ingly valuable security. It thus appears to be possible, in times of great national calamity extending beyond the means of immediate local relief, to afford assistance without creating permanent degra- dation of the people, and by a combination of national and local resources, to effect this great object without loss to the public treasury. During the five years which preceded the civil war in America, the supplies of cotton from the United States were much larger than they had ever been before, and formed nearly three-fourths of the cotton imported into this country. In the year 1856 the quan- tity of cotton imported into this country was 2,468,200 bales, or 1,021,000,000 of lbs., valued in the returns of the Board of Trade at 426,448,224, sterling. In the year 1857 the number of bales of cotton imported was 2,418,600, containing 976,000,000 of lbs., valued at £29,289,827. In the following year (1858), the number of bales imported was 2,442,600, containing 1,025,000,000 of lbs., valued at 930,106,968. In 1859 the number of bales imported was 2,830,100, containing 1,190,000,000 of lbs., valued at £34,559,626. And in the following year (1860), the year in which Abraham Lincoln was elected president of the United States, the quantity of cotton imported into this country was the largest that had ever been known, and amounted to 3,366,500 bales, or 1,435,000,000 of lbs., and was of the value of £35,756,889. Of this immense quantity of cotton the United States supplied to this country that year 2,580,700 bales, valued in the Board of Trade returns at £30,069,306. It was this immense stream of wealth flowing into the Southern states from this and other countries, that induced the planters and people of the Southern states to believe that the European nations, and especially that England the great manufacturing country, could not possibly 416 T. ANCASHIRE AND CHESEIIRE : dispense with the supplies of American cotton, which furnished employment and the means of subsistence to so large a portion of their population. It was confidently stated that “cotton was king,” and was as confidently expected that England would join with the Southern states, rather than allow so many of her people to be brought to the verge of famine by the blockade of the Southern ports. But in this opinion the planters were mistaken. England did suffer quite as much as they had anticipated by the sudden, and for a time the irreparable loss, of the usual supplies of American cotton; but the whole of the British people, and especially the manufacturing population of the cotton district, who suffered most severely in their own persons, and in those of their wives and children, from the interruption of their only means of employment, steadily refused to become parties to the American civil war, and cordially sustained the government in its policy of entire neutrality. An examination of the effect produced on the condition of the classes engaged in the cotton manufacture of this country, by the loss of the usual supplies of American cotton for a period of four years, will show how much firmness and self-denial, as well as principle, was exhibited by the British people, and especially by the inhabitants of the cotton district, in refusing to take part in this contest, even at a time when the French government was understood to be, not only willing, but anxious to induce England to join in a plan of joint intervention. - The civil war in the United States broke out in April, 1861, and the blockade of the cotton ports commenced a few weeks later; but the war and the blockade had been expected from the time of the presidential election in November, 1860. Hence the greater part of the American cotton crop of 1860 reached this country in safety early in 1861, and the scarcity of cotton was rather anticipated than felt up to the close of the year 1861. In that year the quantity of cotton imported into this country, though less than that of 1860, was large, amounting to 3,035,700 bales, or 1,261,000,000 of lbs. Though less in quantity than the crop of 1860, by nearly half a million of bales, the crop of 1861 was valued at considerably more, namely, at £38,653,398. This was the commencement of the extra- ordinary rise in the price of cotton, which during the next three years compelled this country to pay twice, and even three times, as much for a small supply of cotton as it had previously paid for a large one. In the year 1862 the supply of American cotton PAST AND PRESENT. 417 almost entirely ceased, and the total supply from all quarters sank to 1,445,068 bales, or 533,000,000 of lbs., being not much more than one-third the quantity imported into this country in the year 1860. The quantity of American cotton imported in the year 1862 was insignificantly small, amounting to not more than 71,766 bales, of the value of £1,221,277. The price paid for the small cotton supply of 1862 was somewhat greater than that paid for the large supply of 1860, having amounted to £36,193,145. This represents consider- ably more than a doubling of the price of all the cotton imported in the year 1862, and much of it advanced to three or four times the prices that had prevailed previous to the war and the blockade. In the following year (1863), it was seen that the quantity of cotton imported was beginning to advance slowly under the stimulus of the enormous prices which then prevailed, and which raised the quantity of cotton imported to 1,932,200 bales, or 691,000,000 of lbs. The price paid for this small supply was not less than £56,277,953, and under the influence of these extraordinary prices the supply continued to increase. In 1864 the quantity of cotton imported was 2,587,100 bales, or 896,000,000 of lbs. The price paid for this still small supply was not less than £78,203,729. The year 1865 was the last of the American war and the blockade, and during that year the number of bales of cotton imported into this country was 2,755,310 bales, or 966,000,000 of lbs.; and the cost of this supply was upwards of £66,032,193. These prices and sup- plies must be regarded as the results of the scarcity of cotton produced by the American war and blockade, and of the efforts to obtain supplies of cotton from other parts of the world. In British India alone the quantity of capital poured into the country between the years 1861 and 1865 was upwards of £100,000,000. On a somewhat smaller scale, Egypt, Brazil, Turkey, China, and many other countries profited, at least for a time, by the extraordi- nary efforts which were made to obtain a supply of cotton from every country in which the cotton plant could be grown. The next three years, 1866–67–68, were years of compara- tive peace in America, and of unrestricted trade with the ports of the United States, as well as with those of other cotton-growing countries. In the first of these years (1866) the number of bales of cotton imported into this country from all quarters was 3,749,040 bales, or 1,353,000,000 of lbs., valued by the Board of Trade at £77,521,406; in 1867 - the number of bales of cotton im- VOL. II. 3 G 418 LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : ported was 3,500,780 bales, or 1,279,000,000 of lbs., valued at £51,999,537; and in the year 1868 the number of bales of cotton imported was 3,660,110, containing 1,292,000,000 of lbs., and valued at £55,198,522. During the last three years nearly the whole of the cotton imported into this country has been raised by free labour, instead of having been raised by slave labour. The only considerable exception to this remark is in the cotton of Brazil, which is still raised by the labour of slaves. Viewing the supply of cotton as a whole, we may consider that, instead of deriving three-fourths of our supply of cotton from slave labour, as we did to the years 1860–61, we derive more than three-fourths of the supply of this great necessary of British industry from free labour. This may be some consolation even under the present insufficient supply; and it encourages us to hope that the supply will continue to increase, and that it will never again be cut off by the causes which so suddenly deprived us of the supplies which we formerly derived from slave labour. The history of the cotton famine forms one of the most inter- esting and instructive, as well as the most melancholy and affecting chapters, in British industry. At the time when the scarcity of cotton began to be first felt, in the year 1861, there were in the three counties of Lancaster, Chester, and Derby 2270 factories engaged in the manufacture of cotton. Of this number 890 were engaged in spinning only ; 593 in weaving only; 152 in miscel- laneous production, and 639 in spinning and weaving. At that time there were in the three counties 369,452 persons employed in the cotton manufacture. The average wages paid to the workers in the cotton manufactories, according to a valuable contribution by Mr. David Chadwick to the “Miscellaneous Statistics of the United Kingdom for the year 1859,” was 10s. 3}d. per week, making the amount of wages paid weekly in the cotton trade £205,833, and the total paid yearly £10,651,000. The value of the machinery, worked or superintended by four hundred thousand persons, employed in 1861 was estimated at £52,400,000 ; and the total value of the cotton goods, which had been estimated at £61,482,000 by Mr. Henry Ashworth in the year 1856, was little, if anything, less than £70,000,000 yearly, when the scarcity of the raw material first began to be felt towards the end of the year 1861. - At the commencement of the cotton famine, and for many years previous to that great misfortune, the rates for the relief of the poor PAST AND PRESENT. 419 had been lower than in any other district of England, owing to the skill and industry of the people, and to the liberal wages which they received from their employers. In the period of twenty years, between 1839 and 1859, the hours of labour had diminished, while the rate of wages had increased, in every branch of the cotton trade. The following extract from the “Miscellaneous Statistics for 1859,” presented to both houses of Parliament by command of her Majesty, will show how great had been the improvement in the condition of the labouring classes of the cotton district, and how comfortable their position was, previous to the cotton famine. The figures were supplied by Mr. David Chadwick, and have reference to the cotton trade in the neighbourhood of Manchester. RATES OF WAGES IN 1889 AND 1859. 1839. 1859. Hours of Work. Hours of Work, 69 per week. 60 per week. S, 0. 8. d. Steam-engine tender, . . . . . . . . . . . 24 0 ...... 30 0 ° Warehouse boys, . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 0 ... ... 8 0 Warehouse men, . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 0 ...... 22 0 CARDING DEPARTMENT— Scutchers (young women and girls), . 7 0 ...... 8 0 Strippers (young men), 11 0 ... .. 14 0 Overlookers, . e s a e g º 'º a " 25 0 ...... 28 0 Card-minders (boys from fourteen to eighteen), . 6 0 ... ... 7 O Drawing-frame tenders (young women), 6 6 ... .. 8 0 SPINNING DEPARTMENT— Spinners on self-acting mules, . . . . . . . 16 to 18 ...... 20 to 22 Piecers (women and young men), . . . . . . . 8 0 ...... I0 0 Overlookers, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 0 ſº e º is $ . 20 0 Dou BLING DEPARTMENT— Doublers (women), . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 0 ...... 9 0 Doffers (girls), . . . . . . . 4 0 ...... 5 () Overlookers, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 0 ...... 28 0 Jobbers (young men), , 10 0 ...... 13 () The first signs of distress in the manufacturing districts appeared in the month of October 1861, when the belief began to be enter- tained, both in England and America, that the war between the North and the South would be serious and lasting; and when the establishing of a close blockade of all the cotton ports of the South, produced the conviction that one of its consequences would be the cessation of nearly the whole of the American supply of cotton. The effect of this belief was to raise the price of middling Orleans cotton, the most extensive of all the varieties imported, 420 LANCASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : from about 6d. to 10d. per lb.; and as this great increase in the price of the raw material was not accompanied by anything like an equal increase in the price of yarn and cotton goods, the result was to render the production of those articles highly dangerous to the spinner and manufacturer, and ultimately impossible at the rates which prevailed previous to the war. Before the close of the year 1861 middling Orleans cotton had risen to upwards of 12d. per pound, whilst Indian cotton, previously contemptuously described as Surats, had risen to 10d per pound, and began to be looked on as the main hope of a continuance of cotton production. During the whole of 1862, and the greater part of the year 1863, the price of cotton continued to rise, and, before the close of the latter year, had reached a point which had not been known since the high prices of the great war. Between June, 1861, and October, 1863, middling Orleans cotton had risen from 8d. to 2s. 5d. per pound, or very nearly four-fold; and although cotton yarn and cotton goods had also risen almost in the same proportion, yet the prices of the latter articles had been raised with the greatest difficulty, and the articles were produced under the constant apprehension that a sudden close of the war in America might throw open the American cotton ports, let in large supplies of American cotton suddenly, and inflict heavy loss, if not total ruin, on all who had been engaged in the production of cotton goods and yarn from high-priced cotton. The result of high-priced cotton, joined to the uncertainty as to the future range of prices, was to induce some, and to compel others of the manufacturers, either to work short time or to close their mills altogether. At the commencement of the month of November, 1861, forty-nine mills had been stopped entirely, a large portion of the other mills were working short time, and there were already 8063 hands out of work, From that time the distress continued to increase rapidly, and in the month of May following there were 11,000 operatives out of work at Preston alone ; at Blackburn, 8429. This distress continued to increase. In September of the same year, there were at Preston 10,000 persons receiving relief from the poor-law guardians, and nearly 24,000 persons on the books of the committee for affording private relief. At Blackburn, out of seventy-four mills, eighteen were running full time, sixteen short time, and thirty were entirely closed; there being no less than 15,000 operatives out of work. In the following winter 36,000 of the population were dependent on legal or charitable relief. At Oldham there were PAST AND PRESENT. - 421. 9411 persons relieved by the guardians at a weekly cost of £512, the majority of whom received additional assistance from the relief committee, which divided the sum of £643 weekly amongst 9881 persons. In October of the same year the Rochdale guardians were relieving 98.13 persons at a weekly cost of £754, while the relief committee was assisting some 10,000 persons, who received no help from the guardians. In Ashton-under-Lyne nearly 20,000 persons were unemployed, and receiving relief from the guardians of the poor and the relief committees. The expenditure of the former was £1128 nearly, and at one time, viz., at the close of October, there was only one mill in this populous borough working full time. At Stockport, out of a population of 54,000, there were 23,000 receiving relief in the month of October. The guardians relieved 8000, and the relief committee 15,000. The above are a few specimens of the amount of destitution produced by the cotton famine, which was continually increasing, and that at so rapid a rate that at the second weekly meeting of the central executive committee, in the month of November, 1862, it was stated that the destitution was advancing at the rate of 3000 persons a day. The following is an extract of a report drawn up about this time by Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth for the guidance of the committee in their expenditure — “If, as was too probable, 250,000 factory operatives were out of work at Christmas, and one-half of them were dependent on the relief committee for support, they would consist of the following classes:–Five-tenths of that half, or 62,500, would be women ; about three-tenths, or 37,500, boys and girls; and about two-tenths, or 25,000, men and youths.” .- To meet this immense amount of distress a variety of means were adopted. In the first place, the general principle which gives the poor and destitute of this country a claim to relief from the parishes and unions in which they are resident, was carried out to its utmost limits, and was even extended beyond the ordinary limits by a special Act, which rendered the whole of the rateable property of the county liable to taxation for the relief of the destitute poor. In addition to the most liberal relief that could be afforded from parochial union and county rates many hundred thousand pounds were raised by the generous contributions of the whole British people, both at home and in the colonies, aided by liberal contributions from the United States and from continental nations. In the third place, a great scheme of public works was devised and carried out, by 422 LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : which a sum of nearly two millions sterling was raised on the credit of the government; was advanced to the different towns and other districts in which distress was most prevalent, on the security of the property of each of those places for its repayment, with interest, in a given number of years; and was expended in public works of the highest utility, executed within the districts to which the money was lent, and which have become responsible for its repayment. With regard to the first of these modes of relief, viz., that of parochial union and county rates, it was carried quite as far as it was possible to carry it without injury to the permanent sources of industry. - - The following were the poor rates in some of the principal towns in November, 1861, and at Michaelmas, 1862 – Poor RATES BEFORE THE COTTON FAMINE, NOVEMBER, 1861. :6 S. d. Ashton-under-Lyne, . . . . . ... • * * * 8,268 or 0 7 in the pound. Blackburn, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,012 “ 1 0 {{ Manchester, . . . . . . . . . . . . 37,752 “ 1 0} {{ Oldham, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,320 “ 0 9% « Preston, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,264 “ 1 13 (s Rochdale, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,840 “ 0 8% “ Stockport, • * * * * * * * * * * * 8,632 “ 0 8% {{ POOR RATES DURING THE COTTON FAMINE, MICHAELMAs, 1862. 8, d. Ashton-under-Lyne, 1 6% in the pound. Blackburn, 3 2 {{ Manchester, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2% {{ Oldham, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l 6 {{ Preston, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 {{ Rochdale, . . . . . . 1 10 { % Stockport, . . . . . . I 8: {{ The rates in all these places, and in every district and union connected with the cotton trade, continued to increase until the burden in those parishes and districts became quite unbearable. The first legislative attempt to relieve the great and increasing distress was the passing of the Union Relief Aid Act, 1862, 25 and 26 Vict. c. 110; being an Act to enable boards of guardians of certain unions to obtain temporary aid to meet the extraordinary demands for relief therein. By this Act it was provided that the guardians of any union situate wholly, or in part, within any of the counties of Lancaster, Chester, or Derby, might charge the cost of relief in parishes in excess of 38. in the pound on the other parishes of the union; that they might make extraordinary calls in PAST AND PRESENT. 423 case of need; that they might apply to the Poor-Law Board for power to borrow money when the aggregate expenditure of the whole union at Michaelmas or Christmas exceeded 3s. in the pound; and that when the expenditure exceeded 5s. in the pound they might apply to the Poor-Law Board, which could then apportion such excess of expenditure over the unions in those counties. This Act was continued in the next session, viz., that of 1863, by the Union Relief Aid Act (1862) Continuance Act, 26 Vict. c. 4; being an Act to extend for a further period, that is, during the two next quarters, and to 1st day of September next, the Act of the previous session. Another Continuance Act was passed before the close of the same session of 1863, viz., the Union Relief Aid Acts Continuance, 26 and 27 Vict. c. 91. This latter Act, besides continuing the provisions of the previous Acts, with some modifications, gave power to the Public Loan Commissioners to make advances, not exceeding £200,000, to guardians under this Act. - Under the powers of the above Acts of Parliament large sums of money were raised and expended for the relief of the unemployed and destitute poor. But it was soon found that they were quite insufficient. At this period a noble system of voluntary relief was organized in Lancashire and in London, by means of which upwards of a million was raised by voluntary subscriptions; and at a somewhat later period an excellent system of relief by means of public works was organized by the government. It was in the month of May, 1862, that the two great charitable agencies were organized, which it has been truly observed “will be remembered so long as the recollection of this famine shall endure.” Those agencies, we need scarcely say, were the Central Relief Committee of Manchester, and the Mansion House Committee of London.” These two committees at once became points round which the benevolence of the whole nation was organized. The late earl of Ellesmere was the head of the first committee when it was organized; but he was cut off by death at a very early period of its operations. The earl of Ellesmere was succeeded by the earl of Derby, who presided over the committee assembled at Manchester during the whole of its most useful career, and whose great influence and distinguished talents added greatly to the value of his services. The Mansion House Committee was organized by Mr. Alderman Cubitt, at that time lord mayor of London, who devoted a large * Arnold's History of the Cotton Famine, p. 118. 424 LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : portion of the closing years of his life to this noble object. The following are the names of the members of the central committee:– The Right Hon. the Earl of Derby, K.G., chairman; Sir James P. Kay-Shuttleworth, Bart., deputy chairman; the Right Hon. Lord Egerton of Tatton; the Right Hon. Lord Edward Howard, M.P.; Col. Wilson Patten, M.P.; Major Egerton Leigh; Thomas Ashton, Isq.; Edmund Ashworth, Esq.; G. L. Ashworth, Esq.; Robert Gladstone, Esq.; Nathaniel Eckersley, Esq.; Joseph Fenton, Esq.; J. Goodhair, Esq.; Robert Hutchinson, Esq.; R. H. Hutchison, Esq.; J. Robinson Kay, Esq.; Hugh Mason, Esq.; Robert Maclure, Esq.; John Platt, Esq.; W. Rathbone, jun., Esq.; William Roberts, Esq.; Malcolm Ross, Esq.; T. J. Stern, Esq.; James Worrall, Esq.; the Worshipful the Mayor of Manchester, chairman, general com- mittee; H. Bunard Farnall, Esq., special commissioner, ea officio; A. H. Heywood, Esq., treasurer; John William Maclure, Esq., honorary secretary. Amongst the first contributors to the relief of the Lancashire operatives was her Majesty the Queen, who as duchess of Lancaster sent a donation of £2000 to the Cotton Districts Relief Fund in the month of July, 1862. In the month of October following the Central Relief Committee had funds at their disposal amounting to £150,000, which were every day increasing; the Mansion House Committee had £50,000, and the local subscriptions amounted to .#98,000. In the month of November the funds at the disposal of the Central Relief Committee amounted to £180,714, and they were able to promise aid to the extent of £25,000 per month for the next five months. Large as these sums were they were urgently needed, for there were at this time 208,621 persons receiving parochial relief, and 143,870 receiving relief from the local committees, who drew the greater part of their funds from the central committee. The whole amounts received for the relief of the unemployed, from the 9th of June to the 31st of December, 1862, was £593,404 13s. 11d. Of this sum, the contributions from Lancashire and the cotton districts amounted to £258,769 6s. 9d.; the general contributions throughout the United Kingdom amounted to £274,928 14s. 1d.; whilst the foreign and colonial amounted to £58,890 0s. 9d., of which sum £46,639 2s. 2d. was from the British possessions in Australia. But in spite of all the relief administered under the Union Relief Bill, and of the most extensive charity afforded through the Man- chester and the Mansion House committees, the distress and desti- tution continued to increase. Early in the year 1863 the necessity and desirableness of endeavouring to find employment for the destitute poor by means of a system of public local works began to be discussed, and was finally adopted. Previous to entering on this undertaking the government obtained several reports on the subject. PAST AND PRESENT. 425 The following are some extracts from a report drawn up by the author of this work at the request of the Right Hon. C. P. Williers, president of the Poor Laws under Lord Palmerston's government. Memorandum on the Employment of the Destitute Poor of Lanca- shire and Cheshire on Works of Utility.—At the time when the first census of the present century was taken, in the year 1801, the population of the towns of Great Britain in which the cotton trade was carried on was 319,072 persons. At the census of 1851, the population of the towns engaged in the cotton trade had increased to 1,220,104 persons. This gives an increase of 901,032 in fifty years. The population of these towns having thus increased to nearly four times its original amount in half a century, we may venture to conclude that the number of houses in these towns, the number and length of their streets, and the extent of ground covered by them, must have increased in something like the same proportion. The amount and rate of increase in the manufacturing towns of Lancashire will, in all cases, be found to have been very great. There are few cases in which the population has not doubled itself in that period, and in several cases it has increased four or five fold. Accrington was a mere village in 1801. In 1851 it contained 7481 inhabitants, and in 1861, 13,872. - Ashton-under-Lyne contained only 6391 inhabitants in 1801. In 1851 it contained 29,790, and in 1861, 34,886. Bolton, though a manufacturing town from the reign of Henry VIII., and one of the original seats of the cotton trade, contained only 17,956 inhabitants at the beginning of the present century, at the census of 1801. In 1851 Bolton contained 61,171 inhabitants, and in 1861, 70,396. - Burnley was a small place of 3918 inhabitants at the beginning of the century, but contained 20,828 inhabitants in 1851, and 28,700 in 1861. Bury, another old manufacturing town, contained only 9134 inhabitants in 1801. In 1851 it contained 31,262 inhabitants, and in 1861, 37,562. Manchester and Salford together contained only 94,876 inhabit- ants in 1801. In 1851 Manchester contained 316,213 inhabitants, and Salford 85,108. In 1861 Manchester contained 357,979 inhabit- ants, and Salford 102,449 in 1861. Liverpool, the port of the cotton trade, contained 82,295 inhabit- ants in 1801 ; 375,955 in 1851 ; and 443,938 in 1861. VOL. II. 3 II 426 LAN CASHIRE AND CHESEIIRE . Oldham contained a population of 21,677 in 1801. In 1851 Oldham contained 72,357, and in 1861, 94,344. Preston, though the oldest borough in Lancashire, contained only 12,174 inhabitants in 1801. In 1851 it contained 69,542 inhabit- ants, and in 1861, 82,985. Rochdale, though mentioned as early as Domesday Book, con- tained only 8542 inhabitants in 1801. In 1851 it contained 29,195 inhabitants, and in 1861, 38,184. º Stockport had only 7017 inhabitants in 1801. In 1851 it had 53,835 inhabitants, and in 1861, 54,681. - Warrington, which stands a little distance from the Lancashire coal-field, but has become a considerable manufacturing town during the last fifty years, contained only 11,321 inhabitants in 1801; 22,894 in 1851 ; and 26,431 in 1861. - Wigan, at once a manufacturing and a mining town, contained only 10,989 in 1801; 31,941 in 1851; and 37,658 in 1861. The towns which have sprung up so rapidly in Lancashire and Cheshire during the present century have generally been built without a plan, every one doing what seemed good in his own eyes, or what suited his own immediate interest. The population has in general settled itself around the cotton mills, foundries, and work- shops in the place, each of which has proved a fresh centre of growth. Towns thus built are necessarily irregular in form, and deficient in many arrangements, and the present time would prove a favourable opportunity for effecting great improvements. The great modern improvements which have added so much to the comfort and the average duration of life, resolve themselves chiefly into the following points:– - The widening of streets for the double purpose of health and convenience. The sewing and draining of towns. The increasing the supplies of water. The prompt removal of all matters injurious to health. The constructing of swimming and other baths, and of wash- houses, for the use of the labouring classes. - The forming of public walks, gardens, and parks, in the suburbs of large towns, for the purpose of health and relaxation. There is not a town in Lancashire or Cheshire, and scarcely in Fngland, which is not deficient in one or more of these points. Both the extent of this deficiency and the mode of correcting it PAST AND PRESENT. 427 will be shown by a careful examination of the large plans of the towns of Lancashire, contained in the recent Ordnance survey of the county. The local reports of the Board of Health might also be examined with great advantage, in planning works of the kind now suggested. It may be deserving of consideration whether the present would. not be a favourable time for forming places of healthy recreation in the suburbs of some of the manufacturing towns of the district, on the same principle as the public parks of London, and the boulevards of continental towns and cities. Places of this kind always increase the value of the surrounding property, besides affording recreation and improving the general healthiness of the towns in which they exist. Much has been done towards this object at Manchester, Liverpool, Halifax, Derby, Leeds, Barnsley, and other places, by generous men or enlightened communities. But the greater part of the manufacturing towns of Lancashire are very deficient in places of recreation, and as they increase this defect will be the more felt, and the more difficult to remove. Times of public distress, when it has been necessary to support large masses at the public expense, have often been chosen for the effecting of such works. At Liverpool, as already mentioned, the gardens at St. James' Mount were laid out at such a period of distress; the waste ground of an old stone quarry being turned into a pleasant public promenade by the labour of the unemployed population. The law of England wisely and justly provides that the destitute poor shall be fed, whether they can be employed or not; and as it is very undesirable to interfere with the occupations of those who are still employed, it is scarcely possible to find work for the others without under- taking some kind of public works. All men feel an interest in works that improve and beautify the towns in which they reside, and even the destitute will work at them with an alacrity which they would not show in labour imposed for the mere purpose of testing their industry. In undertaking works of this kind local co-operation and local knowledge are absolutely essential, and these would be cheerfully given, if it were known that the government was willing to co-operate in carrying them into effect. The following general observations on the condition of the unemployed population in the cotton districts will serve to show how desirable it is, on national grounds, to prevent anything like a break 428 LAN CASHIRE AND CHESEIIRE : up of society, and an exodus of the population in those districts. The population of the counties of Lancashire and Cheshire, form- ing the north-western division of England, amounted at the census of 1861 to 2,465,366. At least one-half of this population is dependent on the cotton trade. - The increase of the population of the district formed by those two counties has been more rapid than that of any other district of England, the increase of population in that district, in the sixty years between 1801 and 1861, having been from 865,767 to 2,465,366 inhabitants. This rapid increase of population in the north-western district has been greatly promoted by the immigration into the counties of Lancaster and Chester of great numbers of persons born in other districts of the United Kingdom. At the census of 1851 there were residing in the counties of Lancaster and Chester nearly half a million persons born in other districts or other counties. England supplied much the greater part of the persons who had thus immigrated into Lancashire and Cheshire, and almost every English county supplied its quota. - This process of immigration has been in operation in Lancashire and Cheshire for the last hundred years, and has been one principal cause of the rapid increase of the population. It is probable that at least one-half of the present population of Lancashire and Cheshire is composed of persons either themselves born or sprung from parents who immigrated into the counties during the present century. A certain deduction must be made for persons born in Lanca- shire and Cheshire who have migrated to other parts of the United Kingdom, or emigrated to foreign countries; but that number is comparatively small. The immigrants have far exceeded the emi- grants in number, so that up to the census of 1861, Lancashire and Cheshire have furnished homes, employment, and food to large numbers of persons born in other parts of England, or of the United Kingdom. - The general result of the immigration into Lancashire and Cheshire, up to 1861, must have been satisfactory; for whilst the immigrants obtained employment, the rate of wages was as high, if not higher, than in any other part of England, and a smaller per centage of relief from the poor rate, in proportion to the popula- tion, was required in those counties than in any other district of England. The population was prosperous, industrious, orderly, and contented. PAST AND PRESENT. - 429. Whilst the condition of the population was thus prosperous, its power of adding to the national wealth was enormous. In the year 1861 the valuation of Lancashire and Cheshire to the property and income tax was £32,376,266. The area of the two counties is only 2,000,227 acres, so that the income is equal to a net return of .#16 from every acre of land in the two counties, independent of the value of incomes of less than £150 a year; that is to say, of the incomes of the whole of the labouring classes. Oh grounds of policy and prudence, as well as of humanity, almost any effort ought to be made to avoid the breaking-up of so great and, in its present condition, so prosperous a community, and one which adds so much to the wealth and strength of the nation. This, at least, ought to be done, until it is ascertained whether the present pressure on its means of employment, subsistence, and wealth, is more than temporary. On that subject all that it is necessary to say is, that the demand for cotton goods has been steadily, and indeed rapidly, increasing in every part of the world for the last fifty years; that there is no reason to believe that the taste and desire for cotton goods will decrease, but quite the contrary; that the power of this country to produce those goods is greater now than it ever was before ; that the whole quantity of cotton imported into England from the United States was grown on about 7,000,000 acres of land, and raised by the actual labour of about 1,000,000 negroes; and that England alone possesses in India and her other tropical colonies, territories larger than the whole of the cotton-growing states of America, and a population of about 150,000,000 of inhabitants, nearly all engaged in the cultivation of the soil. Taking the most gloomy view of the duration and the results of the present American civil war, there is every reason to hope that another year or two will yield us a sufficient supply of cotton, restore employment to the workers in the cotton mills, and revive and restore that great source of national wealth.” j The government having determined to recommend a system of local public works, requested Mr. Robert Rawlinson, C.E., to visit the whole of the distressed districts of Lancashire and Cheshire, and to suggest and advise with the local authorities as to the most necessary and useful works to be formed in each locality. The following is the circular of the Home Office on the subject of the proposed public works:— 430 LANCASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : COTTON MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS.–CIRCULAR FROM THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT OFFICE, IIome Office, Whitehall, S.W., 4th May, 1863. SIR,--I am directed by Secretary Sir George Grey to inform you that as the Of is included in the list of places suffering under the present stagnation of trade in the cotton manufacturing districts, which has thrown so large a. number of operatives out of employment, he thinks it important, after consultation with the president of the Poor- Law Board, that the attention of your Board should be called to the powers conferred by the Local Government Act for works of local improvement, and for raising the money required for such works on the security of rates under the Act, to be repaid in terms varying from a maximumfof thirty years in ordinary cases to one of fifty years under special circum- stances. . - The works for which powers are given include,- . Sewerage and drainage works. . Works of water supply. . The making of new streets and roads. . The widening, levelling, paving, and improving of existing streets. . Providing and laying out recreation grounds, walks, and parks; and 6. Providing markets. - Works of land drainage now in progress in some parts of Lancashire show that many of the able-bodied men, lately employed in the cottom mills, are competent to use the spade and execute earthwork operations in an efficient manner; and it is for the Local Board to consider whether by employing this description of labour at fair wages they might not, while carrying out improvements needed in their district, lighten the pressure on the ratepayers, and avert from the unemployed the evil consequences inseparable from long dependence on alms or parochial relief. r - All applications to the Secretary of State for his sanction to borrow the money required for such improvements as I have enumerated, will receive his immediate attention. An inspector from the Local Government Act Office, viz., Mr. Rawlinson, C.E., has already been sent into Lancashire for the purpose of advising with the authorities in some of the more distressed towns, as to the works which are required there, and which are best adapted for affording employment for the operatives now out of work; and he will be prepared to visit your town or district with that view, if it should be considered necessary or expedient that he should do so.-I have, &c., - : T. TAYLOR. To the Local Board of —--— - After visiting the different localities, Mr. Rawlinson reported as follows:— Cotton Manufacturing Districts—Report of Robert Rawlinson, Esq., C.E., on the Public Works required in the Cotton Manufacturing Districts, and the employment of the Operatives thereon. - To the Right Honourable C. P. Williers, M.P., President of the Poor Law Board. SIR. - Manchester, 16th May, 1863. IR j On the 29th April 1863, I received instructions from the Right Honourable Sir George Grey, her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for the Home Department, as under : — “SIR, - - “I have to request that you will forthwith proceed to the cotton manufacturing. district, and visit the principal towns situated in it. - * . PAST AND PRESENT. - 431 - “It is desirable that you should communicate with the corporate and other local author- ities of these towns, who, I have no doubt, will be disposed to give you every assistance in the prosecution of your inquiries. “You will then proceed to inspect such towns and their suburbs, and ascertain the character of the drainage; the quantity and quality of the water supplied ; the condition of the streets; the provision made for parks or pleasure grounds for the recreation of the inhab- itants, and the general Sanitary arrangements of each locality. “You will form your opinion as to what works of utility, profit, or ornament are capable of being executed ; and you will make, as far as possible, an estimate in each case of the cost of such works; you will lay your suggestions upon these points before the local authori- ties, and explain to them the beneficial results which you believe might be obtained by the execution of these works, both in the improvement of the towns and in the employment of the distressed operatives, at a fair rate of wages, which latter is the immediate and pressing object for which works of this nature are mainly to be undertaken. Your intimate acquain- tance with the provisions and working of the Local Government Act, and the Public Health Act, will enable you to explain to the authorities of the towns where those Acts are in operation, the large powers and facilities afforded by them for the execution of works of the character referred to; and you will point out to the authorities of populous places which have not yet adopted these Acts, the advantages which might result from their adoption. “You will transmit, from time to time, reports of your proceedings to the president of the Poor Law Board. In the first instance, it will be sufficient to send to him a statement of the works which, in your opinion, might be immediately begun, reserving minute details for subsequent reports. “You will also state what assistance you may require in the execution of these instruc- tions, bearing in mind the importance of losing no time in effecting the object for which this duty has been confided to you.-I am, &c., - “(Signed) G. GREY.” To Robert Rawlinson, Esq. On Friday, 1st May, 1863, I left London for Manchester, to commence the inquiry intrusted to me. On Saturday, 2nd May, I visited Stockport, and communicated with the town-clerk. Subsequently, namely, on Wednesday, 13th inst., I attended a meeting of the Town Council of Stockport, when the questions of works and the beneficial employment of distressed cotton operatives were discussed. I have since visited and inspected— 1. Ashton-under-Lyne, 3. Dukinfield, - 6. Rochdale, 2. Blackburn, 4. Oldham, 7. Stockport; 5. Glossop, and have either seen or have communicated with the local authorities of the towns and places as under :– 1. Accrington. 4. Bacup. 7. Denton near Manchester. 2. Burnley. 5. Chorlton. 8. Over Darwen. 3. Bolton. 6. Croston near Preston. 9. Wigan. Ashton-under-Lyme. Market town and borough : Population, about . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,000 Amnual rateable value, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $76,000 I saw the mayor and H. Mason, Esq. These gentlemen expressed themselves favourable to the inquiry. The borough is governed under the powers of a local Act, 12 and 13 Vict. c. 35. Certain sums of money have been borrowed for waterworks, for market, and for town hall. There is a local debt as under:— 4.32 LANGASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: Waterworks, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $45,660 Town hall and market, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,720 #62,380 There is power under the Act to borrow sums of For waterworks, . . . . . . . . $4,340 For other purposes, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,280 #7,620 The loans have been obtained at 4 per cent. The waterworks and market pay good dividends. There are public sewers, and many of the streets are formed and paved. But additional works may, with advantage, be undertaken, viz.:- - Estimated at Main Sewerage, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85,000 'Additional water supply, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,000 Road and street improvements, . . . . . . . . . . 10,000 Lowering Queen Street and Margaret Street bridge, . . . . . . . 5,000 Public park, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,000 340,000 A new cemetery is also said to be required. Under the powers of the Local Government Act, which may be adopted, the borrowing powers may go up to double the annual rateable value, or £76,000 × 2 = #152,000; and as #62,380 must be deducted, there may be borrowed an additional sum of £89,620. Blackburn. The corporation of Blackburn exercise powers under a local Act, 10 and 11 Vict, c. 255, amended by 17 and 18 Wict. c. 183. Population, 1861, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63,125 Annual rateable value, . . . . . . . . . :#145,000 The corporation have borrowed and expended on Improvement account, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670,000 Repaid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,200 Owing, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61,800 —— 61,800 Main sewerage account, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46,000 Total Debt, . . . . . . . .6107,800 Under the powers of the Tlocal Government Act the corporation might borrow £145,000 × 2 = * tº e º 'º is º º 290,000 Deduct existing debt, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107,800 Sum which might be borrowed, . . . . . . . . . . . $182,200 There is in Blackburn a public park of about fifty acres in extent. A portion of the borough has been sewered. Many streets have been formed and paved; but there is a con- siderable length of main sewering remaining to be completed, and many streets require to be formed and paved. - - Estimate. • Lineal Yards. Streets neither sewered nor paved, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,310 Streets sewered, but not formed and paved, . . . . . . . . . . . 3,985 Tineal yards, . 7,295 or 4 miles and 255 yards. PAST AND PRESENT. 433 To sewer, form, pave, and complete these streets will cost about £20,000. Some twelve miles of streets are only partially completed, and about twelve miles of main sewers are required in addition to the work done. A sum of £50,000 may be expended on these streets and sewers, or £70,000 in the whole may be profitably expended in Blackburn on public and On private account. - e Duk’nfield. Dukinfield is governed under the powers of the Local Government Act. Population about . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,000 Annual rateable value, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $35,000 Borrowed for offices, &c., . * * * * * * * * * * * $2,000 Main sewers are required. A new cemetery is required. Water is supplied by a com- pany. It is not in contemplation to undertake any public works in Dukinfield at present. Oldham. Population, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72,000 Rateable value, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $268,000 Local public debt £160,000, for which there is a paying income. Under the powers of the Local Government Act, if adopted, the corporation might borrow up to- 36 38 268,000 × 2 = 536,000 Less . . . . 160,000 Or a sum of £376,000 In Oldham, main Sewers are required; street improvements, and a public park. Some $100,000 may be advantageously expended in Oldham, if work required to be done can legally be undertaken at once. The corporation will not, however, at present undertake the whole of such works. If land can be obtained for a public park this would be made at once, and some 500 men may be profitably employed during six months. Glossop. There is a population in Glossop of about 12,000, and an annual rateable value of about 4:52,000. There is not any form of local government in Glossop, other than parish authority. There is no general System of main sewerage nor drainage. There is a private water supply. If a local government existed in Glossop, #20,000 might be profitably employed on main sewers, on roads and streets, and in extending the waterworks. The adoption of the Local Government Act has, up to this time, been objected to. The Act was, however, framed to enable such places to obtain local power for Self-government in the cheapest and best Iſla,IllCT. Rochdale. I have had an interview with the corporation of Rochdale, but have not had time to obtain details of the works which may be beneficially undertaken. Population, 1861, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38,164 Main sewers are required. Streets and roads may be improved. The corporation are willing to undertake the formation of a park and recreation grounds if land can be obtained. Main sewers, streets, roads, and new park would require an expenditure of about £70,000. It appears that the corporation, under an existing Act, can borrow an additional sum of £40,000. The inquiry was most warmly supported by the corporation. A committee of the town council has been formed, and the borough Surveyor will prepare estimates for works forthwith. OrtillW1 Stockport. The population of Stockport in 1861 was 54,682. The annual rateable value, £143,227. The borough of Stockport is governed under the powers of a local Act, 16 Vict. c. 26. There IS a public park at Stockport, Main sewers require to be completed. Streets and roads require to be formed, improved, and paved. The river requires to be cleansed. The borough ºwo, VOI, II, O 434 LANCASHIRE AND CHESEIIRE . is to make out estimates, and a committee of the town council has been appointed to inquire and report to them as to local improvements of a beneficial character, which may be under- taken with a view to the employing adult factory hands now out of work. The mayor and town council have taken the question up in earnest. There will be legal and financial difficulties, which, however, they will strive to master. - In the several towns of Accrington, Burnley, Bolton, Bacup, Chorlton, Croston, Denton, Over Darwen, and Wigan, works of improvement are required, and will be undertaken if legal and financial difficulties can be removed. So far as I have yet visited and inspected the distressed towns in Lancashire and Cheshire, I find work requiring to be done, able-bodied men out of work, and the local authorities willing to consider the proposition of devising “work for wages” for the willing workers amongst the distressed cotton operatives. Legal power and money are, however, required in many instances. The Local Government Act offers legal power at no cost; but there has been and now is a prejudice against this Act. Deputations from Oldham and some other places have, however, visited Preston and Wigan to inquire as to the working of the Act, and the replies being Satisfactory some of this prejudice has been removed. Many of the public have entertained the notion that government intended to set out large works, and execute the same indepen- dently of the local authorities. I have in all cases explained that all works undertaken must be devised, superintended, executed, and paid for by the several local authorities. Objections have been taken to the proposed scheme of works, viz.:-"That a time of general distress is not favourable to large expenditure on local works not directly productive. That the cottom operatives out of work cannot, with advantage, execute the proposed works. That necessarily a large proportion of the money required must be paid to skilled labour other than distressed cotton operatives, and for materials.” The reply is:—The able-bodied men, now out of work, must either be maintained out of the poors' rates, or by work in the towns. The present system will ruin the men, if persevered in over another year. Relief to able-bodied men is ever demoralizing. The best of the distressed cotton operatives both can and will do a fair day's work for a fair day's wages. This I know by past and by present experience. I have questioned many of the men, and they are willing and anxious to work. Much of the money required will necessarily be expended on skilled labour and on materials. But within one month after commencing fairly to work the best of the distressed cotton operatives will have become, in a degree, “skilled labourers,” in excavating, in trenching, and in street and road forming. There are difficulties to be overcome, but most of these difficulties rest with the local authorities. But a vast amount of useful work may be beneficially undertaken, and be executed by the best of the distressed men out of employment. Large numbers of cotton operatives ought not to be massed. The labour should be divided, and there should be practical men to lead and to superintend. Wages should be paid in money, and at short intervals. Any loss in the work in the first instance will be more than made up to the locality in a saving of the poors' rate. I have made arrangements for obtaining more detailed estimates of works which may be undertaken in the several towns, and have offered my services to (as far as possible) advise the local surveyor, in each case, as to works. I will report further so soon as practicable. I have, &c. ROBERT RAWLINSON. No. 14. Cotton Manufacturing Districts—Report by Robert Rawlinson, C.E., to the Right Hon. C. P. Williers, M.P., President of the Poor Law Board. SIR, - London, 30th May, 1863. The several towns in Lancashire and the district comprised in the 27 unions reported upon by the Central Executive Relief Committee (as prepared by Mr H. B. Farnall, special commissioner), contain a population of 1,984,955 (or near two millions of persons), and have a net rateable value of some £6,036,659 (or six millions of pounds sterling). PAST AND PRESENT. 435 List of Towns in the Distressed Unions in the Cotton Manufacturing Districts, with the Population and Rateable Value. º Number of Population in Net Rateable Value No. . Name of Union. Townships. P. in 1861. 4. 1 Ashton under-Lyne, . 13 134,761 313,350 2 Barton-upon-Irwell, . * 39,050 136,828 3 Blackburn, 24 119,937 272,448 4 Bolton, 26 130,270 360,720 5 Burnley, . 26 75,888 185,142 6 Bury, . 12 101,142 328,223 7. Chorley, . 26 41,679 150,215 8 Chorlton, 12 169,573 475,905 9 Clitheroe, . 34 20,476 93,525 10 | Fylde, The, . 23 25,623 117,761 11 Garstang, 23 12,411 72,168 12 Glossop, 10 21,140 53,445 13 Haslingden, 10 69,782 143,952 14 Lancaster, 19 23,544 106,625 15 Leigh, . . 10 32,734 104,954 16 Macclesfield, 41 61,517 198,688 17 Manchester, . 1 185,040 789,203 18 | Oldham, 8 111,267 226,201 19 Preston, 28 110,488 331,704 20 Prestwich, 11 20,476 182,170 21 Rochdale, 6 91,758 254,208 22 | Saddleworth, 1 18,630 53,997 23 Salford, 4 105,334 337,719 24 || Stockport, 17 94,361 242,361 25 Todmorden, . 6 29,727 89,696 26 Warrington, 16 43,788 149,249 27 Wigan, 20 94,559 266,193 Totals, 427 1,984,955 6,036,659 The distressed towns represent in population about one million five hundred thousand persons, and a net rateable value of about £4,556,722. My experience in town improvement works generally, and my recent inspection and inquiries in the distressed cottom district, lead me to the conclusion that one million and a half sterling may be expended in permanent improvements of a beneficial character, such as main sewerage, drainage, new reservoirs for water supply, forming and completing streets, forming suburban roads, forming parks, recreation grounds, inclosing waste lands, draining lands, cleansing and improving rivers, and other similar works. There has not been time as yet to have estimates made of the actual works required in each town, but details have been taken out which show the relative value of land, of materials, of skilled and unskilled labour in the several works. The estimates are taken from works actually executéd, and may be relied upon as not far from the truth. Each special case will of course ultimately be estimated on its own peculiarities. The class of works which will find employment for the largest number of unskilled hands will be levelling waste lands, forming parks and recreation grounds, baring rock for quarry- ing, forming suburban roads, draining agricultural lands, cleansing and improving rivers, forming reservoirs, and other such works. The works were at once commenced, and carried out with the most satisfactory results. The following Tables will show the amounts expended at each place, and the purposes for which they were applied:— NAME OF CITY, BOROUGH, TOWN, PARISH, UNION, TOWNSHIP, OR PLACE To WHICH LOANS HAVE BEEN ORDERED BY THE POOR LAW BOARD FOR THE SEVERAL PURPOSES AS PROVIDED FOR BY THE PUBLIC WORKS (MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS) ACTS, 1863–64. Aº of F Road and E. ‘.g. p: Erection - No. 8, D1S y OT 9. TRS simbank- || Drainage OF * Dates of Board's Street | Water - i Ceme- e Gas Street | Public Name of Place. Local Authorities. * S, *. º Orders. sº Improve-| Supply. * É.*: A. teries. .. Works. Bridges. | Baths. Law Board - ment. Grounds. Rivers, &c. Works. Places. 3& £ £ 38 3. £ £ f £ 36 3. 4. Ashton-under-Lyne, Town Council, . | 1 6,343 9th Oct., 1863. 3,760 2,583 **E=E. * assº. *E. º smºs s=== º *-*. $ tº § { • * * * 2 59,489 17th Mar., 1864. 10,246 || 49,243 | – || – * sºsº. == gº º sºsºs ºmºs *º-º-º-º- * { * { * tº $ & 3 1,700 |30th “ ” 874 826 || – || – sº sº-º * *s * m=== wº- $ 4 § { $ | $ 4 57,500 | 8th Oct., “ — — 57,500 || – *E=º- * * sºs *º sº cº-º-º: 125,032 14,880 52,652 57,500 || – * sº gº-ºº: s== *- ss=== * Blackburn, . . { { 4% 1 78,300 | 19th Aug., 1863. 13,750 59,512 sº *Eº 5,038 * *=º * sºm- * * £6 { % § { 2 65,825 | 28th Oct., “ 14,470 || 45,005 *-* 1,350 * * sº *E* +---> 5,000 144,125 28,220 104,517 | – | 1,350 || 5,038 || – *E* — | – || 5,000 Bolton, . . * { {{ 1 55,000 || 5th Oct., 1863. 9,912 || 30,370 10,000 | 1,000 || 3,000 || – sº -º-º-º-º: — 718 — 4 * $ § 2 66,000 |29th April, 1864. 13,582 52,418 sºmº e- * * tº-8 {--> mº-º- *= *= {{ • { * * 3 4,934 10th May, “ * - *=- g== *Eº wº-mº, * = sº 4,934 *E=- gº-º-º: * - {{ * * : * { 4 52,000 || 13th Oct., “ — — 40,000 | 12,000 || – s=== *ºse gº s= n =s *E= 177,934 23,494 | 82,788 50,000 || 13,000 |_3,000 || – — 4,934 || – 718 — Burnley, . . . (6. {{ 1 37.800 |28th Nov., 1863. – 17,060 | 18,728 — * = * ass= emºs 2,012 — e-º-º-º: Bury, Improvement Com-| 1 || 33,259 |11th Mar., 1864. 10,150 28,109 || – *== smsºn sº sº * *sº * sºme missioners, . 2 15,000 29th June, 1863. — g== sºme g- gº-º-º: — 15,000 tº- *-º-º-º: sº *º- 48,259 - 10,150 || 23,109 mº- sº- *= gºe 15,000 e--- tºº * * Macclesfield (Borough). Local Board, . . . 1 33,500 14th Sept., 1863. 18,500 15,000 || – *=== tº-º-º: *sº $º * *º- * -º sº ſe (ſ. {{ { * * | 2 7,500 | 12th Oct., “ - . * *Eº *s sº-º-º: sºmºre 3,500 2,500 — 1,500 — t & 66 $ $ $6 3 5,580 |30th Dec., 1864, 1,500 4,030| – || – º- sº-º-º-º: * *E=- * | * -º- 46,530 20,000 | 19,030 * e-ºs- * *gº 3,500 2,500 gº 1,500 * Macclesfield Union, . Board of Guardians. 1 5,530 |25th Sept., 1863. 1,380 4,000 150 — sºme * cº- --- gºals gºs $ $ $ | b t $ 2 || 5,000 | 18th Oct., “ — 5,000 || – || – | – || – || – || – || – | – || – {{ { { { % $4 3 2,000 |26th Feb., 1864. — — | – || – , *= 2,000 || – — - || – || --. I - 12,530 1,380 9,000 150 — *se 2,000 || – *sº sºs sº •º Manchester . . City Corporation, . | 1 || 25,000 || 11th Jan., 1864. — sº * -ºmºmº * *== — |25,000 || – º sº-º cº- & 4 tº e {{ 2 130,000 14th ** { % sº tº- 130,000 * - i-º-º-º: *=== *º- * tºº isºs Ardwick Township. “ {{ 3 30,000 || 9th “ “ 4,000 | 26,000 sºs *E=º **E=º sº sº cº- sºme sº * Cheetham “ * { { { 4 18,260 | * * * *= 18,260 s:- * — a- * ss=s== •= sº * Chorlton A $. { { tº { 5 17,000 1,000 | 16,000 * * === * º-º-º- *sº * *º-º-º: s== º- Hulme * { { { (a 6 7,600 | 18th May, 1864. 1,728 5,872 *= tºº-º-º-º: *º- *--> *º- sº- <--> sº mºs 227,860 6,728 66,132 |130,000 cº tº-e e-ºº-ºº: 25,000 gºº sºme gºmmºn gºsº § - Amount of Road w d 3. %.g. p: Erection tº º sº. No. |_{* | Dates of Board's ... For stree water | ** *|*.*. |º ceme- E ū. g Gas Street | Public Name of Place. Local Authorities. Lºs º Orders. sºº Improve-| Supply. *::::: #. Aºi. teries. j Works.|Bridges Baths. |Law Board ment. Grounds. Itivers, &c. Works. Places. 4. f 36 3. £ f f :6 f fº 3. 5 Oldham, . . . Town Council, 1. 18,000 || 28th Sept., 1863. – * — 18,000 º &===- sºme * * tº- == $ $ * { * { . 2 5,700 || 13th Jan., 1864.] — vºm- &=mg 5,700 sºme E- *=== ‘E- * tº- tº- 4 & t{ | || 3 75,000 || 10th May, “ 14,998 || 57,022 -º-º: 2,985 * *- e- &=º- *= &=º- * 4t {{ &ſ 4 4,200 29th Jan., “ *= *º- *== 4,200 g-mº. - *= *E-, * * * {{ £ 6 $4 5 3,000 |27th Dec., “ * *= &Eme 3,000 *=s *E*- * e- * * * (6 {{ $ſ. 6 14,280 |30th “ “ 14,280 *- sº gº {-º-º. * --- -º- tº- sºmeº *== 120,180 29,273 || 57,022 — | 33,885 tº-º *=== *E*- E- wº- gºmºsº sº-º-º-º- Preston, . . . Local Board, . 1 28,500 24th Aug., 1863. — 25,500 — 3,000 || – * tº- * tº-º-º-º- * *sº ( * {{ {{ 2 | 19,739 || 24th Oct., “ 3,141 | 16,598 || -- º * &=== *ºn *== ms sºme º ºsº £6 $$ ${ 3 15,000 | 18th Oct., 1864. — sº- *- * * s=== -- || 15,000 * *E*- tº-ºº: 63,259 3,141 || 42,098 e-º-º: 3,000 tº-º-º-º: * — 15,000 º &=. * -º Rochdale, . Town Council, . . | 1 5,000 || 14th Jan., 1864. — 5,000 smºs * rºmº * sº- * * sºme e- t{ {{ $ 2 10,600 14th April, “ *== 1,050 — | f 7,050 | 2,500 * *E*- * * * wº- {{ {{ { % 3 14,000 |29th June, “ 14,000 m=== e- * = †--> * *s § -, * - s=sºme tº-º-º: 29,600 14,000 || 6,050 *= 7,050 2,500 {-º-º: 4-tº- *se tº-º-º-º: tº-º-º: *- Salford, . . $ (, {{ 1 40,000 || 3rd Mar, 1864. 3,000 || 17,000 * - *- *E=E. *=== — | 13,000 * --> *== tº-> $ $ { % * * 2 760 | 2nd Mar. “ * * 275 *E=- * *== * — |* 7,000 * 485 || – 40,760 3,000 || 17,275 *s *E=- * &= - — 20,000 * 485 || – Staleybridge, . . tº {{ 1 2,954 9th Oct., 1863. 2,954 *E- * *-* *- t- *- * - mº: *-*. { % 6 t t ( 2 3,000 | 6th April, 1864. 2,534 466 — * * * == {-ºm- * I mºmeº sºmeº $ & # * & 4 3 5,834 26th Aug., | { 982 4,852 &= - *º- * =ºm * gº * smsºmºs - {{ $ $ * [. 4 62,500 8th Oct., ( ſ. * * 62,500 gºssºs *== * * *-Eº * * tº-º: 74,288 6,470 5,318 62,500 *== * *-*. * tº- *E* * • *- Stockport, . tº tº {{ 1 25,493 || 11th Jan., 1864. 25,493 *s * *s ºsmºs – *E* *- - gºmº. tº- - {{ $ 8 * { 2 - 883 || 13th May, “ gº-ºº. 883 &=º *-ºs- a- * tº- * * ſº- * “ $ $ $$. 3 2,000 26th $6 {{ tºº *= - g== *- tºm- *=ms emº *E* 2,000 * { % tº ſº $ 6 4 31,000 |25th June, “ smºsº 28,000 *=== * *— * *E*º- *=s — 3,000 || – 59,376 | 25,493 || 28,883 || – * wºme tº- *E* *-*. — 5,000 | — Wigan, tº . . . Local Board, . . | 1 || 30,270 *º- — 30,270 — ** * tº-º-º: &=º wº- * *=º “ “ . 2 17,800 *= 17,800 * — **E* *E*- *Eºs tº- dºº- *-*. * - 48,070 tº-mº 17,800 30,270 * * * * sº *- ſº sº gººms LONDON, 1868. t For purchasing and preparing site for New Town Hall. * For the construction of a Manure Depot. ROBERT RAWLINSON, C.B., Government Engineer. § 438 LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : The following summary will show how completely successful the above experiment was, both as a means of supplying honourable and useful employment to the labouring classes, and in affording the means of effecting numerous improvements, highly conducive to the public health and convenience, and to the comfort, and even the recreation, of the inhabitants of the principal towns in the cotton district. - w The whole amount of money advanced for public works under the Acts of 1863 and 1864 was £1,850,000; but in twenty towns or parishes, loans sanctioned to the extent of £79,567, were not taken up, so that the sum actually advanced was £1,761,515. This amount was advanced in 155 separate loans, to fifty-five different places. The places were—Adlington, Ardwick, Atherton, Barton and Eccles, Bedford (Lanc.), Bollington, Bowden, Bradford (Lanc.), Bredbury, Brindle, Broughton, Burnley, Charnock Richard, Cheadle, Cheetham, Chorlton, Crompton, Cuerden, Darcy Lever, Denton, Didsbury, Edgeworth, Euxton, Glossop, Gorton, Great Harwood, Halliwell, Handforth, Hazel Grove, Heaton Norris, Horwich, Hulme, Hurst, Little Lever, Manchester, Marple, Middleton and Tonge, Mossley, Offerton, Openshaw, Ostwaldtwistle, Pendleton, Preston, Quarlton, Reddish, Romiley, Skirton, Spotland, Staleybridge, West Houghton, West Leigh, Wheelton, and Wigan. The money was lent at 3% per cent interest, repayable in thirty years, and at the beginning of the year 1869 the amount repaid to the government was £134,280 13s. 10d., the repayments being quite regular. The principal objects on which the money advanced to the local authorities was expended were—road and street improvement, on which £813,007 was expended ; sewerage works, £358,514; and water-works, £414,629. The total capacity of the water-works constructed was 1,480,675,000 gallons, being equivalent to 20 gallons per head during 100 days to 740,337 persons. The length of main sewage and street drainage executed to the 28th March, 1868, was 399% miles; the total area of paving in surface work was 796 acres; and the length of the roads and streets formed was 400 miles. In addition to these objects, several public parks and public cemeteries were formed; and the courses of rivers were straightened and improved at Bacup, Blackburn, and Bolton, so as to diminish the danger in great floods, as well as to secure health and public con- venience in ordinary times. - - The unemployed workmen by whom these most useful works FAST AND PRESENT. 439 were executed, had been overlookers, weavers, spinners, card-room hands, warpers, piecers, sizers, dyers and bleachers, fustian cutters, roller cutters, and hatters, and various other trades. The weekly wages earned, either by day's wages or by measurement and value, varied from 12s, up to 20s, per man. As a rule, each man employed represented a wife and three children, or five in a family. Mr. Robert Rawlinson, in the last of his valuable reports on the works which he so ably and successfully superintended, observes, “that men whose previous occupation has been in-door, and of many separate trades and occupations, did learn forms of out-door labour rapidly; but this was principally because there was subdivision and the distressed men received proper encouragement, and, above all, technical example.” There can be no doubt that this great and successful experiment effected the main object for which it was undertaken, viz., that of affording useful and honourable occupation to men most willing to work, but who were deprived of employment by national causes over which they had no control. •. 440 LANCASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : CHAPTER III. |PROGRESS OF THE PARLIAMENTARY AND MUNICIPAL BOROUGHS OF LANCASEIIRE AND CHIESEIIRE FROM THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE III., 1760, TO THE PRESENT TIME (1868). THE most remarkable fact connected with the rapid progress of population in the counties of Lancaster and Chester, forming the manufacturing district of the north-western division of England, is the growth of a class of cities and boroughs greatly exceeding in population and wealth the class of towns which existed in England in former times, with the single exception of the metropolis. When George III. ascended the throne, in the year 1760, there were only two places in the county of Lancaster which contained more than 20,000 inhabitants each, and very few in other parts of the kingdom; whilst there are at the present time not fewer than sixteen places, in those two counties, containing a larger population. Of these several contain as many as 30,000 persons; several from 40,000 to 50,000; whilst some contain upwards of 100,000; and the two great capitals of the county, Liverpool and Manchester, with their immediate suburbs, contain very nearly half a million of inhabit- ants each. At the census of 1861 the towns of Lancashire had a population of 1,693,681 persons, residing on an area of 122,847 statute acres; whilst the rural districts of the county contained 735,759 persons, spread over an area of 1,096,379 acres. The town population of the county of Lancaster thus formed 697 parts of the whole population of the county, and the country population the remaining 30-3 parts. Progress of the City of Manchester and of the Borough of Salford, from 1760 to 1868.-During the last century the progress of the city of Manchester and the adjoining borough of Salford, which form one great community so far as the occupations of the people and the sources of their prosperity are concerned, though they are administered by separate local governments, has greatly surpassed that of any other manufacturing town or city in the United King- dom. The population of Manchester and Salford at the time when |PAST AND PRESENT. 441 George III. ascended the throne, in the year 1760, was not more than 25,000 to 30,000 persons, whilst at the present time the popu- lation of the city of Manchester alone is not less than 357,979 persons; that of the borough of Salford not less than 112,403; and that of the whole population of the extensive parish of Manchester, which includes the city, the borough, and the outlying districts forming their suburbs, amounts to 529,295. The only other great cities or towns of the United Kingdom in which the increase of population has been equally rapid are London and Liverpool. It was during the latter part of the last century that the intel- lectual as well as the industrial development of the city of Man- chester assumed an activity quite unknown in former times, under the influence of Dr. Percival, Dr. Henry, and other founders of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. The impulse thus given was continued by Dalton, Joule, and other distinguished men, and has remained in force to the present time. A very full and original account of the intellectual, scientific, and industrial development of Manchester, with sketches of all the most eminent men who have taken part in it—kindly furnished by Mr. William Fairbairn, F.R.S., who has spent the greater part of his life amongst the ablest men of the present and the last generation—will be found in the concluding section of this work. At the beginning of the present century, and by means of the census of 1801, we obtain the first return of the population of Man- chester founded on actual enumeration by competent and responsible persons. All the previous accounts were merely estimates or imperfect enumerations, formed by irresponsible persons, and must therefore be received with some qualification. But the census of 1801 was as accurate as the officers employed by the government could make it, and it showed that the population of the city of Manchester (without counting Salford) at that time had risen to 76,788 persons, which made it, even then, the first manufacturing town in the kingdom in point of population. From that time it continued to advance with increasing rapidity, and has done so to the present time. Ten years later, at the census of 1811, the population of Manchester had risen to 91,130 persons, in spite of the pressure caused by dear food, dear materials, and the obstacles to trade created by war at sea and block- ade of the continental ports. Ten years later, at the census of 1821, the population of this great city far exceeded 100,000 persons; having risen to 129,035, in spite of a long continuance of war, and of VOI, II. 3 IC 442 LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : the intense sufferings caused by the transition from war to peace prices, and by an unjust and mischievous law prohibiting the intro- duction of foreign corn, except in times when home-grown corn had risen to extravagant prices. In the ten years of peace and of reviving prosperity between 1821 and 1831, the increase in the population of Manchester was greater than had ever been known before, having amounted to nearly 60,000 persons, and having swelled the population to 187,022 persons at the census of 1831. The next ten years showed an almost equally rapid increase of population, the numbers having risen to 242,983 persons at the census of 1841. But the greatestincrease ever known in the popula- tion of Manchester was in the ten years which immediately followed the repeal of the corn laws, between 1841 and 1851, when the population increased from 242,983 to 316,215 persons. There was also a very rapid increase between 1851 and 1861, at which latter period the population of the city of Manchester was 357,979. The increase would probably have been still greater during this period of . ten years, if the immigration from Ireland had not then been in a great measure turned away from Lancashire and directed to the United States of America. A later estimate of the population of the city of Manchester was made by the registrar-general, by order of Parliament, in the year 1866, which gave the population as amounting to 380,887 in that year. But this was merely an estimate formed on the supposition that the population had continued to increase, subsequent to the census of 1861, in the same ratio in which it was found to be increasing when that census was taken. This assumption is probably not very far from the truth; though we can scarcely doubt that some effect on the rate of increase from 1861 to 1866, was produced by the distress and the want of employment caused by the cotton famine and scarcity of those years. This would at least act as a check on that influx of labour from the agricultural districts and the small towns of the three kingdoms, which had previously been one of the principal causes of the rapid increase of population in the city of Manchester, and in all the large towns of Lancashire. - The nationality of the inhabitants of the city of Manchester and of the borough of Salford will be seen from the following figures:– In 1861 Manchester and Salford together contained 460,428 inhabi- tants; of these 395,599 were natives of England, 7971, of Scotland, 52,076 of Ireland; 1696 of the British colonies, and 3086 of foreign PAST AND PRESENT. 443 countries. All these classes were then increasing, except the Irish. In the ten years between 1851 and 1861 the English population of Manchester and Salford increased from 339,014 to 395,599; the Scotch increased from 6551 to 7971; the colonial, from 1217 to 1696; and the foreign, from 2035 to 3086. The Irish population of Man- chester, on the contrary, slightly diminished in number during that period; having amounted to 52,504 in 1851, and to 52,076 in 1861. The city of Manchester, like most other very ancient places, originally consisted of a few narrow streets, and those very closely crowded together, and it was not until some years after the accession of George III. that any considerable attempt was made to improve the internal arrangements of the city. But between the years 1766– 1775 the old streets known as St. Mary's Gate, Cateaton Street, Old Millgate, and Exchange Street, were all widened and improved. Until the year 1838 the city of Manchester had no municipal body at all adequate in power and importance to the management of the affairs of so great a community. Manchester did not receive any charter from the Crown in early times, chiefly owing to the fact of its being in the hands of its own barons, and not of the Crown, as at Liverpool, Lancaster, Preston, Wigan, Clitheroe, and Newton. When Manchester had become a large and flourishing town, in the reign of George I., it was described by Dr. Stukeley as the “largest and most flourishing village in England.” Its government, however, at that time, and for a hundred years later, was composed of an officer appointed or elected yearly, and bearing the ancient Saxon name of the borough reeve, with two constables to assist him. Such also was the government of the borough of Salford. Various attempts were made to obtain a charter and establish proper local government in Manchester, but they all failed, until the passing of the Municipal Corporation Act of 1835, which threw open all the close municipal corporations in the kingdom, and gave the Crown the power of conferring charters at the request of the inhabitants of large towns. A petition from the inhabitants of Manchester praying for a charter of incorporation was presented in the year 1838, and in the month of November in that year the charter was granted. Under this charter a governing body of sixty-four members was created at Manchester, as in the other first-class boroughs and cities of England, consisting of a mayor, chosen yearly, by sixteen alder- men and forty-eight town councillors; the councillors being chosen by the burgesses, and the aldermen by the town council. This body 444 LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESEIIRE : possesses all the powers necessary for a complete system of local government, and under its direction the affairs of the city have been conducted much to the satisfaction and greatly to the benefit of the public. Numerous local acts have been passed at the instance of the town council for effecting objects of public importance, and all the branches of local government have been very successfully con- ducted. The chief funds of the corporation in addition to borough rates are derived from the profits on supplying the city with gas, which have not been allowed to pass into private hands, but have been applied to purposes of public improvement. Under the influence of the corporation some of the principal parks have been formed, and numerous improvements have been effected in the city. But the greatest of all the works effected by the corporation of Man- chester are those noble water-works which are described by Mr. William Fairbairn in a subsequent section of this work. The number of Acts of Parliament for the improvement of the city of Manchester, passed during the present century, has been very great. They nearly all belong to the period subsequent to the estab- lishment of the present popular form of municipal government in Manchester. Amongst the first and most important of these Improve- ment Acts was that passed in the year 1820–21, 1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 126, for improving Market Street and the approaches thereto. A few years later, in 1824–25, an Act, 5 Geo. IV. c. 133, was passed, for better lighting the town, as it was then called, with gas. In the year 1831–32, another Act, 2 & 3 William IV. c. 36, was passed, for widening part of London Road and effecting improve- ments in other streets. Almost immediately after the accession of Queen Victoria, in the session of 1836–37, another improvement Act was passed, 2 & 3 Vict. c. 2, and from that time to the present similar Acts have been passed every three or four years. In the session of 1830-31, an Act was passed for improving the town of Manchester, and in the same session another Act was passed for the good government and the improving the police of the borough, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 48. In the following session an Act was passed for effecting improvements in the borough, for the purpose of improving the health of the inhabitants. In the year 1850–51 a general Act, 14 & 15 Vict. c. 119, was passed, for paving, lighting, cleansing, and otherwise improving the several townships in the borough, and this was amended in the session of 1864-65. In 1853–54 an Act was passed, authorizing the mayor, aldermen, and citizens to PAST AND PRESENT. - 445 make new streets; and another Act, enabling them to widen certain streets and otherwise improve the city. Two years later an Act was passed for making a new street across the river Irwell into Salford. In 1857-58 powers were obtained for making better provision for the burial of the dead. In 1858 an Act was passed enabling the justices of the peace of the county of Lancaster to erect or provide assize courts at Manchester for the holding of the assizes for the hundred of Salford. In the year 1859-60 another Act was passed enabling the mayor, aldermen, and citizens to effect further improve- ments in the city. Two or three years later, in the year 1863, additional powers were given to the mayor, aldermen, and citizens to construct new works and acquire additional lands in connection with their water-works, and also to improve Piccadilly, in Man- chester; and in the year 1866, another Act, the 28th & 29th Vic- toria, was passed enabling the mayor, aldermen, and citizens to construct additional streets, and to enlarge the markets of the city. It will be seen, from the above list of local Acts, that the work of improvement has seldom ceased in Manchester during the last fifty years, and that it has been carried on with constantly increasing energy from the time when the present municipal government was established. - - In addition to local Acts passed for the general improvement of the city at the instance of the municipal authorities, numerous Acts have also been passed on the motion of public companies, many of them for purposes of the highest utility. In the early part of the present century, from 1801 to about 1820, several Acts were passed for forming or completing canals, by means of which cheap water- carriage was established from the city of Manchester to every part of the manufacturing districts to which it had not been carried in the latter part of the previous century. During the latter part of the same period, and down to the time of the introduction of the railway system in 1830, numerous Acts were passed for the improve- ment of the highways and turnpike roads, by means of which the coach-travelling from Manchester to Liverpool, to London, Leeds, Edinburgh, and Glasgow, and to all the districts around Manchester, was brought to the highest perfection. When this mode of travel- ling had run its course, and the strength and fleetness of horses gave way before the greater power and swiftness of steam, Manchester and Liverpool were the two first great towns of the kingdom to obtain the power of constructing railways, and from them the railway 446 LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : system extended to every part of the kingdom, and, we may almost say, to every part of the world. There is no city or town in the kingdom which enjoyed these advantages earlier than Manchester, and certainly none to which the possession of them has given greater advantages. A very full and interesting account of the great system of water- works for the supply of the city of Manchester, from the pen of Mr. William Fairbairn, will be found in the succeeding section of this work; together with a description of the origin and progress of the public libraries and of all the great educational establishments of Manchester. Sketches will also be found, in the same section, of the works, lives, and discoveries of the eminent engineers and other men of science who have had the greatest influence in developing the prosperity of Manchester. - There has been no actual census of the population of Manchester made since the year 1861. In 1866, however, an estimate was formed under parliamentary authority, which may be relied on as . showing pretty correctly the progress of the city to that time. From this it appeared that the population of the city of Manchester in the year 1866 was 380,887. At that time the number of inhabited houses in the city was 65,375, and the annual value of the property returned liable to Property and Income Tax, under Schedule A, was £1,589,726. - - - Manchester did not obtain the right of returning members to Parliament until long after it had become one of the greatest cities in the kingdom. It obtained the right of returning two members under the Reform Act of 1832; and it subsequently obtained the right of returning three members, under the Reform Act of 1867. The Borough of Salford–The causes of the prosperity of Salford are the same as those of Manchester, viz., an abundant supply of water-power and of coal. At the beginning of the present century the population of Salford was not more than 18,088, and in the middle of the present century it had increased to 85,108. In the next ten years the increase was still more rapid, raising the popu- lation to 102,449 persons at the census of 1861. According to the parliamentary return of 1866, the borough of Salford at that time contained 112,403 inhabitants. The number of houses in 1861 was as nearly as possible to 20,000. Salford was made a parliamentary borough by the Reform Act of 1832, when it received the right of returning one member to Parliament. By the Reform Act of 1867 JPAST AND PRESENT. 447 it received the right of returning two members. Salford received its charter as a municipal borough in the year 1844. The Borough of Ashton-under-Lyne–This rapidly increasing seat of the cotton manufacture was a mere village at the accession of George III., and a very small town at the commencement of the present century. In the year 1775 the population of Ashton-under- Lyne was estimated at 5097 persons. The prosperity of the town was greatly advanced soon after by the forming of a canal to connect Ashton with Manchester, for which powers were obtained in the year 1792, and by the subsequent extending of the said canal through the hills to Huddersfield and the woollen districts of York- shire. This canal was in the year 1847 transferred to the Man- chester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway Company, whose line intersects the whole of the Ashton district, and has given a great impulse to the prosperity of the district. Ashton-under-Lyne owes its prosperity chiefly to its position on the banks of the river Tame, which is there a rapid and powerful stream, and supplied water-power for several mills before steam- power was brought into use for manufacturing purposes. But steam-power and machinery have been the chief creators of the pros- perity of this flourishing town, which stands on one of the richest parts of the Lancashire coal-field. At this point of the coal-field the valley is intersected by a rapid stream, which has formed an easy passage through a very hilly district; along which roads, canals, and railways have been formed in the course of the present century. Thus the valley of the Tame, at this point, has become one of the chief lines of communication between Lancashire and Yorkshire, besides being within seven or eight miles of Manchester, and having easy and cheap communication by canal and railway with the sea at Liverpool. At the commencement of the present century the population of Ashton-under-Lyne was not much more than 6000 inhabitants. In 1832, when it first received the right of returning a member to Parliament, the population had increased to 14,035. In 1861 it had still further increased to 33,917, and in 1866 the population had risen to 36,190. Ashton-under-Lyne obtained its charter as a muni- cipal borough in the year 1847. The Borough of Blackburn,--The increase of population of Black- burn during the whole of the present century has been very rapid. In 1801 Blackburn contained not more than 11,900 inhabitants, 448 LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : which number had increased to 15,033 in 1811, and to 21,940 in 1821. During the long peace which has since followed, the popu- lation of Blackburn has increased at the rate of about a thousand persons every year. In 1831 the population amounted to 27,091; in 1841 it had increased to 36,629; in 1851, to 46,536; and in 1861, to 63,126. According to the parliamentary estimate of 1866 the population of Blackburn in that year was 73,522. The great local occupation of the borough of Blackburn is the cotton manufacture, which in 1861 gave employment to no less. than 12,647 men and boys, and to 12,715 females. The iron manu- facture at the same time employed 556 men; coal-mining employed 924; chemical works, 140; and stone quarries, 329. l - Blackburn, like most of the large towns of Lancashire, became a parliamentary borough under the Reform Act of 1832, when it obtained the right of returning two members to Parliament. It became a municipal borough in the year 1851, and is now governed by a mayor and corporation. * t There is no part of Lancashire in which the cotton manufacture is carried on with greater spirit than in Blackburn, which possesses very nearly two hundred very fine cotton mills, forming the great wealth of the place. Amongst the best public buildings and institutions are the exchange and town-hall, subscription library, the literary and philosophical institution, and mechanics’ institute. The grammar-school, founded in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, is one of the best educational institutions existing in Lancashire. The water-works, recently constructed, are extensive, and will be found described, with the other water-works of Lancashire, by Mr. William Fairbairn, in a succeeding section of this work. - James Hargreaves, the inventor of the spinning jenny, who was born and brought up in the neighbourhood of Blackburn, may be justly regarded as one of the principal founders of the prosperity, not only of his native town, but the whole of Lancashire. The Borough of Bolton.—The population of Bolton has increased very rapidly during the present century, and continued to increase to the date of the last official account. In 1801 it was not more than 17,966 persons; in 1811 it had increased to 24,799; and in 1821 to 32,045. From 1831 to 1861 the population increased, with a near approach to an uniform regularity, at the rate of about a thousand persons in every year. In 1831 the population was 42,245; in 1841, 51,029; in 1851, 61,171; and in 1861, 70,395. According to PAST AND PRESENT. 449 the estimate laid before Parliament in 1866, the population of Bolton that year amounted to 75,516 persons. The principal local occupations on which the employment of the people and the wealth and prosperity of the town and neighbour- hood depend, were as follows in 1861 —The cotton manufacture, which is the great source of the prosperity of Bolton, gave employ- ment to 83.95 men and boys, and to 9150 females. Closely connected with it is the business of calico-printing, which employed 237 men and 21 females, and that of calico-dyeing, which employed 321 men. The silk manufacture employed 373 men and 761 females; and the paper manufacture, 194 men and 63 females. The iron manufacture is of great extent in Bolton, and employs 2090 men and 1 female ; whilst the engine and machine manufacture employs 529 men; boiler-making, 151 men; and the making of spindles employs 304. Coal-mining is carried on to a great extent around the town and employs 3216 men, whilst the stone quarries employ 382 men, and the brickfields 248. The nationality of the people of Bolton was as follows in 1861 — The number of persons of English origin was 63,964; of Scottish, 630; and of Irish, 5540 ; the number of natives of the colonies was 149, and of persons born in foreign parts, 112. Bolton has many advantages for manufacturing purposes in its streams and rich coal mines, and, next to Manchester, may be regarded as the oldest manufacturing town in Lancashire. It is the natural capital of the numerous valleys whose waters join each other near Bolton, some of them flowing through the town, and others very near to it. Bolton was the market town of the whole of the district extending up into the hills, as early as the reign of Henry III. Yet it does not appear to have had a population of more than 2000 when George III. ascended the throne in the year 1760. A large portion of the prosperity of Bolton is owing to the admirable machine for spinning cotton, which was invented by Samuel Crompton, who was born in the immediate neighbourhood of Bolton, and in whose honour a handsome statue has been erected there. Bolton first received the right of returning members to Parlia- ment under the Reform Act of 1832, and has returned two members since that time. It received its charter of incorporation as a muni- cipal borough in the year 1838, and is governed by a town council, consisting of a mayor, thirty-six councillors, and twelve aldermen. VOL. II, 3 L 450 - LAN CASHIRE AND CEIESEIIRE : The town hall on the west side of Market Square promises to be one of the handsomest municipal buildings in Lancashire. The market hall is one of the finest in the kingdom. In addition, Bolton possesses a large and handsome exchange, a public library and museum, a mechanics’ institution, and an infirmary and dispensary, public baths and assembly room, and a theatre. It also possesses a large and handsome park of 48 acres in a fine situation on the Chorley Road, and a second park of 20 acres, formed by the earl of Bradford on the east side of the borough. The cemetery on the Bury Road covers an area of 29 acres. The Borough of Burnley.—Burnley was a small place at the commencement of the present century, containing at that time only 3918 inhabitants. Its progress during the next twenty years was not very rapid, its population not having amounted to more than 5405 persons in 1811, and to 8242 in 1821. In 1831 the population had increased to 10,026, and from that time it has advanced much more rapidly. In 1841 the population of Burnley was 14,224 ; in 1851, 20,828; and in 1861, 28,700. Burnley was not a parliamentary borough at the census of 1861, but was made a parliamentary borough, with the right of returning one member to Parliament, by the Reform Act of 1867. The limits of the borough of Burnley include the township of Burnley, and a con- siderable part of that of Habergham Eaves. The cotton manu- facture has been the principal cause of the growth of Burnley. In 1861 the chief local occupations were the cotton manufacture, which employed 7043 men and 6384 females; calico-printing, which employed 288 men and 29 females; coal mines, which employed 429 men; and stone quarries, which employed 278 men. The Borough of Bury.—The parliamentary and municipal borough of Bury has increased with considerable rapidity during the present century, but more especially during the last twenty years. In 1801 the population of Bury was 91.52; in 1811, 13,302 ; in 1821, 13,480; and in 1831, 19,140. From that time the increase was much more rapid, the population having amounted to 24,846 in 1841, to 31,262 in 1851, and to 37,563 in 1861. According to the parliamentary estimate of 1866, the population of Bury at that time was 41,175. The local occupations of Bury are numerous and valuable, but the cotton manufacture, as usual, takes the lead. In 1861 this great manufacture gave employment, at Bury, to 7341 men and boys, and 8403 females; calico-printing employed 732 IPAST AND PRESENT. 451 males and 38 females; calico-dyeing, 461 males and 3 females; the woollen manufacture, formerly the principal branch of industry, still employed 631 males and 372 females; and the paper manufacture employed 162 males and 62 females. In addition to these the iron manufacture employed 1237 men ; engine and machine making employed 591; boiler-making, 124; spindle-making, 81; coal mining, 952; and stone quarrying, 161. Bury obtained the right to return a member to Parliament under the Reform Act of 1832. - The name of the family of Peel is closely, connected with the town of Bury, and a fine statue of that great statesman, the second Sir Robert Peel, adorns the town. Another monument of Sir Robert Peel has been erected on Holcombe Hill in this neighbourhood, consisting of a stone tower, from the top of which the most magnifi- cent views of the whole of South Lancashire and of the Irish Sea may be obtained. * Bury obtained the right to return a member to Parliament under the Reform Act of 1832. It is governed for local purposes by a body of improvement commissioners. Within the last few years there has been expended for public purposes, £142,000 in water- works, £74,000 in gas-works, and £520,000 in sewerage-works. The Borough of Clitheroe.—The ancient parliamentary borough of Clitheroe has not advanced as rapidly in population as most of the Lancashire boroughs. It does not stand on the coal-field, and until the introduction of railways had no cheap or easy communi- cation either with the sea, or with other parts of the manufacturing districts of Lancashire. The only considerable local occupation is the cotton manufacture, but at the time of the last census that did not give employment to more than 957 men and boys, and 1138 females. Clitheroe is one of the oldest boroughs in Lancashire, having returned two members to Parliament from the time of Queen Eliza- beth to the passing of the Reform Act of 1832, and one member since that time. * The population of Clitheroe has not increased during the last few years, having amounted in 1851 to 11,480 persons, in 1861 to 10,864, and having been estimated in a parliamentary return of 1866 at 10,560. The Port and Borough of Lancaster—The population of Lancaster in 1851 was 16,168 in the parliamentary, and 14,604 in the munici- 452 LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: pal borough ; in 1861, 16,005 in the parliamentary, and 14,487 in the municipal borough. The occupations of the inhabitants in 1861 were—industrial, 5516; commercial, 715; professional, 631 ; the sea and river fishery, 184 males and 1 female ; silk manufacture, 222 males, 130 females; cotton manufacture, 357 males, 534 females. Lancaster never has been, and probably never will be, either a great commercial port or manufacturing town, from its distance from the coal-fields of Lancashire, and the difficulties of the navi- gation of the Lune; but, besides being the ancient capital of the county, it is the chief place in one of the most fertile and beautiful districts in the north of England, and the residence of numerous families disengaged from business. It is very rich in public buildings, including a magnificent castle and numerous schools and charitable institutions. Amongst them is the great foundation of the late Thomas Ripley, a wealthy Liverpool merchant, who devoted a large portion of his wealth to the benefit of his native town of Lancaster. The cemetery is one of the most tasteful and beautiful of the many recently formed. The lunatic asylum is a large and convenient building, and very well managed. Lancaster has the advantage of excellent railway communications to all parts of the kingdom, and has lines of steamers from Port Morecambe to the north of Ireland. . The Borough of Oldham.—The population of Oldham has in- creased very rapidly during the whole of the present century. In 1801, it was 21,677; in 1811, 29,479; in 1821, 38,201; in 1831, 50,513; in 1841, 60,451; in 1851, 72,357; and in 1861, 94,344. The local occupations of Oldham in 1861 were—engine and machine makers, 1111 males; spindle-makers, 188 males; silk manufacture, 1586 males, 2332 females; cotton manufacture, 8235 males, 8948 females; fustian manufacture, 143 males, 129 females; cotton and calico printers, 337 males, 1 female; hatters and hat manufacturers, 349 males, 99 females; basket-makers, 65 males; coal miners, 1815; brick makers and dealers, 321 males, 1 female; and iron manufacture, 2536 males. In 1866 the population of Oldham was estimated to be 107,729 ; the number of inhabited houses was 18,335, and the value of fixed property returned in Schedule A was £309,250. - Oldham received the right of returning two members to Par- liament under the Reform Act of 1832, and obtained a municipal corporation in the year 1849, since which time it has been governed * PAST AND PRESENT. 453 by a mayor and town-council chosen by the ratepayers. The town is well supplied with gas and with water, the latter brought from . the higher part of the adjoining hills. Oldham possesses a con- venient and a substantial town hall; a lyceum, which is a very handsome building in Union Street, and contains a very good lib- rary; a school of science and art; and the Werneth Mechanics' Institution. During the painful times of the cotton famine, the sum of £120,180 was expended in public improvements, viz., £29,273 for sewerage works; £57,022 for road and street improve- ments; and £33,885 for public parks and recreation grounds—all of them great and lasting benefits to the town, as well as the means of affording employment to an industrious and intelligent population during a period of extreme distress. The Borough of Preston.—This ancient and beautifully situated borough has increased during the present century, from a pleasant market town of 12,174 inhabitants, to a great manufacturing com- munity of 90,652. In 1801 the population was not more than the first named number; in 1811 it had increased to 17,360; in 1821 to 24,859 ; in 1831 to 33,871; in 1841 to 50,887; in 1851 to 69,542; in 1861 to 82,985; and according to the parliamentary estimate of 1866, to not less than 90,652. At the last date the number of inhabited houses was 15,050; and the annual value of the fixed property of the borough returned under Schedule A was £231,445. * - Preston owes its rapid progress during the present century chiefly to one of its own sons, Richard Arkwright, whose invention of the art of cotton spinning has been fully described in other parts of this work. It also owes much to the introduction of canal navigation towards the end of last century, and of railway communication in the earlier part of the present. Though not standing on the coal-field of Lancashire, it is sufficiently near to it for the purposes of industry. At the time of the last census the cotton manufacture employed 88.82 males and 10,095 females. The amount of money expended at Preston in recent public improvements was £68,239 borrowed from the government, independent of the sums raised from other sources. The public buildings are very handsome, especially the new town hall; and the town is well supplied with educational and charitable establishments. The Preston guild, celebrated every twenty years, continues to be the most popular municipal festival in the north of England. 454 - IANCASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : The Borough of Rochdale.—The population of Rochdale in 1801 was 85.42; in 1811, 10,753; in 1821, 14,017; in 1831, 19,041; in 1841,24,272; in 1851, 29,195; and in 1861, 38,148. The princi- pal local occupations were those of engine and machine makers, 574 males; woollen cloth manufacturers, 3270 males, 2088 females; woollen cloth dyers, 42 males; carpet and rug manufacturers, 90 males, 32 females; cotton manufacturers, 5467 males, and 6117 females; coal miners, 1100 males; stone quarriers, 335 males; and iron manufacturers, 576 males, 1 female. - - In 1866 the population of Rochdale was estimated in the parliamentary returns to be 43,668; the number of inhabited houses was 7705; and the property returned under Schedule A to the property and income tax was £123,328. During the late cotton famine the sum of £29,600 was expended in public improvements, of which £14,000 was expended on sewerage- works; £7050 for purchasing and preparing site for a new town hall; and £2500 in cleansing, embanking, and improving rivers and streams. - - - Rochdale obtained the right of returning a member to Parliament by the Reform Act of 1832, and was for a time represented by that distinguished man, Richard Cobden. It has long been the place of residence of his friend and associate, the Right Honourable John Bright. Rochdale is governed by a mayor and town council, The municipal charter was obtained in the year 1835. Rochdale is well supplied with gas and water, and with public baths. The system of co-operative societies and stores may almost be said to have originated at Rochdale, and has there been carried to an extent unknown in any other part of England, giving employment to several hundred thousand pounds of capital. - The Borough of Warrington.—The population of Warrington in 1801 was 11,321; in 1811, 12,682; in 1821, 14,822; in 1831, 18,184; in 1841, 21,346; in 1851, 23,363; and in 1861, 26,947. The industrial occupations were—file makers, 329 males, 5 females; cotton manufacture, 239 males, 325 females; fustian manufacture, 186 males, 377 females; tanners, 167 males; coal miners, 619 males; glass manufacture, 209 males, 4 females; iron work, 441 males, 1 female. - - In 1866 Warrington contained 28,940 inhabitants, 5146 houses, and fixed property valued under Schedule A of the property tax at £81,186. Warrington has returned a member to Parliament PAST AND PRESENT. 455 since the Reform Act of 1832, and is governed by a mayor and corporation. It was formerly the great coaching station between Liverpool and Manchester and Liverpool and London, and is now one of the principal railway stations. It also stands on the great lines of inland navigation, and within moderate distance of the coal-fields of Lancashire. It is the chief place of a very rich and extensive agricultural district. - The Borough of Wigan.—The municipal and parliamentary limits are the same. In 1861 the number of inhabited houses was 6696; uninhabited, 115; building, 23. The population of Wigan in 1801 was 10,989 ; in 1811, 14,060 ; in 1821, 17,716; in 1831, 20,774 ; in 1841, 25,517; in 1851, 31,941 ; and in 1861, 37,658. The local occupations are—the cotton manufacture, employing 2229 males and 3700 females; coal mines, employing 9085 males; stone quarries, 219 males; iron manufacture, 459 males and 3 females; nail manu- facture, 426 males and 54 females. Wigan is the capital of the Lancashire coal-field, standing on its richest point. It is a very ancient parliamentary borough, having returned two members to Parliament almost from the time when parliaments were established in England. It also possesses municipal charters of great antiquity. The City of Chester.—The city of Chester, at the census of 1861, included within its municipal and parliamentary limits—Cathedral Church precincts, Chester Castle, part of the township of Great Boughton, part of the parish of Holy Trinity, the parishes of Little St. John and Hospital, St. Bridget, St. John the Baptist, St. Martin, St. Mary's-on-the-Hill (part of), St. Michael, St. Olave, St. Oswald (part of), St. Peter, and Spittle Boughton. The number of inhabited houses at that time was 5971; of uninhabited, 245; and building, 76. The population of the city of Chester in 1801 was 15,174; in 1811, 16,140; in 1821, 19,949; in 1831, 21,344; in 1841, 23,866; in 1851, 27,766; and in 1861, 31,110. The number of persons engaged in industrial pursuits was 8914; in commercial, 1366; in professional, 1131. The local occupations were—coal miners, 275 males; brick makers, 271 males; lead manufacture, 66 males. The city of Chester in 1861 contained 31,110 inhabitants, of whom 28,678 were of English origin, 299 of Scottish, and 1912 of Irish, 107 natives of the colonies, and 114 natives of foreign parts. This beautiful old city has nearly doubled its population during the present century, and probably contains a larger population than 456 LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : it ever did at any previous time. It has become one of the greatest railway centres in the kingdom, and possesses more attractions, both for visitors and for residence, than almost any other town or city in this part of the kingdom. Its walls are as perfect as they were in the time of the Romans, and its ancient cathedral is about to be restored to its original beauty, at an estimated cost of £50,000. The Borough of Macclesfield.—This very ancient borough has made great progress during the present century, although its rate of increase has not been so great during the last twenty years as it was during the twenty years preceding. The silk manufacture, which may be regarded as the principal branch of industry in Macclesfield, has undergone a severe depression, from which it has not altogether recovered; and the cotton manufacture has suffered here, as well as in other parts of the kingdom. But the industrial resources of Macclesfield, both as relates to coal and water power are very considerable, and will no doubt sustain the permanent prosperity of its manufactures. At the beginning of the present century, the whole population of East and West Macclesfield was 8743 persons; in 1811 the number had increased to 12,299; in 1821 to 17,746. In 1831 the borough contained 23,129; in 1841, 24,137; in 1851, 29,648; and in 1861, 36,101. According to the parliamentary estimate of 1866, the population of Maccles- field at that time was 34,712; the number of inhabited houses was 8342; and the yearly value of the fixed property returned to the property and income tax under Schedule A was £85,022. Macclesfield did not return members to Parliament previous to the Reform Act of 1832; but since that time it has returned two members. The Borough of Staleybridge.—At the census of 1861 the muni- cipal borough of Staleybridge, which did not then return a member to Parliament, consisted of parts of the townships of Dukinfield, Staly, and Hartshead, in Lancashire. It then contained 4864 inhabited houses, 122 uninhabited, and 10 building. The population of Staleybridge, separate from that of the district, is not given in the census returns previous to 1851. At the census of that year it amounted to 20,760, and in 1861 to 24,921. Staleybridge owes its rapid rise to its great advantages for the cotton manufacture, of which it is now one of the most flourishing seats. It obtained the right of returning a member to Parliament under the Reform Act of 1867, and is governed by a mayor and PAST AND PRESENT. 457 town council. In the years of the cotton famine the large sum of £74,288 was expended in public works for the purpose of sewerage, of road and street improvements, and of an increased water supply. The Borough of Stockport—The population of Stockport at the census of 1801 was 14,830; in 1811, 17,545; in 1821, 21,726; in 1831, 25,469; in 1841, 50,154; in 1851, 53,855; and in 1861, 54,681. Stockport has returned two members to Parliament since the Reform Act of 1832. It is governed by a mayor and town council, and during the great distress of the cotton district expended the large sum of £59,376 for public improvements. In 1866 Stockport contained 59,109 inhabitants, 11,255 dwelling-houses, and had fixed property valued for the property and income tax at £153,169. The local occupations of Stockport are—the silk manufacture, employing 559 males, 680 females; cotton manufacture, 7009 males, 10,015 females; hatters and hat manufacture, 938 males, 169 females; iron manufacture, 465 males, 1 female. The population of Stockport in 1861 was 54,681, of whom 48,078 were natives of England, 226 of Scotland, 6164 of Ireland, 129 of colonies, and 89 of foreign parts. The Port and Borough of Liverpool.-The river Mersey is the great means of communication between the industrious and skilful population of Lancashire and Cheshire, and those numerous and wealthy countries with which they carry on a trade equal to at least one-third of the whole foreign and colonial trade of the United Kingdom. Under the influence of this immense extension of com- merce, Liverpool has become the second town or city of the empire in population and wealth; and more recently Birkenhead, which was a small village within the recollection of many now living, has become a town of 60,000 inhabitants. The rapid and extraor- dinary progress of the ports of the Mersey has been wonderfully promoted by the establishment of the most magnificent and perfect lines of docks ever formed for commercial purposes. These will be found fully described, along with those of Birkenhead, in the section which Mr. William Fairbairn has contributed to this work. At the accession of George III., in the year 1760, the population of Liverpool amounted to somewhat less than 30,000 persons, and at that time the docks were two in number, and covered an area of about eight acres. In the first forty years of the reign of George III. the population increased to 90,239. In the first fifty years of the present century, at the census of 1851, the population VOI, II. - 3 M 458 LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: had advanced to 375,955 persons, and in 1861 to 443,938. It is calculated that the population residing within five miles of the Liverpool Exchange, on both sides of the river, now amounts to at least 600,000 persons, and that the income of the town is upwards of £7,000,000 a year. - - The public improvements in the town of Liverpool commenced in the year 1786, when an Act was obtained for widening and enlarging Castle Street, which was then no better than a narrow and crooked lane; and also for widening and improving the old streets leading down to the docks and from the country, most of which were even narrower and more inconvenient than Castle Street in its original form. A considerable number of these improvements were carried into effect in the latter part of the last century; but the cost of completing the whole of them was so great that some of them remained unfinished during the first quarter of the present century. The older readers of this work will remember the time when Lord Street and Dale Street were very little better than crooked lanes, and when the communi- cation between Castle Street and Lord Street was along Castle Ditch—a street formed by filling up the old moat of the castle. But immediately after the accession of George IV. to the throne, when the trade and prosperity of the port were beginning to revive under the influence of peace and of plenty produced by a succes- sion of good harvests, the corporation of Liverpool obtained another Act for making and widening certain streets, and generally for improving the town of Liverpool. This was the first of a long series of Acts coming down to the present time, under which nearly all the old and narrow streets have disappeared, and Liverpool has become one of the best-arranged and handsomest towns in England. Whilst the corporation was carrying out these great improvements in the streets of the town, and was constructing water-works in the mountainous part of the county for the supply of the town and neighbourhood, the Mersey Dock Trust, long ably managed by the Corporation, but now not less successfully administered by the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, was constructing dock-works, which in extent and utility far exceed any that have been constructed in any previous age. These great works, with their trade, commerce, and the innumerable facilities which they supply, will be found very fully and clearly described in the next section of this work, along with other great public works, and all the educational establishments PAST AND PRESENT. 459 of the town and port. Under a course of continued improvement, assisted by the introduction of steam navigation and its application, not only on the narrow seas, but on the ocean, Liverpool has become the greatest port in the world, and, after the metropolis, the largest town, city, or seaport in the United Kingdom. In the year 1866 the population of the borough of Liverpool was estimated in the parliamentary returns of that year at 482,407 persons; the inhab- ited houses at 65,781 ; and the fixed property, in land, buildings, and public works, at £2,248,277. This, however, is not much more than the fourth part of the income derived from the com- merce, trade, and shipping of the port. The shipping registered in the port of Liverpool amounts to upwards of one million tons, and the value of the exports and imports together is from one hundred and thirty to one hundred and forty millions sterling. The Borough of Birkenhead.—Birkenhead has increased, during the last thirty years, with a rapidity almost unexampled even in the present age and country. Many persons now living will remem- ber the time when it was a pretty country village, consisting of a few detached houses, and with a fine row of oak trees extending along the bank of the river, from the Birkenhead Ferry to the entrance of Wallasey Pool, as the site of the present splendid docks of Birkenhead was then named. It was not until the year 1819 that there was even a church built at Birkenhead; but about that time the first impulse was given to the prosperity of Birken- head by the introduction of steam navigation on the river Mersey, which in effect bridged over the river, and at once converted it into an accessible and agreeable suburb to the town of Liverpool. It was not until about ten years later that the idea of forming a line of docks in Wallasey Pool suggested itself to a few long-sighted and able men, of whom the late Mr. Laird was nearly the earliest, as his sons have been among the steadiest and most active. About ten years afterwards the outline of the present great works was formed; and after great difficulties of every kind, overcome by extra- ordinary patience and perseverance, this object has been completely accomplished. A full description of the Birkenhead Docks, which now form part of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, as well as of those of Liverpool, will be found in a subsequent section drawn up by Mr. William Fairbairn, chiefly from information supplied by Mr. George F. Lyster, C. E., the engineer of the Dock Estate. The chief object in forming the docks on the Birkenhead side of the 460 LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE. river, has been to realize the great natural advantages of its posi- tion; and this has been done so thoroughly that the Birkenhead Dock may justly rank with the most perfect docks that have ever been formed in this kingdom. - The growth of the population, as we have already stated, has been rapid, almost without example. At the beginning of the present century, in the year 1801, it was not more than 667; in 1811 it was not more than 795; whilst in 1851 it had risen to 37,513; and in 1861, to 51,649. At the time of the parliamentary estimate formed in the year 1866, Birkenhead was estimated to contain 60,604 inhabitants, 7189 inhabited houses, and fixed property valued at £270,667 per annum. Birkenhead obtained the right of returning a member to Parliament in the year 1860. Its local affairs are managed by a board of commissioners. e TA B L E O F C () N T E N T S. C HI A P T E R I. LANCAs.IIIRE AND CIIESHIRE FROM THE RESTORATION, 1660, To THE ACCESSION of GeoRGE III., 1760. P GR Commencement of Trade and Commerce of Lancashire and Cheshire with the North American Plantations and the West Indies, . e º e º e . 1 First importations of American and West Indian produce, 2 Population of Lancashire and Cheshire at the time of the Restoration (1660), g º s º e ... 2 Population of the principal Towns and Parishes of the two Counties, . e e o º ty . . . 8 Alienation of the great estates of the Duchy of Lancaster, by Charles II., º * e • * e . 5 Grants of the Lordship of Furness, the Honor of Clitheroe, and the Forest of Rossendale, to General George Monk, created Duke of Albemarle, . e te º 5 Political and religious strife in the two Counties, from the Restoration to the Revolution, . © º tº ... 6 Religious persecution practised by all parties, º ... 8 Persecution of the Presbyterians, and expulsion of their ministers, º e º º tº º º . 9 Lord-lieutenants of Lancashire and Cheshire under Charles and James II., viz., Charles, eighth Earl of Derby; William, ninth Earl of Derby; and George Robert, tenth Earl of Derby—their moderation and liber- ality, . e º e - -> e - 9, 11 Notice of those Earls in “Seacome's History of the House of Stanley, . • * * e -> ſº º . 11 The Bishops of Chester under Charles and James II., . 12 Notice of Brian Walton, D.D., Bishop of Chester, editor of the Polyglot Bible, . e e s e . 12 Notice of George Hall, D.D., the next Bishop, º . 13 Notice of John Wilkins, D.D., the successor of Bishop Hall, and one of the founders of the Royal Society, . 14 Notice of John Pearson, D.D., F.R.S., the successor of Bishop Wilkins, and “the greatest Divine of the Age,” 15 Commerce of Lancashire and Cheshire in the reign of Charles II., and the Trade with America, as described in Blome's Britannia, . º +- g - . 15 First supplies of Cotton from the Levant and the West Indies, . 18 Richard Blome's description of the Counties of Lancaster and Chester, and of Manchester, Liverpool, and other towns of the two Counties, in the reign of Charles II. (1670), . . tº - º - & Trade of Lancashire and Cheshire with Ireland in the year 1691, . º & e º e - e Proceedings of Dr. Thomas Cartwright, Bishop of Chester, in Lancashire and Cheshire, in the reign of James II., Sketch of the life of Dr. Cartwright, afterwards Bishop of Chester, . . . e & º º º e Account of his negotiations as Agent of James II., from his own Diary, recently published by the Camden Society, Visit of King James II. to Chester, in the year 1687, Revolution of 1688, and the commotion in the two Counties which preceded and followed that event, Great movement of the two Counties in favour Revolution, . º º º - e - * William, the ninth Earl of Derby, Henry Booth, earl of Warrington, and Sir Thomas Grosvenor, declare for King William III., . of ths 19 22 24 25 25 31 35 41 PAGE Expulsion of James II., who is supported by Louis XIV., and commencement of a War with France, sº • Tººt Effects of the War between France and England—from 1689 to 1697—on the Trade and Commerce of the two Counties, and on the condition of the People, . . 45 Roads of Lancashire and Cheshire in early times, . , 48 Order of the Magistrates of Lancashire in the year 1688, describing “the Great Decay of the King's Highways,” and giving Directions for their Restoration, * . 48 A Journey from Lancaster to London, on horseback, in ...the year 1688, . º º º º º . 50 Journey in a Carriage, between London and Lancashire, in the year 1696, , º e e º g . 53 Commencement of Migration of People into and out of Lancashire, in the Seventeenth Century, . . 54 Dr. Charles Leigh's description of Lancashire and Cheshire in the year 1700, . º - e e ſº . 57 Natural History of the two Counties, as described by him, and of the Agriculture, Mines, Manufactures, Com- merce, Roads, and Ports of the two Counties, . . 57 Wars with France, in the reign of Queen Anne, and their effect on the Trade and Commerce of the two Counties, 66 Commencement of the African Slave Trade, . e 68 Jacobite Insurrection of 1714–15, sº - e . 71 Advance of the Highlanders and the Earl of Derwent- water's Forces to Preston, in Lancashire, . & . 76 Preston Surrounded by the Royal Troops, the Outworks Stormed, and the Insurgents compelled to Surrender, . 76 Progress of Lancashire and Cheshire during the long Peace of the Eighteenth Century, from 1713–1741, . ... 79 Commencement of Public Improvements, and Construction of Roads, Improvement of Rivers, and Formation of Docks, . º * to 81 Improvement of the River Mersey, º gº . 81 Great Reduction in the Cost of Conveying Goods and Merchandise, caused by the Improvement of the Mersey, the Weaver, and Douglas Rivers, . - º ... 81 Previous method of Conveying Goods by Packhorses and in Heavy Waggons, q º ſº -> s 83 Mersey and Irwell Navigation Act passed 1720–1721, 85 River Weaver Act passed in the same year, . º . 87 River Douglas Act passed at the same time, . e . 89 Act passed for forming the First or Old Dock at Liver- pool, 1708, e e - te º g . 91 State of Navigation and of the Harbour of Liverpool previous to the Formation of the Liverpool Docks, 92 Mr. Thomas Steers, the first Liverpool Dock Engineer, and Constructor of all the Public Works formed in Lancashire before the time of James Brindley, . . 94 Act for the Improvement of the River Dee to the City of Chester, t a e º e - º . 95 War with France, and Jacobite Insurrection of 1745, 98 Advance of Prince Charles Edward and his Army to Manchester, . tº e a tº º º . 101 Advance of the Jacobites to Derby, & e º . 101 Rapid retreat of the Jacobites through Lancashire before the Armies of the Duke of Cumberland and Marshal Wade º wº º - te t g 102 4.62 CONTENTS. & PAGE PAGE Close of the Insurrection, and Restoration of Peace, 103 Town and Parish of Rochdale, . tº tº 140 Progress of Public Works in the two Counties in the Schools in the Ancient Deanery of Manchester, 141 latter part of the reign of George II., . & . 103 Halls and Mansions in the Deanery of Manchester, 144 Improvement of Public Roads, and Establishment of Deanery of Warrington, . ë. te {º e 145 Stage Coaches between Lancashire and London, in 1757, 105 Borough of Liverpool from 1660 to 1760, 147 Population and Growth of Towns; Religious Instruction, Newton-in-Makerfield, * g 158 I’ducation, Charities, and Public Buildings of the Town and Parish of Ormskirk, . 158 Counties of Lancaster and Chester in the reigns of Lathom House, in Ormskirk Parish, 159 George I. and George II., as shown in the Notitia Town and Parish of Prescot, 160 Cestriensis or Historic Notices of the Diocese of Chester, Town and Parish of Leigh, tº * ſº 162 drawn up by Dr. Gastrell, Bishop of Chester, from I(nowsley Hall, the Seat of the Earls of Derby, 164 returns made from every part of the Diocese, which Croxteth Hall, the Seat of the Earls of Seſton, 164 then included the whole of the two Counties, , ... 107 Schools in the Deanery of Warrington, 165 County of Chester, according to the returns to Bishop I)eanery of Blackburn, § ge 169 Gastrell, . e g & e ſº © ... 107 Parish and Town of Blackburn, . 170 Deanery of Chester, including the City of Chester and Parish and Town of Burnley, g s 171 the surrounding Parishes, g wº tº º . 108 Schools in the Deanery of Blackburn, . es wº . 172 Deanery of Wirrall, in Cheshire, including Birkenhead Halls and Mansions in the Deanery of Blackburn, . 174 and the neighbouring district, . Ç & . 112 Deanery of Leyland, . te wº e e & , 177. Deanery of Malpas, in Cheshire, 115 Mansions and Halls in the Leyland District, 177 Deanery of Nantwich, in Cheshire, 117 Deanery of Amounderness, & tº t 181 Deanery of Middlewich, in Cheshire, . 120 Borough of Preston, to the year 1760, w 182 Deanery of Macclesfield, in Cheshire, . 128 Halls and Mansions in Amounderness, 184 Deanery of Frodsham, in Cheshire, . º & . 126 Schools in the Deanery of Amounderness, 186 County of Lancaster, according to the returns to Bishop Charities in Amounderness, 188 Gastrell, . • a º tº o . . . 129 Deanery of Lonsdale, 189 Deanery of Manchester, with account of the Town and Deanery of Furness, . 189 Parish of Manchester, to 1760, tº * o 130 Deanery of Kendal, . g º 190 Town and Parish of Ashton-under-Lyne, . & . 137 Borough of Lancaster to 1760, . gº & 190 Town of Bolton, * > g & 138 Halls and Mansions of Lonsdale, º ſº {e 195 Town of Bury, . e g & ge * 189 Charities and Schools in the Deaneries of Lonsdale, Town and Chapelry of Oldham, . . . $º 140 Furness, Cartmel, and Kendal, º 198 C H A PTE R II. PROGRESS of LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE FROM THE Accession of GEORGE III, i760, To 1868. Population of the two Counties at the Accession of George III., . & tº g Introduction of Navigable Canals, • • e Formation of the Bridgewater and other Canals by James Brindley, and Francis, Duke of Bridgewater, Effect of forming these Canals on the Trade of Liverpool and Manchester, . te e tº - ū. º Formation of the Grand Trunk Canal, from the Mersey to the Trent, . te tº g ſº tº © Great Reduction in the Cost of Conveying Goods and Merchandise from Liverpool and Manchester to all Parts of the Kingdom, . e & & ſº & Formation of Leeds and Liverpool Canal, . & * Great Influence of that Canal in Developing the Resources of Lancashire and Yorkshire, . te º * Formation of the Rochdale Canal, e Formation of the Huddersfield Canal, . g © e Formation of the Manchester, Oldham, and Ashton Canal, Ellesmere Canal, to the Borders of Wales, Preston and Lancaster Canal, . ſe * & s : Grand Junction Canal, to London and the River Thames, Leigh and Wigan Canal—the last Canal formed in Lancashire, . s tº * . . te Improvement in Highways and Coach Travelling, between the year 1760 and the Establishment of Railways, 1830, Impulse given to the Population and Wealth of Lancashire and Cheshire by the Invention of Cotton Machinery and the Steam-engine, & & o & & g Inventions of Wyatt, Arkwright, Hargreaves, & Crompton, Invention of the Steam-engine, . ſº g • . • Increase of Population and Industry of the two Counties from 1760 to 1801, * tº e e gº Progress of Population of Lancashire and Cheshire in the Nineteenth Century, and the Causes of its Rapid In- CTeaSe, . g * tº ſº g e º & 200 208 203 207 209 211 213 213 216 216 218 218 219 219 219 220 225 233 237 242 250 Growth of Population and Industry in the various Divisions of Lancashire from 1801 to 1831:— Ulverstone, e Lancaster, Garstang, Fylde, Chorley, Blackburn, Clitheroe, . * t w te - tº Burnley, . & ſº g & jº e º Haslingden, º Bolton, Bury, $ Rochdale, . e * tº tº t g Oldham, . e e & g e e dº Ashton-under-Lyne, . e sº Manchester, Chorlton, and Salford, Leigh, . tº tº Barton-on-Irwell, Warrington, Wigan, Ormskirk, tº e Prescot and St. Helen's, Liverpool and West Derby, . e g & Increase of Population in the various Divisions of the County of Chester from 1801 to 1831:— Macclesfield, e g º Stockport, Congleton, Nantwich, Northwich, Rumcorn, . ſº * Altringham, . * g Great Boughton and Chester, Wirrall, © e 287 287 289 289 290 291 291 292 293 294 294 294 295 295 CONTENTS. 463 Progress of Population and Industry in Lancashire and Cheshire from 1831 to 1861, . & ſº º tº Railway System Introduced into Lancashire, g Railways Formed in Lancashire and Cheshire; their Length, and the Trade of each, dº º • • Ocean Steam Navigation Established between Liverpool and New York, . e º & e g © Steam Trade from Liverpool to all Parts of the World, , Change in the Commercial Policy of England, and Establishment of the Principles of Free Trade, . * Progress of the Different Divisions of Lancashire and Cheshire from 1831 to 1861, . * & º g Progress of the Ulverstone Division from 1831 to 1861, Railways Introduced into the Furness District, w Embankments and Bridges across Morecambe Bay, Furness Abbey, and the Antiquities of Furness District, Agriculture of the Furness District, . e º tº Town of Ulverstone and its Progress, . tº g Dalton, the Capital of the Mineral District of Furness, Barrow-in-Furness, the Port of the Furness Iron District, Iron Mines of North Lancashire, and their Rapid Pro- gress between 1831 and 1861, . tº e º Iron Mines of Lancashire, according to the last Official Returns, 1868, . g * g & ſº Conistone Copper Mines and their Produce, . Lancaster Division from 1831 to 1861, {} • * * Opening of the Scenery of the Lune by the Railways, . Garstang Division from 1831 to 1861, t * e The Railways of this District, . © tº * Fylde Division from 1831 to 1861, . e * º Rapid Growth of Blackpool, the principal Watering Place of the Fylde District, § e gº & { } Fleetwood, with its Steam Trade and Fisheries, . º Preston Division, its Rapid Increase from 1831 to 1861, Chorley Division from 1831 to 1861, . &º g * Rapid Increase of the Town of Chorley, Minerals of Chorley District, . º gº Mines and Minerals of the Chorley District, , tº Blackburn Division from 1831 to 1861—Rapid Increase, Rapid Increase of Over Darwen, t sº g Mines and Minerals of the Blackburn District, Clitheroe Division from 1831 to 1861, tº & g Opening of the fine Ruins of Whalley Abbey, Clitheroe Castle, and the Scenery of Ribblesdale by means of Railways, . † s . e. * g ſº Burnley Division from 1831 to 1861, . º * º Rivers and Scenery of the Burnley District; the Railways and Canals, . tº ę º gº & & º Mines and Minerals of the Burnley District, Haslingden Division from 1831 to 1861, ſº Rapid Growth of Population and Industry in the Ancient District of Rossendale, gº g º ë & Rapid Growth of the Towns of Accrington, Bacup, Haslingden, and Newchurch, . º & * Mines and Minerals of the Haslingden District, . ſº Rapid Progress of the Bolton Division from 1831 to 1861, Mines, Minerals, and Forges in the Bolton Division, Progress of the Bury Division from 1831 to 1861, * Mines and Minerals of the Bury District, . * t Rochdale Division from 1831 to 1861, . Iºxtensive Public Works, . & * © Mines and Minerals of the Rochdale District, Oldham Division from 1831 to 1861, . Great Improvements in the Oldham District, Oldham Weaver—Poem in the Lancashire Dialect, Mines and Minerals of the Oldham District, Ashton-under-Lyme Division from 1831 to 1861, Great Extent and Productions of the Ashton District, PAGE 296 , 296 297 809 302 303 304 304 305 305 305 306 306 306 807 307 309 309 309 3 11 3.11 312 312 813 3 14 314 314 315 316 316 317 317 3.18 3.18 319 320 321 321 822 322 Rapid Growth of Staleybridge and Dukinfield, . Mines and Minerals of the Ashton District, . * Manchester, Chorlton, and Salford Divisions, º e Great Mineral Wealth of the Northern and Eastern Coal District of Lancashire, . * e Rapid Increase of Population in and around Manchester, Barton-on-Irwell Division from 1831 to 1861, . . . Mines and Minerals of this District, . * e * 323 323 324 326 328 328 829 380 331 332 332 383 334 335 336 836 336 337 838 338 340 342 PAGE Great Reclamation of Wastes of Chat Moss º , 341 Leigh Division from 1831 to 1861, . . . tº . 342 Increase of Towns of Leigh and Atherton, . tº , 342 Mines and Minerals in the Leigh Division, . g . 342 Warrington Division from 1831 to 1861, . de . 343 Increase of the Towns of Warrington and Newton-in Makerfield, . ſº º º © tº ſº . 344 Wigan Division from 1831 to 1861, . g * . 345 Great Mineral Riches of the Wigan District, & . 346 Comparative Produce of the Coal Mines of Lancashire and Cheshire and the United Kingdom, . * . 348 Coals and Coke exported from Lancashire and Cheshire, 349 Ormskirk Division from 1831 to 1861, tº gº . 349 Rapid Growth of Southport as a Watering-place, . . 350 Prescot and St. Helen's Division from 1831 to 1861, .. 351 Rapid Growth of St. Helen's, ë e * . 351 Rapid Growth of Widness, iſ a * e ſº . 352 Mines and Minerals of the Widness District, & . 352 Origin and Progress of the Alkali Manufacture, . . 352 West Derby Division from 1831 to 1861, . g . 353 Liverpool Division from 1831 to 1861, & g . 353 Immense Growth of Liverpool, & † & . 353 Macclesfield Division from 1831 to 1861, . * . 354 Stockport Division from 1831 to 1861, ſº e . 355 Coal Mines of Cheshire, . tº • & * . 356 Congleton Division from 1831 to 1861, tº * . 357 Nantwich Division from 1831 to 1861, © * . 357 Rapid Growth of Crewe on the London and North- western Lime, * * © e e g , 358 Northwich Division from 1831 to 1861, . . . , 359 Salt Mimes and Salt Trade of Chester, . g tº . 359 Cheshire Hunt, & tº tº * & * . 360 Cheshire Fox-hounds—Song in the Cheshire Dialect, .. 362 Altringham Division from 1831 to 1861, . gº . 362 Rumcorn Division from 1881 to 1861, ſº & . 363 Railway and Canal Works at Runcorn, e * . 363 Growth of the Town of Runcorm, º 363 Great Boughton or Chester Division from 1831 to 1861, 364 Wirrall Division from 1831 to 1861, . e . 364 Rapid Increase of Population throughout the Wirrall Division, . * g e e tº e . 364 Birkenhead Division from 1831 to 1861, . e . 365 l'apid Increase of Population, . e * e . 366 Occupations of the People of Lancashire and Cheshire at the last General Census, © & e ſº . 366 Table of Occupations in 1861, . * o 377 Property and Income of Lancashire and Cheshire at the Time of the last Census, * ge º & . 381 Ecclesiastical Divisions of Lancashire and Cheshire, . 383 Parishes of Lancashire, Area and Population in 1831 and 1861, . wº tº tº g * e . 383 Parishes of Cheshire, Area and Population in 1831 and 1861, . tº e º e g g tº . 385 Increase of Churches, and Chapels, and of Religious Instruction in Lancashire, e 386 Education in the Counties of Lancaster and Chester, . 389 Grammar and other Endowed Schools in Lancashire, . 391 Report on Lancashire Schools to the Commissioners of Education, 1865, . tº t tº g tº . 390 Number of Schools aided by Parliamentary Grants in the principal Towns and Villages of Lancashire and Cheshire, 1867–68, & g We e $ . 406 Indowed Schools in the County of Chester, . * . 409 IEndowed Schools in the County of Lancaster, . . 410 The Cotton Famine and its Influence on the Condition of the People of Lancashire and Cheshire, e . 412 Supplies of Cotton at the Commencement of the Civil War in America, . e c © e & . 415 Great falling off of the Supplies of Cotton during the Civil War, . . 416 Recovery of Supplies at the Close of the Civil War, . 417 Sufferings of the People from the Cotton Famine, . 418 Rates of Wages in the Cotton District in 1839 and 1859, 419 Means adopted to Relieve the Distress of the People, . 420 Dstablishment of the Central Relief Committee at Man- chester, º * * tº º * * . 421 464 CONTENTS. PAG” PAGE List of Members of Committee, . wº e 422 Mr. Rawlinson's First Report on the Plans of Improve- Establishment of Mansion House Committee of London, 423 ment to be Adopted in each of the large Towns of the Memorandum on the Employment of the Destitute Poor Cotton District, . º * t e e . 430 of Lancashire and Cheshire on Local Works of Public Further Report of Mr. Robert Rawlinson, C.E., to the Utility, ſº tº o tº & e * . 428 Right Honourable C. P. Williers, M.P., President of Plan of Public Works Adopted by the Government, 430 the Poor Law Board, on the Employment of the Popu- Circular from the Local Government Act Office to the lation of the Cotton Districts on Public Works, 434 Authorities of the Cotton Manufacturing Districts, 430 Towns and Districts in the Cotton District relieved, 435 Mr. Robert Rawlinson, C.E., Employed by the Govern- Names of City, Borough, Town, Parish, Union, or Place ment to Visit the Cottom Manufacturing Districts, to which Loans were offered by the Poor Law Board and to Devise Plans for the Employment of the for the several purposes as provided for by the Public Operatives on Public Works, in conjunction with the Works (Manufacturing Districts) Acts, 1863–64 436 Local Authorities, . tº * • 430 General Summary of Public Works constructed 438 C H A PTE R III. Progress of THE PARLIAMENTARY AND MUNICIPAL Boroughs of LANCAs.IIIRE AND CHESHIRE FROM THE ACCESSION of GEORGE III., 1760, To THE PRESENT TIME (1868). Rapid Increase of the Cities, Boroughs, and Towns of Lancashire and Cheshire, te tº º e & Progress of the City of Manchester, and the Borough of Salford, tº º e o t o The Borough of Ashton-under-Lyne, . The Borough of Blackburn, The Borough of Bolton, The Borough of Burnley, The Borough of Clitheroe, . The Port and Borough of Lancaster, 440 The Borough of Oldham, The Borough of Preston, . The Borough of Rochdale, . The Borough of Warrington, The Borough of Wigan, The City of Chester, te The Borough of Macclesfield, The Borough of Staleybridge, The Borough of Stockport, The Borough of Birkenhead, 440 447 447 448 450 451 451 PRINTED BY william MACKENzle, 45 & 47. How ARD STREET, GLASGow. 452 453 454 454 455 455 456 456 457 459 THE RISE AND PROGRESS MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE AND OF CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE, BY- WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S., FGS, CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE OF FIRANCE; CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE Roxal ACADEMY OF TURIN ; CHEVALIER OF THE LEGION OF HONOUR, ETC., ETC. INTRODUCTION. WHEN I was invited to write “THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF MANUFACTURES AND CoMMERCE, AND OF CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, IN LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE,” I entertained grave doubts of my own competency. The task seemed to require rather the descriptive powers of the historian than the bare matter-of-fact views of the engineer; and I must therefore crave the indulgence of the reader for the imperfections which will doubtless be found in my treatment of a large subject. If I have failed to make the Essay as attractive as a more fluent writer might have done, I have, at least, endeavoured to bring together a mass of information which will be useful to the student who may desire to weigh and appreciate the wonderful development of this great centre of manufacturing industry. w . - - It was my intention to have written two distinct articles on the Coal and Iron trades, both of which are largely cultivated in Lancashire; but the limits at my disposal would not allow of justice being done to these very important branches of industry. I hope the subject will receive the early attention of some abler pen than mine, for there can be no doubt that the prosperity of our manu- factures, and the extent of our commerce, are intimately bound up with the mineral resources of the country; and not only he who improves the quality and cheapens the production of these first agents, but he, also, who points out their present waste, and how their duration may be prolonged, is a true benefactor of mankind. - - I have endeavoured to trace the influence which the progress of manufacturing enterprise has had upon national character. The rapid growth and present high state of perfection of the trades touched upon in the following pages, have raised the mechanics and artisans from mere labourers into a class remarkable for their intelligence, skill, and perseverance. They are now a great power in the state— one to be guided, by wise laws and liberal encouragement, to the exercise of infinite good; but also capable of producing great evil to themselves and others, if their association and organization are not regulated by high principles and sound judgment. If, only, national education be allowed to advance with the rapid strides which have marked our progress in material Welfare, all will be well. But there are dangers from strikes and union combinations which must not be overlooked; and I have purposely omitted dwelling upon these subjects, because the Government may have to interfere for the benefit of both employer and employed; and I venture to hope that some improvement in the present state of the law may be devised, which will secure harmony and co-operation between capital and labour, and cement a union of interests without which the national prosperity will surely wane. W. FAIRBAIRN. MANCHESTER, June 1, 1869. THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE, AND OF CIVIL AND s MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE. FoR the origin of manufactures and commerce in Lancashire and Cheshire, or indeed in the kingdom at large, we are unable to claim any remote antiquity. During the feudal ages, our ancestors were chiefly engaged in war and rapine, and there was little time, and less inclination, to cultivate the arts of peace. The results were all but fatal to manufacturing and commercial industry. In this state the country remained from the Conquest down to the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. It is stated by Mr. E. Baines in his “History of Lancashire,” “that little progress had been made in manufactures and commerce in the county before the reign of Edward III.; but that under the foster- ing hand of that monarch and his queen, the woollen trade took root in Manchester, and spread along the district over the Yorkshire hills to the east, and the mountainous region of Rossendale and Pendle to the north. Previous to that time, the whole of South Lancashire and Cheshire were covered by forests and morasses, destitute of roads, and almost uninhabited.” Shortly after the Conquest a survey of the kingdom was made; a description from which we gather that the county and the hundred of Salford, at that time, was covered with wood on the uplands, while the lower grounds and sides of the mountains were incumbered with rank grass or heath. In this sur- vey the names of Manchester, Salford, Rochdale, &c., are recorded. Mr. Henry Ashworth, late president of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce, in his paper relating to South Lancashire and the Cotton Manufacture, states, “that for a long period subsequent to this survey we have but scanty records of the progress of the British WOL. II. Q. ii LANGASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: people. In the fourteenth century, the eastern towns of the kingdom appear to have been the most prosperous; none of the western, excepting Bristol, being named as important. Colchester is described as having had a considerable trade with France and the Netherlands; but in other respects there was nothing to indicate progress in the social condition of the people, who received for their services in the fields an allowance of produce for their subsistence, in lieu of wages. Vegetable food was almost unknown in those days, and the people lived for a great part of the year on salted meat and coarse brown bread. This accounts for the prevalence of scurvy and other diseases, which shortened the lives and increased the mortality amongst all classes of the people. The dwellings of the poor were of the same character as their food—miserable in the extreme. Their huts were made of mud and straw, with only one room, and that of the same character as the Irish cabin or the Highland bothie, without windows, and a clay floor not over cleanly kept.” Such was the state of our ancestors; and considering their abject condition, it is no wonder that they should have remained passive and indifferent to social and economical progress. At the commencement of the seventeenth century, the survey of Camden was made. He speaks of Lancashire as lying beyond the mountains towards the western ocean, and of the district which he descended from York as semi-barbarian. He describes Man- chester, Bury, and Bolton ; the former as having a woollen manufactory, a market-place, and a church ; so that, even at that time, the country had little to boast of in regard to trade. Soon after this date, however, Manchester became the seat of various kinds of manufacture. Flax was imported from Ireland, and returned in a manufactured state ; in the same way as cotton is now imported from India, and sent back in the shape of prints and calicoes. In those days, according to the Records of the Chetham Society, the raw material was sent from London, and the returns were made in manufactured goods. Liverpool then, although in communication with Ireland, had little or no commercial intercourse. It was only a fishing village, containing, as stated by Ashworth, 138 persons, and ten small vessels navigated by twenty-five sailors. During the reign of Charles I., and in the time of the Com- monwealth, the trade of Manchester made slow progress. That city then, as now, continued to be the seat of the textile manu- facture; but no important advance was made until the close of MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. iii the century, when a spirit of enterprise was engendered, and commerce began to develop itself in the ports both of London and Liverpool. Mr. Ashworth, in his historical data, speaking of the changes which took place at that time in the notions of political economy, says, “that the annual exports out of the kingdom at the commencement of the last century, had reached the sum of 56,709,881, and, as commerce increased, capital became more abun- dant, so that the ordinary rate of interest, which had ranged from eight to ten per cent, came down to five ; but what was of much greater importance to the success of commercial activity, was that the principles of productive industry were being rapidly developed, and that the various processes of manufacture in operation were being improved and extended. The most important branch of British industry at that time was the woollen manufacture, although the art of dyeing was not well understood, and the goods were generally exported in an unfinished state.” The manufacture of linens was conducted as a domestic employ- ment. Silk had, to a small extent, attracted attention; and in Manchester and the surrounding towns “union cloth,” a fabric made of linen warp and cotton weft, was largely manufactured; so great, in fact, was the demand for this description of goods, that the weavers were at a loss how to provide the requisite supply. Having briefly noticed the state of trade before the time when cotton first began to be used as weft in combination with linen and other textile materials, we now arrive at a period in the history of the trade and commerce of Lancashire, when a new era dawned upon our industrial resources, when invention and enterprise revolutionized the commercial interests of the nation, and placed it at the head of all civilized states through the introduc- tion of machinery, by which the greatest and the most delicate operations imaginable are effected. With what wonderful precision and exactitude are the various and intricate operations of the cotton manufacture performed ! With what rapidity and despatch is a pound of the raw material converted into yarn, and the yarn into cloth, passing through a series of self-acting machines, all of which only require feeding, or a transfer of the material from one machine to another, to produce the perfect article ! All the operations are carried on simultaneously, and by self- acting machines, which require little more than the superintendence of young boys and girls to feed them and join the broken threads. iv. - LANCASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : If the present produce of our manufactures be compared with that of manual labour before the time of Watt, Wyatt, and Arkwright, the difference between them must strike every one with amazement. It would be an endless task to enumerate the many advantages that have arisen to society and to the nation at large, from the intro- duction of machinery. But this machinery, however ingenious in construction, and however useful, would be of little value without the steam-engine. Before we proceed it may be necessary to offer a few remarks bearing upon the inventions and discoveries of the greatest of our engineers, the projector of a machine which, by the harmony of its parts, the immensity of its power, and the numerous purposes to which it is applied, has altered the conditions of man, and revolu- tionized the world. There is no invention of ancient or modern times that has effected greater changes than the steam-engine. It is not only the prime mover of every operation of manufacturing industry, but it propels ships, drains mines, ploughs, thrashes, winnows, and grinds; and, above all, it carries us over the surface of the earth with a celerity that even in these days of railways excites astonish- ment. It is, in fact, the drudge of all work—a fitting object of admiration, from its adaptability to every condition of civilized existence. - - We need not enlarge upon the history of James Watt, or the fertility of his genius as a philosopher and engineer; his steam- engine is the true monument of his greatness. In every country and in every clime, it is subservient to the purposes of man; but as heat is the agent by which, so to speak, it is animated, it may not be out of place if we notice the opinions of some of our most eminent philosophers on a question which has given rise to much speculation, and on which many theories have been founded. The steam-engine may be looked upon as a contrivance for producing mechanical effect by heat. Heat is the great prime-mover of both animate and inanimate creation, and its effects are measured by its intensity or diminution as it exists in the various bodies by which we are surrounded. There is probably no subject in physical science which has attracted more attention, or given rise to greater differences of opinion. The ancients recognized it as one of the four elements, imponderable in its nature, and indicative of the source of life in plants and animals. It was regarded as the universal essence, the vivifying principle of MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE. V. nature, and by certain tribes was worshipped in the shape of fire. It was, however, reserved for Newton and his contemporaries of the seventeenth century to investigate its nature, and originate a theory of a more philosophical and consistent character. By that distinguished philosopher, heat was considered as motion among the particles of matter, and this view he promulgated in his “Principia,” in which he laid down axioms and laws of motion, and announced the principle of the conservation of energy, thus establishing what is called the Newtonian science of heat. But the recent discoveries in chemistry, and the laws of definite proportions, gave rise to fresh inquiries and closer investigations into the nature of this great motive principle. Ideas of much greater precision, and more in accordance with philosophic data, began to prevail in regard to the properties of matter, and established a material theory fitted to render a more intelligible explanation of calorific phenomena. The changes which bodies assume on the absorption of heat were carefully considered, and examples adduced of cases where steam becomes water, and water steam. These changes in bodies, and the thermal laws connected with them, were carefully demonstrated by Black; and the conclusion he arrived at was, that they were due to the union of the substances with caloric ; thus almost inferring that caloric was itself a perfectly distinct and separate substance. From this discovery followed the term “latent heat,” when it ceased to act upon the senses. Count Rumford, at the close of the last century, disproved the theory that heat was a distinct element, and separable from matter.” He entered upon a series of well-conducted experiments to determine its real nature, and to these we are indebted for the theory of heat in its relation to motion, or its mechanical equivalent, which has been more recently established by the researches of the writer's friend, Dr. Joule. The advance since made is indicated by the carefully conducted researches of Joule, who, in his paper “On the Heat evolved during the Electrolysis of Water,”f demonstrated that “the magnetic electrical machine enables us to convert mechanical power into heat, by means of the electric currents which are induced by it,” a proposition experimentally demonstrated in a paper read before the British Association in the year 1840. Herein he also proves, that the mechanical power of the electro-magnetic engine is obtained at the expense of the heat due to the chemical * Philosophical Transactions, abridged, vol. xviii. p. 278. f Manchester Memoirs, vol. vii. vi - LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: * reactions taking place. In this and subsequent papers, he shows that friction consists in the conversion of mechanical force into heat; further (in a memoir communicated to the Royal Society), that the heat evolved by the compression of air is the equivalent of the mechanical force used in the compression; and vice versä, that the heat abstracted by the expansion of air on the removal of pressure is the equivalent of the mechanical force required to produce the displacement of the atmosphere ; also, that when air is allowed to expand without evolving work, no change of temperature occurs except the very minute one, anticipated and experimentally demonstrated by Professor Thomson, owing to the imperfection of air as an elastic fluid. In concluding this paper he remarks:—“The principles I have adopted lead to a theory of the steam-engine very different from the one generally received, but, at the same time, much more accordant with facts. From them we may infer that the steam, while expanding in the cylinder, loses heat in quantity exactly proportional to the mechanical force which it communicates by means of the piston; and that on the condensation of the steam, the heat thus converted into power is not given back. The theory here advanced demands that, supposing no loss of heat to occur from radiation, &c., the heat given out in the condenser shall yet be less than that communicated to the boiler from the furnace, in exact proportion to the equivalent of mechanical power developed.” A. These views of Dr. Joule have since been confirmed by successive experiments undertaken by himself, Regnault, Thomson, and others; and the dynamical theory has been developed by the labours of Mayer, Helmholtz, Clausius, Rankine, and especially Thomson, whose pro- found investigations entitle him to a principal share of the merit of establishing the new theory. These authorities are agreed upon the immaterial nature of heat; and nothing can be more interesting than the exactitude and care with which Dr. Joule has pursued his experimental researches on this very interesting and important subject. In stating the conclusions at which he arrived as to the proper- ties of heat, and its effects on the particles of matter, he says, that his experiments demonstrated that heat and mechanical power were interconvertible ; and it became, therefore, evident that heat is either the vis viva of ponderable particles, or a state of attraction or repulsion capable of generating the vis viva. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. vii These data were of great value in showing “that whenever a current of electricity is generated by a magneto-electrical machine, the quantity of heat evolved by that current has a constant relation to the power required to turn the machine; and, on the other hand, that whenever an engine is worked by a voltaic battery, the power developed is at the expense of the calorific power of the battery for a given consumption of zinc, the mechanical effect produced having a fixed relation to the heat lost in the voltaic circle.” Again, it became important to ascertain the exact equivalent of heat, and this was sought for in the heat generated by the friction of the fluids. In these experiments Dr. Joule found—first, “That the expenditure of a certain amount of mechanical power in the agitation of a given fluid, uniformly produced a certain fixed quantity of heat ; and, secondly, that the quantity of heat evolved in the friction of fluids was entirely uninfluenced by the nature of the liquid employed; for water, oil, and mercury (fluids as diverse from one another as could be well selected) gave sensibly to the result, viz., that the quantity of heat capable of raising the temperature of a pound of water one degree is equivalent to the mechanical power developed by a weight of 770 pounds (since ascertained to be 772 pounds) falling through one perpendicular foot.” From these extracts it will be seen that Dr. Joule has not only demonstrated the production of heat by the friction of the particles of various substances, but has also determined, experimentally, the mechanical effect, and fixed the relative proportions which they bear to each other ; namely, that so much heat as is sufficient to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree of Fahrenheit, is suffi- cient to raise a weight of one pound to a height of 772 feet. This is called ‘Joule's equivalent, a discovery of vast importance to science, and which may lead to extensive improvements in the application of heat to steam and other elastic fluids. It is, however, necessary to observe that the new theory of heat, as developed by Dr. Joule, has not passed uncontroverted. Mr. J. C. Dyer, one of the vice-presidents of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, maintains that “the matter of heat is a subtle substance diffused through all space ; and through the pores of all bodies, and cognizable to us only by reason of the disturbances of its equilibrium, in space and in bodies.” He further observes, that “the hypothesis which supposes heat to be the evidence or the result of motion in the particles of bodies, and not a substance Sui generis, viii LANCASEIIRE AND CEIBSHIRE . has been adopted to account for the abundant evolution of heat—by the experiments of Count Rumford, Sir Humphry Davy, and others —in circumstances where friction alone appeared to have created the heat evolved, the external supply of sensible heat having been cut off in the experiments. Now it is clear that in such cases the heat exhibited might have come from a pervading element, such as I have assumed to exist: for it would merely require the mechanical action upon the body submitted to friction, or impulsion, of such force as to make it give out the elemental, and by this process be converted into sensible heat. - - “It may be assumed, then, that in those instances where sensible heat is disengaged in greater abundance than would appear likely to come from the small bodies acted upon, or from the temperature of con- tiguous or surrounding substances, the actual source of such sensible heat may, and most likely does, come from the great storehouse of elemental heat, in the bodies whose particles are thus excited and made to yield their elemental heat in the form or condition of thermal heat.” - In this way Mr. Dyer endeavours to account for the nature of heat, and he quotes from the late Dr. Henry, who in treating the same subject, observes, “that our only clear conceptions of quantity are derived from the known magnitude and gravity of bodies; but in the instance of caloric, both of these modes of mensuration fail us. Our notions, therefore, of heat are not derived from simple judg- ments, but from complicated powers of reasoning.” From these extracts it will be seen how difficult it is to arrive at the true nature of heat; and so long as we have to depend upon inductive reasoning, in the absence of correctly ascertained physical facts, so long shall we remain ignorant of the phenomena of one of the most important and most powerful agents of nature. Our limited knowledge and the conflicting views regarding its combinations and properties do not, however, vitiate the experiments of Joule, which clearly show that heat is force, and, vice versä, that force is heat. These experiments, and the conclusions deduced from them, are highly valuable in their application to the use of steam and other elastic fluids. Establishing the law which gives the maximum of work done by a unit of caloric, they, by the equivalent derived from them, enable us to calculate, in foot pounds, the measure of force or work done. Although even a brief history of the learned societies of Lancashire MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE, ix and Cheshire may be considered foreign to our subject, yet as amongst their members have been found a number of distinguished men, whose discoveries have tended to improve manufacturing pro- cesses and advance the general prosperity of the country, some notice of these several institutions, and of the influence which they have had upon the progress of the manufacturing districts, would therefore seem not altogether uncalled for. MANCHESTER AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. To begin, then, with the Philosophical Society of Manchester; ever since its foundation, in 1789, this society has been one of the most thoroughly scientific institutions out of London, and the names and discoveries of Dalton and Henry, to whom our industrial inte- rests owe so much, have for many years enriched its memoirs. Besides the Philosophical Society of Manchester, there are several others in that city, as well as in Liverpool, which are entitled to notice, and in which have been trained some of our most distin- guished men of science, whose labours have enlarged the field of knowledge, and enhanced the value of our industrial resources. Amongst these we may enumerate the Chetham Library and the Natural History Society, as the first established in Manchester; the Royal Institution, Athenaeum, Mechanics' Institution, and Free Library, as the second. In Liverpool the institutions are more recent ; but of late years they have become numerous, and now, through the spirit and enterprise of its inhabitants, there is no city in the kingdom that affords greater facilities for education and improvement in science and art. We may instance the Philosophical Society, Queen's College, and the School of Science, established and presented to the town by the late Sir William Brown. Taking the institutions of Manchester in the order given above, we have to notice, first, Chetham's Library, and the school, or blue-coat hospital, attached to it. The latter was established in 1651, during the Commonwealth, at the same time that the library was instituted by Humphrey Chetham, an opulent merchant and manufacturer, and by him was richly endowed, for the purpose of maintaining, clothing, educating, and bringing up forty healthy boys, sons of honest and industrious parents. The founder of the hospital, in addition to this munificent gift, added the library, which, as stated by the testator, was originally intended for the “education of the sons of the common people, and all others well affected to resort thereto.” VOL. 11. - b x LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : -1– Iſumphrey Chetham was born at Crumpsall, July, 1580, and died at Clayton Hall, on the 12th of October, 1653, in the seventy- third year of his age. He was unmarried; and by his last will, made in December, 1651, left considerable legacies to relatives, friends, and servants. He had already, in his lifetime, settled large estates upon his nephews, one of whom succeeded him both at Clayton and Turton, near Bolton. By this will Chetham bequeathed the sum of £7500 to be expended in the foundation and endowment, after the manner therein directed, of an hospital for the maintenance and education of forty poor boys for ever, and in the putting of them forth as apprentices when of fitting age, unless “otherwise preferred or provided for : ” and he provided that if, in the course of time, any surplus revenue should accrue from any investment made in pur- suance of such bequest, it should be “applied for the augmentation of the number of the poor boys, and for the better maintenance and binding apprentice of the said forty poor boys.” He also bequeathed £1000 to be expended in books, “for, or towards, a library within the town of Manchester for the use of scholars, and others well affected, the same books there to remain as a public library for ever: and my mind and will,” he adds, “is, that care be taken that none of the said books be taken out of the said library at any time; and that the said books be fixed or chained as well as may be, within the said library, for the better preservation thereof. And I do hereby give £1000 to be bestowed in purchasing some fit place for the said books. Also, I do hereby give and bequeath the sum of £200, to be bestowed by my executors in godly English books, such as Calvin's, Preston's, and Perkins' works, comments or annotations upon the Bible, or some parts thereof, or other books proper for the edification of the common people, to be chained upon desks, or to be fixed to the pillars, or in other convenient places, in the parish churches of Manchester and Bolton, and the chapels of Turton, Walmesley, and Gorton, in the said county of Lancashire, within one year next after my decease.” ” Such was the basis on which this valuable library was founded. It has since been raised, by successive additions, from a small collection originally intended for the school and “common working- men,” to the rank of one of the most valuable libraries in the north of England. It contains some rare and ancient manuscripts; some of * I'dward's Memoirs of Ilibraries. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE, xi the best editions of the Greek and Latin classics; and a great variety of valuable works on mathematics and natural history. It is rich in theological treatises, and its ample store on these subjects contains a complete set of the Fathers. It further contains a selection of antiquities, and some curious specimens of natural history. A very interesting catalogue, or rather compendium, of this library, which now contains 30,000 volumes, has been published by the present librarian, an eminent classic, Mr. Thomas Jones, B.A., in which are given the titles, dates, and history of the writings of both ancient and modern authors. As it is open gratuitously to the public for reference and consultation, it will at once be seen that the inhabitants of Manchester have, in this institution, every facility afforded them for the acquisition of knowledge. - Manchester also contains, in Mosely Street, a subscription library of 30,000 volumes; but the largest and most important of all these establishments is the Free Library, founded in the year 1851, during the mayoralty of the late Sir John Potter, to whom Man- chester is indebted for many great and permanent benefits. Through his exertions a sum of money exceeding £12,000 was raised, in the short space of eighteen months, which was devoted to the purchase of a suitable building and 21,000 volumes of useful and valuable works on literature and science. The library was opened, free to the public, 2nd September, 1851. The objects to be obtained by this institution were set forth in the following address of the committee — “It is the object of the Manchester Free Library and Museum to provide increased and wholly gratuitous facilities for the diffusion of knowledge, and for mental culture amongst all classes, and more especially amongst the operatives employed in the various manu- factures of the district. - “This object it is sought to attain by the establishment of a reference or consulting library, well furnished, not only with what are usually termed works of reference, but also with standard publica- tions in all the principal departments of literature and science; and of a lending library, largely supplied with such books as shall be found to connect popular attractiveness with intrinsic merit. It is further proposed to exhibit choice engravings and other works of art, and to establish a museum of models and machinery, formed with an especial view to the illustration of the rise and progress of the staple industries of Manchester and its neighbourhood. Such a collection xii LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE . . has long been desired, and will, it is hoped, prove both an incentive, to inquiry, and a stimulus to new improvements. . . . . “It is, however, on the library that the committee rest their chief hopes for the extensive public usefulness of the proposed institution. By adding to a good library of reference a large and well-selected assortment of books for circulation, the advantages resulting will not be confined within the necessarily restricted hours of public access, but will extend over the entire periods of leisure which different persons may be able to command at their own homes. The lending library will thus afford the means of attaining sound and useful knowledge, not to individuals only, but to whole families; whilst in the Reference Library readers will be enabled freely to consult books of considerable extent and great value, such as could not with pro- priety be permitted to circulate beyond the walls of the institution. “In seeking to establish in Manchester a library which, in some respects, shall be more widely accessible than any that has yet existed in Great Britain, the committee have full confidence that the people will eagerly avail themselves of the advantages held out to them in so liberal and friendly a spirit, and that they will con- scientiously protect from injury objects which are provided expressly for general instruction and enjoyment. • * , “The committee appeal therefore to men of all classes, and of all shades of opinion, for their zealous co-operation in an enterprise, in the successful prosecution of which all are alike interested : and many circumstances seem to them to mark the present time as pre- eminently favourable to its full success. “The increased diffusion of the rudiments of education, and the recent legislative regulation of the hours of factory labour, combine to make access to good books of the utmost utility and gravest import- ance to the operative classes. By means of the Manchester Free Library such books will be brought within their reach, more freely and more extensively than they have hitherto been in any part of the kingdom. - - - “But the good results which may reasonably be looked for from such an institution cannot be confined to a single town or district, however vast and important. They will assuredly create a precedent soon to be extensively followed throughout the country. In order, therefore, that the experiment should be fairly tried in all parts, it must be zealously supported; and the committee feel that in the liberal subscriptions already obtained they have a sure pledge that MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. xiii the appeal they now make will be cordially and generously responded to by their fellow-townsmen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “The considerable expenses which have unavoidably attended the purchase of the building, and the still larger outlay which will be requisite for its thorough adaptation to the purposes of the institu- tion—so as to preclude the necessity of future expenditure, and consequent interference with the well-working of the establishment— make a large addition to the annexed list of subscriptions indispens- able to the efficient organization of the library in all its departments. “On the co-operation of the working classes the Manchester Free Library has peculiar claims. Frequent have been the attempts to establish literary institutions for their especial use, too many of which have either entirely failed or are still struggling through a feeble and unhealthy existence. Amongst the causes of such failure— whether partial or complete—the fluctuations of employment, when taken in connection with the costliness of access to many of the institutions attempted, must hold a prominent place. “The Free Library and Museum about to be established will be secured for the gratuitous advantage of the town, as one of its per- manent public institutions. Founded for the enjoyment of all classes, it claims the sympathies and the active help of all, in proportion to their respective means; and the committee feel assured that they will not appeal in vain to the operatives of Manchester for their strenuous exertions to carry on towards completion the good work which has now been begun. Their earnest co-operation will secure the full development of the new institution ; and when, hereafter, they shall avail themselves of the facilities for instruction which the Manchester Free Library will afford, it will be with the satisfaction of knowing that they are enjoying the fruits of labours in which they have themselves borne their proper share.”—(Signed) John Potter, Mayor. - - Within the very short space of two years, this library has enlarged its catalogue to the extent of nearly 40,000 volumes. It has extended its benefits to the different townships, and there are now five distinct libraries dependent on the parent institution. These valuable establishments are under the control of the Corporation, who are empowered by Act of Parliament to levy a rate on the inhabitants of Manchester, not exceeding one penny in the pound, for their maintenance in perpetuity, for the benefit and use of all classes of the community. To show the advantages which it offers xiv LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : the public, the present intelligent librarian, Dr. Crestadero, has kindly furnished the following statement of the number of volumes in all departments:— - Reference Library, including a few books not yet classified, . , 39,348 Campfield Lending, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,456 Hulme Branch, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,319 Ancoats Branch, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,532 Rochdale Road Branch, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,977 Ardwick, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,337 83,969 vols. At Peel Park, in the adjoining borough of Salford, another museum and library, containing 30,870 volumes, has been established on the same principle, and these institutions have become the daily resort of working men, for whose accommodation large commodious reading rooms are provided. The classification of the volumes in the library to the end of October, 1867, is as follows:— º Patents, #º Total, Theology, . . . . . . . . 832 ... * • * 496 ... 1,328 Political and Social Economy, . 1,052 tº tº e * ºr a e 194 A tº e 1,246 History, Voyages, and Travels, 4,804 ... * • ‘º e 1,567 '... 6,371 Biography, . . . . . . . 1,037 tº e g -* tº º e (586 tº º º 1,723 Science and Art, . . . . . 2,683 *= 837 ... 3,520 Patented inventions, . . . . — tº g ∈ 2,055 tº a º — . . . . 2,055 General Literature, . . . . 3,926 tº e & tº-mº 1,503 ... 5,429 Works of Fiction, . . . . . .317 ... --- ... 4,779 - - - 5,096 - 16,706 ... 2,055 ... 10,062 ... 26,768 Blue Books, Pamphlets, &c., - e e º ſº tº e º e 4,102 Total, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,870 In addition to the free libraries and reading rooms, considerable facilities for instruction are afforded in the Athenaeum, where the late Mr. Cobden studied, and where he founded a debating society. Here are lectures, readings, and discussions, and the members are provided with an excellent reading room, where the daily and weekly newspapers, as well as periodicals, may be consulted. Adjoining the Athenaeum is the Royal Institution, containing a gallery of paintings, a school of design, and a lecture theatre. It is on the model of the Royal Institution of London. A professor of natural philosophy and chemistry has been appointed, and lectures on these branches of science and the fine arts are regularly given during the session, which commences about the end of October or beginning of November. Ml ANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE, XV At the commencement of the present century, a wonderful change took place in the habits of the people employed in commercial enter- prise and manufacturing industry. The steam-engine was by that time finally established as a prime mover, and soon afterwards was rendered available in the propulsion of ships, and applicable for a great many other purposes where manufactures could be carried on to almost any extent without reference to country or site. Previous to that time it was necessary to build a mill on the bank of a river, where alone the necessary motive power could be obtained; but the steam- engine was found much more portable than the mill, and its unlimited capacities gave the required facilities for extension, wherever found most convenient, in either town or country. The result of this dis- covery was an increase in the amount of productive industry unparal- leled in the history of the world. º, These facilities called into requisition a new class of workmen, who should be more skilled and better educated than their pre- decessors. To supply these requirements, by affording greater educational facilities to artisans, mechanics' institutions were estab- lished, first in Glasgow, by Dr. Anderson and Dr. Birkbeck, and aftewards in Manchester. - The Manchester Mechanics' Institute was founded in 1824. The late Sir Benjamin Heywood was its first president, and for some years it flourished under the support it received; but it was soon found that mechanics did not avail themselves of its benefits; and although it is still useful, it is nevertheless not supported generally by individuals of this class, but by young men from counting-houses and warehouses, who are better educated, and have more leisure for study. The Institution is contained in a handsome building in David Street. It has an excellent library, a lecture-room, class-rooms, reading rooms, &c., and offers instruction in mechanics, chemistry, and the useful arts. • The Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester—In the preface to the first volume published by this society, shortly after its establishment in 1789, it is stated that, “Many years since, inhabit- ants of the town, who were inspired with a taste for literature and philosophy, formed themselves into a kind of club for the purpose of conversing on subjects of that nature.” It then goes on to state that “men, however great their learning, often become indolent and unambitious to improve in knowledge, for want of associating ºxvi . IANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: with others of similar talents and acquirements; having few oppor- tunities of communicating their ideas, they are not very solicitous to select and arrange those they have acquired, and are still less anxious about the further cultivation of their minds.” Hence, from these wants and defects arose one of the first provincial scientific institu- tions in the country. In tracing the results which followed the preliminary meetings held previous to the organization of the society, it will be found that Manchester contained at that time several distinguished men, many of them of high attainments in science, and fellows of the Royal Society. They chiefly belonged to the faculty of medicine, and were of high standing in their pro- fession. Thomas Percival, M.D., F.R.S., was the first president, with Thomas Henry, M.D., F.R.S., and Charles White, F.R.S., for the council, and the Rev. Thomas Barnes, D.D., as one of the secre- taries. To this list may be added several others of high scientific attainments, chiefly members of the council, all of whom took a sincere interest in forwarding the objects of the society. - Shortly after the publication of the first volume of the Memoirs, a second followed, in the same year, containing papers by Dr. Barnes, Dr. Percival, and Mr. White ; also contributions from Dr. Watson, bishop of Landaff, Dr. Benjamin Franklin, and others, all of which appear to have been read during a period of eight years, from 1781 to 1789, when the society was formally established and inaugurated with a list of laws and regulations for the guidance of its members. The third volume, published in 1790, appears to have embraced all the communications which passed the council from 1781 to that date, and here it will be observed that the members had considerably increased ; there was also a long list of honorary members, who contributed papers and patronized the society. The fourth volume includes some valuable and many interesting papers, and the fifth, which completes the first series of the Memoirs, brings the trans- actions down to 1798, at which time the society numbered sixty-seven ordinary, forty-nine honorary, and twenty corresponding members. From 1798 to 1805, when the first volume of the second series was published, a lethargy seems to have paralyzed the labours of the society, and if we except the introduction of John Dalton, who took up his residence in Manchester about the year 1786, no event of scientific interest calls for notice. We may, however, observe that seven volumes of the second series were published between 1798 and 1846, a period of forty-eight years : then a new series MANUFACTURES AND COMMER.C.E. xvii of eight volumes commenced, which terminated in 1857; and a third series has since been undertaken, of which three volumes have already appeared. ... • - On a careful review of the Transactions of this society, it will be seen that a great number of valuable and interesting communica- tions have been given to the world; and some of such originality and importance as to establish new principles for our guidance in chemical and mechanical science. These are of so much importance, in a scientific point of view, and bear so directly upon the manu- factures and industrial resources of the country, as to deserve a separate notice; and as their authors belonged to the Man- chester Philosophical Society, we may reasonably venture upon a brief but separate statement of the scientific labours of Dalton, Henry, Hodgkinson, and Joule, to whom we have been indebted for discoveries of great importance in science, and the development of physical truth. - John Dalton was born at Eaglesfield, in Cumberland, on the 5th of September, 1766. His father was a woollen weaver, but a man of considerable intelligence, as he gave his sons instruction in mathe- matics and navigation. By his wife, Deborah Greenup, he had three children—Jonathan, John, and Mary; all of whom were sent to Mr. Fletcher, head of a school at Eaglesfield belonging to the Society of Friends. Here John remained until he was twelve years of age, and during this period must have made great progress, as he shortly after commenced teaching on his own account. It will not be necessary to describe the struggles he had to encounter with refractory pupils older than himself, who used to challenge him into the yard to fight. Suffice it to observe, that in 1781 he became assistant teacher to his cousin, George Bewley, who kept a school at Kendal. Here he remained twelve years, with his brother Jonathan, who succeeded Bewley as master; and during that time he became acquainted with Mr. Gough, a man of high scientific attainments, but blind from infancy. In one of his volumes of “Meteorological Observations and Essays,” he thus expresses himself:-‘For about eight years, during my residence in Kendal, we were intimately acquainted ; Mr. Gough was as much gratified in imparting his stores of science as I was in receiving them. My use to him was chiefly in reading, writing, making calculations and diagrams, and participating with him in the pleasure resulting from successful investigations; but as Mr. Gough was above receiving VOL. II, • C xviii LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : any pecuniary recompense, the balance of advantage was greatly in my favour; and I am glad of having this opportunity of acknow- ledging it. It was he who first set the example of keeping a meteorological journal at Kendal.” Such was the instruction he received from his preceptor Mr. Gough, who for many years after he came to Manchester was in correspondence with him, and frequently sent communications, which were read to the society.” - In 1793 he gave up the school at Kendal, and came to Manchester as teacher of mathematics at the New College, where Priestley and others had taught, and of which Dr. Barnes was the principal. He remained in the establishment for six years. At one time he thought of studying for a profession, but subsequently abandoned the idea, and commenced a regular course of investigations on subjects connected with natural philosophy and meteorology. His researches in the latter science were given to the world in his “Meteorological Obser- vations and Essays.” The work appears to have been intended for the exclusive use of meteorologists, as it contained a great variety of observations on..the barometer; showing that the rise and fall of the mercury indicates the existence of elastic vapour in the atmosphere, which, like any other gas, is not in chemical combination. It also treats of evaporation, clouds, and rain, and includes the author's observations on the barometer, thermometer, hygrometer, &c., made during his residence at Kendal. - - Dr. Angus Smith, in his “Memoir of John Dalton,” to which we are indebted for many interesting particulars of his early history and character, says, in reference to his first work and style of writing, that “there seems to be a looseness of description in the first part of the volume, which seems to imply that the matter was easily under- stood, and the readers could make out the particulars for themselves. As he proceeds, however, he seems to feel that he has a harder task to perform, and speaks rather to scientific than popular readers, whilst we gradually become aware that he is a close and precise reasoner. His style is very simple; he goes directly to his point; all non-essentials. are left out. He seems to move forward with a heavy clogged tread, never turning his head aside; but as any style may become a fault if carried out too far, we find that in his many things are left out that are certainly needful as accessory or confirmatory, leaving to the eyes of many a want of finish, so that others have been needed * Manchester Memoirs. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. xix to complete what was in reality sufficiently complete, had it been laid out entire as it existed in his own hand.” In these essays, and everywhere in Dalton's writings, there exists what Dr. Smith justly calls “a great rapidity of reasoning; a direct passage from premise to conclusion without fear, as if more than usually persuaded that reason could not misguide him, so that he is utterly regardless of consequences.” It is, however, obvious that the fame of Dalton's character as a chemist and philosopher rests upon his experimental researches, and his great discovery of the Atomic Theory; that he was the first to ascertain “the relative weights of the wltimate particles of bodies, either simple or compound, to show the number of simple elementary particles which constitute one compound particle, and the number of less compound particles which enter into the formation of one more compound particle.” He thus states the principle on which bodies enter into combination, as for example:–If there are two bodies, A and B, which are disposed to combine, the following is the order in which the combinations may take place, beginning with the most simple, namely— - 1 atom of A + 1 atom of B = 1 atom of C, binary. 1 atom of A + 2 atoms of B = 1 atom of D, termary. 2 atoms of A + 1 atom of B = 1 atom of E, ternary. 1 atom of A + 3 atoms of B = I atom of F, quaternary. 3 atoms of A + 1 atom of B = 1 atom of G, quaternary. Then follow general rules which, he says, may be adopted as guides in all our investigations respecting chemical synthesis. On this term, Chemical Synthesis, he thus expresses himself:-“When any body exists in the elastic state, its ultimate particles are sepa- rated from each other to a much greater distance than in any other state; each particle occupies the centre of a comparatively large sphere, and supports its dignity by keeping all the rest, which by their gravity, or otherwise, are disposed to encroach upon it, at a respectful distance. When we attempt to conceive the number of particles in an atmosphere, it is somewhat like attempting to conceive the number of stars in the universe; we are confounded with the thought. But if we limit the subject, by taking a given volume of any gas, we seem persuaded that, let the divisions be ever so minute, the number of particles must be finite; just as in a given space of the universe, the number of stars and planets cannot be infinite.” º Chemical analysis and synthesis go no farther than the separation of particles, one from another, and their reunion. No creation or XX • LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : destruction of matter is within the reach of chemical agency. We might as well attempt to introduce a new planet into the solar system, or to annihilate one already in existence, as to create or destroy a particle of hydrogen. All the changes we can produce consist in separating particles that are in a state of cohesion or combination, and joining those that were previously at a distance.” With regard to combination and atomic weight, he gives instances of both, and adds to his explanation a plate of the “arbitrary marks or signs chosen to represent the several chemical elements or ultimate particles.” He also gives twenty atomic weights, and seventeen analyses of gases and acids, as follows, for atomic weights:– - Weight. Weight. Hydrogen, . . . . . . . . l Strontites, . . . . . . . . 46 Azote, . . . . . . . . . 5 || Barytes, . . . . . . . . . 68 Carbon, . . . . . . . . . 5 Iron, . . . . . . . . . 38 Oxygen, . . . . . . . . . 7 Zinc, . . . . . . . . . . 56. Phosphorus, . . . . . . . 9 | Copper, . . . . . . . . . 56 Sulphur, . . . . . . . . . 13 Lead, . . . . . . . . . . 95 Magnesia, . . . . . . . . . 20 Silver, . . . . . . . . . 100 Lime, . . . . . . . . . . 23 Platinum, . . . . . . . . 100 Soda, . . . . . . . . . . 28 Gold, . . . . . . . . . . 140 Potash, . . . . . . . . . 42 Mercury, . . . . . . . . . 167 An atom of water or steam, composed of 1 oxygen and 1 hydrogen, &c., = 8, and so on with the other bodies.t The first scientific inquirer who took up this theory, and seemed to appreciate the views of its propounder, was the late Dr. Thomson, the learned professor of chemistry in the University of Glasgow. It has been disputed, or tacitly acknowledged by a number of eminent men; but the results have been obtained after enormous labour, in addition to numerous gaseous analyses. It may now be considered a fact, that the atomic theory of Dalton first estab- lished the principle on which chemistry is founded as a science; for although Higgins, Richter, and Fisher had enunciated numbers representing the reciprocal proportion of bodies, they never attempted an investigation of first principles, on which to establish a law. It was reserved for Dalton to show, by long reflection on the constitu- tion of bodies, the fundamental law of definite compounds, including the relative weights of atoms, for the proportions of combinations. In a word, therefore, although Berzelius, Wollaston, and Davy were tardy in their acknowledgment of the services done to chemical * Dalton's New System of Chemical Philosophy, p. 211. f Dr. Angus Smith: Memoirs of Dr. Dalton. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE, - xxi science by Dalton's discovery, they nevertheless lived to acknowledge that its principles were firmly seated on the basis of truth. Dr. William Henry, the distinguished vice-president of the Society, stood next in eminence, as a physician and chemist, to Dalton. They were on terms of intimate friendship during the whole of their lives. Dr. Henry was, perhaps, the ablest and most active member of the society. From an early period of life, to a short time before his death, he attended its meetings; and from his high character and extensive knowledge, and varied attain- ments on scientific subjects, he generally took the lead in the discussions. - In those days, when the writer was young in the pursuit of knowledge, he felt it delightful to listen to the plain, straightforward style of Dalton, the polished periods of Henry, and the plain matter of fact queries of Dr. Holme, and other members, who used to lighten up the conversation, and render the meetings attractive. Unfor- tunately, they have not been of the same character for some time past; and although the Society, in its readings and discoveries, is still highly useful, it is, nevertheless, not so harmonious in the unity of its members as it was in former times, when they were less numerous. Dr. Henry was born at Manchester, on the 12th of December, 1774. His early years were passed amid influences propitious to the nurture.of those tastes, for which he was afterwards distinguished. His father, Mr. Thomas Henry, F.R.S., formerly president of the society, had an extensive medical practice; but all the leisure he could command he devoted to the cultivation of chemical science, with a perseverance and success that have been affectionately com- memorated by his son. Dr. Henry's earliest recollections were thus associated with scientific pursuits. When very young he is said to have sought amusement in attempting, with such means as were at his disposal, to imitate his father's experiments. A severe accident which befell him in early life, by disqualifying him for the active sports of boyhood, must also have contributed to determine his taste for books and sedentary occupations. This injury, occasioned by the fall of a heavy beam upon him, was so serious as to endanger his life at the time, and produce acute neuralgic pains, which occurred often after long intervals, and with peculiar severity some months before his death. Dr. Henry's earliest instructor was the Rev. Ralph Harrison, xxii LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : whose repute as a teacher of the ancient languages drew to Man- chester the sons of persons of rank from a distance. Amongst others were those of the marquis of Waterford, with their accomplished tutor Mr. De Polier. On the establishment in that city of an academy (since removed to York), Mr. Harrison was chosen to fill the chair of classical literature. His pupil had made such rapid progress that, though considerably under the customary age, he was admitted to this enlarged sphere of competition. Here, though he had to contend with older and more advanced classmates, his diligence and ardour won the approbation of his academic superiors, and he received as a prize an elegant copy of Virgil, the earliest of those literary distinctions which, throughout life, formed the main objects of his ambition. - Immediately after leaving the academy, Dr. Henry had the good fortune to succeed Dr. Holme as an inmate in the house of that accomplished scholar and enlightened physician, the late Dr. Percival. Liability to violent headaches, accompanied with weak eye-sight, prevented Dr. Percival from writing and reading with the regularity required by his various literary pursuits. It therefore fell to Dr. Henry to read aloud to him, and to conduct, at his dictation, the extensive correspondence which he maintained with men eminent in science and in letters. His style was correct and elegant, and his example and judicious counsels contributed much to form the tastes of his young compañion, and to train him to habits of accurate and appropriate expression. . . Dr. Henry remained with him five years, after which it was his good fortune to benefit by the instructions of another eminent physician, Dr. Ferriar, whose “Medical Histories” and systematized records of his experience will long be remembered by the profession as the finest existing models of such narratives then extant. Out of this early intercourse sprung friendships which lasted till death. In the winter of 1795–96, Dr. Henry went to the University of Edinburgh, at that time in the highest repute as a school of medicine and of the natural sciences. The chair of chemistry was then occupied by Dr. Black, whose discovery of the facts that establish the existence of heat in a latent form, and discriminating between the caustic earths and their carbonates, had raised him to the highest rank among the professors of a science, which may almost be said to have been called into existence by him and his contemporaries. Dr. Henry's early- kindled love for chemistry was strengthened by the lessons which he M1ANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. xxiii now daily received, in which reverence for the teacher was interwoven with intense delight in the subject of his prelections, and with admira- tion of that inductive process which had guided him to the discovery, of latent caloric. Dr. Henry was no less fortunate in his other instructors. The important chair of practical medicine was then filled by Dr. Gregory, whose originality and happy talent of arresting attention by illustrative cases, threw around his descriptions of dis- ease a fascinating interest. On Dr. Henry's second visit to the University, in 1805, he found the chair of physical science adorned by the profound mathematical learning of Playfair, and that of moral philosophy by Stewart, whose pre-eminence as a teacher has been celebrated by one of the most competent judges of modern times.” Of the valuable instructions of Mr. Stewart, other engagements pre- vented Dr. Henry from fully availing himself; but he confessed to having not unfrequently deserted the clinical theatre for the impres- sive lessons of a higher wisdom, and ever retained the deepest admiration for the composition of these two master-minds, whose style he regarded as on the whole the best adapted to philosophical purposes, and which he took as a model for his own imitation. In the writings of Stewart he was accustomed to praise the delicacy and correctness of his taste in arts and letters, the easy and melodious flow of his periods, his graceful distribution of ornament, the elevation and purity of his moral judgments and sensibilities, and the fervour with which he ever advocates, as inseparable, the interests of philo- sophy and virtue. To this period of his life Dr. Henry always looked back, as a season of unmingled happiness, arising out of the consciousness of steady progress in knowledge, undisturbed by the cares and business of life, and quickened - by constant intercommunion with minds ardently devoted to pursuits similar to his own. Never before or since has the metropolis of the north assembled within its halls of science either so many illustrious teachers, or so noble a company of students. Among the latter were numbered Marcet, Roget, De la Rive, Thomson, Allen, Scarlett, Jeffrey, Lord Brougham, and others who afterwards rose to marked distinction. Breathing such an exciting atmosphere, and urged onwards by his own ardent spirit, Dr. Henry devoted his whole time and strength to mental improvement; and he often afterwards said that the rest of his life, active as it was, appeared a state of inglorious repose, when * Sir James Mackintosh's Preliminary Dissertation, p 380. xxiv. LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : compared with this season of unremitting effort. In 1807 he received the diploma of Doctor in Medicine.” The period intervening between his two academic residences, though passed in the engrossing occupation of his profession, to which was added the superintendence of a chemical business many years before established by his father, was yet marked by some important contributions to science. From 1797 to 1824, Dr. Henry communi- cated to the Royal Society several papers on different gases. In 1800 he made public, through the Philosophical Transactions, his experi- ments on muriatic gas. In 1803 he laid before the Royal Society his elaborate experiments on the quantities of gases absorbed by water at different temperatures and under different pressures. In 1808 he described a form of apparatus adapted to the combustion of larger quantities of gas than could be fired in eudiometric tubes. Another paper followed in 1821, and his last communication to the Royal Society was in 1824. His most important work was, however, his “Elements of Experimental Chemistry,” dedicated to his friend Dalton. This work, which in 1829 had passed through eleven editions, furnishes the best proof of the extent of his knowledge and soundness of his views in general chemistry. - Dr. Henry appears to have been eminently fitted both by natural taste and subsequent culture to excel in literature and science, comprehending the history of discovery, and the exposition of general laws and doctrines. We have already stated that in his general intercourse with society he was distinguished by a polished courtesy, by an intuitive sense of propriety, and a considerate respect for the feelings and opinions of others. He kept up an extensive correspondence with all ranks of eminent men, was an enthusiastic worshipper of genius in all its manifestations, and delighted in offering to it his fervent homage. Especially was the ardour of his sympathy evinced in behalf of any discovery that promised to advance the well-being of mankind, and to further the cause of truth and science. His biography has been written by his son, Dr. Charles Henry. - Dr. Henry practised for several years as a physician in Man- chester. About the year 1820 he published, in two volumes, his * We have ventured on this extract from Dr. Henry's Memoirs on account of the teachings he received from that concentrated phalanx of great men which, at that time, occupied the chairs and adorned the University of Edinburgh. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE, - XXV valuable treatise, entitled “Elements of Experimental Chemistry.” It was a work of great research, and contained, not only the full develop- ment of the principles of chemical science up to the time of publication, but the atomic theory of his friend Dalton ; to whom, after going through ten editions, it was fitly dedicated. Dr. Henry died at Manchester, in the sixty-second year of his age. f During the palmy days of the society arose another, and a different class of men, connected with mechanics and engineering; amongst whom may be mentioned, Eaton Hodgkinson, Richard Roberts, and Dr. Joule. We may also advert to the discoveries of the late Professor Hodgkinson, and the inventions of Mr. Richard Roberts,” both of whom were intimate friends of the author. Eaton Hodgkinson was born at the small village of Anderton, in Cheshire, on the 26th of February, 1789; and died at Manchester on the 18th June, 1861, in the seventy-second year of his age. He was originally intended for the church; but owing to domestic circumstances, he came to Manchester with his mother and sister, where he remained the greater portion of his life. For thirty-five years he was a member of the Literary and Philosophical Society, and in that time he contributed to its Memoirs several papers of great interest. His chief researches were on the strength of materials, and for more than a quarter of a century he conducted, in conjunc- tion with the writer of this notice, experiments for that object. No man could possibly be more exact as a mathematician and experi- mentalist, and his paper on “The best form and strength of cast-iron beams” established an entirely new law, now well known and generally adopted in every structure where cast iron is employed. Engineering science is also indebted to Mr. Hodgkinson for an original paper on the “Strength of Pillars,” read before the Royal Society in 1840, which determined the true form of cast-iron columns. The gold medal of the society was awarded to its author, as a mark of appreciation for the services he had rendered to science. In 1841 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society; in 1847 received the appointment of professor of the mechanical principles of engineering at the University College, London ; and lectured during the sessions from 1847 to 1853 inclusive. From that time till his death, in 1861, he chiefly resided in London; and as late as 1857 he prepared another paper on “The Strength of * An account of Mr. Roberts' inventions will be given when we come to treat of machinery of the cotton manufactures. VOL. II. r - d xxvi - LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE . Pillars,” which appeared in the Philosophical Transactions of that year. Mr. Rawson, in his “Memoir of Mr. Hodgkinson,” takes on the whole a correct view of his character when he states, “that his youthful days were not marked by precocious talents and wonderful attainments; but in manhood, there was developed in him a pro- found intellect, a highly-cultivated intelligence, unwearied perse- verance, and a kind, affectionate heart. He discharged the duties of every relation of life with fidelity, and left behind him a name great in the annals of science, reflecting every manly virtue, and unsullied by any act of meanness. He was, however, very jealous of the pro- ducts of his own mental labours, which he regarded as personal property; and was also equally just in the use of the mental pro- perty of other cultivators of science, as he would not appropriate the conclusions of any man without an acknowledgment.” g Nothing can be more appropriate than the eulogium thus pro- nounced on a man of large scientific attainments, and of strict integrity of character. Throughout the whole course of his career he gave himself to Science with untiring perseverance, and evinced an earnest desire to render it subservient to practical purposes in all the varied forms of industrial art. Indeed the sole aim of his scientific labours was the discovery of physical truth, and its adapta- tion to the benefit and comfort of society. He was, withal, a man of original thought, an able mathematician, and one who deserved well of his country. º On the subject of beams, Mr. Hodgkinson was the first to establish, by careful experimental research, sound practical views. upon this important subject. Previous to his investigations, the principles on which the strengths of beams were founded were unknown to engineers and architects. The subject had been inves- tigated at an early period by Galileo, Leibnitz, and Bernouilli. To the first we are indebted for propounding the theory of the strength of materials, and applying the unerring principles of geometry to its computation; and with Leibnitz originated the idea that beams are composed of an infinite number of parallel filaments or fibres, each being subject to the force of extension in proportion to its distance from the lower side of a bent beam. Bernouilli was still more suc- cessful in showing, both theoretically and experimentally, the true nature of the strains of extension and compression in beams, and the neutral axis round which these forces revolve. It was, however, MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. Xxvii reserved for Mr. Hodgkinson to give a practical bearing to these theories, to establish the law of fracture, and, in cast iron, to supply a desideratum, by giving to the world his “Section of Greatest Strength.” This, and his paper on “The Strength of Pillars of Cast Iron and other Materials,” were communications of great value to science; and if we add to them his inquiries into the forces of impact, and the elasticity of impinging bodies, we have sufficient proof of the labours of one of our best and most profound writers in this branch of inquiry. In the Report of the British Association for 1834, we find an extended investigation into the collision of imperfectly elastic bodies. After alluding to Newton's labours, as recorded in the “Principia,” Mr. Hodgkinson proceeds to describe the methods by which his experiments were made, and derives from them the following conclusions:— \ º, 1st. All rigid bodies are possessed of some degree of elasticity, and among bodies of the same nature the hardest are generally the most elastic. - 2nd. There are no perfectly hard inelastic bodies, as assumed by the early, and some of the modern, writers on mechanics. - 3rd. The elasticity, as measured by the velocity of recoil divided by the velocity of impact, is a ratio which, though it decreases as the velocity increases, is nearly constant when the same rigid bodies are struck together with considerably different velocities. - 4th. The elasticity, as defined in 3rd, is the same whether the impinging bodies be great or small. - 5th. The elasticity is the same, whatever may be the relative weights of the impinging bodies. . 6th. On impacts between bodies differing very much in hardness, the elasticity with which they separate is nearly that of the softer body. 7th. In impacts between bodies whose hardness differs in any degree, the resulting elasticity is made up of the elasticities of both, each contributing a part of its own elasticity in proportion to its relative softness or compressibility. . The following rule, given by Mr. Hodgkinson, agrees remarkably with the results of the experiments — Let e = the elasticity of A e' = the elasticity of B m = modulus of elasticity of ; as determined by extending the ma- m’ = modulus of elasticity of B terial in the ordinary way. e m' + e' Trº, 7m' + m, }as determined by A striking against B, &c. Then the elasticity of A against B = xxviii LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : The paper on this principle is concluded with a table of the elastici- ties of sixty various substances used in the construction of buildings.” These few extracts from his writings will be sufficient to mark the character of the man, whose whole life was devoted to science. His labours were useful, and highly appreciated. He had few equals as an experimentalist and mathematician; and if we add to these attain- ments a stout adherence to truth, and great goodness of heart, we may sum up the character of another highly-respected member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. We have already noticed some of the labours and researches of Dr. Joule in his theory of heat and equivalent of force, in which he proves that the quantity of heat capable of raising the temperature of a pound of water 1* is equivalent to a force of 772 lbs. falling from a height of one foot, or what is the same thing, to raise the weight of one pound to a height of 772 feet; a fact of great importance in its relation as a standard of measure for every description of mechanical force. Dr. Joule's researches were not, however, exclu- sively confined to the theory of heat, and his papers on steam, electricity, &c., read to the Royal Society, abundantly show the originality of his conceptions, and the depth of his reasonings on abstract science. - For the last half century the Philosophical Society of Manchester has enrolled in its list of members men of high scientific attain- ments, many of whom are known to the world as leaders in different departments, and whose labours have been recorded in most of the learned societies of Europe and America. At the present moment, although no longer the arena of a Dalton or a Henry in chemistry, it may boast of Dr. Angus Smith, Roscoe, and Calvert. Astronomy and mathematics possess able representatives in Mr. Baxendall and the Rev. T. P. Kirkman; geology and meteorology in Mr. E. W. Binny and Mr. G. V. Vernon. To these may be added the leading members of the Photographic and Microscopic societies, who for some years past have constituted sections of the parent institution. Owen's College.—The next important educational establishment connected with Manchester is Owen's College. It was founded by John Owen, of Manchester, merchant, who by his will, dated May 31, 1845, after making various dispositions of parts of his pro- perty, directed that the residue of the moneys and trust funds arising from such parts of his personal estate as might be capable of being * Manchester Memoirs, 1865, P. 173. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - xxix bequeathed for charitable purposes, should be paid to the trustees for educational purposes thereinafter appointed, upon trust to apply the same and the annual income thereof, to carry into effect, so far as the amount of such fund would reasonably admit, his earnest desire and general object to found within the parliamentary borough of Manchester, or within two miles from any part of the limits thereof, an institution for providing or aiding the means of instructing and improving young persons of the male sex (and being of an age not less than fourteen years) in such branches of learning and science as were then, and might be thereafter, usually taught in the English universities, but subject to the two following fundamental and immutable rules and conditions, viz.:- First, That the students, professors, teachers, and other officers and persons connected with the said institution, shall not be required to make any declaration as to, or to submit to any test whatsoever of, their religious opinions; and that nothing shall be introduced in the matter or mode of education or instruction in reference to any religious or theological subject which shall reasonably be offensive to the con- science of any student, or of his relations, guardians, or friends, under whose immediate care he shall be. Secondly, That if, and as often as, the number of applicants for admission to such institution as students shall be more than adequate to the means of the institution, a preference shall in all cases be given to the children of parents residing, or who, if dead, or the survivor of whom, resided when living, within the limits now comprised in the parliamentary borough of Manchester aforesaid, or within two miles from any parts of such limits; and secondly, to the children of parents residing, or who, or the survivor of whom when living, resided within the limits comprised in the parliamentary district or division of South Lancashire; but subject as aforesaid, the said institution shall be open to all applicants for admission, without respect to place of birth, and without distinction of rank and condition in Society. These conditions having been clearly and distinctly understood, the testator appointed as his first trustees for educational purposes the several persons thereinafter designated or named, or such of them as should be living at his death, or should then usually reside in or within fifty miles from any part of the limits of the parliamentary borough of Manchester, and should accept such office; that is to say, the persons who should at, or next after his death, be respectively the mayor of Manchester, the dean of Manchester, the representatives YXX. LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : \ in Parliament of Manchester, and George Faulkner, Samuel Alcock, William Neild, James Heywood, Alexander Hay, Samuel Fletcher, Richard Cobden, John Benjamin Smith, John Frederic Foster, and Mark Philips, all of Manchester, Esquires. - The testator died on the 29th July, 1846, and the college was opened on the 12th March, 1851, in the present buildings in Quay Street and Byrom Street, Manchester. - Her Majesty having by her warrant under her sign manual, dated the 29th May, 1851, authorized the principal and professors to issue to candidates for degrees in arts and laws, to be conferred by the University of London, certificates that such candidates have completed the required course of instruction, the students of Owen's College are entitled, under certain prescribed conditions, to receive such certificate admitting them, as members of an affiliated college, to the examinations for the degrees of bachelor of arts, master of arts, doctor of literature, bachelor of laws, doctor of laws, bachelor of science, and doctor of science, and for honours, exhibitions, and scholarships, conferred by the University of London. After the College was instituted in 1851, considerable sums in the shape of benefactions were added to the testator's grant of £100,000; and these increased resources enabled the trustees to raise their foundation to a position inferior to that of none in its efficiency and power of imparting knowledge in the different departments of literature and science. In proof of this assertion we have only to refer to the courses of study as under:- COURSES OF STUDY. The college is instituted for the purpose of general academic education. The students are distinguished as Regular and Occasional. Regular students are required to go through one of the two following courses of systematic study, and on the completion of such course are entitled, under regulations laid down in the calender, to receive a diploma, conferring the title of Associate of the College. To those entering as regular students a reduction of class fees is made to the amount of about one-sixth for each year. COURSES FOR REGULAR STUDENTS. I. Department of General Literature and Science. (Arts Course.) This course will prepare for matriculation at the University of MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE, xxxi London and for the degrees of B.A. and M.A. there. It is suitable for persons preparing for the learned professions, to those who con- template offering themselves as candidates for the civil appointments of her Majesty's Government, and to persons whose aims in education are general rather than specific. - - First Year.—Latin, Greek, English Language, Mathematics, Natural Philosophy (Mechanics), Modern History, Chemistry (Inorganic), French or German. Second Year.—Latin, Greek, English Language and Literature, Mathematics, Natural Philosophy (Physics), Ancient and Modern History, French or German. Third Year.—Latin, Greek, Logic, and Mental and Moral Philosophy, Mathematics, Natural Philosophy (Mathematical), Ancient History, Natural History (either course). II. Department of Theoretical and Applied Science. (Science Course.) This course will prepare for matriculation at the University of London and for the degrees of B.Sc. and D.Sc. there; for the higher departments of manufacturing art, and for pursuits and professions strictly scientific. It is also adapted for such as are hereafter to be engaged in commercial pursuits. First Year.—(The same as in General Literature and Science.) Second Year.—Mathematics, Natural Philosophy (Mechanics and Physics), Chemistry, Chemistry (Laboratory Practice, two days per week), Anatomy and Physiology, French or German. Third Year.—Logic, and Mental and Moral Philosophy, Mathematics, Natural Philo- sophy (Mathematical), Chemistry (Organic), Chemistry (Laboratory Practice, two days per week), Geology, and Botany. In addition to these courses of study there is a teacher for drawing, whose lectures, with the aid of illustrations, explain the leading principles of the art, such as form, perspective, light and shade, composition, &c. Through the liberal aid of the late Samuel Fletcher and George Faulkner, Esquires, and the widow of the late John Shuttleworth, Esq., three scholarships were founded, viz.:- First, For the promotion of the study of the languages and litera- ture of Greece and Rome. - - Second, For the prosecution of the critical study of the Greek Text of the New Testament. Third, For the study of Political Economy. In addition to these three, there are also Dalton Scholarships, xxxii LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : each of the annual value of £50, for the promotion of the study of Chemistry, Mathematics, and Natural History. A chair of civil engi- neering has also been established in connection with Owen's College.” From this brief statement of the different libraries and edu- cational institutions of Manchester, it will be seen that means are not wanting for the acquisition of knowledge and instruction in every department of literature and science. Besides these there are many minor establishments in the surrounding districts, all of which are liberally supported. But, taking them altogether, they are quite inadequate for the dense population, over a million of souls, of which Manchester is the centre; and the rapid progress made of late years in practical science and mechanical construction in continental Europe and America has convinced the author of this treatise, that unless active measures are undertaken by the government to educate the people and suppress the aggra- vated abuses of Trades Unions (on which recent investigations have shed a dismal light), our boasted superiority for energy, skill, and perseverance in manufacturing industry may ere very long come to be amongst the things which were. These views were set forth by the author in an address to the members of the Working Man's Institute, Manchester, from which the following is an extract — “It has been stated that we are no longer in advance of other nations in the productive and industrial arts, and that we are now threatened with a competition which we are unable to resist. To a certain extent this may be true, but in my opinion it does not so much arise from the want of skill and perseverance on the part of our mechanics and artisans, as from the advance that other nations of late years have made in the productive arts. I should despair of the English character, if the people of any country were allowed to take the lead of our best and most intelligent engineers in practical science. * At the beginning of 1868 a meeting of gentlemen connected with engineering science was held in Manchester for the purpose of engrafting on Owen's College a chair of Civil and Mechanical Engineering. The object of the meeting was unanimously adopted, and a sum exceeding £6000 was raised on the spot. Subsequently that sum was largely increased, and arrangements were made for a competent professor to commence a course of engineering instruction immediately after the holidays, January, 1868. - During the discussions which took place at the different meetings of the committee appointed to carry out the above measures, it was proved, from the great number of persons employed in engineering and mechanical pursuits, that a more efficient and scientific system of technical education was wanted, in order that our foremen, managers, and better class of workmen should have the privilege of acquiring a more correct and more extended knowledge of first principles, and to render the future career of that important class more in accordance with the exact sciences and those natural laws which form the basis of every system of engineering science. MANUE ACTURES AND COMMER.C.E. xxxiii On the contrary, I do firmly believe that no such event is at hand, but that, unless the physical and mental powers of our countrymen are greatly impaired, we may reasonably hope to retain the vantage- ground we have so long and so successfully occupied. This, however, cannot be accomplished unless we insist upon a higher standard of intelligence and a superior system of education to those which have hitherto existed in these kingdoms; we must train and instruct our children, if we would keep our place in the race of improvement. It is well known that, during the last forty years, the better class of mechanics and artisans abroad are better educated than the corre- sponding class in this country, and until our managers and foremen are placed, in a scholastic point of view, on the same platform of intelligence as those of other countries, we shall work at a disadvan- tage, and ultimately become subjected to an invasion of a host of competitors. This state of things should not exist, and hence follows the necessity of a more systematic and superior class of education. That it should be compulsory is a question on which I entertain some doubts; and it will require care and attention on the part of the Government and the local authorities to ensure its ultimate success. I must, however, admit the necessity of an entirely new code of educational law, not exclusively for preventing an influx of foreign manufactures, but for raising the standard of our own to such a point of excellence in execution and design, as will keep foreign competition at a distance, and retain for us the lead in the market. In these days of railroads, telegraphs, and newspapers, it is both wrong and inexpedient to leave whole sections of the community from year to year without instruction. In an illiterate age it was of less consequence, but we live in other times, and must float with the mental tide of progress, which has set in upon the shores of all countries, or we shall be left high and dry upon the beach. In the present state of high intellectual culture we have entered, as a nation, into competition with other nations, and we must continue it for the means of subsistence, or we shall be beaten out of the market; and unless we are furnished with opportunities for primary education, we shall fall behind in the race of competitive industry, and lose that ascendancy which we have hitherto occupied in productive art. In this short statement I have endeavoured to show the defects of our present system of education. Our next consideration is how to apply the remedy. We have heard it stated that, for mutual safety and the general good, we VOL. II. - € xxxiv LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE . must compel all to be educated. I must confess that I do not exactly think so. Queen Elizabeth tried, by Act of Parliament, to compel every one to go to church, but the people would not go ; and the penalties were never enforced. James II. attempted, by the help of a royal licence, to prevent the dissemination of disloyalty in print ; but it cost him his crown, and banished his family from the realm. And George III. and his short-sighted counsellors thought they would keep the country quiet by search-warrants and stringent laws against libel; of which broken weapons of oppression hardly a ves- tige now remains. The principle of compelling individuals to speak, write, and think according to Act of Parliament, is, in my opinion, to a great extent impossible, and in this free country will never be suc- cessful. It is, however, a very different thing to say that people may or may not be educated, just as they please. With this I do not agree ; on the contrary, a sound and systematic principle of national education is wanted, and it is the duty of Government to see that it is properly established and judiciously applied, not so much by compulsory measures as by a school tax, vested in the hands of high functionaries of the Government, and the municipal authorities of both town and country, who should be held responsible for the application of the funds to the legitimate objects for which they were supplied. The duties of administration would thus devolve upon properly constituted local bodies, with a central head, who could look to the efficacy of the system, and be responsible for the administration of the funds. To make education compulsory, in the sense in which it is known in Prussia and other countries, is not necessary. What appears of much greater importance is the foundation of National Schools suited to the community, and these once established, rigorous enactments will not be required to force the people to learn. Besides, the compulsory system is to some extent already in operation, and all that is wanted is an enlargement of the plan, a conciliatory system of management, and the clearing away of sectarian partialities, which retard the progress of a sound national system. There cannot exist a doubt as to the difficulties which surround this all-important ques- tion; but these, in a pecuniary point of view, may be overcome by a general tax, such as I have mentioned; and in order to make it imperative for parents to send their children to school, it should be levied upon the poor as well as the rich. Under such circumstances, where every householder would have to pay, it is more than probable that they would be willing to reap the benefit of their own contribu- MANUEACTURES AND COMIMERCE. XXXV tions, by sending their children to school. This, at all events, would be a strong inducement to comply with the desires of the Govern- ment, and of every well-wisher for a sound system of national education.” tº, In reference to this all-important subject we have taken some pains to show what has been done in Manchester, as the great centre of manufacturing industry. We have now to direct attention to similar institutions established in Liverpool, the great centre of commercial enterprise, and the principal outlet for the manufactures of the whole of the midland counties. The vast developments of foreign trade in Liverpool, evidenced in its unrivalled docks and spacious warehouses, testify to the vigorous growth of an enterprising commercial spirit. The Institu- tions and public buildings in Liverpool are equally noteworthy and appear to be admirably adapted to the mental training of its in- habitants, who are chiefly engaged in large commercial transactions, relating to the efficiency of our mercantile marine, and the transport of goods and material to and from all parts of the globe. These transactions, however important, have not prevented the introduction of institutions devoted to literature and science; and as all of these are more or less connected with the commercial interests of the town, it may be interesting to trace their origin, and to examine the influence they have had upon the different classes of the community. LIVERPOOL AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. In the collection of facts connected with the literature and science of Liverpool, we have been indebted, amongst others, to the talented editor of the Quarterly Journal of Science, Mr. James Samuelson, whose long residence in that city has made him acquainted with its industrial, scientific, and educational institutions. From him we have derived valuable assistance, and his statements enable us to supply several important facts which otherwise might have been omitted. Few readers will need to be told that the town of Liverpool, rich in the fruits of its commercial enterprise, has not neglected to furnish its citizens with the opportunities of acquiring that useful mental train- ing which endures when worldly comforts fail, or when the luxuries of life cease to afford enjoyment. Not only its treasures of knowledge, but the buildings also in which they are enshrined, afford objects of wonder and admiration. Foremost among them stands undoubtedly the Free Library and xxxvi LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : Museum, to the maintenance of which every citizen contributes his share. It stands in William Brown Street, opposite one end of St. George's Hall, and was presented to the town by the late Sir William Brown, Bart., under circumstances to be named presently. Within its walls, or in direct connection with it, the following institutions and societies exist:-A magnificent Museum; a Free Public Library; the Gallery of Art, consisting of objects of industry and art from the earliest ages, presented by John Mayer, Esq., F.S.A.; a Lecture Hall, in which the meetings of the Liverpool School of Science, the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, and the Liverpool Geological Society are held, and where also popular lectures on Science are delivered, under the auspices of the Town Council; and the Lending Libraries in connection with, but external to, the building. The Museum consists partly of the “Derby Museum,” presented to the town by the present earl of Derby (of which the collection of birds is the most prominent feature), and also of various donations and purchases given to, or made from time to time by, the Council. The most conspicuous objects in the Zoological department are perhaps the gorilla, presented by H. Duckworth, Esq., F.L.S., and the beautiful collection of shells and tropical lepidoptera, arranged by the Rev. H. H. Higgins, a member of the library committee. Mr. Moore, the curator, also maintains an excellent aquarium ; and there is hardly a feature, in the present or past life of the globe, which has not its illustration in the Museum. - In treating of the Free Library, we shall also touch upon similar institutions which exist in the town. - Down to the year 1850, no public library had been established in Liverpool. At that period there were two proprietary Libraries; the Liverpool Library, connected with the Lyceum News-room, which was originally founded in 1754, and continues to flourish to the present day; and the Athenæum. The former is in the hands of 820 shareholders, and contains about 40,000 volumes. The latter was established in 1797, mainly through the influence of William Roscoe, the author of the biographies of Lorenzo de Medici and Leo X. It contains a valuable collection of classical and standard works, but has not increased of late years, nor is it much visited. A useful library was also early attached to the Mechanics' Insti- tution, which has been found of very great value to the students and subscribers. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. xxxvii The want of a library really belonging to the public, and open to all readers, was severely felt. As remarked at the time, there was not a place where even a directory or a dictionary could be consulted as a right, and a large part of the population were absolutely debarred from literature in any form. - At the time when the Free Library was first established in Man- chester on the principle of local taxation for its maintenance in perpetuity, the subject was brought under the notice of the Town Council by Mr. J. A. Picton. His suggestion for the establishment of a public library was supported by Mr. Avison, another member of the council; and to him and Mr. Picton is due the chief merit of having provided for the humbler classes of Liverpool an institution whose usefulness it is impossible to measure, and which will be a blessing for all time. Mr. Picton remains to this day the chairman of the Library and Museum committee. - A special committee was appointed in the year named, to consider the practicability of the establishment of a Free Public Library, and that committee having reported favourably, steps were taken by the council to carry out the object. A public meeting was called, and a committee consisting of many of the leading men in the town was formed. An appeal was made to the public for subscrip- tions, from which about £1700 was raised for the purchase of books, the Corporation undertaking to provide a building, and contributing £1000 towards the book fund. Some delay was caused by a negotia- tion with the proprietors of the Royal Institution to take over their property for the use of the public, on certain conditions, but difficulties arose which rendered the union impracticable. The Town Council subsequently purchased the Union News-room, in Duke Street, for the purposes of the library. Whilst these pro- ceedings were in progress, the present earl of Derby, after the decease of his father, made the offer to transfer the extensive collections in natural history at Knowsley, as already stated, to trustees, for the benefit of the town of Liverpool, on condition that the Corporation should provide a suitable building and defray the current expenses of the establishment. The offer was accepted, and an Act of Parlia- ment obtained in the session of 1852 for establishing a “Library, Museum, and Gallery of Arts,” which empowers the Corporation to levy a rate for its support, not exceeding one penny in the pound. These circumstances, and the extensive additions to the buildings necessary for the reception of the Derby collections, somewhat xxxviii LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : retarded the opening of the library, which took place on the 18th of October, 1852. - r The success of the undertaking was striking from the first. The library opened with 8296 volumes, which were increased in the course of the first year to 13,456. The number of volumes issued during the year was 111,723, besides periodicals. In the course of the next year, 1853, considerable progress was made. The building in Duke Street being found too small, the Town Council appropriated a site in William Brown Street, and voted the sum of £10,000 towards the erection of a new building. Mr. William Brown, M.P. for South Lancashire (afterwards Sir William Brown, Bart), an eminent Liverpool merchant, had from the first taken a deep interest in the welfare of the institution, and contributed largely to its funds. He now offered the sum of £6000 towards the erection of the new building, and subsequently nobly took upon himself the entire expense of the erection, amounting to about £35,000. During the year 1853, two Branch Lending Libraries were estab- lished, one at the north, and the other at the south end of the town, which have continued up to the present time in active operation. On the 18th October, 1860, the new building was opened by the mayor and the civic authorities, in the presence of an immense assemblage. Lord Brougham, the bishop of Chester, Sir Robert Peel, M.P., Sir John Bowring, and other distinguished persons took part in the proceedings, during which Mr. Brown formally handed over the building to the Mayor and Corporation. - Mr. Shipley of Wilmington, Delaware, formerly a partner of Mr. Brown, presented £1000 to the library for the purchase of books. The institution has from that period to the present advanced in extent and usefulness. - During the year 1867 Mr. Joseph Mayer, F.S.A., presented to the town his valuable and extensive collections of ancient and modern art, forming one of the most important museums in existence of an artistic character. The present position of the institution, as extracted from the last published Report, may be briefly summed up as follows:– There are in the Reference Library 43,261 volumes. The number of volumes issued during the year was 472,102, or 1662 per diem. The number of readers in the library at one time, from 300 to 500. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE, xxxix The class of books principally read is of a much more solid character than might at first sight be expected, works of imagination not forming much more than one-third of the issues. A student's room is provided, to which applicants are admitted by ticket, when special circumstances can be shown to require it. The library is open from 10 a.m. to 10 p.m., except on Saturdays, when it closes at 3 p.m. - The Lending Libraries are situated in Parliament Street and Great Nelson Street, North. They contain 37,161 volumes. The issue for the year was 401,374 volumes, about 8000 volumes per week. In these libraries, as might be expected, works of imagination form the larger proportion of the circulation, being about 295,000 out of 400,000. - The museums are open on four days of the week from 10 a.m. to dusk, and in the winter months on Monday evening in each week from 7 to 10 p.m. During the last year (1867), the average number of visitors a day has been 1818, and when opened in the evening, an additional number of 1061 each night. - The total income and expenditure is about £10,000 per annum. A building for a Gallery of Arts is in contemplation, adjoining the present library. The School of Science was established in the building shortly after its opening, in connection with the Science and art department, and it owes much of its success to an energetic and talented teacher, Dr. E. H. Birkenhead, recently deceased. Sir William Brown contributed handsomely to its funds, and Mr. Graves, one of the members for the borough, and other gentlemen in the town, took an interest in its formation and management. The free lectures on science are of a more popular kind than those given at the school, but have hitherto been superintended by the same professor. - - The Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire was founded in 1848, with the object of collecting, preserving, and publishing materials in illustration of the general history of the two counties. Its operations in 1854 were extended to the whole range of intel- lectual inquiry, the original object of its foundation being, however, still kept closely in view. Up to the present date, in accordance with its constitution, the society has published a volume of Transactions annually. It possesses a library and museum, the latter being appropriately lodged with the “Mayer” collection. Its meetings, which formerly took place in the Free Library, are xl LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: now held fortnightly in the Royal Institution. The post of president is filled by Joseph Mayer, Esq., F.S.A., who has rendered himself famous by the valuable archaeological collection which he formed and presented to the town; and the gentlemen who have chiefly contributed to the support of the society are the Rev. Dr. A. Hume, and Mr. David Buxton, F.S.A., the principal of the Deaf and Dumb Institute. The society is not in a flourishing condition; attempts have been made to amalgamate it with the Literary Society, with which its objects are germane, but without success. The Geological Society is a homely but a valuable little institution, which will hereafter be rendered famous by the connection with it of Mr. G. H. Morton, F.G.S., a gentleman of remarkable ability, and of more than local reputation as a practical geologist, who is well acquainted with, and is often consulted upon, the nature of the geological formations under and around Liverpool. Turning now to the Royal Institution, Colquitt Street, we have, besides the well known public school conducted by Dr. Dawson Turner, the Literary and Philosophical Society, with which the name of Roscoe is inseparably connected; the Philomathic Society, a debating society; the Polytechnic Society; the Economic Museum, a collection of useful products, made by Mr. T. C. Archer, formerly a resident in the town; the Chemists' Association ; and the Natural- ist's Field Club, comprising about 700 members. Of these we shall refer only to the Literary and Philosophical Society. This society was founded in 1812. At that time not many efforts of a public character had been made in Liverpool for the encourage- ment of science, and it may not be inappropriate in this place to refer cursorily to such as are known. Some interesting particulars relating to this subject are embodied in a work entitled “Liverpool,” by Henry Smithers (1825), and in a paper on “Learned Societies,” by the Rev. Dr. A. Hume. The name of Horrox is well known in connection with his favourite science. Bryan Blundell, founder of the Blue Coat Hospital, died in 1756. Edward Rushton was the first projector and promoter of the Liverpool School for the Blind. In connection with his name we hear incidentally of a Literary and Philosophical Society existing in Liverpool in the year 1790. The Perrys, father and son, were amongst the earliest known advocates of natural science in Liverpool. The father gave much attention to mineralogy ; the son published a work in folio on conchology. The art of decorating porcelain with MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE. - xli impressions taken from copper plates was discovered by William Sadler, a native of Liverpool, in 1752. An improvement of the highest importance in the mechanism of watches was first discovered by Peter Litherland, also a native of Liverpool, in the last century. The earliest mention of any effort in Liverpool to promote the interests of literature, may be found in the records of a small library, principally of books on divinity, formerly open to the public, but now used only by the clergy, which was founded by John Fells, a mariner, in 1715. About the year 1750 was established a club for reading and conversation. The members first agreed to take in the Monthly Review; growing more confident they purchased other publications, appointed a librarian, and thus originated the Liverpool library, now at the Lyceum. To this slowly developed body we have a contrast in the Athenaeum, which, like its tutelary divinity, made its first appearance fully equipped. It was opened in 1799, and was the first institution of the kind in the kingdom. The early progress of art associations in Liverpool was impeded by many difficulties. Nevertheless, in 1769, a society was formed for the protection and encouragement of the art of design. The first provincial public exhibition of pictures took place under its patronage in the year 1774. The principal artists of Liverpool in the eighteenth century were George Stubbs, whose studies of animals are still in high repute, and John Deare, a sculptor of acknowledged excellence. - In February, 1812, a meeting was held for the purpose of con- sidering the expediency of forming a Literary and Philosophical Society. The following names, amongst others, appear in its first enrolment—Dr. Traill, William Rathbone, Adam Hodgson, Robert Bickersteth, Thomas Binns, W. W. Currie, Stanley Percival, Joseph Brooks Yates. The society held its meetings in a room belonging to Mr. Thomas Winstanley, till in the year 1817 the Royal Institution of Liver- pool was established, when it removed to those more appropriate quarters. In December 1817, the secretary of the Society received an appli- cation for admission from William Roscoe. He was elected by ballot an ordinary member, on the same evening put in nomination by acclamation, and by ballot duly elected president. At the next meeting of the society the following letter from Mr. Roscoe to the secretary was read — * VOL. II. *. f xlii LANCASHIRE AND CHESEIIRE : “My dear Sir-May I beg that you will take an early opportunity this evening, to express my respectful thanks to the Literary and Philosophical Society for the honour they have done me, and which you so obligingly announced to me, in admitting me a member, and nominating me to the distinguished situation of their president, a situation the duties of which I shall be happy to discharge to the utmost of my power. If it will not be informal for me to make my appearance amongst you this evening, I will be in attendance in the ante-room, and will wait their pleasure. “I am, my dear Sir, most faithfully yours, “W. ROSCOE.” That Mr. Roscoe gave to the society more than the patronage of his distinguished name, is made evident by the fact that from the time of his admission to the year 1820, when he retired to his farm at Chat Moss, he presided over about two-thirds of the meetings; and though his written communications did not exceed four or five in number, the advantage of his remarks on the greater part of the numerous subjects discussed by the Society must have been great, and was, no doubt, highly appreciated. - Mr. Roscoe continued to hold the office of president till his death in 1831, a period of fourteen years. It may be worth stating that in 1793, Mr. Roscoe was a member of a literary society in Liverpool, consisting of about a dozen persons, among whom were Dr. Currie, the Rev. W. Shepherd, the Rev. John Yates, and Mr. Rathbone. The meetings were held at the members' houses in rotation. But such was the political jealousy of those days that this formidable cabal fell under the suspicion of the government. In a letter to the marquis of Lansdowne Mr. Roscoe states, “I have good reason to believe that we have been thought of importance enough to be pointed out to government, and in the present state of things we have thought it expedient to suspend our future meetings.” For the first twenty years of the society's existence, the duties of secretary were discharged by Dr. Traill, who was elected president a few weeks before he left Liverpool, on his appointment to the chair of medical jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh. e The most important event in its later history, was the accession to its ranks of the members of the Liverpool Natural History Society in 1844. An increase of thirty-nine ordinary, and nineteen correspond- ing members, was thus effected. - - MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - xliii The encouragement of the study of natural history amongst the members of the mercantile marine, ably promoted by Cuthbert Colling- wood, M.D., honorary secretary in 1861, has been an object to which the efforts of the Society have especially been directed. The results have been, on the whole, very satisfactory. Another name of note connected with the Philosophical Society is that of the late Dr. Dickinson, F.R.S., but most of the chief students of science and literature in Liverpool have been ranked among its members. As we have referred to the public school connected with the Royal Institution, it is only right to add that at the Liverpool Institute, Mount Street, good proprietary Schools exist, and the Queen's College, in connection with the London University; and that both there and at the Liverpool College, better known as the “Collegiate Institution,” Shaw Street, until recently the scene of the labours of Dr. Howson, excellent schools of art are established, the former under the super- intendence of Mr. Finney, and the latter of Mr. Bishop. There now remains only one institution to which our limited space will permit us to refer, and that is the Observatory, formerly situated at the Waterloo Dock, but recently removed to a fine situation on Bidston Hill, near Birkenhead. It is the property of the port, being supported by the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board; and its presiding genius, Mr. J. Hartnup, ranks amongst the first astronomers of the day. The Observatory was originally founded in 1844, Mr. James Aikin being the chairman of the Observatory committee, and its chief object was the regulating of ships' chronometers. This Mr. Hartnup has brought as near to perfection as possible, and as thousands of human lives depend upon the accuracy of the timepieces carried by our merchantmen, it is hardly necessary to refer to the boon which has thus been conferred on Society. By means of self-acting registers the force and velocity of the wind, and the changes in temperature, are constantly registered. The astronomical instruments are all of the first order, and the site of the Observatory gives peculiar facilities for astronomical observation, of which its superintendent does not fail to avail himself. - Liverpool also possesses an excellent Botanic Garden, formerly under the management of the library committee and the town council, and a Floral Society which hold periodical flower-shows in St. George's hall. Two new parks are about being laid out, which will no doubt xliv LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : afford admirable opportunities for the practice of arboriculture and botanical study. **. . - CIVIL ENGINEERING. & One of the first and most important elements of trade is freedom of intercourse. This, however, cannot be obtained without roads, or such other mode of transit as the locality may present to the skill of the surveyor or engineer. In the early stages of history, when nations were emerging from a low state of civilization, and when industrial pursuits occupied but a small portion of the population, the want of roads or of those agencies by which intercourse is main- tained between different parts of the country was not very materi- ally felt. In those days intercommunication between towns and villages was effected with great difficulty. Such was the case in the United Kingdom even as late as the reign of Charles II, when a great part of the trade of the country was carried on the backs of horses. Bridle-paths and some very imperfect highways, designed for military purposes, were in existence; but the means of transport were few and very expensive, and under such conditions it was next to impossible for trade to flourish or expand. The first step towards the development of a country's resources is the establishment of cheap and expeditious transit, whether by land or water. To promote industrial enterprise channels for the inter- changing of commodities must be opened up ; and hence it is impos- sible to overestimate the great advantages this country has derived from its roads, canals, and railways. In our endeavours to account for the past and present progress of the staple manufactures of the Lancashire and Cheshire districts, it is necessary we should briefly notice the introduction of canal navi- gation, and afterwards that of railway transit, because of the import- ant part they have played in the advancement of the national I'êSOULTCéS. Few circumstances in the history of Lancashire have contributed more to increase the trade of Liverpool and Manchester than the successful development of canal navigation. The first canal con- structed in England was, according to Dr. Aikin, the Sankey. In 1720 an Act of Parliament was obtained to make the Mersey and Irwell navigable from Manchester to Liverpool, and this river transit was afterwards improved by a more direct cut from Warrington to Runcorn, where it communicates by the ordinary system of lockag into the tideway of the Mersey. - ~3 MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. xlv. In the year 1758 the duke of Bridgewater constructed his cele- brated canal, which was carried first from Worsley to Salford, again to Holms Ferry, and subsequently, by an aqueduct, across the river Irwell to Manchester, - It was this important undertaking which first gave scope to the inventive genius of Brindley, who not only carried the canal over a navigable river, but penetrated into the very heart of the Worsley coal mines, and by a subterranean navigation of nearly thirty miles in different directions, loaded his boats from the hands and shovels of the miners themselves on the very face of the workings. This crowning effort of the duke of Bridgewater and his engineer was followed by the extension of the canal, on a dead level, from Stretford to Runcorn, where it drops into the tideway of the Mersey by a series of locks of excellent construction. - These great works were supplemented by a number of ingenious contrivances for raising the coal from the Worsley pits to the level of the surface; and as these were decided improvements upon the then existing system of winding by the horse gin, it will be interesting to show how Brindley effected them. It must be borne in mind that in those days there were no steam-engines for such a purpose ; but the fertile mind of the successful engineer not only devised a means for raising the coal by lowering buckets of water supplied from the surface, but he also made use of that water, after it had raised a corresponding weight of coals, to supply the canal. The apparatus was both simple and effective, and for many years continued in operation on the Worsley estate. r It consisted of two buckets, suspended by ropes and pulleys over the shaft, and attached to a wheel and break. When the bucket with a load of coal had to be raised from the bottom of the pit to the surface, the other or descending bucket was filled with water; and as soon as the weight of the water sufficed to move the loaded bucket on the opposite side, the wheel was relieved from the break, the load began to ascend, and by this preponderance of weight was elevated to the surface. The transport of coal to Manchester and the surrounding towns was, however, only a small part of the benefits this canal conferred on the trading community. It opened a more direct communication with Liverpool and the surrounding districts, and its ultimate success gave an impetus to trade and encouraged the construction of other canals over almost every other part of the kingdom. xlvi LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : Extensive works of this kind were undertaken by a contemporary of Brindley, one of the first and most distinguished of the engineers which this country has produced. Smeaton was born on the 28th of May, 1724, at Austhorpe, near Leeds. It might have been said that he was born an engineer, as the originality of his genius and the strength of his understanding manifested themselves at a very early age. His father, an attorney, was desirous of bringing him up to the same profession, but it was soon found that the law was not favourable to the bent of his genius, and he was allowed to choose his own pursuits. He immediately applied himself to the study of mechanics, and with so much success that the several contrivances which he invented at once attracted favourable notice. His experi- ments on water-wheels for turning mills, in 1752–53, preceded his election as a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1759 he was honoured by having the gold medal conferred upon him. Brindley, although equally original in his conceptions, was deficient in Science, and never enjoyed the educational advantages of Smeaton. In comparing the engineers of the eighteenth century with those of the present day, we should remember the difficulties with which the former had to contend, and the insufficiency of the appliances at their command. There were no contractors then to carry out the . engineer's conceptions with unexampled rapidity, and on a colossal scale, by means of almost unlimited capital, and by a nearly perfect subdivision of labour. Smeaton and Brindley had no such trained and experienced staff at their command as now follows in the foot- steps, and realizes the plan, of every eminent engineer. At the commencement of 1750, indeed, the title of engineer was unknown in the vocabulary of science; it was reserved for Brindley and Smeaton to establish a distinct profession under that name. Previously to that time the engineering of the country had been chiefly effected by architects. Inigo Jones designed a bridge of three arches in 1636; Labelye built Westminster bridge; and Mr. R. Mylne, the grandfather of the present engineer of that name, erected Blackfriars, which was commenced in 1760, and finished in 1771. But since that time down to the present, nearly the whole of the bridges of this country have been built by engineers. One of the most successful bridge-builders and engineers of his time was Smeaton, who, at the early age of eighteen, had made himself acquainted with practical mechanics, and devised some ingenious contrivances for measuring a ship's way in the water. In MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. xlvii 1759 he completed the Eddystone Lighthouse, which for a hundred years has resisted the storms of the Atlantic ; a work of great difficulty, that has not been surpassed by any similar construction up to the present time. From 1759 to 1764 he appears to have to some extent retired from active engagements, as we hear little of him till the construction of the bridge at Perth, which was begun in 1765 and finished in 1771. From that time till his death, in 1792, he was the leading engineer of the kingdom. He made the river Calder navigable ; planned and completed the navigation of the great Forth and Clyde Canal ; erected the blowing machinery at the Carron Ironworks; and there was no man of his time who constructed so many mills, or introduced into that department of mechanical construction so much talent or so many improvements. Mr. Smeaton never trusted to theory, when he had the power and the means of testing his improvements by experiment. His experiments were the basis upon which he founded his constructions; he never trusted to chance, and hence his success. We owe him a debt of gratitude for many discoveries and improvements, and may consider him the father of engineering, the model on which his successors Rennie and Telford were moulded. - “In the same field of study and industry was Brindley, the constructor of the Bridgewater Canal, one of nature's engineers. No two men could be more dissimilar in taste and character than Smeaton and Brindley ; yet both were men who left behind them lasting monuments of their resources, and although they commenced their career under different auspices—the one as an attorney, the other as a working millwright with no education—both of them attained eminence in the double capacity of mechanics and civil engineers. Brindley was born at Tunsted, in Derbyshire, in 1716, and laboured hard for a livelihood till seventeen years of age. Having a taste for mechanical pursuits he bound himself to a mill- wright, and during his apprenticeship obtained the confidence of his employer, of whom he eventually became the instructor. He then commenced business on his own account, and such were his inventions and contrivances that constant employment was secured him to an extent never realized by any of his predecessors. In this way he laboured successfully till he was forty years of age ; and during that period, amongst other works, he erected at Clifton, near Manchester, a water-engine for draining a coal mine, a silk mill at Congleton, and various other constructions considered at that time of great import- xlviii - LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE . ance. At Newcastle-under-Lyne he erected a steam-engine, the boiler of which was made of brick, and the cylinder of wood hooped with iron. How this engine worked we are not informed; but the whole scheme was opposed and ultimately swamped by some inter- ested competitors. The crowning efforts of Brindley's genius, how- ever, were the great Bridgewater Canal, and the viaduct across the Irwell, at a height of forty feet above the river, by which he effected a communication between Manchester, Worsley, and Runcorn. This great work was begun, as already stated, in 1759, and the first boat entered Manchester in 1762. Amongst other similar works erected by Brindley, was the Union or Great Trunk Canal, between the Trent and the Mersey. After this time the country was intersected in every direction by canals; some constructed by Brindley, Jessop, and Smeaton, and others of later date by Rennie and Telford. “In the construction of canals, millwork, and water-engines for raising coal from the mines (some of which are still in existence between Worsley and Bolton), Brindley was without an equal; and the country is indebted to his genius for penetrating mountains by tunnels, and for conveying navigable waterways over rivers by those aqueducts which give to the canal system the novel feature of a river suspended upon arches high in the air, with vessels floating upon it, above others on the river below. By the fertile resources and indomitable perseverance of this distinguished and self-taught engineer, all these objects were attained in the face of difficulties sufficient to discourage the ablest and best educated men of the age in which he lived.” These remarks were addressed to a large meeting of engineers and mechanics at Derby in the year 1859, and the author concluded them with the following observations — “I would here remark, for the benefit of the young men now before me, that the brief and imperfect review of the career of our two first engineers ought to teach us that the only road to fame and distinction in our respective professions is through the portals of persevering industry. In that arena we must labour, and in that field expand our intellects and mature our understandings, not by looking on, but as hard workers in the pursuit of knowledge and in the exercise of our callings. It is immaterial what profession or business you pursue ; to succeed in it you must work, and to become a leader you must throw the whole of your powers, physical and mental, into the contest, otherwise you are sure to lose, and to be MANUFACTURES AND COMMER.C.E. xlix distanced in the race. To become a great man you must be a hard worker; and I can tell you from experience that there is no labour so Sweet, none so consolatory, as that which is founded upon an honest, straightforward, and honourable ambition. Take for your examples the two great men I have brought under your notice, and let their actions stimulate you to exertion in the paths of honest and per- severing industry.” From the above it will be seen that canals in those days were what railways are in our own. When they had served the purpose for which they were constructed, namely, the development and advancement of a traffic, which before was unimportant, into a trade of colossal dimensions, they were superseded by an entirely new prin- ciple of traction, which completely changed the nature of conveyance and revolutionized the communications of the world. It will be fresh in the recollection of many of our readers how the country was surprised when the first passenger train left Liverpool for Manchester. Previously the locomotive engine had been looked upon as a conception never likely to be realized; and the wise- acres of those days pronounced travelling by rail at the rate of twenty miles an hour an impossibility, which could never be accom- plished. That this was the settled opinion of the majority at that period does not admit of doubt; nor had George Stephenson, or indeed any other engineer, any idea at that time of accomplishing a greater speed than ten or twelve miles an hour. In fact, the very conditions of the famous locomotive competition at Rainhill were the traction of forty tons at the rate of ten miles an hour. Some few months previous to the event we have recorded, it must be admitted that a series of papers had appeared in the Scotsman, to show that there were no limits but safety to the speed of a locomotive steam-engine on a well-constructed railway, or to the weight of the load it could carry; but although this assertion has been to some extent verified, the event has not altogether risen to the conception of the writer, who ventured to maintain that these things could be done without any great increase in the expenditure of power and steam. But be this as it may, the facts are now before us; and what were treated in the early stages of railways as perfectly utopian, are now in existence as great realities. It would be an endless task to enumerate the many benefits which have been derived from railway transit. In most countries the traffic on canals has almost expired; and although they are not quite dis- VOL. II, - 9 l LANCASEIIRE AND CEIESEIIRE : used, they are chiefly confined to the transport of minerals and other materials, where expeditious delivery is not an object. We have already noticed the influence which canals exercised upon the trading interests of the community; it is now our duty to show the extra- ordinary results which have taken place since that time, and the extent to which civil engineering has been carried since the first introduction of railway trains for the conveyance of passengers between Liverpool and Manchester in 1830. When the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was first projected, and during its construction (from 1824 to 1830), a great difference of opinion prevailed as to the best system of traction for insuring a constant periodical traffic of goods and passengers between the two towns at the rate of ten miles an hour. It was at first intended that the railway should have been worked by horses; but the appointment of the late George Stephenson, who succeeded George and Sir John Rennie, as engineer, changed the views of the directors, and caused them to look further into the subject. This was done through the determined spirit of Mr. Stephenson, all of whose antecedents had been connected with the locomotive engine; and although he never contemplated a speed exceeding that of ten miles an hour, he nevertheless stoutly maintained his opinion, that no other motive power was so well adapted to work the line as that of the locomotive engine. From this opinion Stephenson never Swerved; and it is in a great measure to his indomitable perseverance that we are indebted for the present enormous organization and improved condition of the railway system. It was during this era of hopes and fears that the directors called to their aid the assistance of the two leading engineers of London, Messrs. Walker and Rastrick. To these gentlemen the question was submitted, and after a long and somewhat laborious inquiry they came to the conclusion in a report (afterwards published), that the locomotive engine, as recommended by Mr. Stephenson, was not calculated to meet the requirements of the traffic ; that horses were inadequate ; and that the only feasible plan was the construction of stationary engines at regular distances to propel the carriages on both lines by ropes and pulleys. It will readily be conceived in what spirit this report was accepted by the company's engineer. He unhesitatingly condemned it and the reporters also, and adhered with all the more persistency to his opinion, that the locomotive engine, and that only, could successfully work the line. Considering such MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - li widely-conflicting opinions, between their own engineer and the London authorities, the directors were at a loss how to decide; yet, as the opening of the line was just at hand, they had no time for deliberation. It was, therefore, absolutely necessary that a decision one way or the other should be arrived at. In this dilemma their able and intelligent secretary, Mr. Henry Booth, with the chair- man and some of the directors, came to the conclusion to offer premiums for the most successful locomotive engine capable of drawing a load of forty tons, as stated above, on a dead level, at ten miles an hour. - At those trials we had the privilege of being present; and although several engines were entered in the list, none of them except Mr. Stephenson's, the Rocket, were of sufficient power to comply with the conditions specified in the programme. The first prize of £500 was very properly and justly awarded by the judges to Mr. Stephen- son. Some curious and interesting facts were, nevertheless, elicited in the performance of an exceedingly light engine of Mr. Ericsson's, which started off with a waggon full of people at the rate of twenty to five and twenty miles an hour. It could not maintain this speed for more than half a mile at a time for want of steam, not- withstanding that it had the assistance of a pair of bellows below the boiler, worked by the engine, to excite the fire. It appeared, however, to realize the theory of the writer in the Scotsman, and although no attempt was made to touch the load of forty tons, the fact of twenty-five miles an hour distinctly proved that high velocities could be obtained on railways with perfect safety by properly constructed engines. This the experiment clearly indi- cated, and this was repeatedly mentioned to Mr. Stephenson, who objected that the engine in question had not complied with the conditions of the contest. To this it was urged that his own engine would attain the same speed, if he would remove the load or take only one waggon instead of eight. With this proposal Mr. Stephen- son reluctantly complied; and the following morning saw him on the course with the Rocket, travelling at the rate of thirty miles an hour. Such a velocity was not attained without danger, owing to the rocking motion of the engine when at that high speed ; a defect which was owing to the centre of gravity being high above the rails. These experiments, however, decided both engineers and directors to persevere with the locomotive, and from that day may be dated the history of railway transit. lii LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE . It was from these circumstances George Stephenson received the title of the “Father of Railways.” Their rapid progress is in a great uneasure due to his energy and perseverance, and to the indefatigable labours of his son Robert. For many succeeding years locomotive engines were sent out from their works at Newcastle, every one of which was an improvement upon its predecessor; and in these under- takings the firm was ably assisted by a number of engineers, who were stationed on the several lines, where defects were observed and remedies applied. It is astonishing to notice with what rapidity the locomotive assumed its present form. Increased intelligence and scientific formulae were brought to bear upon its construction; its weaker parts were strengthened and duly harmonized, the relative proportion of furnace and heating surface was carefully estimated, and the whole of its organization modified and improved. The crown- ing effort on the part of George Stephenson was, however, due to the suggestion of Henry Booth, who first recommended the introduction of tubes in the boiler, and urged Mr. Stephenson to apply them to his improved engine. The suggestion was not thrown away upon such a man as Stephenson. He was too keen an observer not to recognize at once all the advantage of the tubular system, and a very few years witnessed the development of the locomotive as we now see it in all its ingenuity of structure, surpassing the speed of the Swiftest racehorse, and exceeding the power of a thousand elephants. Such is the history of the railways which now cover the surface of every country having valid claims to civilization; and we may judge of their extent and progress by referring to the recent report of the Board of Trade. - From this document, it appears, that after the opening of the Manchester and Liverpool Railway in 1830, no very rapid extension took place for several years. The following ratios of increase have, however, been ascertained:— On the 1st of January, 1843, 1857 miles were open for traffic. By the same date in 1849, they had increased to 5007 miles; on the 1st of January, 1855, there were 8054 miles; eight years afterwards, that is, on the 1st of January, 1863, 11,551 miles; and in 1866, 13,289 miles. On this extent of mileage there were 7414 locomotives in working order; and during that year, 1865, they ran with trains 139,527,127 miles, and evaporated, on a calculation of fifteen gallons per mile per engine, 2,092,906,905 gallons, equivalent to 334,865,104 cubic feet; or as much water was converted into steam MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. * * liii as would have served a population of 286,713 persons for twelve months at the rate of twenty gallons per day. In the evaporation of this quantity of water the consumption of coal amounted to nearly 2,625,000 tons, being at the rate of 42 lbs. per mile. It is no less interesting than curious to trace the wonderful changes which have been effected within a few years by railways. In 1834 a king's messenger was despatched to Rome, and it was thought a marvel that he completed his journey on the twelfth day after he had left London. By the old roads the distance is about 1300 miles; by the railway, vić Mont Cenis, it is 1355 miles. This latter distance can now be accomplished in three days; and as soon as the Mont Cenis passage is completed, it will reduce the passage to two and a half days, or less than one-fourth of the time by the quickest route thirty-three years ago. In 1834 the maille poste journey from Paris to Marseilles took eighty hours, the road distance being 530 miles. In 1868 we may leave Edinburgh at seven o'clock in the evening, and the next evening arrive in Paris, 697 miles, and the following day at noon enter Marseilles, a distance of 1239 miles. These are some of the facts connected with railway traffic; but from the returns stated above we are enabled to pursue the subject further, and to state roughly that the number of persons who travelled by mail and stage coaches throughout the United Kingdom in 1837, the year before the opening of the railways between London, Bir- mingham, Liverpool, and Manchester, was 2,688,000. If to these be added 25 per cent. as representing travellers with post horses, in waggons, and canal boats, we have a gross total of land and canal travellers of about 3,360,000, or an eighth of the total population of the kingdom at that time. In 1865, the latest year for which the Board of Trade returns have as yet been issued, the number of passengers conveyed by railways, including the probably insufficient allowance of a hundred journeys for each annual ticket-holder, was 261,527,415, or more than eight times the total population of the kingdom ; or an increase of locomotion over former travelling of 261,527,415 to 3,360,000, being in the ratio of 77-74, or nearly 78, to 1. The number of persons travelling on public roads to and from railways is calculated to be fully as great as it was by high- way conveyance in 1837. In other words, land travelling in the United Kingdom has, de facto, increased nearly ninety fold in eight and twenty years. Comparing the population of the two periods the increase has then been sixty-four fold. liv * LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : In 1837 the class of all others that most rarely travelled was the poor. In 1865 the number of third-class travellers by railway was 151,416,269. There is something almost marvellous about this development of third-class traffic. In the seven years between 1859 and 1865, both inclusive, the yearly average of first-class passengers was 1,494,122; of second class, 3,775,905; while the yearly average increase of the third class was 9,316,432. This yearly increase must, however, be looked at in another way. In the four years 1859 to 1862 its average was 4,893,310 ; but the increase of 1863 over 1862 was 15,617,917; of 1864 over 1863, 15,229, 183; and of 1865 over 1864, 15,114,688. It is impossible to state what amount of goods and merchandise was conveyed in the United Kingdom previous to the opening of the railways. The 2000 miles of canal navigation which we possessed at that time, of which 213 miles were in Scotland and 297 in Ireland, were on the whole a good, though by no means a high, commercial investment. Notwithstanding railway competition the value of canal property rather advanced than retrograded between 1837 and 1846. In 1867, of twenty-two canal companies, particulars of which are stated in the ordinary dividend lists, the amount per cent. per annum varies from 2 to 28. The amount of capital is £450,000. Of the profits of the Bridgewater and Ellesmere Canals nothing can be stated, inasmuch as they belong to private proprietors. At an early period in the history of railways goods formed but a small portion of their traffic; indeed, until about 1846, only 15 per cent. It took nearly twelve years before the London and Birmingham obtained the amount of goods traffic estimated as possible when the company's bill was before Parliament. In 1866 the London and North-Western, with a total length of 1290 miles, carried 15,425,119 tons of goods and minerals. In 1865 the total length of the railways of the kingdom was 13,289 miles, and during the year they carried 36,787,638 tons of merchandise, 77,805,786 tons of minerals, and 14,530,937 cattle. The total receipts from these three sources were £19,317,475, whilst those from passengers amounted to £16,572,051, the proportion being about 54 to 46 per cent. The supply of coals to London has, for the first time in 1867, exceeded the supply of water; and it will undoubtedly increase in consequence of the facilities that have been obtained by the extension of the Midland Railway to the metropolis. . & There is another circumstance worthy of notice, viz., the Post MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - lv Office, which, in 1855, availed itself of the railways to the extent of 27,109 miles per day; in 1862, to 49,782. In 1866 the daily postal Service on railways was, as stated in evidence before the Royal Com- mission, 60,000 miles, equal to 18,780,000 miles a year, about 1,450,000 miles more than the postal service of French railways, which in 1865 was 17,331,250 miles. Through the facility afforded by railways 410 towns had, in 1865, a day and night mail to and from London, 57 had three daily deliveries, 9 had four, and 6 five. All over the country mails are incessantly passing backwards and forwards, and, in consequence, the number of letters delivered by the Post Office has increased from 456,000,000 in 1855, to. 720,000,000 in 1865. From these returns, which are taken from the Board of Trade Report, we may form some idea of this gigantic power; and as the wonderful results springing from it were first developed in Lancashire, we are in some degree justified in bringing them so prominently forward before our readers. Volumes might be written upon the changes that have been effected, and the facilities that have been afforded to commerce and manufactures, by this new system of traffic. It is sufficient to refer to the benefits which are of every-day occurrence in every part of the kingdom, and nowhere more conspicuous than in the counties of Lancashire and Cheshire. We shall, therefore, close this division of our subject with the remark:— That the most recent statistics show there are about 53,000 miles of railway in Europe. The following were the lengths open in different countries at the commencement of 1868 —In the United Kingdom, 13,882 miles; in France, 8989; in Prussia, 5483; in the Austrian dominions, including the non-German pro- vinces of Austria, 4001; in Bavaria, 5208; in Saxony, 1589; in Belgium, 1910; in Italy, 3040 ; in Spain, 3216 ; in Russia, 2893; in North and South America, 37,886, of which 32,894 belong to the United States, and about 16,000 are in course of construction there; in India, 4070; in Australia, 669. About 10,000 miles of railway are completed every year all over the world, or thirty-five miles per working day throughout the year. Such is the history of the mighty development of a system which in less than half a century has been cradled, nursed, and brought to maturity. We have shown how it was established between the two great emporiums of commerce and manufactures in the Southern dis- lvi - LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : trict of Lancashire, and we have hinted at the invaluable benefit derived from it by all countries. Steam has united kingdoms, towns, and countries in closer intimacy, and reduced distances, in regard to time, to less than one-fourth of what they were fifty years ago. It transports passengers, goods, and minerals with a celerity that the most sanguine projector never dreamt of, and even after nearly fifty years of experience, the spectator still looks with awe and astonishment at the force and rapidity of the passing train. The Supply of Water to Towns in Lancashire and Cheshire.—From the earliest ages of civilization, when men first congregated together in towns and villages, it became an urgent consideration how a supply of pure water should be obtained for their daily wants. As the popu- lation increased, so also did the demand for water, and that in an accelerating ratio, arising from a higher state of civilization, and in part from the cultivation of a religious feeling, which breathes the holiness of cleanliness. Within the last thirty years the consumption of water in towns has increased three to fourfold; and when once the people are accustomed to its free use, the result is an improved sanitary condition. It is, therefore, desirable to encourage its intro- duction, and to show the benefits which arise from its presence as it flows to the heart and extremities of our large cities and towns. Well-designed and properly-constructed waterworks are, in fact, of invaluable benefit to every civilized community. A plentiful supply of good water is one of the greatest luxuries in life; and we need not be surprised that the ancients considered the springs, rivers, and fountains of their towns of such vast importance that they placed them under the care of tutelary divinities. The Supply of Water to Manchester.—If we study the history of the past with the view of ascertaining the condition and social polity of our ancestors, we may reasonably congratulate ourselves that our lot has been cast in the present century. Even so late as sixty years ago there were few conveniences and few resources, such as now exist, and among which, as we have hinted, water of superior quality and of great abundance is one of the most important. In the eighteenth century a number of towns and districts of con- tinental Europe were so ill provided in this respect as, in dry seasons, to foster disease and multiply the seeds of death amongst their inhabitants. In one town, in particular, there lived a man of most penurious habits, who denied himself even the necessaries of life. Such were his grasping propensities that he went by the name MANUFACTUIRES AND COMMERCE. lvii of “Gripe.” By industry, economy, and perseverance he, however, realized a large sum of money. At his death he was neither regretted nor lamented ; but, on the perusal of his will, it was found that the whole of his accumulations were designed for the exclusive purpose of supplying his native town with water. The sum received was sufficient for the purpose, and such were the benefits derived from this supply that thenceforward many malignant shapes of disease disappeared, and eventually a monument was raised to the miser, recording the gratitude of his townsmen for one of the greatest benefits that could be conferred upon the community. How often do we read of complaints in our Indian posses- sions and in eastern cities of the scarcity of water, where it frequently imperils the very existence of the population. There cannot exist a doubt that in these islands and in continental Europe the dangers from disease have been increased by the same cause. The sufferings of the people in former times have been fearful; and it is no wonder that in these days of progress we should have discovered the advantage of giving to the metropolis and our large towns a copious and regular supply of that important element, There is no instance on record in the annals of history, America excepted, where the increase of the population has been so great, where the changes have been so important, or the movements of trade and commerce so exhaustive, as in the united counties of Lancashire and Cheshire. At the commencement of the present century Manchester and Liverpool were comparatively small towns, with populations not exceeding 80,000 or 100,000 inhabitants. In 1866 they had separately increased to upwards of half a million, and this rate of increase would have continued but for the scarcity of cotton and the interruptions given to trade by the civil war in America, which seriously interfered with the industrial progress of this and other countries. Notwithstanding all these drawbacks the two cities have prospered to an almost unparalleled extent, and it will remain doubtful until the next census of 1871 which contains the greater number of inhabitants. Some years ago the population of both towns were greatly in want of water. Liverpool was chiefly supplied from wells in the red sandstone, upon which the town is built. Manchester derived its stores from gathering grounds a short distance from the city. In all ages the matural sources of supply for towns and hamlets have been streams and springs, and to these, at a very early period VOL. II. d - º & lviii LANCASEIIRE AND CHESEIIRE : of the history of Manchester, its inhabitants had resource. The most ancient well in Manchester is one discovered in Castlefield in 1820, which, according to the views of antiquarians, seems to have been covered and lost since the Romans made that locality the site of a station. Whitaker, in his “History of Manchester,” published in 1771, treating of the Roman period, says that “a well was discovered about eight or nine years ago upon the erection of a little alehouse which stands opposite the gate of Castlefield.” In this well, filled with rubbish, were found coins of brass, a chain of thick gold wire, and other memorials of the Roman occupation. In later times we find incidental notices of wells in the manorial records, but these are not frequent, as the next well, from which Manchester was supplied for a period of three hundred years, was situated in a street still named, in allusion to this circumstance, Fountain Street. The water was here conveyed by pipes to a conduit, which communicated with other points of the town. In Baines’ “History of Manchester” it is recorded that in 1506 this rude kind of waterworks was established, and called “the Public Conduit,” on whose site in modern times stood the old Exchange. It would appear from this notice that this conduit was either constructed or enlarged in the year 1506, and it continued to supply the town until 1776, a period of two hundred and seventy years. After this date supplies were obtained from the Medlock, the Infirmary pond, and the Shudehill pits, by means of pipes; and more recently a steam-engine, raising water from the Medlock for storage in Shudehill pits, was erected by Sir Oswald Mosley, lord of the manor. These wells and pumps in different parts of the town con- tinued to furnish supplies for a number of years, until the Stone Pipe Water Company purchased the manorial rights and commenced operations on an entirely new principle. It would be unfair, if not unjust, to charge the promoters of this new scheme with improper motives in attempting to supply water to a large city through the medium of pipes composed of a soft and porous sandstone. But common sense, independent of any approach to scientific knowledge, should have shown the inutility of a material which required water-tight joints at every four or five feet of length, and was so miserably ill adapted to retain water even at a comparatively low pressure. They could never have been intended to act as filters, as the impurities of the water would be retained in the pipes, and the filtered water would pass into the soil by which MANUE ACTURES AND COMMER.C.E. - lix these spongy pipes were surrounded. The fact is, the promoters of the scheme and the parties who carried it out were copartners in the manufacture of stone pipes, and, either through ignorance or design, forced their employment, under an Act of Parliament, upon the company. They were contracted for as good serviceable pipes, capable of sustaining pressure equal to the height of the reservoirs then in course of construction above the town; but they proved perfectly useless. What shows the entire contracts between the Waterworks Com- pany and the stone manufacturers to have been a fraudulent con- spiracy, is the attempt at concealment on the part of the latter. So many were the nefarious movements and evasions in the history of these transactions, that we are induced to give the following extract from the report of a committee appointed to inquire into the subject — “There are many circumstances that convince us that the Stone Pipe Company, at the time they executed the agreement with the Waterworks Company, were aware that the stone pipes (which were bored out of blocks of soft rotten stone) would not bear any pressure of water, and would prove unserviceable; and, for the purpose of preventing the discovery of these circumstances, Mr. Samuel Hill, being a director in the Manchester and Salford Waterworks Com- pany, proposed to superintend the laying down of the pipes in the Manchester streets himself, and his proposal was, as a matter of course, accepted by his brother directors; and in May, 1810, he proceeded with full power to Manchester for that purpose. The stone pipes were laid in the streets of Manchester as soon as delivered, under the immediate superintendence of the said Samuel Hill and his brother, Richard Hill (another of the directors of the Waterworks Company); and they so contrived to lay the pipes in the different streets, and placed apart from each other, that no trial of them could be made with the water in the reservoir until long after the Stone Pipe Company had obtained payment from the Waterworks Company of the sum of £36,984. Various doubts arising as to the sufficiency of the stone pipes to carry the water, a motion was made that no more pipes be paid for till it could be ascertained whether they would bear the pressure of the water ; but it was negatived. It was the 10th or 11th July, 1812, that the sub-engineer, Mr. Freemantle, turned some water into a part of the eighteen-inch stone pipe main, laid down near the reservoir, and lx LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESEIIRE . the main burst,’ although little pressure had been laid on it. The breakage had been repaired, and another trial made ; ‘but Free- mantle was much concerned to state that the main pipes had failed in no less than six places.’ He had also ‘tried some gin pipes with the forcing pump, part of which would not sustain the pressure put upon them by the pump.’ Another attempt to bring the matter under the notice of the proprietors was overborne by such directors as were members of the Stone Pipe Company; and instructions were sent to Freemantle to “make the trial of every pipe from the Ashton Canal only before you cover them.’ A further trial of the pipes previously laid showed them to be very defective. At a special general assembly in September, 1812, a report was read from Mr. Rennie, to the effect that the stone pipes should be used only in the parts of Manchester where the pressure does not exceed thirty or forty feet, and that in the lower parts of the town iron pipes should be substituted; for unless a stone of a superior strength and quality were found, it would not answer. He recommended that all the stone pipes laid should be joined to the main, and thoroughly tried before any more pipes were sent to Manchester. This advice seems to have been neglected, and various things done by the Stone Pipe members of the Waterworks Company's board; till, at a special general assembly on the 15th September, 1812, it was resolved that no more pipes be sent to Manchester without the orders of a general meeting.” Columns might be filled with the story of this extraordinary transaction, by means of which members of the Waterworks Board, being also members of the Stone-Piping Company, ordered pipes to a great extent—notwithstanding the representations made to them by properly instructed persons—had them laid, and obtained payment for them, while knowing all the time they were utterly useless. We purposely pass over a great number of similar disagreeable incidents, to state that the stone pipes and their supporters ulti- mately disappeared, and were succeeded by iron mains and Service pipes from the Gorton reservoirs. These served the town for a number of years with water, containing impurities arising from the condition of the gathering grounds; and, moreover, the supply in dry seasons was not only limited in quantity, but also of a very questionable quality. In 1846 the Corporation of Manchester applied to Parliament for an Act to purchase the then existing works, and to supply their MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE. - lxi city and the surrounding suburbs with a large and plentiful supply of pure water. - The choice of the site and the design of the works were entrusted to Mr. John F. Bateman, then a resident of Manchester; and as they are among the most important in the kingdom, we offer no apology for giving a brief description of them in Mr. Bateman's own words.” “The works by which the city of Manchester and its suburbs are now supplied with water were originally designed in 1846, and commenced in the autumn of 1848; the water was first introduced into the city at the end of 1850. Previously to this date the water supply had been gathered from various sources: for some twenty years the greater portion had been obtained from a limited tract of gathering ground within a few miles of Manchester; a small addi- tional quantity had recently been procured from a well sunk into the new red sandstone at Gorton; and urgent deficiencies were made up by occasional supplies from the Ashton and Peak Forest canals. The supply, however, was very inadequate, and very impure. The present water supply is brought from the river Etherow, which divides the counties of Derby and Chester, deriving its supplies from the western slopes of the great chain of hills commonly called the backbone of England. “A general plan showing the drainage area and the entire course of the works to Manchester is given in fig. 1, Plate I. ; fig. 2 is a longitudinal section along the line of the works. The drainage ground lies nearly midway between Manchester and Sheffield, and extends over about 19,000 acres. It rises in parts to an elevation of about 1800 feet above the level of the sea, and about 1200 or 1300 feet above the deep and romantic valley of Longdendale, in which the main collecting reservoirs are situated. The district con- sists of the shales and sandstones which constitute the lower portion of the coal series; the upper millstone grit forming the cap of the steep escarpment on each side, while the lower millstone grit, which may be said to separate the coal-measure shales from the limestone shales, is found in the bottom of the valley. The water yielded by this geological formation is some of the purest in the world, being equal in general character to the water of Loch Katrine, which supplies Glasgow. The spring water is especially brilliant, highly aerated, containing little or no foreign matter, and varying from about 14° to 2% of hardness, according to Dr. Clark's scale, in * Wide Proceedings of Mechanical Engineers for August, 1866. lxii LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : which 1” of hardness is that corresponding to one grain of lime dissolved in one gallon of distilled water. The spring water is at all times most abundant, the district yielding much more than the usual quantity in proportion to the area from which the springs issue. - “The average rainfall is about fifty inches per annum, and the average amount of water which may be collected about forty inches, the nett produce of three or four consecutive dry years being about thirty-three inches in each year. This quantity, if wholly stored, would afford a gross supply of about 39,000,000 gallons per day, for which a certain stipulated guaranteed quantity has to be given as compensation to the mills on the streams interfered with, amounting to nearly 13,000,000 gallons per day on the average of every day in the year; this leaves as the supply available for the city and its suburbs 26,000,000 gallons per day. The quantity at present supplied is about 13,000,000 gallons, so that there is water for double the population at the same rate of consumption. “Pure and beautiful as all the water is in dry weather, and when unaffected by recent rain, the river and most of the principal streams are coloured by peat in floods and wet weather, especially in the Summer and autumn months of the year. These circumstances determined several of the more important arrangements of the works. The average quantity of pure uncoloured water was more than sufficient for the wants of the city, but the actual amount was Sometimes less than required, and at other times too much. A system of separation was therefore adopted, by which the pure spring water, and the stream water when uncoloured, should either be taken direct to Manchester; or, when there was more than was wanted for the daily supply of the city, should be stored in reser- voirs set apart for the storage of pure water. The turbid or coloured water, being the water of floods, was to be stored in reservoirs specially allotted for the purpose; and after having become com- paratively pure by settlement and exposure to the atmosphere, it was either to be discharged into the river as compensation to the mills, or to be decanted off into the pure-water reservoirs for the supply of the city. The means adopted for carrying this project into effect were very simple and certain, and have proved perfectly successful. Each stream, whether large or small, separates itself by a simple arrangement, so that the pure water flows on direct to Manchester, or into the pure-water reservoirs, to be there stored for MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. lxiii future use; and the turbid water flows into the turbid water reser- voirs, or runs to waste down the river. “In fig. 3, Plate I., is shown the manner in which the separation of the water is effected in a large stream—the Crowden Brook. A weir, A. A., is erected across the stream, with a passage, B, for water within the masonry beneath the top. In front, or on the down- stream edge of the weir, a narrow transverse slot, C, opens into the passage beneath. When the stream is small, as indicated by the low water line, D D, or rather when not swollen by rain, and the water consequently is perfectly pure, it drops through the slot into the passage, B, beneath, which communicates with a conduit to convey the water to Manchester, or to the pure-water reservoirs. The slot, C, is constructed of such a width as to admit the whole stream, when it consists only of the pure water; but when the stream is swollen, as indicated by the upper water line, E E, the velocity with which it passes over the weir is sufficient to carry it clear over the slot, and down the face of the weir, into the ordinary river course or to the reservoirs for turbid water. Figs. 4 and 5 show the separating arrangement adapted to the case of a small stream, where the object is effected by a transverse slot, C, in a trough, F, crossing the pure-water conduit, B. The water, when small in quantity, and consequently pure, falling from an elevated ledge at the back of the slot, drops through the slot into the pure- water conduit, B ; but overshoots the slot when the quantity is large, and is then carried by the trough, F, in another direction. “The main impounding reservoirs are constructed in that beautiful part of the valley known as Longdendale, and are five in number. Three of them—namely, the Woodhead, Torside, and Rhodeswood reservoirs—are constructed along the course of the river Etherow in the main valley, which they occupy for about five miles in length. The other two—the Arnfield and Hollingworth reservoirs—are placed on tributary brooks. The highest, the Woodhead reservoir, is at a level of 790 feet above the sea. The point at which the water leaves the lowest, or Rhodeswood reservoir, to be conducted to Manchester, is about thirteen miles distant from the city. To this point also is conducted all the spring water and pure water collected by the various conduits constructed for the purpose; and the joint volume of water is conveyed away by a common aqueduct for the use of the city. º “This aqueduct is principally a covered conduit. It has a fall lxiv LAN CASHIRE AND CHESEIIRE : of five feet per mile, and passes under the Mottram ridge by a tunnel of about 3000 yards in length, and terminates in a reservoir at Godley, near Hyde, about eight miles distant from Manchester, and 314 feet above the centre of the city. From this reservoir the water is conducted by a single line of cast-iron pipes of forty inches diameter to two service reservoirs at Denton, about four miles from |Manchester, and 163 feet above the centre of the city; the average fall of the pipes from Godley to Denton is forty-three feet per mile. The Denton reservoirs are used for the service of the higher parts of the city; while the old Gorton reservoirs, the lowest of which is seventy-seven feet lower in level, are employed for the supply of the lower parts; and a pipe of thirty inches diameter is now being laid direct from the Godley reservoir to supply distant localities and various elevated suburbs, such as Pendleton, Broughton, Cheetham Hill, and Newton. From the Denton reservoirs to Manchester there is a line of pipes of thirty-six inches diameter; and a culvert of four feet diameter conveys a portion of the water to the old Gorton reservoirs, from which the lower parts of the city are supplied. From these latter reservoirs two pipes, of twenty-four and eighteen inches diameter, convey the water to the city. “The total capacity of the five reservoirs in Longdendale is about 550,000,000 cubic feet when full to the level of the overflow weirs, and their area about 400 acres. The heights of the embankments and the capacities of the several reservoirs are given in the following table — Height Depth Area Name of Reservoir. of of of Capacity of Reservoir. Bank. Water, Reservoir. I'eet. Teet. Acres. ' Cubic Feet. - Gallons. Woodhead, . . . 90 As & e 72 ... 135 ... 198,000,000 ... 1,235,000,000 Torside, . . . . 100 © tº e 84 ... 160 ... 236,000,000 ... 1,474,000,000 Rhodeswood, . . 80 is a p 68 sº e gº 54 tº ſº gº 80,000,000 ... 500,000,000 Arnfield, . . . . 67 a tº p 52 is s gº 39 tº e As 33,600,000 ... 209,000,000 Hollingworth, . . 70 & tº gº 52 tº gº º I3 ... 11,660,000 ... 73,000,000 Godley, . . . . — ... 21 * -º e 15 * tº gº 9,800,000 ... 61,000,000 Denton, No. 1, . . — tº @ º 20 tº º Aº 7 * e 4,800,000 ... 30,000,000 ( & No. 2, . . — ge º E 20 tº gº º 6 2 * ſº 3,700,000 ... 23,000,000 Gorton, Upper, . . — tº $ tº 26 * g e 34 e º e 19,500,000 :.. 123,000,000 “ Lower, . . — tº tº g 29 tº º ſº 23 tº º e 16,000,000 ... 100,000,000 “The Manchester Waterworks were at the time of their execu- tion the largest works of the kind which had been constructed in this country, and in some respects the largest in any part of the world. Much, therefore, had to be specially considered, and nothing MANUE ACTURES AND COMMERCE. - lxv more so than the best form of the large valves, and the easiest mode of opening them under great pressure. There was little which then existed that could be advantageously imitated; everything had to be designed anew, with special reference to the work to be per- formed. In order to arrive at the best mechanical contrivance, public competition was invited upon a clear description of what was required, and a short specification of certain conditions that were to be met. This resulted in many valuable suggestions, which were either adopted exactly as they were proposed, or modified and improved by subsequent consideration ; and altogether a mass of information was in this way collected which could not perhaps have been obtained otherwise. It is but justice to say that, amongst the designs for the larger apparatus, by far the best proposals, and the best designs for the objects to be obtained, taking all circumstances into consideration, were those received from Sir William Armstrong, who was accordingly the maker of all the large valves required for the works.” We have been favoured with the Report of the Waterworks Committee for 1867, in which it is stated that during the last year the works have been maintained in a satisfactory condition, that the daily supply was 13,500,000 gallons, and that the new works now in progress, under the direction of Mr. Bateman and Mr. Hill, are calculated to furnish considerably increased quantities of water. It also states that the committee have purchased the premises called Arnfield Mill, situated at the Arnfield reservoir, and are arranging for the purchase of the Bleachworks situated at Crowden Brook, at the head of the Torside reservoir. After these Bleach- works are purchased, the Torside reservoir may be filled to the top level without further compensation, and then no manufacturing processes will be carried on upon the drainage or gathering ground of the corporation. The report further states that, during the year 1866, forty miles of mains and service mains of pipes were laid in extensions in various townships, and 4618 additional houses supplied with water. We may add, in conclusion, that the corporation purchased from the late Manchester and Salford Waterworks Company in 1851 their sole rights, plant, &c., for a total sum of £544,739 5s. 3d, at which time about 3,500,000 gallons were supplied daily to the inhabitants of the two townships. The annual revenue received for this supply was £23,000, £8900 of which was used for trading purposes, the VOI, II, º 2. lxvi. LAN CASHIRE AND CHESEIIRE : remainder for domestic use. The corporation has since constructed the new works in the neighbourhood of Woodhead, from which all the water is now supplied in a pure state, at a cost, to 31st December, 1867, of £1,231,661 28. 0d. The daily consumption has risen to 13,500,000 gallons, one third of which is supplied for trading purposes, the whole producing a total revenue of £115,871 10s. 0d. Of this sum £46,381 19s. 2d. is received for trading purposes, and £6500 for the supply to the township of Salford. This quantity furnishes a constant supply to about 600,000 inhabitants, in thirty-one town- ships, or a little over twenty gallons per head per day. On the 1st of January, 1868, the expenditure amounted to £1,877,935 6s. 5d., as under — STATEMENT OF THE COST OF WORKS. By Cost of Old Company's Works, . . . . . . . . #544,739 5 3% (C. New Works to Dec. 31, 1867, . . . . . . 1,231,661 2 0% 1,776,400 7 4 Cash lent to the Watch Committee, , . . . . . . 7,025 O O Cash in Bank on Construction Account, $95,293 11 0 Less Banking interest owing to Revenue, 2,461 2 1 92,832 8 Il Cash in Bank on Sinking Fund Account, 1,677 6 7 Add Balance of Commission owing to Revenue, . . . . . . . . . . O 3 7 1,677 10 2 101,534 19 J Total, . . . . . . . . . . . 281,877,935 6 5 which has been expended up to the present time in the works and the original purchase of the previously existing company. The engineers are now engaged in the formation of two more reservoirs lower down the river Etherow, from which the supplies are obtained ; and when these works are finished, with all the necessary mains and service pipes, the total cost will be little short of £2,000,000. This large sum will not only effect considerable improvements and increase the supply to the two towns of Manchester and Salford, but this additional impounding of the flood-waters will greatly benefit the mills on the rivers Etherow and the Mersey. The Supply of Water to Liverpool—In the earlier stages of society the sites of towns were generally selected with a due regard to the Salubrity of the air, and frequently on the banks of rivers where a copious supply of water could be obtained. In other places where MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. lxvii such facilities were not forthcoming, men had recourse to land springs and brooks; and in such towns as Liverpool, it became necessary to sink wells in the red sandstone. As these have been accurately described by Mr. Duncan, the chief engineer of the Liverpool Waterworks, we have less difficulty in accounting for the quantities which for a great number of years supplied the town with water. |Mr. Duncan observes:–“The custom of supplying towns with water from wells and fountains has been generally adopted from the earliest period to the present time, and as most towns are still dependent upon these for their supplies of water, a few remarks upon the nature of springs and wells may not be inappropriate, as applied to Liverpool and other places similarly situated. “In arid countries, wherever the distance from one inhabited place to another was or is great, their waters were and are life to the traveller. To the rude untutored savage springs flowing from the rock, or rising from the ground, were objects of wonder. They have ever been carefully guarded, and are still justly prized. “Strange though it may appear, and simple though the theory of springs be, their cause is not even now well understood. Yet there is no more mystery about them than there is in seeing water flowing from a higher to a lower level. Indeed, all springs have their origin in rain, hail, or snow, which has fallen on land higher than the spring itself; they are only the outlets for the water from the earth's crust to the surface. Whenever the water under the surface is held up by impervious beds, or when the substratum is full and can contain no more, it finds the nearest and lowest outlet to the surface, and so becomes a spring. “Thermal springs, however valuable in the treatment of diseases, are little used for ordinary purposes. Whenever the temperature is high, it is evidence that the water in its descent from the surface has reached to a considerable depth before it became warm and commenced its upward course. The depth to which it had descended may be determined by its heat. (The deep artesian wells of Paris are cases in point.) On the contrary, the colder the water of a spring is, the nearer to the surface has been its course towards the outlet. Cold, sparkling, colourless water is much lauded; but it should not be kept out of view that cold water, obtained from wells or springs in a thickly populated district, is generally less pure than water less bright, although of a higher temperature, simply because, lxviii LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: in order to water becoming cold, it must flow along at such a shallow depth from the surface as will permit the evaporative influence of the atmosphere acting on the overlaying soil to draw off a portion of its heat. This is a law well known, and frequently put into practice in tropical countries.” - Wells.--Wherever wells exist they are evidence of some advance towards civilization. In ancient as well as in modern times they have been the cause of many quarrels, and accounts of many most interesting scenes which have taken place at wells are handed down to us in holy writ. They have ever been regarded and protected as invaluable treasures. Wells differ in several of their features from springs, such as have been described. They are simply excavations made below the earth's surface, to draw into them the water from the surrounding strata, and are merely receptacles to retain it for use, so that it may be available when required. Generally the water level of a district may be ascertained from the water level of its wells. Artesian Wells.-The term “Artesian" had its origin from wells sunk in Artois, in France, and is only strictly applicable to wells the waters from which rise to the surface. This result can only be obtained where a pervious stratum cropping out in cup form is overlaid by an impervious stratum; by boring towards the bottom of the cup the pervious is reached, and the water contained in it rises to the surface, being fed from the rim of the cup, and thus it becomes what is termed an Artesian Well. - - Few ancient cities were ever wholly supplied by wells, and even the historical Joseph's Well at Cairo is about to give place to a water- supply of a more modern character. - ſºvers have not unfrequently their origin in springs, rising towards the summit of mountain ranges or other elevated lands, augmented by surface drainage. They rank amongst the chief features of the material world, exercising a great influence on the countries through which they flow. Their form and direction are due to the physical conformation of the surface or geological character of the underlying strata over or through which they run; their volume is equivalent to the extent of country drained by them, coupled with the quantities of rain and snow which fall within their basins; and the quality of their water is due to the geological and mineralogical characteristics of their respective basins. From the most remote times, large cities have generally been supplied from rivers, lakes, or tributaries; the waters of which have MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. lxix been conveyed through mountains and over valleys by stupendous aqueducts, unsurpassed by any modern examples of engineering skill, which for extent, durability, and elegance of design, still remain monuments of the age in which they were constructed. It appears that the inhabitants of Liverpool, from an early period, obtained their supply of water from springs and wells, and there can be little doubt that at the time when the town was confined to the west side of the Pool, many springs of beautiful, clear, and good water issued from the westerly slopes of the overlooking ridges, which extend from Kirkdale to Toxteth Park. Notable amongst them were the Fall Well (once of local celebrity), subsequently Grayson's Well, and many others, with the Bootle Springs, then far in the country. These, before the extension of the town to the eastward, would receive their supplies from rain which fell on the surface and found its way into the underlying rocks, then in many places cropping out to the surface; and in part from the old moss lake. There were also several streamlets and rills which received the upper springs, aided by such water as in wet seasons found entrance into the under- lying rock. As time rolled on, and Liverpool extended, ground, formerly a marsh, had to be drained. Deeper wells were sunk; at first shallow, as water was found near the surface, but as the number of inhabitants and wells increased, and larger quantities of water were required, the wells were made still deeper, and such has been the method up to the present time. Water was required by every individual and family, and as all had not wells of their own, it was at length carried through the town, and sold at so much per bucket. Such a state of things could not be enduring. In process of time two companies were formed, the Bootle Company and the Liverpool and Harrington Company. - As Liverpool depended for a great number of years entirely on its water-supply from the wells, already referred to, as sunk in the red sandstone, and as this formation extends to a great distance around the town, it may be interesting to trace not only the present sources of supply, but also the means adopted for its increase; availing ourselves of the information furnished by Mr. Duncan in a valuable paper read before the Institution of Civil Engineers in April, 1853. In his description of the red sandstone he states that— “The town of Liverpool is situated on the right bank of the river Mersey, a few miles above its junction with the ocean. It extends, lxx , LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : with Toxteth Park and Bootle, along the margin of the river, within the parliamentary boundary, for a length of four miles and three- quarters, by a breadth varying from a few hundred yards to about two miles. “The lower portion of the town is built upon a number of slight knolls, and is, for about a mile in length, northwards, from about the centre of the length of the river frontage, divided from the upper portion by a valley running between them, nearly parallel with the river, and distant from it about half a mile. A portion of this valley was formerly the bed of a pool at high water, and received the drainage of the upper districts and eastern slopes of the lower knolls. The southern portion is of a gently shelving form, rising for a mile and a half towards Park Hill. Along the river the rock crops out, and is covered in most instances by clay. From Kirkdale, about a mile and three-quarters north of the Exchange, a series of hills commences, sweeping along the eastern side, and terminating at the river, at the extreme south end of the borough, known as Everton, Edge Hill, and Park Hill, the greatest altitude being about 250 feet above the Old Dock cill. The eastern slopes fall towards and are drained into the valley of the Brock, which joins the river Alt about six miles from Liverpool. The only flat piece of surface that is built over within the town is an area of about a mile in length by about half a mile wide, below Edge Hill, trending towards the south, at an altitude of about 160 feet above the Old Dock cill. A portion of this flat was formerly under water, and doubtless assisted in producing the springs which at an early date supplied the town below. From Kirkdale to the northwards, through Bootle, the ground is of a gently swelling form, sloping towards the river. From the river, towards the east, the soil is chiefly of a sandy nature, and in some parts of the town it is of the same character, permeable to water; but in general there is a covering of strong tenacious clay of very variable thickness. In a recent case, where trial borings were made, although the rock was cropping out within a hundred yards of the site of the boreholes, the clay was found to be twenty-six feet deep. In general, it may be considered as con- stituting a perfectly impermeable coating over the rock. “The substratum is the lower new red sandstone, which dips from the river towards the east and by north at an inclination generally of one in six. It extends westward across the Mersey and the hundred of Wirral to the river Dee, where the coal formation crops MANUFACTURES AND COMMER.C.E. lxxi out, at a distance of seven miles from Liverpool. It extends in an easterly direction towards Manchester, and at about five miles' distance has its dip in a westerly direction. At about eight miles eastward it is partially interrupted by the Wigan and St. Helen's coal-fields, and it also stretches to the north and south to a con- siderable distance. The area has been calculated to cover about one hundred square miles. The rock, although in some instances very much shattered, with many faults, running by east and by south, forms an excellent building material. The stone, near the major fault, in most cases stands on edge, and is not unfrequently very hard, presenting, when broken, a vitreous or crystalline appearance. The minor faults are filled up with fine clay, which in a great measure prevents the free passage of water; these have been described by geologists as constituting so many water-tight boxes. The thickness of the rock under Liverpool has never been ascer- tained, but it is known to be more than 600 feet. “About the year 1694 a grant was made by the Corporation to a company to supply the town of Liverpool with water from springs which then rose to the surface at Bootle (about three miles distant from the Liverpool Exchange); but after possessing the grant for fifteen years, and doing nothing towards fulfilling their engagements, the Corporation were induced, in 1709, to transfer the privilege to Sir Cleave Moore, Bart, who then owned Bootle Springs, from whence he also proposed to derive the supplies. Under that gentle- man, however, matters went on no better. Nothing was done till about the year 1772, when a gentleman commenced the work by constructing a culvert about a mile in length, partly cut in the rock and partly built of masonry, to convey the water of the Bootle Springs to Liverpool; but the Leeds and Liverpool Canal being about this period in process of formation, and interfering with the project, which does not appear to have been very maturely con- sidered, it was abandoned. - “After this period the scheme was permitted to rest until the year 1799, when the Corporation induced a private company to undertake the supply of the town and port with water. “About this time another company was formed for a similar purpose, and the two companies were subsequently incorporated— one under the title of the ‘Bootle Waterworks Company,’ and the other under that of the ‘Liverpool Corporation Waterworks,' or the ‘Liverpool and Harrington Waterworks Company.’” lxxii LAN CASEIIRE AND CEIESEIIRE : The works of the Bootle Company were designed, in the outset, by Mr. Telford; and those of the Liverpool and Harrington Com- pany, in their early stages, were designed by Mr. Thomas Simpson, then the engineer to the Chelsea Waterworks Company. Of late years Liverpool has derived the larger proportion of its water-supply from the rivers Roddlesworth, Douglas, and Yarrow, which take their rise in the mountains surrounding the lower districts of Chorley and Wigan; and from these resources and a few smaller streams the reservoirs at Rivington are filled. The gathering ground of the Rivington yields to the Liverpool supply about 10,542,800 gallons per day. The reservoirs are six in number, and contain about 3,270,000,000 gallons of water. They are at different elevations, varying from their highest point, that of the Roddles- worth, which is 620 feet above the level of the sea, to that of Rivington, which is 328 feet; and whence the water is conveyed, first into filter beds, and finally into Liverpool. The waterworks of Liverpool, although extensive, are never- theless inadequate for the supply of the town and the ships in the docks. It is proposed to remedy the deficiency by the exten- sion of the works at Dudlow Lane, a distance of about four miles from the Liverpool Exchange. This will be accomplished by the usual method of sinking wells and pumping from the red sandstone. It is calculated that a considerable additional supply of water will be thus obtained, as the soft permeable nature of the rock, and the short distance of four miles from the town, where the stratum is fully charged with water, will furnish a compensating supply for the deficiency which in any season may run at the collecting grounds of Rivington. Mr. Duncan, the engineer to the Corporation of Liverpool, furnishes the following statement, which gives a clear account of the various sources, and the works now in progress for obtaining the additional supplies:– “The works in connection with the Dudlow Lane extension are now in course of construction in the immediate neighbourhood of that town. Before, however, proceeding to describe the works, it may be well to notice briefly the past history of the water-supply to Liverpool, and the reasons for adopting the present mode of increase. “The rapid growth of the town, its high commercial position, and its sanitary necessities, rendered the attainment of a copious and, if possible, a permanent supply of water, of the greatest import- ance. In 1843 Mr. Samuel Holme, a gentleman well known as a MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE. lxxiii local authority, read an essay on ‘Town Improvements' at a meeting of the Polytechnic Society, in which he directed attention to the great loss of property by fire, and to the filthy condition of some parts of the town, both of which he attributed in a great measure to an inadequate supply of water. It was stated that between 1795 and 1843 the sum of £2,237,065 was lost by fires, and that the supply of water in these emergencies was usually neither timely nor sufficient for their extinction. Water from the docks was not unfrequently used for this purpose, and also to water the streets, at an extravagant cost. - “At this time the supply of water was obtained only from the red sandstone, and was in the hands of two private companies—the Bootle and the Liverpool and Harrington Waterworks Companies. The remedy proposed was an amalgamation of the companies on the principle of a continuous supply. “Water being considered a natural element, should not be a monopoly.’” - This, and a previous report by the same gentleman, excited public discussion and subsequent action; and in 1847 an Act of Parliament was obtained for the purchase by the Corporation of the works and property of both water companies at a cost exceeding half a million sterling. Powers were also obtained for constructing extensive works at Rivington Pike, with reservoirs for the storage of surface water sufficient to secure a uniform and copious supply at all seasons; these works were to be completed in three years. The committee appointed by the Town Council to take steps for the purchase of the works named, presented their report in 1848, urging the early connection of the companies' mains with the pumping works at Green Lane, West Derby, which also had become vested in the Corporation. From all these wells the yield of spring water was ascertained to be between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000 gallons, or about nine gallons per head for the 400,000 persons to be supplied, including that required for trading, manufacturing, and shipping purposes. Under these circumstances, in January, 1850, the late Mr. Robert Stephenson was appointed the engineer for this special object, and was instructed to inform himself—“First, whether a supply sufficient as regards quantity and quality for the present and prospective wants of the town and neighbourhood, including domestic, trading, and manufacturing purposes, and shipping, and for public purposes, viz., watering and cleansing streets, flushing sewers, extinguishing fires, and supplying baths and wash-houses, VOI, II. * > K. lxxiv LAN CASHIRE, AND CHESHIRE : can be obtained by additional borings or tunnels, or otherwise, at the present stations, viz., those purchased from the companies respectively, and from the Green Lane Works now vested in the Corporation, and the cost of obtaining such additional supply : secondly, whether a sufficient supply can be obtained in the locality or neighbourhood of Liverpool, as recommended by Messrs. Simpson and Newlands, or by borings, or by any other course, and the cost of obtaining and distributing the same ; thirdly, whether such supply can be obtained by means of the Rivington Works, and the cost of obtaining and distributing the same, as recommended by Mr. Hawksley; fourthly, under the present circumstances of the case, what course is recommended to be pursued.” Mr. Stephenson investigated the whole subject. The water was supposed to lie in sheets between strata, which it reached by infiltration; but there were “faults” filled with conglomerate and clay, which interfered with the apparent facts. The conclusion at which Mr. Stephenson arrived was, that there existed an infinite series of fissures which made the whole mass permeable, and that it was fully established that wells at a great distance had been drained by pumping at Green Lane. Pumping might be described as draining a cone of rock whose apex was downwards. Sinking this imaginary apex only made, as it were, the sides of the cone steeper. At a certain depth it was of no use to pump; the water could only gather. To enlarge a well was not, like one of Livingstone's filters, a reed with a sponge at the bottom plunged in the mud of a desert: it did not draw from the strata, and it was of no use when friction Fig. 1, prevented the access of the water. Tunnelling was therefore not recom- mended, and an illus- tration of the case was put:-A well at A drains the circle, B C E (fig. 1). A tunnel is driven from A towards D, say one mile in length, and another well is sunk at D upon the terminus of this tunnel; the only effect would be to increase the area of the well, A, by the area F. G. H., with the small triangular spaces. Had the well, D, been sunk at H, the area would have been double that drained by A. MLANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. lxxv. It has been said that if the wells were deepened, the area of the cone at the top would not be materially increased. It was also found that if much below low-water mark the water was brackish, unless at a distance from the river; and it was recommended that they should not be much below this, and not less than from one and a half to two miles apart. Each well, it was estimated, would pro- duce from one to one and three-fifth millions of gallons of water per diem, if wells in the neighbourhood did not interfere. Mr. Ste- phenson condemned the Alt and Childwall Valley schemes, as not allowing sufficient storage, and advised a series of pumping stations, extended over a large district, as the only sure method of obtaining the requisite supply of water from the red-sandstone rock, and that these new wells should be sunk to the east or north-east of the town. With regard to Rivington, Mr. Duncan informs us that it had been estimated by Mr. Hawksley to contain 3,000,000,000 gallons, equal to the supply of 14,000,000 gallons daily to Liverpool, and 8,000,000 for the use of Wigan and Chorley, compensation to mill- owners, and water down the Roddlesworth for other parties. The subsidence of the Wigan coal-field Mr. Stephenson did not consider would interfere with the mains; and this opinion has been verified, with the exception of a serious fault near Knowsley. With regard to the relative expense, he concluded that pumping would be less costly until 11,000,000 gallons per day were required, when the Rivington scheme would become the cheaper. His conclusion with reference to the Rivington Works was favourable to their completion, and that the supply of water from this source would probably be sufficient for the next twenty years. The warm discussions which followed this report, and the anxiety for a collateral supply of the soft so as not to injure the spring water, still live in memory, and are known to many of our readers. The water drainage of a rainy neighbourhood, collected at Riv- ington, in a valley stopped at the end near Horwich, and not far from Bolton, is conveyed by double mains to Green Lane, West Derby, where it meets with the red-sandstone water, and is mixed with it in the proportions of two-thirds Rivington to one-third spring water. The water itself is soft, with a slight brown sediment. The Water has hitherto been supplied to a reservoir at Dudlow Lane, and thence pumped to Woolton Hill, for the accommodation of that neighbourhood. lxxvi LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : It has lately been determined to extend the station at Dudlow Lane, and to obtain an increased supply from the red sandstone. The site is about four miles eastward of the Liverpool Exchange. The buildings are appropriate, being Norman, with a certain purity and unity of style, but without mouldings, for which the material, Sandstone, is perhaps unsuitable. The stand-pipes and chimney occupy a tower, stone-roofed and picturesque, which adjoins an octagonal tower, lighted with narrow windows and containing the winding stair. There is an imitation, and rather a flat roof. The staircases are built of stone, and furnished with stone balustrades. - Stone for the buildings is obtained on the ground. A couple of engines have been at use in the quarry, taken from one of Mather and Platt's rock-boring machines; they have fourteen-inch cylinders, and drive a mortar mill when disengaged. The well has been sunk to a depth of 211 feet, and already renders 600,000 gallons of water daily. The render is supplied to Wavertree in the intervals of work; a pair of marine engines on the ground pump the water upon a filtering bed, from whence it is conveyed to the reservoir. The large building is to contain the engine and boilers. Such is the description given by Mr. Duncan, and such are the means by which he intends to increase the water supplies of this large and important city. It is, however, doubtful to what extent the works can be carried; and assuming that the present ratio of increase of population should continue for another quarter of a century, it is more than probable that the authorities will have to go in search of water to Wales, or some other convenient locality, where the necessary quantity can be obtained. In the interval means must, however, be adopted to make up the deficiency, and it may reasonably be concluded from the known skill and intelligence of the engineer, that the best method is now in progress to remedy the existing evil and increase the present supply from the Dudlow Works. Looking at the number of wells and other plans from which supplies of water are obtained, it will be instructive to show how these supplies are distributed, and the quantities consumed by the population, which appears by the following tabulated returns to average about 27°85 gallons per head per day, in a population of 542,391 inhabitants. TOTAL YIELD OF THE RIVINGTON DISTRICT FOR FIVE YEARS AND FIVE MONTHS. PROPORTION TO RAINFALL, QUANTITIES SENT TO LIVERPOOL, GIVEN FOR COMPENSATION, AND RUN To WASTE. | Rainfall | Quantity delivered in Liverpool, - - - Y. as per Run to Waste, Equal to Proportion Quantity given as Com- Left for Town, Quantity actually €3IS. Daily and Compensation Water, of Rainfall. pensation to Mills and Streams. or run to Waste. ' delivered to the Town. Gauge. being total yield of District. - Inches Gallons per Gallons per Percent. Inches Gallons per Gallons per Gallons per Gallons per Gallons per Gallons per © annum. day. - & 3D Illul Il. day. all Illin, day. & Il Dill Dºle day. 1861 46.38 8,093,325,037 22,173,493 7713 = 35.77|| 3,029,500,000 || 8,300,000 || 5,063,825,037 |13,873,493 3,797,393,993 || 10,403,818 1862 48-51 9,068,278,068| 24,844,597 82-63 = 40.08 3,029,500,000 | 8,300,000 6,038,778,068|16,544,597 3,938,501,428|10,790,414 1863 51.01 9,213,696,276 25,245,003 || 79-84 = 40-72 3,029,500,000 || 8,300,000 | 6,184,196,276 | 16,943,003 || 4,060,640,184|11,125,041 1864 39.035 6,250,773,246 17,125,406 || 71.37 = 27.85| 3,029,500,000 | 8,300,000 3,221,273,246 8,825,406 || 4,031,913,758 11,046,339 1865 34.80 5,284,059,293 || 14,476,865| 67°12' = 23:35 | 3,029,500,000 | 8,300,000| 2,254,556,293 6,176,865 3,414,556,293 || 9,354,948. 219785 37,910,131,920 | 103,863,364|378-09 | = 167.77|15,147,500,000 |41,500,000|22,762,628,920 |62,363,364 19,243,005,656 52,720,560 - Mean, 43:947 7,582,026,384 20,772,672 || 75.61 | = 33.55 3,029,500,000 8,300,000 4,552,525,784|12,472,672 3,848,601,131 || 10,544,112. ; #} 15:12 2,538,473,637 | 16,483,596 || 74.21 = 11:22| 1,236,700,000 || 8,300,000 1,301,773,637| 8,736,735| 930,957,903 || 6,045,181 # # = i ToTAL QUANTITY OF WATER, AND HOW DISTRIBUTED, FROM 1848 TO 1865, BOTH INCLUSIVE. Average quantity of Water distributed Weekly. Estimated Year. Tenants. Increase. * * - — - - º, *** From Wells. From Rivington. Total. of supply. Gallons. Gallons. 1848 53,179 1360 No Returns. No Returns. 1849 54,539 1245 27,785,000 27,785,000 1850 55,784 1500 30,432,000 # 3 30,432,000 .* • 1851 57,284 1500 31,616,000 ă ă ă 31,616,000 -ā ºft .# 3 1852 58,784 1953 35,592,000 3 & # 35,592,000 ## ## 1853 60,737 1662 39,117,000 # gº 39,117,000 § a § 5 1854 62,399 1957 40,070,000 # 3 à 40,070,000 3 : 3 . 1855 64,356 2116. 40,405,000 # * st: 40,405,000 # 3 # 3 1856 66,472 2327 43,145,000 43,145,000 3 # 3 # 1857 68,799 2251 37,198,000 31,855,600 69,054,407 à 5 à # 1858 71,050 2483 36,187,385 39,317,572 75,504,957 - 1859 73,533 3378 30,149,972 56,446,298 86,596,270 1860 76,911 3158 26,356,160 72,790,192 99,146,352 Gallons. 1861 80,069 2672 28,265,700 73,026,807 101,292,507 500,000 28'86 1862 82,741 3150 28,335,520 75,740,414 104,075,934 518,900 28-57 1863 . 85,891 3763 30,691,655 78,071,177 108,762,832 541,478 28-61 1864 89,654 3950 34,903,092 77,246,926 112,150,018 565,178 28-15 1865 3537 25-06 93,604 37,542,945 65,664,544 103,169,489 586,400 MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. l XXIX -·000°00T? 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We are indebted to Mr. Duncan for most of the facts connected with these important works; and looking to the number of inhabit- ants, and the extent of the docks and shipping, it will at once be seen that such a large quantity of water, about 110,000,000 gallons per week, could not be procured for the purposes of consumption but at a considerable amount of cost. At the close of the year 1866 it was as follows:— t THE LIVERPooD WATER ACCOUNT on THE 31st of DECEMBER, 1866. By amount paid for the Harrington and Bootle Co.'s Works, . . .8578,642 19 1 &t ( & The construction of the Green Lane Works, .. 70,985 8 O {{ {{ Extension of the works, . . $283,882 0 2 {{ {{ Extension at Bootle, Dudlow Lane, and Audley Street, . 20,010 13 7 303,892 13 9 {{ 66 Construction of the Rivington Works, . . . 942,606 5 11 {{ {{ Chorley Waterworks, . . . . . . . . . 19,575 1 2 “ Mortgage on land at Everton, . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 T 5 9 “ Shipping-office, Old Churchyard, . . . . . . . . . . 2,829 4 0 “ Land and premises, Spring Street, . . . . . . . . 1,408 10 0 Stock of iron pipes, &c., on hand (30th November, 1866), . . . 15,445 9 7 Excess of income over expenditure, carried down, . . . . . . 654 3 0 Total, . . . . . . . . . . . .81,936,206 10 4 Or, in other words, £2,000,000 has been spent in supplying Liverpool with water. Birkenhead Water-works and Improvement Bill—The Birken- head Water-works were designed and constructed by Mr. Bateman, the engineer employed upon those of Manchester. Previous to 1857 the water supply was in the hands of a company, from whom it was purchased by the commissioners in 1858. The supply at that time was obtained from a well at Spring-hill, which yielded about 500,000 gallons a day. A second shaft was sunk at about fifteen yards from the old one, and bore-holes were made and adits were driven in these wells, by which the supply was increased to 1,500,000 gallons per day. The yield of these shafts, however, diminished, and by October, 1859, it had decreased to 1,080,000 gallons per day. It now averages about 1,300,000 gallons daily. In 1858 the commissioners went to Parliament, and obtained powers to construct the Flaybrick-hill Works. These works, which were begun in 1860, consist of a well or shaft, with tunnel and bore-hole, a water tower, an engine and boiler house, on which is erected a wrought-iron tank capable of holding 100,000 gallons, and a store or service reservoir holding MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE. lxxxi 4,500,000 gallons. The engines erected are two, of seventy-five actual horse-power each, and are each capable of raising about 1,500,000 gallons per day of twenty-four hours. The cost of the Flaybrick-hill Works, including the improvement of the distribution of the water in the district, has been £41,007 19s. 7d. The well sunk at Flaybrick-hill is 205 feet in depth, and the yield is a little over 1,500,000 gallons per day. The population of Birkenhead in 1858 was 31,000 ; in 1866, 54,000. At the present rate of increase it will be doubled in ten years. The supply of water, in 1862, was 6,000,000 gallons per week; it is now about 14,000,000 gallons, being more than double in four years, equal to thirty-seven gallons per head daily for 54,000 persons. The present supply at the command of the commissioners is about 16,000,000 gallons per week, which is equal to the supply of 62,000 persons, at thirty- seven gallons per head daily. The population may be reasonably expected to reach this number in two years, at the present rate of increase. It is therefore imperative that no time should be lost in providing for the future wants of the town. The scheme before Parliament proposes the sinking of a well, with accessory adits or tunnels and bore-holes, near a stream called the Fender, close to the road between Flaybrick-hill and Upton, at the point selected by Mr. Hawksley when acting as engineer to the Birken- head District Gas and Water Company in their unsuccessful appli- cation to Parliament, in the session of 1857, for the erection of a pumping station at this place, the construction of a line of pipes to the existing works of the commissioners at Flaybrick-hill, with a branch, which it is proposed to construct on the summit of Bidaton-hill, for the supply of the high districts. The estimate of the works is £30,000. - Blackburn Waterworks,—These works were constructed by Mr. Bateman in 1844, the population then being 36,629 persons, and the supply required 810,000 gallons per day. A district of about 790 acres was appropriated for the supply of the town, and the available rain was estimated at three feet per annum, which would give a supply of about 1,750,000 gallons per day. Com- pensation for the abstraction of this water was given by buying some small mills on a tributary stream, and by the construction of a reservoir, called the Hoddlesden, out of which five cubic feet per second were to be discharged to the main river. In 1860–61, an Act was obtained for extending the works by utilizing VOL. II. l lxxxii - LAN CASHIRE AND CEIESEIIRE : the whole of the Hoddlesden valley, constructing additional reser- voirs, and intercepting the water flowing from about 360 acres along the line of conduit from the Hoddlesden valley to a reser- voir at Fish-moor. The drainage areas laid under contribution by the extension works amount, in the Hoddlesden valley, to 1260 acres; in the Pickup-bank valley, to 800 acres—total, 2060 acres, from which it is estimated twenty-five inches of rain per annum may be available; and on the line of conduit before mentioned 360 acres, from which it is calculated that eighteen inches may be collected. The yield of the district will be as follows:– Rain available. Hoddlesden, 1260 acres, . . . . . . . . 25 inches = 1,879,644 gallons per day. Pickup-bank, 800 acres, . . . . . . . 25 inches = 1,243,150 {{ On line of conduit, 360 acres, . . . . . 18 inches = 402,781 {{ 3,525,575 {{ Deduct compensation to mills, . . . . . . . . . 1,495,358 { % Residue for the town, . . . . . . . . . . 2,030,217 {{ The population of Blackburn (i.e., within limits of supply), in 1861, was about 60,000, and in extended limits 10,000 additional, or double the population when the works were first laid out. - In other towns in the manufacturing districts of Lancashire and Cheshire the same rapid increase of population during the present century speedily outstripped the existing provision for the supply of their various domestic wants, and the deficiency of water very naturally attracted early attention. It has only been within a comparatively recent period, however, that full and Satisfactory supplies of water have been furnished to our most important cities. Many of the waterworks of Lancashire are amongst the largest of the kind in the kingdom, and amongst these may be specially mentioned the immense works constructed in Manchester, Liverpool, Birkenhead, and Blackburn. Our space will not admit of a separate description of the water supplies of Lancashire and Cheshire; and as nearly all the large towns in these counties are supplied from gathering grounds in the hilly districts, whose waters are accumulated in reservoirs, we need only add that the reader will obtain a general view of the progress made in these important works during the last fifty years, from the following list, furnished by Mr. Bateman:— MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. lxxxiii Population according to Drainage Area appropri- Name of Place, Census of 1861. ated to Water Supply. Acres. Lancaster, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,487 ......... 11,837 Fleetwood, Blackpool, and Lytham, . . . . 9,896 ......... 1,116 Preston, . . . . . . . . . . . . 82,985 ......... 3,380 Burnley, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28,700 tº a tº s g º º 1,050 Nelson Local Board, . . . . . . . . . — ......... 1,700 Blackburn, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63,126 . . . . . . . . . . 2,860 Darwen, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,327 ......... 966 Liverpool, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443,938 ......... J0,000 Bolton, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70,395 * * * * g e º tº 12,220 Heywood, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,824 ... ..... 1,290 Oldham, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72,333 * - tº e s g º e tº 2,565 Ashton and Staleybridge, . . . . . . . 59,827 ......... 1,776 Wigan, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37,658 4 s tº * * g º º 2,200 Bury, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,397 a s a • * * * * * 1,100 Haslingden and Rawtenstall, . . . . . . 14,752 ......... 2,357 Manchester, . . . . . . . . . . . , 500,000 * tº a º gº e g º º 19,000 The produce of each 1000 acres of the above drainage areas will vary from 1,250,000 to 2,250,000 gallons per day, out of which, in most cases, compensation to the streams has to be given, which is generally equal to about one-third of the total quantity capable of being collected. Mr. Bateman states that, in many cases the water, after being stored in reservoirs, is filtered before delivery to the inhabitants. This is the case in Liverpool, Stock- port, Warrington, and other places. In other waterworks the water is decanted from reservoir to reservoir, by which all suspended matter is gradually deposited, and the water thus filtered is finally strained through copper wire gauze and delivered to the town. This plan is more especially carried out in the case of Blackburn, where the water is successively drawn from four reservoirs before its final delivery. In other cases, and most prominently in that of Manchester, a system of separation is adopted by which the spring water and the pure uncoloured water of the streams, when not swollen by rain, are either taken direct to the city, or when the amount exceeds what is required for present supply, are stored in separate reservoirs for after use. . . The town of Birkenhead is supplied with water extracted from the new red sandstone by two wells, out of which the water is pumped by steam-pumping engines. One of these wells has been recently constructed on Flaybrick-hill, the highest part of Birkenhead, and from this well about 1,500,000 gallons per day can be delivered. lxxxiv. LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : About one-fourth of this water was obtained by the natural weeping of the rock into the well, which was sunk to a level of about thirty or forty feet below high-water mark; an equal quantity was obtained by a dislocation in the rock, reached by a short driftway from the bottom of the well, while the remainder was procured from bore- holes sunk to a depth of 300 or 400 feet. This water is of superior quality, and needs, of course, no filtration. - The city of Chester is supplied with water pumped from the river Dee, filtered, and then raised into a water tower high enough to command all parts of the city. The town of Bolton obtained an Act of Parliament in the year 1826 for supplying the town from a spring called Dady Meadows Well, which yielded only a very moderate quantity, less than 100,000 gallons per day. This was quite insufficient for the growing wants of the rapidly-increasing town : larger powers were granted by an Act of 1843, and by subsequent Acts still further additions have been made, and the inhabitants will have the com- mand of an abundant supply of water when all their arrangements are carried out. The principal source for the town is in the hills near Belmont, about four or five miles distant. The Manchester corporation were the first to inaugurate a system, since extensively adopted by other similar bodies, of levy- ing unlimited compulsory rates on the owners and occupiers of all property within their municipal bounds—water being considered as essential to the comfort, and, indeed, existence of the inhabitants, as light or air—so that everybody should have it within easy reach. It was decided, when the corporation applied for parliamentary powers in 1847, to secure the right of levying compulsory rates—first, upon all occupiers of houses for supplies for their domestic wants; and secondly, upon all owners of property for the advantages which they would derive from the increase in the value of their property which would follow an abundant supply of water, protection against fire, and the improved salubrity of the district. Owing to these rates, which are unlimited in amount, the corporation have been enabled to borrow all the money they required for the execution of the works at very low rates of interest; the payments of the interest being secured upon the rates which they have authority to levy. In the year 1868 these rates were 3d in the pound on the rate- able value for the public rate levied upon all property, and 9d in . the pound for the domestic rate levied upon all occupiers in respect MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. lxxxv of the domestic supply. The water is delivered upon the constant supply system, and at high pressure; fire-cocks or hydrants are placed in the streets, from which immediate supplies can be obtained for the extinction of fires; fire-engines have been almost discon- tinued (except as conveyances for the men and their apparatus), in consequence of the pressure in the pipes being sufficient to raise the water to the tops of the highest buildings; and very great advantages have in every way resulted from the energetic action of the corporation. - As the city of Manchester was the first to set the example and demonstrate the Sanitary importance of a large and copious supply of pure water, we have deemed it desirable to give the foregoing examples of the manner in which the same system has been carried out in Liverpool, Birkenhead, and other places within the palatinate of Lancashire and Cheshire. The effective manner in which this object has been obtained, and the great services which have been rendered to the public by the introduction of works on so magnificent a scale as those of Manchester and Liverpool, need no further illustration. The same may be said of Glasgow, which is supplied with the pure water of Loch Katrine by pipes and aqueducts covering a distance of forty miles. We have now simply to notice the crowning efforts of hydraulic engineering, in the new and important project of supplying the metropolis from the sources of the river Severn, in the immediate. vicinity of the mountain ranges of North Wales. The supply from these districts will be free from impurity, as it will be drawn from the upper and lower Silurian formations, and will consequently yield water as pure as can be obtained from the sandstone grit of Derby- shire or the schist formation inclosing the waters of Loch Katrine. The proposal on the part of the engineer is of such value in a public point of view as to justify us in giving admission to a few extracts from Mr. Bateman's pamphlet, now under the considera- tion of a Royal Commission, whose report will be submitted to Parliament during the present session. Mr. Bateman states:–“My large experience in this special branch of engineering for the last thirty years has made me acquainted with almost every available source of supply in the kingdom, and with all the conditions and circumstances which are essential to the successful carrying out of projects of this nature. Some years ago,” he observes, “I had occasion to consider a project advocated lxxxvi LANGASHIRE AND CHESHiRE: by the General Board of Health upon the result of surveys by the Honourable William Napier in the Bagshot sands and the green- Sands of Surrey, and I ascertained from such information as then existed, and from surveys which I personally made, that a moderate supply of very excellent water could be obtained from these dis- tricts. It would, however, be altogether insufficient as a complete supply to the city; and a more intimate acquaintance with all the circumstances and difficulties of the country, which a residence in it of several years has afforded, has convinced me that, in a succession of such dry years as we have just passed through, the springs would be less than was at that time anticipated, and I could not now recommend the adoption of the scheme which was then advocated.” “No project, in my opinion, is worthy of attention which would bring in less than 200,000,000 gallons of water per day, at an elevation which would supply nearly the whole of the metropolitan district by gravitation without pumping. “The nearest district from which this quantity of unexception- able water can be obtained is that which, lying on the flanks of the mountain ranges of Cader Idris and Plynlimmon, in North Wales, forms the upper basin of the main tributaries of the river Severn. Here the direction of the mountain chains, the heights of their summits, their proximity to the sea, their geographical position, and physical peculiarities, entitle us to expect a very large fall of rain. They are so similar in their general character- istics to the Cumberland and Westmoreland mountains, that we should be justified in assuming (in the absence of more precise data) the recorded fall of rain in that part of the country for that which might be expected on the upper drainage of the Severn. A summit ridge or line of water-shed, of irregular height and direction, extending from north to south, is crossed and broken by several parallel ranges of mountains extending from South-west to north-east, the intervening valleys on the west side of this irregular summit being quite open to the westerly winds. The valleys on this side, walled in as they are by mountains rising at their peaks to 2500 and 2900 feet in height, and so raising their heads above the general level of the rain clouds, form, as it were, so many funnels, up which the clouds are driven over the low passes at * Wide Return to an Order of the IIouse of Lords, dated 22d June, 1852, in which, however, a printer's error occurred by adding a cipher to the estimate, and so making it £12,000,000 instead of £1,200,000. MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE. lxxxvii the summit line of water-shed into the valleys on the east, where, sheltered from the wind, they discharge the bulk of their watery contents.” - After investigating this part of his subject with considerable minuteness, and comparing the fall of rain on the Welsh mountains with that in Cumberland, the highlands of Scotland, and the Pen- nine range of hills separating Lancashire and Cheshire from Yorkshire, Mr. Bateman concludes that an average fall of forty-five inches would be the net annual produce of two or three successive dry seasons upon the drainage ground, where he proposes to collect the water for the supply of London. Having ascertained the quantity of water which the gathering ground of the district would produce, he goes on to show how so vast a quota as 200,000,000 gallons per diem could be conveyed to London, and at what cost. - He remarks that “the water will be conducted by separate aqueducts of nineteen miles and twenty-one and a half miles in length, respectively, to a point of junction near Marten Mere, a little to the north-east of the town of Montgomery, from whence the joint volume of the water will be conducted by a common aqueduct, crossing the river Severn close to the town of Bridgnorth, and passing near to, or within a few miles of, Stourbridge, Broomsgrove, Henley-on-Arden, Warwick, Banbury, Buckingham, Aylesbury, Tring, Berkhampstead, and Watford, to the high land near Stanmore, where extensive service-reservoirs must be constructed, which will be at an elevation of at least 250 feet above Trinity high-water mark. From these reservoirs the water will be delivered to the city at a high pressure, and under the constant supply system. The length of the common aqueduct will be 152 miles, and will be capable of convey- ing 220,000,000 gallons of water per day. The total distance from the lowest reservoir on the Wyrmwy will be 171 miles, and the total distance from the reservoirs on the Severn will be 173% miles, to which must be added the length of piping from the service-reservoirs to London, about ten miles, making the total distance 183 miles. From the reservoirs to Bridgnorth the aqueduct will be carried through the successive ridges of mountain which it will encounter, principally by tunnelling, in the same manner as the aqueduct from Loch Katrine to Glasgow. At Bridgenorth it will have to cross the Severn by inverted siphon pipes; thence, through a comparatively open country, partly by covered aqueduct or tunnel, where it is necessary to preserve the water from contamination, partly by open lxxxviii LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: aqueduct, where the country is favourable to such construction, and partly by siphon pipes, where it crosses the valleys of the rivers Stour, Avon, and other streams. It will avoid all the coal-fields near which it passes on its route, and be carried to the north of the saliferous deposits of Droitwich. “The works will be exceedingly simple in their construction, pre- senting no difficulties of an engineering character. No embankment of a reservoir will be more than eighty feet in height, and they will be placed in situations either where hard impervious clay, or the solid rock of the Silurian formation, afford the means of making them perfectly safe and water-tight. One of them on the river Vyrnwy will, by an embankment of seventy-six feet in height, form a lake of five miles in length, and will contain 1,089,000,000 cubic feet. Another on the river Banw, by an embankment of eighty feet in height, will form a lake four miles in length, and contain 940,000,000 cubic feet; and a third, in the same district, by an embankment of similar height, will contain 732,000,000 cubic feet. Amongst the reservoirs on the Severn will be one which, by an embankment of seventy-five feet in height, will contain 2,230,000,000 cubic feet; this single reservoir being fifty per cent. greater than the available water in Loch Katrine. - “The surveys by which these facts were ascertained were made soon after the completion of the Glasgow Waterworks, in the autumn of 1860, and in the spring and summer of 1862; and the probable cost of the works has been carefully estimated. “Each branch of the works, down to the junction of their respec- tive aqueducts, will cost in round numbers £1,100,000; and the main aqueduct from thence to London, including service-reservoirs equal to ten days' supply of 200,000,000 gallons per day, or twenty days' of half this quantity, will cost in round numbers £6,400,000, making a total of £8,600,000. These estimates include the cost of con- necting the service-reservoirs with the main pipes of the existing waterworks, and fourteen per cent for contingencies upon the whole estimated cost of works, land, and piping; but the piping provided across the valleys of the main aqueduct is only on a scale of 120,000,000 gallons per day, as it can be augmented from time to time as the demand increases. So also it would be unnecessary to construct the reservoirs on more than one branch of the works in the first instance, so that the outlay of £1,100,000 might be post- poned until it was required. * * - MANUE ACTURES AND COMMERCE, lxxxix “The quality of the water as taken from the streams in dry weather is under 2° of hardness, averaging, in fact, according to the analyses of the late Dr. R. D. Thomson, F.R.S., 1.6° only, the average amount of organic impurity being 135 grains per gallon. The water, when collected in reservoirs from floods, will, no doubt, be softer than this; for that of Bala Lake, derived from precisely similar geological formations, is but 0.8° of hardness, with organic impurity of 1:28 out of a total impurity of all kinds of 2:08. The Bala Lake water is nearly identical in quality with the Loch Katrine, which, from the average of many analyses, contains two grains of impurity to the gallon, of which the organic impurity is less than one, and the hardness under 1". r - “The amount of the estimate need not startle the public, for it is not more in proportion either to the quantity of water to be obtained, or the ability of the inhabitants to pay for it, than has been expended in Glasgow, Manchester, Liverpool, and many other towns, while it is far below the cost incurred by several towns which could be mentioned.” After showing the capabilities of the Welsh districts for the necessary supplies, Mr. Bateman's next consideration is the requisite outlay on this magnificent undertaking, as compared with that incurred in other cities and towns supplied on the same principle. He says, “That the cost of new works, however, only forms a portion of the gross cost of the supply of any of these places. The price paid for the previously existing companies has in each case been added ; and including this, and looking merely to the population, Glasgow and Manchester have obtained their water cheaper than London could do by any scheme to be proposed. The gross cost, including the purchase of previously existing rights in each of these places, and in Liverpool, has been, or will be, as follows:– Gallons per Day. Cošt. Pºlº :6 38. In Liverpool, for . . . . . . . . 16,500,000 ...... 1,900,000 ... .. 115,115 In Glasgow, including the supply from - the Gorbals Waterworks and first |ºw # * * * * * 1,600,000 ...... 59,260 instalment from Loch Katrine, . . Pºlº, º ºn º }53.500,000 s & º * * * 1,800,000 ... ... 33,645 In Manchester, . . . . . . . . . 25,000,000 . . . . . . 1,500,000 ..... 60,000 “In Liverpool about one-third of the water supplied has still to be pumped from the old wells in the new red sandstone, the annual VOL. II. in xc LAN CASHITRE AND CHESHIRE : cost of which should be capitalized, and the amount added to the gross cost of the works, before it can be compared with Manchester or Glasgow. If this were done it would raise the cost of supplying water there to £1,990,000, or £120,606 per million gallons per day. “In London the gross cost, after capitalizing the present divi- dends and interest of the existing companies, if they are to be purchased, viz., 3450,000 per annum, at twenty-five years' purchase, will be £19,850,000 for the first instalment of 120,000,000 gallons per day (exclusive of any of the new river supplies, which may be still retained), or £165,416 per million; when the full quantity from North Wales is introduced, viz., 220,000,000 gallons per day, the total cost will be £22,100,000, or £100,454 per million gallons per day. * - “It would not be fair, however, to consider population only as a test of ability to pay for water. A fairer criterion is the rateable value of the respective places; and in this view, if water is to be paid for according to the value of the property to be supplied, London stands upon very nearly equal terms with any of the places named. * “The gross value, both in Glasgow and Manchester, upon which compulsory rates can be levied, is about £1,200,000, of which, in both cases, almost exactly half, or about £600,000, is due in respect of dwelling-houses. The gross rateable value of London within the metropolitan district is nearly £15,000,000 per annum, of which at least £10,000,000 must be on dwelling-houses, in respect of which alone rates for domestic supply would be levied. If, therefore, we look at the gross rateable value, London could bear an expenditure twelve times as great as that incurred by Manchester and Glasgow, or, on the average cost to the two places, nearly £19,000,000 sterling; and if you measure it by the assessment on dwelling-houses, it could bear an expenditure about sixteen times that borne by the two enterprising cities of the north, or a gross outlay of about 4:25,000,000 sterling. - “Fortunately for the citizens of London they need not be afraid of having to provide for such an outlay, if the system which has been adopted in Glasgow and Manchester, and which has been found to work in every way so advantageously for all parties, be adopted in the metropolis. “In each of these cities the waterworks are the property of the corporation, and, therefore, of the inhabitants themselves. Man- MANUE ACTURES AND COMMERCE. xci chester has the power to levy within its municipal bounds two unlimited compulsory rates—one called the public rate, levied in con- sideration of the protection against fire which constant supply and high pressure necessarily confer, and in consideration also of the great advantage which all property is supposed to derive from a full supply of water; and the other, a domestic rate, in respect of the water supplied for domestic purposes. In Glasgow the corpora- tion have the power of levying a public rate not exceeding 1d. in the pound, an unlimited domestic rate on the city north of the Clyde, and a rate of 18, in the pound on dwellings in that part of the city which lies on the south of the Clyde. These rates in all cases, in both cities, are compulsory rates, leviable upon all parties, whether they take water or not. They are, moreover, leviable upon the actual rental of the property, and not upon the mere assessable value, which is always below the rent. Outside the city boundaries, and within the city for trading purposes, both corporations stand in the position of ordinary trading companies, selling the water to those who will take it at certain limited rates for the supply of dwellings, and on terms to be agreed upon for the water taken for trade. These extraneous sources of income form a very considerable portion of the water rental of both the cities, no less an amount than £56,324 having been received last year in Manchester, and £35,277 in Glas- gow; being equal to 145 and 65 per cent, respectively, on the gross revenue derived from the domestic and public water rates.” - It is not necessary to follow Mr. Bateman further in his calcula- tions: suffice it to observe, that he would secure to the present shareholders of the different existing waterworks companies the full value of their dividends, while he conferred upon the citizens of London, Westminster, Southwark, and the surrounding districts, a boon which is beyond the power of calculation to estimate. The Docks and Harbours of Lancashire and Cheshire.—In treating of the docks and harbours of Lancashire it will only be necessary to speak of those of Liverpool, Birkenhead, and Barrow. The Dee, the Ribble, and the Lune, are all rivers which flow into the Irish Sea; but they have no harbours or docks of any great importance, and can only be considered as ports of refuge for fishing boats and small craft, the latter of which seldom enter the rivers except for local purposes or the convenience of the residents upon the river banks. Some thirty years ago Sir T. Hesketh Fleetwood commenced building a town and harbour at Fleetwood, at the mouth of xcii LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : the river Wyre. Targe sums of money were expended in erecting houses, hotels, baths, &c., on a large and splendid scale; and although the speculation did not succeed in the first instance, it is only right to state that Fleetwood has since become a town of considerable importance, and now ranks as the first port in Lancashire, after Liverpool. A regular daily steam communication is maintained between Fleetwood and Belfast, and packets also ply regularly to various ports of Lancashire, Cumberland, and the Isle of Man. The harbour and docks of Barrow, which were only opened in October, 1867, are an exception to some of those mentioned above. They owe their existence to the Barrow Haematite Steel and Iron Company's works, of which the dukes of Devonshire and Buccleuch are the promoters, and in the construction of which a sum of upwards of a million of money has been expended. Ten years ago the town contained about 1000 inhabitants; in 1867 it numbered a population of more than 20,000. For engineering works on a large scale Liverpool and Birkenhead stand foremost. Looking at the extent of the docks, and the immense sheds and warehouses by which they are surrounded, it may justly boast of a commerce without a parallel in any other part of the globe. Even the tonnage which enters London, the grand emporium of commercial enterprise, does not exceed that of Liverpool, the great entrepot of the West ; whose imports and exports are equal to, if they do not exceed, those of the metropolis. But this is not to be wondered at, as Liverpool is the great outlet for our manu- factures to every part of the Western hemisphere and India. It is also the inlet for the raw material in cotton, flax, and wool, required for the manufacture of textile fabrics throughout the whole of Lan- cashire, Cheshire, and Yorkshire; and to the same port is carried nearly the whole of the export manufactured articles of the Stafford- shire potteries, the cutlery of Sheffield, and the hardware of Birming- ham, Wolverhampton, Wednesbury, and other towns. This immense intercourse which centres in Liverpool has aug- mented of late years almost beyond the powers of calculation, and hence the constant demand for increased dock space and all those conveniences which appertain to the wants and requirements of a continually developing commerce. It has been stated that a circle with a radius of forty miles round Manchester as a centre, incloses a population greater than the same distance round St. Paul's. If this be correct it will readily account for the enlargement of the port MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - xciii of Liverpool, as the same number of persons must be fed, and a still greater amount of produce must be imported, to support the various manufacturing processes which find their outlet to all parts of the world through Liverpool. For our description of the docks we are indebted to the kindness of the chief engineer, Mr. George Fosberry Lyster, who states that— - “Any description of Liverpool must necessarily be imperfect that does not direct special attention to its range of magnificent docks. These docks, from a small and insignificant beginning in 1709—when the first Dock Act was obtained, and under which the old dock of four acres, on the site of the present custom-house, was constructed— have increased to the vast extent of accommodation (six and a half miles in length) that now meets the eye on approaching the town from the river. The dock estate in Liverpool covers an area of 1034 acres, and comprises 255 acres of inclosed water space, with eighteen miles of quays. During the period of a century and a half, Liverpool has advanced from a small town of no great importance to the position of the first port in the world. The extension of the docks nothward and southward has been followed by a corresponding expansion of Liverpool, while the growth of the town in wealth and importance has encouraged the development of other towns in a wide circuit around it. “At Birkenhead, on the Cheshire side of the river, there is also an area of dock estate to the extent of 497 acres, of which 167 acres is water-space, with nine miles of quayage. “The whole of this vast estate specially appropriated to the shelter and use of shipping, and for the purposes of trade and com- merce, is vested by Act of Parliament in a body corporate, or trusteeship, entitled the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, possess- ing power under certain legal provisions, but without fee or emolu- ment to themselves of any kind whatever, to transact the whole of the affairs of the trust. Through a long series of years, and under different titles, this body of trustees has had the management of the dock estate. The prosperity of the port, and the immense funds arising from dues at their disposal, have enabled the trustees to construct dock after dock in rapid succession, with suitable attendant accommodation in the form of graving docks, sheds, and warehouses. “The earliest record of dock dues dates in the year 1752, when they amounted to £1776. At the commencement of the present century the income of the dock estate was £28,706, and the amount xciv LAN CASHIRE AND CHIESHIRE : of tonnage entering the port 450,060 tons. In the year 1867 the income had increased to £851,812, and the tonnage to no less than 5,318,157 tons. - “The late Mr. Jesse Hartley was the engineer of the estate for a period of thirty-five years, and from his designs, and under his skilful superintendence, four-fifths of the dock accommodation in Liverpool were constructed. “The dock works at Birkenhead when partially constructed, after the plans of the late Mr. J. M. Rendel, were purchased, with the whole of the estate, in 1855, by the corporation of Liverpool, and Mr. John Bernard Hartley became the engineer. In 1858 the entire estate was transferred to the Dock Board, and parliamentary powers were obtained the same year to construct the extensive system of dock works that have since been completed there: Mr. J. B. Hartley designed and commenced their execution. On the death of his father, Mr. Jesse Hartley, in 1860, he also became the engineer to the whole of the dock estate, but failing health in a short time com- pelled him to retire.” In 1861 Mr. George Fosberry Lyster received the appointment of engineer in chief of the entire estate, and from his designs, and under his direction, have been constructed the Herculaneum Dock and graving-docks at the southern extremity of Liverpool; also the Half-tide Dock and river entrances immediately to the north of the Prince's Dock, and, in conjunction therewith, the east and west Waterloo docks, with their surrounding sheds and extensive ware- houses; in addition to which he has carried out the river wall to the northern boundary of the dock estate, near Primrose Brook. Parliamentary powers have been obtained for an important system of dock extension northward of the Canada Dock, which work is now on the eve of commencement. Mr. Lyster has also carried out at Birkenhead the Alfred Dock and its great northern entrances, the low water basin, the Morpeth Dock, with its branch, the graving docks at the western extremity of the great float, besides other numerous and important works necessary to complete that system ; he has also designed and erected the corn warehouses and canal dock, as well as the adjoining range of warehouses and sheds known as the Composite Block. In reference to the revenue of the dock estate, we are enabled to state that the total amount derived from all sources during the year ending 24th June, 1840, was £203,645 9s. 6d., while during a corre- MANUE ACTURES AND COMMERCE, XCV sponding period ending June, 1867, it was £878,436 10s. 9d., show- ing an increase in twenty-seven years of no less a sum than £674,791 1s. 3d. From these returns we may infer the immense rate at which the commerce of this port has been developed, and not- withstanding the depressed state of trade in general for the last two years, the income during the last six months of the year 1867 was fully £40,000 in excess of the corresponding six months of 1866. The following table, showing the progressive increase of the number of vessels, the amount of tonnage, duties, &c., from 1840 to the close of the year 1867, has been kindly furnished by Mr. Lyster, to whom we are indebted for much valuable information on the past and present condition of the Liverpool docks. AMoUNT of DoCK DUTIES AT THE PORT OF LIVERPOOL. º: Wessels. Tonnage. Duties on Tonnage. Duties on Goods. Total. June 24. -- 36 s, d. 36 8. d. £ S. d. 1840 ... 15,998 ... 2,445,708 92,221 2 3 ... 85,975 Il 9 ... 178,196 4 0 1841 ... 16,108 ... 2,425,461 91,755 10 4 . 83,750 18 l ... 175,506 8 5 1842 ... 16,458 ... 2,425,319 93,360 2 0 . 83,871 13 5 ... 177,231 15 5 1843 ... 16,606 ... 2,445,278 96,445 Il 7 ... 91,840 10 6 ... 188,286 2 1 1844 ... 16,411 ... 2,632,712 ... 99,044 13 7 ... 86,119 8 4 ... 185,164 1 11 1845 ... 20,521 ... 3,016,531 ... 118,046 8 8 . . 105,200 15 9 ... 223,247 4 5 1846 ... 19,951 ... 3,096,444 . . 114,709 15 8 ... 98,714 0 6 ... 213,423 16 2 1847 ... 20,889 ... 3,351,539 ... 127,982 14 l ... 116,453 0 6 ... 244,435 14 7. 1848 ... 20,311 ... 3,284,963 ... 107,589 10 4 ... 90,028 6 6 ... 197,617 16 10 1849 ... 20,733 ... 3,639,146 ... 122,073 2 0 . . 102,151 17 0 ... 224,224 19 0 1850 ... 20,457 ... 3,536,337 ... 116,541 7 11 ... 95,201 19 8 ... 211,743 7 7 1851 .. 21,071 ... 3,736,666 ... 128,026 0 7 ... 107,501 5 7 ... 235,527 6 2 1852 ... 21,473 ... 3,912,506 ... 137,754 0 5 ... 108,932 5 3 ... 246,686 5 8 1853 ... 20,490 ... 3,889,981 .. 140,659 19 1 .. 116,082 6 6 ... 256,702 5 7 1854 ..., 22,030 ... 4,316,583 ... 161,441 0 0 ... 136,637 8 8 ... 298,078 8 8 1855 ... 20,024 ... 4,096,160 ... 148,585 14 5 ... 113,075 17 11 ... 261,661 12 4 1856 ... 20,886 ... 4,320,618 ... 174,338 14 9 ... }52,462 13 l ... 326,801 7 10 1857 ... 22,032 ... 4,645,362 ... 197,821 2 11 ... 176,474 5 1 ... 374,295 8 O 1858 ... 21,352 ... 4,441,943 ... 183,637 10 10 ... 164,261 19 10 ... 347,899 10 8 1859 ... 21,214 ... 4,511,969 ... 187,449 8 10 ... 179,489 18 4 ..., 366,939 7 2 1860 ... 21,126 ... 4,697,238 ... 203,032 19 6 --, 194,282 13 5 ... 397,315 12 11 1861 ... 21,095 ... 4,977,272 ... 222,515 5 6 ... 221,902 10 8 ... 444,417 16 2 1862 ... 20,289 ... 4,630,183 ... 197,437 9 l ... 182,091 5 5 : 379,528 14 6 1863 ... 20,696 ... 4,809,778 ... 205,527 4 9 ... 194,223 l 9 ... 399,750 6 6 1864 ... 21,663 ... 4,913,910 ..., 211,150 7 6 ... 188,384 4 1 ... 399,534 Il 7 1865 ... 21,413 ... 4,712,556 ... 195,126 12 6 ... 166,245 0 11 ..., 361,371 13 5 1866 ... 21,720 ... 5,581,322 ... 241,887 14 5 ... 215,882 10 1 ... 457,770 4 6 1867 ... 20,170 ..., 5,318,057 257,262 9 10 ... 210,898 5 9 ... 468,160 15 7 From the above it will be seen that it was in 1857 the greatest number of vessels entered the port of Liverpool, but the largest xcvi LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : *** amount of tonnage in 1866. During the year 1867 there was a falling off in the number of the vessels, as well as in the amount of tonnage; that, however, is not surprising when the depressed condi- tion of trade, and the number of commercial failures and bankruptcies in that year, are taken into consideration. During the whole of 1865 and 1866 innumerable projects, of doubtful character, were brought out by designing speculators under the cover of the Limited Liability Act, and these imposed on the public credulity to such an extent as to spread ruin and dismay amongst families previously in good repute. Every security was assumed or affected by these tran- sactions, and the prospectuses issued and the companies formed under this Act by unscrupulous projectors were enormous. As the majority of them were bubble companies, it is not surprising that Liverpool should have suffered to some extent, along with the metropolis and other parts of the kingdom. It is, however, satisfactory to know, that during the year 1867, the total dues paid on tonnage and goods exceeded those of all previous years, and amounted to the large sum of £468,160 15s. 7d. Our limited space does not admit of an extended description of these large and important docks; suffice it to observe, that they are probably the largest and most convenient in the world. Vessels of the largest tonnage can discharge and receive their cargoes with a degree of rapidity unknown to most other ports. Cranes of nearly every description are fixed in the warehouses and along the line of the docks; and large sums of money have been expended on accumulators for working the hydraulic cranes by water pressure with greatly increased facilities and despatch. Others, worked both by steam and hand, are in constant operation along the whole extent of six miles, which of late years has been appropriated to the Liver- pool docks. Altogether, we may safely state that nothing has been left undone which will enable every ship entering the harbour to remain constantly afloat, and be supplied with every convenience for the rapid unloading and reloading of their cargoes. Any description of ours would, therefore, fall short of the magnitude and colossal accommodations of this important harbour. To attain a clear con- ception of its value, and of the extent of its facilities, it must be personally examined. No written or verbal description would, however imperfectly, describe its many conveniences for the varied transactions of an unlimited commerce. We must now allude very briefly to the facilities which this MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE, xcvii immense entrepot presents for extended transactions in every branch of trade. These facilities have already been stated to exist in the large extent of dock and basin surface which affords, at average heights of the tide, a free communication with the river. That the reader may the more clearly comprehend their nature and magnitude, we furnish a statistical account of the areas and water spaces of the different docks and basins, as given in a tabulated form by Mr. Lyster:- LIVERPOOL DOCKS. Coping at Position and Width Sill below Hollow Lineal Liverpool Docks. of Entrance or Datum Quoins | Water Area. Quayag Passage. & Ill II). above ayage. - Datum. Ft. In Ft. In. Ft. In. Acres. Yds. Yards. North Carrier's Dock, . . West, 40 0 || 6 0 || 27 O 2 3423 641 Canada Half-tide Dock, . West, 60 0 || 7 9 || 28 O 3 4380 | 408 Canada Dock, tº an S. East, 50 0 || 6 6 29 0 || 17 4043 1272 Huskisson Dock, . . . *º-ºmº * *mºv 14 3451 | 1039 Huskisson Branch Dock, . - - –- * 7 592 910 London Dock, . . . . . West, 70 0 || 6 6 30 11 10 100 867 Wellington Half-tide Dock . East, 70 0 || 6 9 || 30 9 3 813 | 400 Wellington Dock, tº ſº e West, 70 0 || 6 6 31 O 7 4120 | 820 Bromley-Moore Dock, . North, 60 0 || 6 0 || 26 0 9 31(\6 935 Nelson Dock, . tº º South, 60 0 || 6 6 26 0 8 2646 | 803 Stanley Dock, . . West, 51 0 || 5 8 || 29 0 7 120 || 753 Collingwood Dock, . West, 60 0 || 6 9 26 0 5 244 || 553 Salisbury Dock, . . . . North, 60 0 || 6 11 26 0 3 2146 406 Clarence Half-tide Dock, . West, 50 0 || 5 0 || 26 8 4 1794 | 635 Clarence Dock, gº º West, 47 0 || 3 2 26 0 6 273 || 914 Trafalgar Dock, . North, 45 0 || 6 7 || 21 II 5 4546 || 764 Victoria Dock, g North, 45 0 || 4 11 || 21 11 5 3559 || 755 Waterloo Dock, . . . . . . | South, 60 0 || 8 0 || 22 1 3 2146 533 Corn Warehouse Half-tide Dock, North, 65 0 || 8 0 || 31 0 4 3250 || 429 Prince's Dock, . . . . . North, 45 0 || 5 II 27 5 || 11 1490 1178 George's Dock, North, 41 11 || 4 6 || 24 8 5 154 || 645 Canning Dock, West, 45 0 || 6 1 || 26 2 4 376 585 Albert Dock, . North, 45 0 || 6 4 || 26 0 7 3542 | 885 Salthouse Dock, . North, 45 0 || 6 0 || 26 0 6 2019 || 784 Wapping Dock, . West, 50 0 || 6 0 || 26 0 5 499 || 814 IXing's Dock, . South, 42 0 || 5 0 || 26 1 7 3896 || 875 Queen's Dock, West, 50 0 || 6 0 || 26 0 || 10 1564 1214 Coburg Dock, . º West, 70 0 || 6 0 || 30 6 8 26 || 1053 Brunswick Dock, . . . . . . North, 60 0 || 6 6 27 0 | 12 3010 || 1086 Herculaneum Half-Tide Dock, . | North, 80 0 || 8 0 || 31 0 3 3000 || 416 From the above and the following tables the reader will be able to estimate the extent and value of the water space in the Liverpool and Birkenhead docks and basins, amounting to nearly 421 acres, and an aggregate extent of quay linage of 28 miles. In Liverpool, above all other ports in the world, the facilities for commercial trans- actions are great, and vessels of every description can discharge and receive their cargoes with perfect Safety. VO I.. I I }l, xcviii LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : LIVERPool, BASINs. Height of I º e Width of Piers lineal Liverpool Basins, E. . Water Area. Quayago. Datum. Ft. In. | Ft. In. Acres. Yds. |Miles. Yds. Canada Basin, 250 0 || 32 0 || 6 4528 || 0 546 Sandon Basin, 200 0 || 31 0 || 6 904 || 0 702 Seacombe Basin, . 56 () 24 10 || 0 1805 || 0 188 George's Basin, . . . 147 0 || 25 0 || 3 1852 || 0 455 George's Ferry Basin, 70 0 || 23 8 || 0 1344 || 0 160 Chester Basin, . tº 36 0 22 2 0 2568 || 0 288 South Ferry Basin, . 60 0 || 30 6 || 0 2927 || 0 205 Harrington Basin, 40 0 || 23 3 || 0 3917 | 0 308 Herculaneum Basin, . . . . . . . . 40 () | 26 0 || 0 2200 || 0 294 Total water area and quay space of Liverpool Basins, . 19 2685 || 1 1386 {{ {{ º - sº Docks, . 236 89 | 16 1489 Total, . 1255 2774 18 Il 15 BIRKENHEAD books. Coping at Position and Width | c. Hollow º Birkenhead Docks. of Entrance or s º Quoins | Water Area. Lineal Passage. 8 Uliſſl. above Quayage. Datum. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Acres. Yds. Mils.Yds. West Float, . . . . . . - - — 52 319 || 2 210 Basin near Canada Works, . West, 50 0 - - 1 2554 || 0 543 East Float, e e s a - - — 59 3786 I 1506 Corn Warehouse Dock, 30 0 || 0 D. S. 26 O 1 453 || 0 555 Alfred Dock, . e e --> - -*s 8 2922 || 0 482 Egerton Dock, . West, 70 0 || 7 0 || 25 0 3 4011 () 754 orpeth Dock, ... . . . . . . West, 70 0 || 5 3 || 25 0 || 11 2404 || 0 1299 Dock on site of Morpeth Basin, . | West, 85 0 - - 26 0 4 243 || 0 637 The total water area and quay space of the Birkenhead Docks, . 146 2418 8 290 BIRKENEIEAD. BASIN. Height of º e Width of Piers Lineal Birkenhead Basins. Entrance. above Water Area. Quayage. Datum. - Ft. In Ft. In. Acres. Yds. |Miles. Yds. Low Water Basin, 300 0 26 0 || 14 O || 0 1360 North Basin, 500 0 31 O 4 2848 || 0 669 Total area and quay space of the Birkenhead Basin, . 18 2843 || 1 269 {{ {{ {{ Docks, . . 146 2418 || 8 290 Total, 165 421 | 9 559 TOTAL AREA OF THE LIVERPOOL AND BIRKENHEAD DOCKS AND BASINS. Acres. Yds. Total water area and quay space of the Liverpool Docks and Basins, 255 2774 ... Total water area and quay space of the Birkenhead Docks and Basins, 165 421 *s- -ammºmºsºm- 420 3195 Miles. Yds. 18 11.15 9 559 . 27 1674 MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. xcix From the above statement it will be seen that there are fifty docks and basins for the reception of vessels in the ports of Liverpool and Birkenhead, exclusive of lock space, graving docks, &c. All the levels of height of tides, &c., are taken from the datum of the Old Dock sill.” - There are other points of vantage peculiar to Liverpool as a Seaport, namely, its freedom of outlet to the Irish Sea and the Atlantic, and the vast industrial resources by which it is surrounded. Manchester and its tributary towns are in constant communication with Liverpool, and the numerous lines of canals and railways which converge on these two points are the never-failing feeders of a prosperous and improving commerce. - Liverpool Landing Stages.—Amongst other improvements con- nected with the Liverpool docks are the landing stages; and these are of such great practical value, and great public convenience, as to require a passing notice. In the years 1846 and 1847 the Dock Trustees offered premiums for the best designs for a floating stage, which at all times of the tide would enable passengers going by the different steamers to walk direct on board; thus avoiding the discomfort and inconvenience of boats and barges communicating with the vessels, which, previous to that time, had anchored in the river at some distance from the land. The constant intercourse between Liverpool, Birkenhead, and all parts of the opposite shore, necessitated the introduction of some plan for the public convenience. The decision on the merits of these various designs, put forward in response to the invitation of the Dock Trustees, was left to the late Sir William Cubitt. The scheme fixed upon, with certain modifications, was the George's Pier stage, a large platform or esplanade, 505 feet long and 80 feet wide, supported and floated by a series of rectangular pontoons placed at right angles with the currents. On these are laid lines of wrought-iron girders, to which wooden beams are attached, and upon these, again, the planking is supported in the same way as the deck of a ship. Round the edges of this immense float strong wooden fenders are bolted; and as the whole rises and falls with the tide, it will at once be seen how great an economy of time it effects, and how largely the public is benefited by it. It has increased the intercourse between both sides of the Mersey more than twenty-fold, and the result is that * The Old Dock sill is the datum to which all the levels refer, and is preserved on a tide gauge at the west side of the centre pier of the entrances to the Canning Half-tide Dock. C LANGASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: numbers of the shipowners and merchants of Liverpool live on the Cheshire side of the river, while steamers ply to and fro every ten minutes, from five or six in the morning till ten or eleven at night. The port of Liverpool, however, would have been of little value, if the requisite means of communication between the float and the shore had not been provided. It should be borne in mind that the stage is moored in deep water, at a distance of more than 120 feet from the front of the quay wall. To maintain a constant communi- cation between these two points, it was necessary to construct a movable bridge, one end of which should rest on the sea quay wall and the other upon the float, in order that it might rise and fall to the full height of twenty-one feet, the average rise of spring tides above low water mark. At that time there were no means of build- ing a bridge of 150 feet span. During the two previous years, however, it had been discovered that wrought-iron girders could be made of three or four times that span, and the trustees availing themselves of the experiments which afterwards led to the erection of the Britannia and Conway tubular bridges, the work of designing and constructing double-girder bridges at each end of the float was intrusted to William Fairbairn & Sons, of Manchester. Fig. 1, Plate II., shows the position of the float and bridges at high and low water:-It will be observed that each end of the bridges rests upon cast-iron platforms imbedded in masonry on the edge of the quay at A, and securely fixed to the float at B ; on the platforms are placed strong shafts, supporting the girders, and on which each end of the bridge revolves. This rising and falling of the ends of the bridges is simple enough, but a circular motion had to be provided in order to accommodate the change of position of the floating stage, which at every turn of the tide was advanced several feet up or down the river, according to the direction of the current. To meet these requirements the base plates supporting the shafts and bridges at each end had also to revolve, and give to each of the bridges a universal motion of vertical elevation on the one hand, and a horizontal one on the other, to correspond with the move- ment of the float. - From this brief description of the first landing-stage, a correct idea of the others may be formed. There are now five or six on the Mersey at the different landings; one at the Prince's Dock with four bridges (also executed by Wm. Fairbairn & Sons, of Manchester), 1002 feet long and 80 feet wide; another at Birkenhead with two MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - ci bridges, 1040 feet long and 50 and 35 feet wide; also, the Woodside stage, 800 feet long and 80 feet wide; and others at different landings on the Cheshire side of the river. All these bridges are constructed on the same plan. • * In 1865 a special committee, composed of deputations from the Corporation and the Mersey and Harbour Dock Boards, was appointed to consider the plans and arrangements proposed for new approaches from the town to the river, as designed by the dock engineer, George F. Lyster, Esq. Those plans involved considerable alterations and improvements, more especially in the immediate vicinity of George's Dock and George's Dock basin, which latter the engineer proposed to fill up, and to form an inclined plane from New Quay and Gorree Street down to the river, for the purpose of uniting the two landing stages at George's Pier and that in front of the Prince's Dock. -- The improvements are distinctly shown in fig. 2, Plate II. ; the part A exhibits the incline, 1 in 20, and the part B unites the landing stage, C, at George's Pier with that in front of the Prince's Dock at D. To the large platform, B, or cab-stand, would be attached two circular floats in front, as shown at E E. On this principle a floating stage 2000 feet long would be open to the public, and would answer the double purpose of a promenade and the necessary facilities for embarkation. At the foot of the incline every accommodation would be offered for cab stands, ready for passengers as they landed from the steamers. These improve- ments, when developed to their full extent, as shown on the drawing, will render Liverpool one of the largest and most important seaports on the face of the civilized globe. Description of the Town and Harbour of Barrow-in-Furness.- Barrow-in-Furness is situated at the extreme north-western point of Lancashire, from which it is separated from the Irish Sea by the island of Walney. To the north and east it is surrounded by rich deposits of haematite ores, which, in ancient times, had been worked by charcoal, the wood having been obtained from adjoining forests. Even as late as 1840 charcoal iron was made from haematite ores, and some of the oldest ironmasters of that part of the country, Messrs. Harrison, Amshe, & Co., still continue to manufacture it. The Barrow Works were established by Messrs. Schneider & Co., in 1859, and from that time may be dated the rapid increase of the town of Barrow. - This increase is due in a great measure to the enterprise of those cii LANCASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : gentlemen, and the other iron merchants of the district, brought into existence by the development of the railway under the far-seeing policy of Mr. Ramsden, to whose unceasing exertions and practical knowledge the district is so much indebted. In 1864 Mr. Ramsden projected, and, in connection with Messrs. Schneider & Co., formed the Barrow Steel Company, who erected the magnificent docks, opposite the furnaces. In 1866 the company purchased the mines, furnaces, &c., of Messrs. Hannay & Co., and are now the only com- pany, with two exceptions, possessing haematite mines, iron furnaces, and steelworks in that part of the country. - To show what has since been done, Mr. Roger states in his history of Barrow, “that, in 1850, Barrow was a small village of three or four farm-houses, with their equally ancient farm-buildings; eight or ten low-roofed cottages, and two public houses.” These constituted the town of Barrow eighteen years ago: what it is now (1868) may be ascertained from an article in the Railway, Banking, Insur- ance, and Commercial Almanac of that year, of which the following is an extract—and from whence it appears that in former times Small quantities of haematite iron ore had been occasionally shipped, but the place and the trade were altogether insignificant at the com- mencement of the present century. “In 1847 the population was only 325, in 1864 it was 10,068, and is now about 18,000. In place of a straggling little village by the side of a muddy strand, there are now rows of London streets, and churches and chapels, and an active and thrifty business population little short of 20,000. Barrow, however, owes its present important and progressive position in great measure to the railway, which now communicates with the Midland, giving it access to Leeds and all the important towns of Yorkshire; with the London and North Western, by which its haematite ore is conveyed to the south ; with the county of Durham, by means of the Tebay Junction ; and with Cumberland and the far north, via Whitehaven. Another important element in the formation of its prosperity has been the erection of a large number of blast furnaces at Hindpool, within the borough of Barrow, by Messrs. Schneider, Hannay, & Co., and the new docks, the last, and certainly not the least important, addition to its means of progress in the future. Mr. Ramsden, now managing director of the Furness Railway, has been the presiding genius in this work of improvement. The noble dock scheme was suggested by his practical mind, and numerous improvements which have been embodied in the MANUE ACTURES AND COMMER.C.E. ciii erection of the town are also ascribed to him. Some months ago it obtained its charter of incorporation, and the distinction of being its first magistrate was most fittingly conferred upon this gentleman. Mr. Ramsden was formerly secretary to the Furness Company, and on his retirement was succeeded by Mr. Cook, a gentleman well known in connection with the Whitehaven railways.” The two docks have been formed by simply inclosing the channel separating the town from Barrow Island, by an extensive quay forming the dock wall on the mainland side. Messrs. Brassey & Co. were the contractors for the work. The cost of the actual formation of the docks and works has, it is stated, been only .#200,000—a sum surprisingly small, which may, however, be fairly accounted for by the natural facilities of the site. The gross total of cost for everything, we believe, will be within £300,000, and the comparatively small outlay involved in the con- struction of the docks, will enable the directors to charge a rate of dues much lower than those of other ports on the northern seaboard. The docks are made to accommodate an extensive trade, and vessels of large size. The entrance is sixty feet wide. The depth of water maintained is twenty-two feet. The stone quays are one and a half miles in length, and the water area of the docks and timber pond is 105 acres. The wharves adjoining the docks are 100 acres in extent, and warehouses, four stories, with a floor area of 17,000 square yards, abut on the docks. Hydraulic capstans are provided at the entrances, and hydraulic cranes are erected on the quays and in the ware- houses, for the convenience of a large and profitable traffic. The company's land adjoining the railway sidings, which is available for private shipbuilding yards, timber yards, and works, extends over 230 acres. Sidings are also laid on the quays, by which railway waggons can be brought alongside the ships. The docks are advantageously situated for the timber and other shipping trade for the North Lancashire and Cumberland district ; for Leeds (93 miles) and the Midland district ; for Hull (147 miles); for Middlesborough (121 miles) and the Cleveland district ; for Durham (123 miles) and the Durham coal-field. The docks are entered from Peel Harbour, within the south end of Walney Island, where there is a low-tide railway pier, and where the largest vessels may ride, well sheltered, in five fathoms of water. The dock entrance would admit a vessel as large as H.M.'s well-known iron-plated frigate the Warrior. The Devonshire Dock, named after the duke of Devonshire, chair- civ LAN CASHIRE AND CEIESHIRE . man of the Furness Railway, is 30 acres in extent, and vessels will pass through it into the Buccleuch Dock, which has an area of 33 acres. Outside of this dock is a splendid timber pond, covering an area of 35% acres. The position is excellent, and the facilities it now possesses lead to the expectation that, before long, it will become an important depot in connection with the timber trade. A spacious graving dock is in course of construction at the entrance of the Devonshire Dock, and a line of railway is in course of construction around Barrow Island, which will be found valuable in the convey- ance of material. It is expected that, in course of time, Barrow will become a considerable shipbuilding port. In connection with the docks the railway company have no less than ten miles of sidings. Cranes and capstans worked by hydraulic power have been erected by Sir W. Armstrong & Co., and a gigantic warehouse is nearly com- pleted by the side of the Devonshire Dock. The engineers of the docks and works are Messrs. Maclean & Stileman of London. Barrow is also the route for a considerable passenger traffic with Ireland, as an hour is here saved in the sea passage to Belfast. On Hawespoint, the S.E. point of Walney Island, is a stone light- house, exhibiting a brilliant revolving light at seventy feet above the level of high water. The light revolves, and appears full at intervals of every minute. It may be seen from all points seaward between N.N.W. and E., and in clear weather, between four and five leagues off. A red tide light is fixed and established at the distance of 340 yards, S.E. by E., # E. from the high light. The blast furnaces at Hindpool were erected by Messrs. Schneider & Hannay, and began work in 1859; these gentlemen being at that time the owners of the . Park Mines, having been long pre- viously engaged in extensive mining operations in the Furness district. In 1864 Mr. Ramsden, as already stated, projected and formed the Barrow Steel Company, and founded the large works opposite the furnaces at Hindpool, for the purpose of converting the produce of those furnaces into Bessemer steel, and then manufac- turing that valuable material into steel rails, axles, tyres, and the other hundred forms in which it is now used. It very soon after became apparent that the two undertakings of blasting the ore and converting it into steel were so nearly allied in interest, as well as in locality, that an amalgamation was proposed and effected in 1866, under the title of “The Barrow Haematite Steel Company” (Limited); the new company also purchased the whole of Messrs. Schneider & MANUE ACTURES AND COMMERCE. CV Hannay's valuable iron ore mines, but these gentlemen still retain a large interest in the new company as shareholders and directors. The duke of Devonshire became chairman of the new company, with Mr. Ramsden as managing director, and Mr. J. T. Smith the manager. This company have now eleven blast furnaces, and turn out about 4500 tons of pig iron weekly; and the steelworks produce large quantities of Bessemer rails and plates. Besides the blast furnaces at Hindpool there are a couple equal in size at Ireleth, whose produce helps to swell the export of pigs from this district. The principal mines in this locality are the Park Mines, where an enormous basin of iron ore was discovered some time ago, and the mines of Roanhead and Askam. There are also a number of other mines in the district, which have been longer in operation than those mentioned. About 120,000 tons of ore are shipped yearly from Barrow, principally to Staffordshire and South Wales; and the rest, amounting to about 480,000 tons, is either sent to different works by rail or smelted on the spot. Other manufac- tures are spoken of as likely to be carried on profitably at this rising port, and amongst them that of flax. In order to keep up the weekly production of 4500 tons of iron, about 8000 tons of ore and limestone, together with about 4000 tons of coke, are brought to the drops during the week; and to prevent any delay or hinderance of the operations through the strikes or fancies of the colliers, or other contingencies of coal-mining, about 40,000 tons of coal are constantly kept in stock by the company at their depot in Darlington. The ore is used in a raw state, and gives an average of 57 per cent. of iron. The manager of the works has invented an ingenious contrivance for taking off the waste gases from the tops of the furnaces. The number of men employed at the works is nearly 2000. These are the largest Bessemer steelworks in the country, and when the plans for their extension shall have been completed they will probably be the largest in the world. The buildings so far erected in connection with the steelworks, comprise two sheds 735 feet in length, with a width of 85 and 150 feet respectively. - A description of the operations in these works states that not the least interesting objects to visitors, are the stages constructed for wag- gons to travel up and down inclined planes leading from the ground level to the summit of the furnaces, and this with such rapidity, that the men standing upon them, as they ascended and descended, VOL. II. - O cvi LAN CASHIRE AND CHESEIIRE : seemed to be flying through the air. The arrival of a party of visitors was so timed as to witness the employment of some of the large retorts holding five tons of material, which the cold blast had just converted into steel by the Bessemer process. The metal, when poured into the moulds, is, in manufacturing phrase, so “lively,” that it must be covered up and weighted down while still at white heat, otherwise, like quicksilver, it would rise and overflow the mould. In this department is carried on the conversion of the ingots of steel into fabrics of various kinds. Steel rails, tyres for wheels, axles, &c., grow into shape with inconceivable rapidity. One of the most novel adaptations of the principle of the steam hammer is that called the Ramsbottom hammer, which consists of two hammers working horizontally, and delivering a double blow with crushing effect. It is said, however, that much of the power exerted is defeated by the recoil, and that the double hammer is really not more powerful in its stroke than a single one. In illustration at once of the excellent quality of the steel here manufactured, and the strength of the machinery brought to bear on it, we may mention, that steel rails have actually been bent and twisted into a knob without exhibiting, when closely examined, any flaw in the fibre. In consequence of the high percentage of the Furness haematite ore, its easy fusibility, intense heating powers, ductility, and great strength, as well as the excellent qualities of the fine Durham coke employed for fuel, the furnaces at Hindpool are capable of making at the rate of 500 tons a week each. For the eleven furnaces this would yield 5500 tons of railway iron weekly, which, commanding a price, say, of £4 per ton, would be equal to 286,000 tons, or £1,444,806 per annum. To pro- duce this quantity of iron about 500,000 tons of iron ore would be required. The steelworks, when in full operation, could convert weekly about 1000 tons of pig iron into Bessemer steel, selling at £12 to £14 per ton. By this operation accordingly some 52,000 tons of the company's annual produce would have an increased value of £1,500,000 and upwards. Remembering the Barrow Haematite Iron and Steel Co. are now the proprietors of the pro- ductive mines of Parks, Whitriggs, Newton, &c., the statement will not appear extraordinary that, if not already, they soon will become, probably, the largest iron company in the world. To show the development attained by these large works within the last few years, the following returns have been furnished by Mr. Ramsden. They specify the quantity of haematite ore raised MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cvii in the district, the number of tons smelted, and the coal and coke consumed per annum at Barrow, from 1860 to the present time:- Iron Ore raised in Pig Iron manufactured Coal and Coke con- Year. Purness District. at Barrow. sumed at Barrow. 1860, . . . . . . . . . 516,581 ...... 22,592 ...... 52,577 1861, . . . . . . . . . 512,863 ... ... 40,159 ...... 89,853 I 862, e e s a s s a . . 552,983 ...... 87,848 . . . . . . 124,439 1863, . . . . . . . . . 621,492 ...... 113,061 ...... 155,695 1864, . . . . . . . . . 688,116 ...... 125,091 ...... 207,481 1865, . . . . . . . . . . 604,350 ...... 144,256 ...... 246,266 1866, . . . . . . . . . 683,775 ... ... 167, 106 e tº e º 'º 320,282 1867, . . . . . . . . . 650,798 ...... 167,584 e e g º º 354,125 If we add to the above from 700 to 800 tons per week of this iron which is converted into steel on the Bessemer process, we then have some idea of the extent of these important works, and the facilities afforded for any amount of increase consistent with the demand, and the quality of the manufactures attainable from the haematite ores. - To enable the reader to form some idea of this rapid system of civilization, a map or plan of the town and docks is annexed, Plate III. The docks consist, as already described, of two spacious docks and a timber float, with railway communication to all parts of the kingdom ; and, moreover, the products of the iron and steel works can be shipped into vessels afloat in either of the docks. On the other hand, the same facility of transfer is open by railway to the Midland, London, and North Western, and other lines, communi- cating with the metropolis and the numerous seaports of the eastern coast. All these advantages are open to the trade and manufactures of Barrow ; and, in our opinion, a more eligible site for an outlet to all parts of the civilized globe does not exist. The approach to the docks from the Walney channel gives a depth of 35% feet in ordi- nary spring tides, and 18 feet in neap tides. Hence, vessels from 2000 to 3000 tons burden, as well as steamers not exceeding 60 feet over the paddle-boxes, can enter these docks. Considering the magnitude of the progress illustrated by these figures, we are astonished at the rapidity of the transformation, and the enterprising character of the projector. It is, in fact, a new creation, that has sprung into existence as if by the magic wand of the enchantress, so great has been the celerity with which a dozen cottages have been converted into a handsome town, with productive manufactures, and the conveniences and securities for shipping equal Čviii LANCASHIRE AND CHESEIIRE : to any that would be obtained at either Liverpool or any other port of the United Kingdom. Iron Bridges and Iron Shipbuilding.—A cursory retrospect of events, and a brief statement of facts, will show what has been effected during the last thirty years in the application of iron and steel to constructive science, and what wonderful developments have taken place in two very important branches of industry, viz., iron bridges and iron shipbuilding. Even so recently as 1845 iron ships were scarcely known; those which then existed were small experimental vessels; and it required another decade to convince the public that iron was a lighter, safer, and more durable material for shipbuilding than wood. Nearly the same may be affirmed of the application of wrought iron to the construction of bridges. It was not until some examples had been achieved on a colossal scale, that the engineering profession would believe in the possibility of tubular girders and bridges. The investigations and experiments which led to the design and construction of the Britannia and Conway tubular bridges, were, however, too convincing to be resisted by the most sceptical. It soon became manifest that an entirely new sphere of action was open to the engineer and architect, and after such colossal and successful works the profession could not refuse to avail them- selves of these discoveries; and iron has, ever since the completion of the Britannia and Conway bridges, been employed in a variety of bold and ingenious combinations. As some of the most important experiments connected with these great achievements were carried out at Manchester, it may not be out of place if we endeavour to indicate some of the difficulties which at first had to be encountered, and the progressive stages of research which eventually led to a development of true principles of construction. It is not a difficult task to modify and improve when correct principles are once known, as was the case in the two tubular bridges which now span the Conway and Menai Straits. There could not possibly have been given on a larger scale more admirable examples of applied science than those noble structures present to the eye of the professional and initiated public. Wrought-Iron Bridges and Girders.-Although of recent discovery these have, nevertheless, founded certain large branches of industry, and have become of very extensive application. Engineering works on a grand scale could not have been accomplished without them; and one of the most important features in the education of the MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cix engineer of the present day is a knowledge of the properties of iron, and its adaptation to the art of construction. - In laying construction of Chester and Holyhead Railway, two for midable obstacles had to be overcome. The deep and rapid tidal streams at the Conway and Menai Straits had to be crossed by bridges, which must necessarily be of extraordinary span, and of great strength. No centerings or other substructures, such as are usually employed in such massive works, could be erected, and some new and equally secure system of erection was essentially necessary to be adopted. Under the circumstances, the most obvious resource of the engineer would have been a suspension bridge, if the failure of more than one attempt had not proved the impossibility of running railway trains over bridges of that class with safety. Some new expedient of engineering was therefore required, and was found or supposed to be accomplished, in a wrought iron circular tube, supported by chains. Both timber and cast-iron arches had been projected, and a model of a very handsome bridge on the latter principle had been constructed, and submitted to the consideration of a parliamentary committee. The possibility of erecting cast-iron arches over so great a span as 450 feet was, however, questionable, and the security of such a bridge could not but have been endangered by the great changes to which the mate- rial would have been subject from atmospheric influences, and from the vibrations produced by the passage of heavy trains; but a yet more important objection determined the withdrawal of this design. The lords commissioners of the Admiralty, as conservators of the navi- gation, opposed the erection of any structure which should offer a hin- derance to the free passage of vessels under it, and insisted on a clear horizontal headway of 105 feet from the level of high water to the underside of the bridge. It was under these circumstances the pro- moters resolved to adhere to their scheme of a huge cylindrical tube, to be constructed of riveted plates of such dimensions as would allow the passage of locomotive engines and railway trains through its interior.” Previous to attempting so colossal a work, it was deemed expe- dient to institute a series of experiments to test the efficiency of a cylindrical tube, as an auxiliary support for stiffening the bridge on the principle of suspension. These experiments were carefully conducted, and the results * Wide the Author's Tubular Bridges, p. 37. CX * LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: soon proved the insufficiency of the cylindrical system, and the absolute necessity which existed for continuing them, in order to determine the true form of section, and to make the bridge Self- supporting. Eventually they proved conclusive, both as to form and principle, as will be seen in the following extracts from the author's report:- . f - - “The experiments on the circular and elliptical tubes were far from satisfactory, and were ultimately abandoned for the rectangular form, which gave much better results in its resistance to strain ; and as these results are curious and interesting in developing an entirely new branch of industry, we make no apology for their introduction. Some -T - curious and interesting phenomena presented themselves during the progress of the experi- ments, many of them anomalous to our pre- conceived notions of the strength of materials, —l - and totally different to anything yet exhib- ited in any previous research. In rectangular tubes, where the top and bottom sides were of equal areas, it has invariably been observed, that in almost every experiment the tubes gave evidence of weakness in their powers of resistance on the top side, to the forces tending to crush them. With tubes of a rectangular shape, having the top side about double the thickness of the bottom, and the sides only half the thickness of the top, nearly double the strength was obtained. In Experi- ment 14, a tube of the rectangular form, as per fig. 2, nine and a half inches square, with the top and the bottom plates of equal thickness, I’ig. 2. the breaking weight was . . . . . . 3,738 lbs. - Riveting a stronger plate on the top side, *} 8,273 “ strength was increased to . . . . . ) ’ The difference being, . . . 4,535 “ considerably more than double the strength sustained by the tube when the top and bottom sides were equal. These favourable results suggested an increase of thickness on the top; the tube was again placed under strain, which confirmed the experiments given in No. 15 of the same character as the previous one, where the top plate is as near as possible double the thickness of the bottom. In these experiments, the tube was first crippled MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cxi by doubling up the thin plate on the top side, which was done with a weight of . . . . . . . . . . 3,788 lbs. It was then reversed, with the thick side upwards, and by this change the breaking weight was | 7,148 lbs. increased to . . . . . . . . . . . . Making a difference of . . . . . . . 3,360 “ or an increase of nearly double the strength, by the simple operation of reversing the tube, and turning it upside Fig. 3. down. Å" “The same degree of importance is attached f # to a similar form, when the depth in the middle is double the width of the tube. From the experiments in No. 16 we deduce the same results in a tube of the annexed sec- tional form, fig. 3, where the depth is 18} and the breadth 9% inches. “Loading this tube with 6812 lbs. (the thin plate being uppermost), it follows pre- cisely the same law as before, and becomes wrinkled, with a hummock rising on the top _d | * side, so as to render it no longer safe to sus- } tain the load. Take, however, the same tube, and reverse it with the thick plate upwards, and you not only straighten the part previously injured, but Fig. 4. you increase the resisting powers from 6812 *C*Cre lbs. to 12,188 lbs. Let us now examine the || tube in Experiment 29, where the top is com- posed of corrugated iron, as per sketch, fig. 4, forming two tubular cavities extending longi- tudinally along its upper side. This, it will be observed, presents the best form for resist- ing the “puckering” or crushing force, which, on almost every occasion, was present in the previous experiments. Having loaded the tube with increasing weights, it ultimately - gave way by tearing the sides from the top ~! |. and bottom plates, at nearly one and the ºre- t same instant after the last weight, 22,469 lbs., was laid on. The greatly increased strength indicated by this § ſ ga < Sºi > S § ! L ºf 32 ~ +. cxii LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : form of tube is highly satisfactory; and provided these facts are duly appreciated in the construction of the bridge, they will, I have no doubt, lead to the balance of the two resisting forces of tension and compression. - - “The results here obtained are so essential to this inquiry, and to our knowledge of the strength of materials in general, that I have deemed it essential to direct attention to facts of immense value in the proper and judicious application, as well as distribution, of the material in the proposed structures. Strength and lightness are desiderata of great importance, and the circumstances above stated are well worthy the attention of the mathematician and engineer. “For the present we shall have to consider not only the due and perfect proportion of the top and bottom sides of the tubes, but also the stiffening of the sides with those parts, in order to effect the required rigidity for retaining the whole in shape. - “Judging from the experiments already completed, I would ven- ture to state that a tubular bridge can be constructed of such powers and dimensions as will meet, with perfect security, the requirements of railway traffic across the straits. The utmost care must, however, be observed in the construction, and probably a much greater quantity of material may be required than was originally contemplated, before the structure can be considered safe.” These were the views entertained at the close of the preliminary experiments on the rectangular tubes; great doubts, however, ex- isted in the minds of most men at all acquainted with the subject as to the practicability of the object; and a distinguished mathematician went so far as to prove by calculation, that rectangular tubes, com- posed of flexible wrought-iron plates, would double up like a piece of leather. At this stage it was, however, arranged that a model tube of exactly one-sixth the dimensions of the large span of the Britannia bridge should be constructed, in order to test with greater accuracy its powers of resistance under severe strain. As on this tube the strength and other properties of both the Britannia and Conway bridges were founded, it may be interesting to notice a few of the experiments. * - - The model tube was made of the following sectional form, fig. 5, with a cellular top, A, to resist compression, and a flat bottom, B, to resist tension. The object of Some of the experiments on the model tube was to ascertain the effects of long-continued strain, . * Extracted from the Author's Report to the Chester and Holyhead Railway Co. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cxiii analogous to those made upon cast iron for the British Association for the Advancement of Science.” **. “The effect of time upon material when subjected to severe strain, and that more particularly when the load approaches the point of fracture, has long been a question of doubtful solution. In subject- ing any body to a pressure which carries it beyond what is denomi- nated the elastic limit, it is then considered unsafe to load it to any greater extent. At that point the body has taken a permanent set, its atoms or fibrous structure | are changed, and on the whole it |... 2.8. is considered prudent that the * permanent load should not exceed this limit.” º Now, according to facts recently ascertained, this view of the sub- ject appears to be a mere pre- sumption, as the experiments on the effects of time, before alluded to, clearly prove that bodies may : - |. • * ~ * ~ * * * * * * * ~ * * * * ; | t ſ l ſ ~!', º ;: : be loaded (instead of to one-third t of the breaking weight, which is Heli– ++ —k: the assumed elastic limit) to within "`` 2.41----------------------- º one-twelfth of the load requisite to produce rupture, without endangering their security. Even at this point the body will con- tinue to support the load, in the absence of any disturbing cause, with undiminished energy as respects its powers of resistance. These important data tend to increase our confidence in the bear- ing powers of wrought iron, and may further be useful in the advance- ment of physical science as applied to the arts. The position of an elastic limit is exceedingly indefinite, as the experiments conducted by Mr. Hodgkinson and myself have sufficiently shown. In these it was established that the elasticity of bodies is not only affected by a comparatively small weight, but what is more than probable, every minute weight will produce a change in the molecular structure of the body, as well as in its powers of elasticity. - • Transactions of British Association, Author's Report, vol. vi. # Transactions of British Association, vol. vi. WOL. II. w p cxiv LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : M O D E L T UE E. ExPERIMENT XL–Dec. 23, 1846. No. of Weight laid on, Deflection, in Deflection, with * Expt. in Lbs. inches. Load Removed. - Remarks. 1 135,255 3-22 º Weight left suspended on the tube since Decem- 2 139,567 3°38 *-* ber 14. 3 144,352 3°48 &=º 4 149,684 3-70 º ºg 5 151,772 3°8] * 6 154,452 * *º- Broke by tearing asunder through the bottom at the end of the new plates, 21-6 inches from the shackle. Area of the bottom at the point of fracture, 8-8 inches. Ultimate deflection = 3'86. * &º-º-º: “In the preceding experiment there is sufficient evidence to show that the points where the new plates terminated was the weakest part of the tube, and that the cause of fracture did not arise from the weakness of the sides, nor yet from the cellular top, but from a want of proportion in the material, which composed the bottom of the tube. “These views are sufficiently apparent from the fact, that the sides and cellular top were never increased in strength from the commencement, and they sustained no injury, excepting only what was occasioned by the falling of the tube on the blocks, when the bottom was ruptured. It will further be observed, that the plates of the sides and cellular top were of equal thickness throughout, and had to support a greater strain in the centre than any other part, clearly showing that the sides and top were the strongest parts of the tube. Another corroborative circumstance is, that the tube in the last experiment gave way with a deflection of 3-81 inches, whereas, in some of the previous experiments, a deflection of upwards of 5}, inches was attained before the bottom was torn asun- der. Now, if the sides or top had been the weakest parts, they must of necessity have been the first to give way, a circumstance which never occurred ; and hence the inference that the relative proportions of the top, bottom, and sides are rapidly approaching the section of greatest strength.” It will be borne in mind, that the experiments recorded in the preceding and following tables were upon a large scale; and assuming that the tubes for the Britannia and Conway bridges followed the same law as that of the model tube, as regards their powers of resistance to a transverse strain, * These remarks were written immediately succeeding the last experiment. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cxv we arrive at the conclusion that we can obtain sufficient strength in the large tubes either as regards the weight of traffic or the lateral strength of the wind. “The new plates in this experiment did not extend beyond 21 feet on each side of the shackle, which left the remaining portion of the bottom between those points and the supports on each side in their original form, viz., 8:8 inches area. It is to be regretted that the new plates, # of an inch thick, did not extend a few feet nearer the supports, as it would have increased the bearing powers of the tubes, and prevented the rupture which took place, as recorded in the table, with a weight of 69 tons. “Owing to the repeated fracture of the bottom of the tube, it was repaired with additional plates, extending a few feet nearer the sup- ports. This being accomplished, and the sides and top having also been restored, the experiment proceeded as before. ExPERIMENT XLI.-April 15, 1847. Area of the top, . . . . . . . . = 24.024 inches. Area of the bottom, . . . . . = 22'450 “ No. of Weight laid on, Deflection, in Deflection, with Expt. in Lbs. inches. Load Removed Remarks. l 92,299 2' 12 - 2 138,060 3:23 - 3 161,886 3°88 - 4 173,912 4’33 - 5 183,779 4.62 - e e e 6 192,892 - - Broke with this weight (863 tons), the cellular } top puckering at a distance of 2 feet from - the shackle, the bottom and sides remaining uninjured. Ultimate deflection = 4.89. “The crushing of the cellular top attained the object we had been in search of from the beginning of these experiments. It was, there- fore, highly gratifying to find ourselves in a position that no longer admitted of doubt. This experiment determined the relative pro- portions of the top and bottom areas of the tube, so as to balance the forces of compression and extension developed by a transverse strain; and furnished also other data necessary for the construction of a tube, having a maximum strength with a given quantity of material. Having obtained these important data, it became expedient to close the trials, and from these data to deduce such cxvi -* LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESEIIRE : formulae as might enable us to compute the strength and proportions of other tubes, however large, subjected to a transverse strain. “The next and closing experiment was of a gigantic character, viz., upon the large tube itself. It was resolved, in order to make security doubly sure, that an experiment should be made upon the first of the Conway tubes; that temporary piers should be built under it at each end (corresponding with the span of 400 feet); and that the deflections should be taken with variable and increasing loads, in the usual way. Immediately on the completion of the tube this was done; the scaffolding, platforms, &c., having been removed, the tube was suspended, and the experiment proceeded as follows:– ExPERIMENT XLII. Rectangular tube 412 feet long, 25 feet 6 inches deep in the middle, 15 feet wide, and 400 feet between the supports. Area of the top, . . . . . . . . = 670 inches. Area of the bottom, . . . . := 517 “ Computed weight of the tube, including rails and cast-iron frames at the ends, 1300 tons. No. of | Distance be- g tº Weight, in Expt. |tween Supports. Depth. Width. Deflection. "#. Remarks. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Im. 1 400 () 25 6 15 0 7.91 () The weight of the tube, 1300 || | 2 400 0 25 6 15 0 9:02 95 tons, gave a deflection of nearly 3 400 0 25 6 15 () 9°50 154 8 inches, and 95 tons left in 4 400 0 25 6 15 0 || 10:50 201 the middle of the tube for four 5 400 0 25 6 15 0 10°95 301 hours increased the deflection from 9:02 to 9°25 = "23 inch. This weight was continued for 17 hours, with an increase of deflection 10 inch. After this 301 tons, exclusive of the weight of the tubes, were laid on, when the experiment was discontinued. “From the above table it will be seen that an experiment upon the full-sized scale was deemed the most satisfactory method of arriving at correct conclusions. . “The first weight, 95 tons, was spread over a surface of 70 feet in the length of the tube in the middle. - - “The second weight was laid over a surface of 105 feet in the middle. - - “The third over a surface of 150 feet in the middle. “The last over a surface of 190 feet in the middle. MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE. - cxvii “On the 27th of February, 1848, 10 a.m., it blew a severe gale from the N.W., which impinged upon the side of the tube at an angle of about 50°. This produced an oscillating motion which, being carefully measured, gave a lateral deflection of 23 inch. Towards noon the wind blew in gusts, but the lateral effect upon the tube, although quite perceptible, did not exceed # of an inch. “The result fully confirmed the preconceived opinion relative to the lateral stiffness of the structure, which exhibited then, as it does now, considerable powers of resistance to lateral strain; and taking into consideration the great weight of the tube, its cellular structure on the top and bottom platforms, and the combination of its parts, no doubt could any longer be entertained as to the lateral security of the bridge. “For some time after the first Conway tube was erected, consider- able attention was paid to the effects produced by the heat of the sun's rays upon so large a surface of iron. About sunrise, on a clear frosty morning, the gauges, with graduated scales, were set; and after marking the correct position of the tube, the following variations were observed and carefully noted. “At noon, the sun shining bright upon the top and one side, the tube was bent in that direction '96 inch, or nearly 1 inch, as com- pared with the deflections as they stood in the morning before sunrise. At noon when the temperature had greatly increased, an evident increase of ºths of an inch, or a rising of the middle of the tube to that extent, had taken place. The result of this change qftemperature was an increased convexity in the curvature of the top and bottom sides, to the extent of raising the whole tube 71 inch in the middle. The effect of the sun's influence was therefore considerable, and the infusion of heat into the top had, by the elongation of that part, raised the whole weight of the tube to a height of # of an inch, besides an elongation of nearly # of an inch.” The difficulties encountered in carrying the Chester and Holy- head Railway across the Conway and Menai Straits, and the experi- ments establishing the principle on which tubular and other similar bridges should be constructed, led to other results of even greater importance than the completion of these immense structures. The experiments were instituted in the first instance, as we have seen, for the specific purpose of determining the form, strength, and other conditions, of a new material to these constructions. From the results obtained it became evident, that malleable iron was applicable to a cxviii LAN CASEIIRE AND CHIESEIIRE : much greater variety of purposes than those for which it was in this case originally intended. The greatly increased strength of wrought iron under tension, and the comparative lightness of the material when duly proportioned to the work it has to perform, renders it available for almost every description of beams and girders where cast iron could not be employed. And considering that malleable iron is from three to four times stronger than cast iron in its resistance to tension, and only about four-fifths weaker in its resistance to compression, there cannot exist a doubt as to the variety of objects to which it may be advantageously applied. For beams and girders of all sorts the experiments indicated an entirely new era in the application of iron to bridges of the plate and lattice form, and the first of these constructions were two tubular girder bridges, erected from the author's designs, of 60 feet span each, across the canal and a turnpike road at Blackburn. Others followed in rapid succession, some on the plate, and some on the lattice principle, according to the taste of the engineer. These works it must, however, be borne in mind, are all founded on the principle indicated by the experiments already described, and from which the formulae and the proportions of the top and bottom flanges, as applied to the two resisting forces of tension and compres- sion, were obtained. They, moreover, gave the proportion of the sides or middle web with the mode of stiffening those parts, and the system of riveting, so as to obtain the maximum powers of resist- ance. The advantages of tubular plate and lattice bridges are now so well known as to render wrought iron applicable to bridges of spans ranging from 100 to 1000 feet; and if steel, which is nearly double the strength of wrought iron, were employed, there would be no serious engineering difficulty in venturing upon spans of 1500 to 2000 feet: the only question would be that of cost. The principle of construction is the same in both cases, and the saving in weight would be one-third that of wrought iron. In such an enormous span, however, the policy of adopting such a gigantic structure is doubtful: for the experiments distinctly showed that the strengths of girders increased as the squares of the sections, while the weight increased as the cubes of the spans. It therefore follows that, although we admit the practicability of building such a bridge, its weight alone and its ultimate cost would be sufficient to suggest a division of the span, and, in every case where it is possible, to raise a central pier. We know it could MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cxix not be done with iron, as, according to the formula, an iron tube on a span of 1800 feet would break with its own weight. We mention these facts to show the extent to which this new system of bridge- building may be carried, and the immense quantities of iron required for this new branch of industry. We may also state that these constructions and appli- - ances had their origin in London and Manchester. Fig. 6. TI- Hiſſ- HF * ty k : ...— 1.9.- || Nº. *> -Ill. -ſl- ; They were based, indeed, upon an idea of Mr. Robert Stephenson's, but the experiments were con- ducted by the author at the works of Messrs. Wil- liam Fairbairn & Co., Millwall, London, and the designs and details of construction were made at the same company's works at Manchester. The annexed drawing, fig. 6, of one of the Brit- annia tubes will afford a clear conception of its form and construction. The Sec- tion is taken from the middle of the large span, 460 feet, and the locomo- tive engine is drawn to the same scale as the tube, and, therefore, represents the exact proportion be- tween the engine and the interior of the tube. It J. —JIl- == _-Ill- -Jil- =le —lll-, will be seen that there are • e s = º eight cells above, of 1 foot 9 inches square, running longitudinally the whole length of the tube, to resist the force of compression ; and six cells below, to resist tension. In the lower Part of the tube the cells are not necessary, as the whole of the bottom is in a state of tension; but on devising the plans, drawingº, and § º =Hºº ſº: --------> ºc--- tºxº * * *S E ===s* CXX LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : calculations, it was found to be the best form for placing the material in its resistance to strain. Objections had been taken to this mode of construction on account of the difficulty of access into the interior of the cells for painting, cleaning, &c.; and reports got abroad, and were published in the journals and newspapers, that forty tons of rust had been taken out of the cells. Now, there is not a word of truth in this statement, as the writer visited the bridge in November, 1867, and found that, in place of forty tons, the whole weight of rust did not exceed 400 to 500 lbs. The tubes are kept clean and well painted; if this practice is regularly pursued there is no danger from oxidation, and as far as can at present be seen, they are as likely to be as perfect 500 years hence as they are at the present time. It has been stated that the experiments particularized in the preceding pages led to other constructions than those for which they were originally intended; and as these were first introduced by W. Fairbairn & Sons, Manchester, we may mention one of the earliest works of the kind, erected over the river Suir, on the Waterford and Limerick Railway. This bridge is of the tubular or box-girder construction, with a centre span of 160 feet, and two side spans of 55 feet each. It has two girders, one on each side, 280 feet long, and iron cross-beams, 24 feet long, and 4 feet apart, supporting two lines of rails. This bridge was erected in 1851, and has done good service. - - It is unnecessary to pursue the subject further, as the descriptions already given sufficiently prove the benefits which this new system of bridge-building has conferred on the public. They are equally applicable to public roads as to railways, and the present system of construction of bridges outstrips every other; to which may be added, where security and despatch are required, the capacity of enduring heavy strains, and any amount of load. In former times bridges formed of brick or stone required years in construction. By the new system works of even greater magnitude are accomplished in as many months, and at a considerably less cost. Hence the advantages of Science as applied to lines of transit in connection with iron, in the numerous and varied forms of construction. Iron Shipbuilding.—Iron shipbuilding is another branch of in- dustry which has of late years attained colossal dimensions, and forms, in conjunction with iron bridges, one of the most important channels for the consumption of materials so much in demand as MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cxxi wrought iron and steel. We have no reliable returns of the quantity of wrought iron employed for these purposes, but may fairly assume it is very great, considering that the whole of the war and mercantile steam navies, and great numbers of the sailing vessels of this and most other countries, as well as nearly all the bridges, are composed of it. The iron ship, in lightness, durability, and capacity for cargo, is infinitely superior to a vessel built of wood; and, if properly constructed and carefully looked after, will last more than double the time of vessels composed of the best teak and English oak. It is not, however, durability alone that constitutes the value of the iron ship ; its superior strength insures greatly in- creased security to the owners, and what is of much greater importance, to the crew and passengers. Again, as regards cargo there is less risk from damage, as the iron ship is virtually without joints, perfectly water-tight, and free from bilge water and that creak- ing motion observable in the joints of a wooden vessel plunging in a heavy sea. No such motion occurs with an iron-built ship, as the sheathing plates, when carefully riveted, embody a principle of homogeneity sufficiently powerful to withstand the repeated shocks of the elements, to which a similar structure of wood would succumb. Another advantage of iron vessels is their superior lightness and increased area of space. In the iron ship this enlargement of the interior contents is so great as to enable the vessel to carry from one-eighth to one-tenth more cargo, on the same draught of water, than a vessel built of wood. This great increase of capacity is a desideratum in the application of iron for the purposes of shipbuilding, and will readily account for the great demand and the immense increase which of late years has taken place. We might dilate upon this subject to a great extent ; but as our object is to trace the development of every new branch of industry connected with Lancashire and Cheshire, we now propose to trace the origin and subsequent progress of this all-important subject, and the amount of the application of a new material to the construc- tion of almost every description of vessel afloat. We undertake the task the more readily as the engineers of Lancashire, although not the first to build iron vessels, were, at all events, the pioneers of their development, and among the first to assist in showing how the new material should be applied. The following extracts from the writer's work on “Iron Shipbuilding” will, therefore, show what has been effected in marine construction WOL. 11. Q cxxii LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : since 1830, and what remains yet to be done towards its further development:- “At the commencement of the present century, it is more than probable, the first construction of iron canal boats took place, and we have evidence of their existence in Staffordshire about the year 1812 or 1813. From that time to the present iron boats have been partially employed on canals.” “From 1812 to 1822, to use a familiar expression, there was an interregnum of progress for a period of ten years, and we hear nothing of iron, as a material for shipbuilding, till the Horsley Com- pany built a small steamer, the Aaron Manby, which was sent to London in sections, reconstructed in one of the docks, and navigated to Havre and Paris by the late Admiral Napier. “It was supposed that the success of the Aaron Manby would have stimulated exertions in the same direction, but important dis- coveries, like other things of great magnitude, require time to bring them to maturity; and another interregnum ensued, from 1822 to 1829, when a new discovery was made by Mr. Houston, of John- stone, near Paisley, in which it was found that a light boat drawn by two horses had sufficient power to convey passengers on a canal at the rate of from nine to ten miles an hour. This discovery was made at the time when new and important events, forming an era in the history of transit on railways, burst unexpectedly upon the public : we allude to the experimental tests, already described, and the competitive trials of locomotive engines at Rainhill. The results of these trials created alarm in the minds of all the canal proprietors of the kingdom. They became anxious about their property, and the speed of ten miles an hour, as attained by Mr. Houston in his gig boat, was the only gleam of hope left to enable them to meet, with anything like success, the alarming and powerful competition of the rail and locomotive. - “Things were in this state when the governor and council of the Forth and Clyde Canal employed the author, in July, 1829, to institute a series of experiments to determine the law of traction, and to account for the phenomena of the absence of surge with light boats, at high velocities, on canals. These experiments were interesting and conclusive, and the report was shortly after pub- * Mr. Grantham affirms that an iron barge was made in 1787, and it has been stated that another was built for the Severn in 1789. About 1824, when the Aaron Manby iron steamer was constructed, another small steamer was built, and sent to the Shannon, by Mr. Grantham's father; and in 1829-30 Mr. Grantham was present at the experiments with the twin boat on the Irwell at Manchester. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cxxiii lished at the request of the Forth and Clyde Canal Company.” In this report will be found a detailed account of the experiments, and the principle to which they gave birth, together with certain plans for improving the navigation, the most prominent of which were the introduction of iron vessels, and steam on the locomotive principle, in the place of horses, as a motive power on canals. Acting upon this recommendation, four iron vessels were built at Manchester; one, a twin boat with the paddle wheel in the centre; and a second, the Lord Dundas, with the paddle wheels recessed into what is called the “dead wood” of the stern. The first was an experimental boat; and the second, also of iron, plied for several years as a passage boat between Port-Dundas and Lock 16, at the rate of 4% to 5 miles an hour. - “In these experiments it was found that a light boat, propelled by either paddle wheels or screw, followed a totally different law from hauling on the system of traction. In the first, under the most favourable circumstances and with an abundance of steam power, a greater speed than 7% miles an hour was the utmost ever realized. In the second as much as 14 miles was obtained by horses, and this velocity effectually eclipsed the speed of the surge and raised the vessel above the wave of translation, which on canals travels at the rate of 8 to 9 miles an hour, and carried the vessel forward upon a perfectly smooth surface of water. “Simultaneously with the Lord Dundas and the twin experi- mental vessel, another and a larger vessel, 84 feet long and 14 feet beam, with recessed paddles in the stern, was built in Manchester in 1831, and navigated through the locks of the Mersey and Irwell Navigation to Liverpool, from thence by sea to Greenock. To the best of our knowledge this was the second iron vessel that was ever put to sea, if we except the Lord Dundas, a light boat, which performed the voyage from Liverpool to Glasgow in the previous year. This vessel (the Manchester) was for several years employed in carrying goods and passengers between Port-Dundas, Grange- mouth, and Dundee. “About this time Messrs. John and Macgregor Laird, of Birken- head, were engaged in similar undertakings for the Irish canals, and were present with Mr. Grantham and others at most of the experi- mental trials of the light boats on the Irwell. The Irish canal boats were built at Birkenhead, and forwarded in sections to Ireland. * See the Author's work, entitled “Remarks on Cunal Steam Navigation." 1831. cxxiv. LAN CASFIIRE AND CHESHIRE : About the same time, or shortly aſter, the Lord Dundas and the Manchester were introduced on the Forth and Clyde Canal, Messrs. Laird built the Alburka, a small iron vessel that went out to Africa with the Landers and Mr. Macgregor Laird, for the exploration of the Niger. The strength and sailing qualities of all these vessels were confirmatory of the great superiority of iron over wood as a material for shipbuilding; and we have only to refer to the extensive use and enormous increase that have since taken place in its application, not only in this country, but in every maritime state of the globe, to be convinced of the soundness of the principle, and the great superiority of the iron ship. “Since these early attempts iron shipbuilding has undergone no very great improvements, except in the construction of vessels of large tonnage and great magnitude. A long and laborious series of experiments were, however, made to determine the strength and other properties of the material of different forms and combinations as applied to shipbuilding, and the ultimate result was the applica- tion of these principles to sea-going vessels. These experiments were made shortly after the construction of the Manchester, which was launched on the Irwell in 1831, and were subsequently enlarged and published in the “Philosophical Transactions,” after several large vessels had been built. From that time to the present iron has become the principal material for vessels of almost every description, whether intended for war or the mercantile navy. For the extent to which the application has been carried, we may instance the ships commenced in the earlier period of construction, built by Messrs. W. Fairbairn & Co., of Millwall, London; the Great Eastern, by the late Mr. Brunel; others, by Mr. John Scott Russel; Messrs. Laird & Co., Birkenhead; Mr. Vernon, of Liverpool; Mr. Robert Napier, and several other eminent builders of Glasgow. To the Clyde builders may be referred some of our most important constructions, and there is no part of the United Kingdom where greater energy and enterprise in this branch of industry is displayed. º “It is evident that thirty-nine years' practice in iron shipbuilding must have improved the principle of construction, so as to render iron-built vessels safer, and better calculated to meet the require- ments necessary for the navigation of dangerous and tempestuous seas, than those composed of any other material with which we are acquainted. It is, however, clear that, in some instances, these results have not been obtained, as numbers of vessels are built, and MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. CXXV are now building, of inferior material and defective in principle, thus impairing their security, and rendering them unfit for service upon the open sea. Much has yet to be done to rectify these mistakes, to raise the character of the iron shipbuilder, and ultimately to estab- lish in the public mind feelings of security in the strength of vessels of this description. We venture to hope that the time is not far distant when these desirable objects will be accomplished. “With regard to ships of war, we may remark that the future destiny of nations seems to be involved in the consideration of iron, and its application to an entirely new system of construction, so as to unite with equal facility the powers of attack and defence. To combine power and resistance in one construction is a desideratum not yet attained; but every effort is now being made by the govern- ment of this and other maritime nations to approximate as nearly as possible to it. It appears from what has already been effected by the British government, and the preparations now going forward in the French dockyards, as also from the trials and experiments made in America, that the fleets of the future will undergo a thorough change, not only in form, but also in the quality of the material used in their construction. Thirty years' experience in the appliance of iron to the building of our mercantile navy has shown its great superiority; and much greater progress in this direction would have been made in the government dockyards but for two reasons; namely, the strong prejudices raised against iron, in the first instance, and the dangers arising from the effects of shot on iron ships, in the second.” º sº In treating of this part of the subject it would be incomplete if we did not exhibit the difficulties that had to be surmounted before arriving at sound principles of construction. These princi- ples were deduced from carefully conducted experiments which took place at Manchester as early as 1833–34, and the results will be found in papers which were read before the Royal Society and the British Association for the Advancement of Science, some years later.f Communications have also been made to the Institution of Naval Architects, and these papers have been largely commented upon and carefully investigated by higher authorities than the author. They have, moreover, been acknowledged of great value as * See the Author's work on “Iron Manufacture.” Second edition. 1865. f This was written in 1864–65, during the experiments at Shoeburyness, by the Iron-olate Committee, to ascertain the law of resistance of iron armour plates to heavy shot at high velocities. * , cxxvi LAN CASHIRE AND CHIESHIRE : affording data for construction, and the principles there set forth have been adopted and acted upon in the construction of her Majesty's ships. As these conditions have been rendered available we may venture to supply some of the facts, in order to furnish the reader with a clearer conception of the “past and present” state of iron shipbuilding, and the more fully to illustrate this part of our subject the following examples on the different strains of iron ships, taken from the author's work on iron shipbuilding, will suffice. On the Strains of Iron Ships.-1. “Let us suppose a vessel in the middle of the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean having to encounter a rolling ==== E: - :->> →...→…→--~~ sea in a storm, where the elevation from the trough of the sea to the crest of the wave is 24 feet; and assuming the distance between them from point to point to be 380 feet to 400 feet; and, again, supposing that these waves move at a velocity of ten knots an hour— and we have a large vessel supported (as represented in the diagram, fig. 7) by two waves, one at the bow and another at the stern, and her midships partially unsupported, as if two liquid rollers, a, a, Fig. 8. to use a familiar expression, were passing at the above rate under her bottom. In this position the strains would have a tendency to crush the material composing the upper deck at A, and to tear asunder the hull or bottom, B. Hence the necessity for increased resistance in these parts. 2. “Reversing this position, and supposing that our liquid rollers MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cxxvii have passed from the bows and stern to the centre of the ship, and we have her balanced in the shape of a scale-beam, as at fig. 8, with both ends unsupported. In this position the strains are reversed, and we have the crushing force along the bottom, as at B, and the tensile force at A, on the upper deck. . 3. “Assuming, again, that the waves, or liquid rollers, have passed from the centre of the vessel half-way to the stem, and we have Fig. 9. again the same forces continued, namely, tension on the upper deck at the point A, fig. 9, immediately over the apex of the surge, and compression of B, below. 4. “In these forms we have nearly all the disturbances and variety of strains, independent of rolling, to which vessels are subjected when afloat. Under other circumstances, such as a vessel stranded on a lee shore, beaten on rocks or sandbanks, widely different forces Fig. 10. come into operation; and the only safeguard in these positions is increased strength at midships, and a sufficient number of water- tight bulkheads to prevent her filling entirely with water. Let us take, for example, a vessel like the Warrior, 380 feet long and 42 feet deep, as shown in fig, 10, and treat it as a hollow beam floated or balanced on the fulcrum, A, as a centre round which the alternate forces revolve. In this position, every time that the vessel rises on cxxviii LAN CASH II&E AND CHIESHIRE : the sea at the bow the tensile strain is along the bottom in the direction of the arrows, a, b, whilst, at the same instant, the com- pression, or the tendency to crush, is in the direction of the arrows, c, d, and vice versá, as the bow of the ship descends in the opposite direction into the trough of the sea. Now, to guard against injury to the joints by these continual transfers of strains, which sur- round the neutral axis, A, it is essential to the security of the ship that there should be no slipping or movement on the joints, par- ticularly at midships, where the strains are greatest on the bottom and on the sides level with the upper deck.” - It would be foreign to the object of this work to enter into details or mathematical formulae in connection with this subject. We may, however, notice a few facts which have given rise to great difference of opinion on the question of security of our national defences. These have been ascertained by a variety of forms and conditions; and although still greater changes may be effected, it will not detract from the interest of the subject if we venture on a few illustrations, in order to show what has already been done in the way of progress. To the general reader these facts may not be attractive, but as South Lancashire contains one of the largest sea- ports on the face of the globe, a large proportion of the naval and mercantile community may find them interesting and instructive. Impressed with this conviction, we have to state that, although considerable improvements have been effected in the design and construction of iron vessels, the subject does not seem to have been theoretically or practically investigated to the extent to which its importance justly entitles it. The experiments to which we have alluded related chiefly to the strength of the material; and the value of different kinds of riveted joints as compared with the solid plate; we now treat of the form and distribution of the material. - Of late years it has been found convenient to increase the length of steamers and Sailing vessels to as much as eight or nine times their breadth of beam, and this for two reasons—first, to obtain an increase of speed, by giving fine sharp lines to the bow and stern; and, secondly, to secure an increase of capacity for cargo on the same midship-section by which the carrying powers of the ship are greatly augmented. There appears to be no serious objection to this increase of length, which may, or may not, have reached its maximum. But, unfortunately, it has hitherto been accomplished at a great sacrifice of the strength of the ships or vessels floating MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cxxix on water and subjected to the swell of a rolling sea. In these conditions they are governed by the same laws of transverse strain as simple hollow beams, similar to the tubes of the Britannia and Conway tubular bridges. Assuming this law to be true, it follows that we cannot lengthen a ship, if we are to retain the same strength, without adding to her depth, or the sectional area of the plates in the middle. As an illustration of this fact, let us suppose a vessel 306 feet long, 41 feet 6 inches beam, and 26 feet deep, and a displacement of 5000 tons. In this case we should then require a sectional area— Inches. For the deck (in iron plates), . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 For the bottom of hull, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 The sides, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Total area at midships, . . . . . . . . . . 1,370 This by the formula would give 3585 tons as the powers of resist- ance in the middle, or equal to 7170 tons, of an equally distributed cargo. This is equivalent to a safe and well-constructed ship, and in order to give perfect security every sea-going vessel should be built on this principle. On the Construction of Ships of War and their Armaments.-In the treatise on Iron Shipbuilding published by Messrs. Longmans & Co., in 1865, the following observations occur:- At the commence- ment of the Crimean war ten years ago, his imperial majesty, the emperor of the French, first suggested, that to cover the sides of ships with thick iron plates would render them impervious to shot, and the first ship that, properly speaking, had her sides protected in this way was the La Gloire. She was cased with 4-inch thick armour plates, fastened with long bolts screwed into the timbers, and was considered at the time to be impregnable and perfectly shot- proof, which was the case, as the heaviest ordnance then in use was the 68-pounder smooth-bore gun. - “The success of the La Gloire, and the apparent security which she indicated in her new dress, led to distrust in every other vessel that was not protected by a covering of impenetrable armour plate. For a time it was doubtful to what extent this new system of armour-covering was serviceable, and how it could best be applied to existing ships. This was a debatable point, and many were the projects elicited for that purpose, and the rooms of the Admiralty : 7" VOL. II. CXXX LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE . were inundated with contrivances, from which it was impossible to make a selection calculated to meet the requirements necessary to convert two and three-deckers into serviceable armour-plated ships. The result of all this conflicting testimony was that new ships must be built; and to render them as nearly as possible fire-proof and shot- proof, it was decided to build them entirely of iron. In the mean- time, it was necessary to be prepared, and not only were the Warrior and Black Prince placed upon the stocks, but several of the large two and three-deckers were cut down and lengthened and plated in order to meet the exigencies of the time, in case the country should be unexpectedly engaged in war. - “No sooner were these matters settled, and provision made for the worst, than it was found that great improvements were likely to be made in guns, both as regards range and power. This discovery called into action the two rival constructors, Whitworth and Arm- strong, and after a long series of experimental tests, it was ascer- tained that the old ordnance was exceedingly defective; that every gun, great or small, should be rifled, in order to give long range and precision to the projectile; and that to give the required strength to guns, they would have to be made of wrought iron or steel. It was also asserted that the old-fashioned method of putting the ball and charge in at the muzzle was a bad one, and hence followed the breech-loaders, and that complexity of construction which made the cure in some cases worse than the disease. Ultimately it was decided that breech-loading was neither safe nor convenient, and for heavy guns it was decided to retrace the steps previously taken, and come back to the old plan of introducing the charge through the muzzle. - “For many months the new rifled constructions were confined to guns of small bore, 12 to 40 pounders, all of them breech-loaders. Then followed those of larger calibre, from 70 to 110 pounders, which were also constructed as breech-loaders, and these held their ground for a time, until it was found that the 110-pounders produced less damage on the sides of an iron-plated ship than the old 68-pounder. During this state of change and vacillation about guns and iron- plated ships, the special committee on iron was appointed, conjointly with the War Office and the Admiralty, to determine experimentally the composition, properties, law of resistance, &c., of iron plates and shot, as will be seen on reference to the following instructions sub- mitted to the committee by the War Office:– MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE, - cxxxi “WAR OFFICE, January 12, 1861. ‘The experiments should be directed to ascertain the thickness, size, and weight of iron plates of a specific composition and manufacture that will resist shot of given shape, weight, and material, at given velocities, striking both directly and at given angles. ‘The resisting powers of different qualities of iron plates must be tested; hence the history of each plate should be ascertained, following it up from the first stage of manufacture until it became a wrought-iron plate. - ‘The chemical composition of the iron at each process of manufacture should be ascer- tained; the specific gravity and lay of the fibre of the plates experimented upon should be noted, as well as the composition, density, and mode of manufacture of the shot; but it will be impossible to decide on the greater or less resistance of the plates unless the velocities of the shot be measured, either by Professor Wheatstone's or one of the foreign instruments. Any variation in the velocity of the shot should be carefully recorded, together with every particular of each experiment. If this be not done, no accurate conclusions can be drawn from them. - ‘The committee should begin the experiments on a small scale, for if all the facts above mentioned be carefully ascertained and traced up through certain gradations of models at the known high velocities required, they would, at a very reduced cost in money and time, afford data for devising a few final experiments on a larger scale; because all the particulars of the plates in the Small experiments being known, allowance could be made for the difference in the composition of iron plates on the larger scale, which necessarily arises from the imperfec- tion of means of manufacture; and the law being the same whether for large or small plates, that being once ascertained, the committee would know what practical experiments to make on a large Scale. - “All the records of all previous experiments that have been made should be given to the committee to be examined and classified. The committee should also be called upon to sub- mit a scheme of experiments. * - “The experiments should be carried on at Woolwich, Shoeburyness, or Portsmouth, or, if preferred, in the neighbourhood of some ironworks, as might be best for the convenience of the gentlemen engaged. - “The government would, by means of these experiments, be in a position to specify the proper mode of manufacture for these plates. (Signed) * B. HAWES.” “From the above it will be seen that the committee had import- ant duties to perform, and although not limited in their researches, they were especially required to investigate every circumstance con- nected with iron, as applied to ships and forts; and they were also expected to recommend and conduct experiments on a large scale, in order not only to correct defects in the manufacture and improve the quality of the iron, but to determine its properties and its powers of resistance to projectiles at high velocities. These duties were energetically and carefully performed on the part of the com- mittee, and after four years labour they were relieved from further duty in the month of August, 1864. - “During the time of the committee's existence not less than twenty iron-plated targets were made and experimented upon, exclu- sive of other experimental researches at Manchester and Portsmouth, cxxxii LANCASHIRE AND CHIESEIIRE . to determine the effects of impact, and the resistances afforded by different qualities of manufactured plates, of various thicknesses and of different forms and conditions, as applied to ships of war. In addition to these duties, the committee undertook the inquiry as to the best and most secure mode of attaching armour plates to the sides of ships, whether constructed of iron or of wood, and a number of interesting experiments were instituted and conducted for that purpose. At the commencement of the labours of the committee the only vessel upon a large scale, intended for the reception of armour plating, was the Warrior, of 6039 tons burden. This vessel was exclusively prepared for a covering of plates 4% inches thick, to a depth of 6 feet under the water-line, and supported by a backing of teak and oak, varying from 18 to 20 inches thick, between the armour plates and the iron skin of the ship. The armour plates were fastened through the wood-backing, and the skin of the ship, by bolts 1} inch diameter, counter-sunk into the armour plates and screwed inside between the frames of the ship. This arrangement was considered, in the absence of experiment, the most perfect that could be adopted at the time; but subsequent investigation showed that the bolt fastenings were much too weak, and that in place of a double line of wood backing, a single thickness of teak or oak would (with an additional thickness of armour plate equivalent to the weight of the abstracted timber) prove sufficient to prevent the entrance of the shot and shell at that time in use. Acting upon this principle, the backing to the armour plates of the most recent construction is from 9 to 10 inches thick, and the bolts are enlarged from 1% to 2% inches diameter, making the strength of the retaining bolts nearly three times that of those in the Warrior. “At the commencement of the experiments by the committee, it was considered desirable to ascertain whether the wood backing could, or could not, be entirely dispensed with without any increase of weight, and to give the difference to an increased thickness of the armour plates. This consideration was of great importance, as it was found that Mr. Whitworth had fired a hardened steel shell through a 4-inch plate, and lodged its explosive contents in the backing and sides of the ship. “This experiment caused considerable alarm in the minds of nautical men as to the safety of the ship from fire, and particularly those built of wood, if penetrated with shells. To obviate these risks several targets were made for the purpose of dispensing MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cxxxiii entirely with the wood backing, and to determine the effects of vibration or jar produced upon the plates and fastenings by the impact of both shot and shell. These were not competing targets, although treated as such by the press, but were made for the exclu- sive purpose of ascertaining the actual state of a vessel built entirely of iron and armour-plated, without the intervention of timber back- ing. The experiments were conclusive and instructive, as the results clearly showed that a cushion of some compressive substance was requisite to receive the effects of the blow, to deaden the vibration, and secure the fastenings from fracture. “Other experiments of an interesting and instructive character were conducted by the committee, some of them to determine the law of oblique firing at different angles, varying from 15° to 45°. These experiments were made on different thicknesses of plates, in order to determine the penetrative powers of variously formed shot, when fired at angles to the surface of the plate. Experiments were also conducted to determine the law of resistance of plates of different thicknesses to projectiles, fired point blank at short dis- tances and at right angles to the plate. These were done with great precision and care; and in order to determine the law of perforation a long series of experiments was conducted on statical pressure, showing the power required to force a steel cylinder through plates of different thicknesses; and these were carefully compared with those on impact, and deductions made therefrom. These experi- ments will be found instructive as well as useful, and may be referred to in the reports of the Iron-plate Committee.” As regards the form, weight of armour plates, and other con- ditions and appointments of ships of war, we are far from having obtained anything like a fixed principle of construction. Ever since the launch of the Warrior and the Black Prince, the Admiralty have been floundering among schemes and projects without any fixed rule of action; and although the Iron-plate Committee produced in their reports a great amount of useful data, as regards both ships and guns, the government, up to the present time, have never been able to make use of them with any prospect of success. On the contrary, they have been vacillating between the designs of the naval con- structor and those of Captain Cowper Coles. The forms of the Warrior and the Black I rince are analogous to that of a large frigate of the ordinary construction, and appeared, at that time, well adapted for speed, and calculated to carry a battery ranging from cxxxiv LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: 68 to 100 pounders, the largest guns then in use. The improve- ments that have since taken place have increased the weight and power of the armaments from the 68 smooth-bore guns to rifled ordnance, calculated to discharge bolts of 400 to 600 lbs. weight. To carry artillery of such enormous weight it was found necessary to alter the form of the ship, to attain increased flotation, by the extension of the bows under the water-line. With this additional floatage the vessel was enabled to carry one or more large guns at the bows, and by giving the projection the shape of a peak, she became a ram for running down an enemy's ship, in addition to carrying a heavy battery of guns at midships. This is the principle adopted by Mr. Reed, the present chief constructor, as also by the naval architects of France. * . In opposition to this plan there is the so-called turret system, by Captain Cowper Coles, and that of the Monitor class, acted upon by the Americans during the war with the Southern states. With these conflicting opinions before us, it is difficult to decide what is the best form calculated to meet all the requirements necessary in the present state of naval warfare ; actual practice and the exigencies of the case can alone determine the requisite form and conditions of naval construction. It is, therefore, more than probable that we must wait for the solution of this important question, until the issue of some great naval conflicts shall have developed an entirely new system of tactics. A few illustrations of what has already been effected in the construction of our iron-clad fleet will probably not be out of place. From our treatise on “Iron Shipbuilding” we quote the following remarks in reference to armour-plated ships:– - “Armour plating is a comparatively untried system. The best form and size of these vessels, as well as the proper strength of their armour plates, have yet to be determined; and the best contrivances and best designs of the present day can only be considered approxi- mate to what may ultimately be required to resist the impact of shot from large guns, and other destructive agencies which have yet to be developed. The defects of our present constructions will in all probability have to be tested by actual war before the correct principle of construction is attained; and until that time comes, which we hope is far distant, we must be content to go on scheming about great guns and armour plates, till the powers of attack so much exceed that of defence as to render—what is not improbable— MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE, CXXXV a clear open ship above the water line, of whatever burden, safer and better calculated for security than one sunk to a great depth by an unbearable load of armour. - - “The Americans seem to have arrived at this conclusion from actual practice against forts and iron-clad ships, and state that heavy smooth-bore pivot guns and spherical cast-iron shot are more than a match for any thickness of armour plates that a ship is able to carry; and it is further stated that smooth-bores, throwing solid spherical shot, are decidedly superior to rifled guns with their elongated bolts. The Federal Board of Ordnance observe, in their report, ‘that no manner or thickness of iron or steel armour that could be carried on the hulls of ships will resist the impact of solid spherical shot, fired from the heaviest calibres of the navy, at close range, with appro- priate charges of powder.' And it is further reported that one of the Federal admirals gives it as his opinion, “that no ship can secure absolute immunity from heavy guns at short range,’ and ‘that the armour plates of ordinary ships will eventually terminate in the same manner as chain or plate armour for cavaliers;’ ‘that the progress of science will confine the encumbrance of armour more and more narrowly to a vessel's vital parts, and that in the end it will be probably concluded that, upon a balance of advantages and disad- vantages, a cruiser intended for sea service had better carry no armour at all, excepting only what may be found necessary for the safety of the ship.’ “These opinions appear to strengthen those at which we have arrived from the experiments witnessed on the different targets at Shoeburyness; and we have yet to learn to what extent a serviceable ship should be plated, or whether we should not adopt the opinion of the American admiral, and entirely get rid of the encumbrance, excepting for the protection of the hull. One thing appears quite certain, that a light, well-equipped ship, with great speed and power, would outstrip another with a cargo of iron plates on her sides. Even supposing that these plates were to some extent invul- nerable, which is not the case, it would then follow that such a vessel would be unable to overhaul and bring to action a more speedy and active manoeuvring opponent. It is doubtless correct that an unpro- tected vessel would have no chance with the iron-clad within the destructive range of her guns, and if her sailing powers were superior she would, under all circumstances, be the safer and better ship of the two.” CXXXV1 LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESEIIRE : We might multiply these remarks, but our space admonishes us to confine them within exceedingly narrow limits, in order to make room for some illustrations of the two favourite systems of construc- tion which at present engage the attention of our naval authorities. The first, as before stated, is Mr. Reed's, which consists of a concentrated battery of large guns at midships, and one or more guns at the bow and stern. These are independent of the prin- cipal battery on the fighting deck. The midship guns are protected by strong armour plates, from 6 to 8 inches thick, and the remainder of the vessel is also encased with 4-inch plates, which cover the whole of the vulnerable parts of the ship, above and below the water-line, from stem to stern. In addition to the 4-inch armour plates, an extra thickness of 14-inch plating is placed between the backing and the sides of the ship. From this it will be seen that 6 inches of iron must be pierced before either shot or shell can enter the ship. To give an example of this construction, we place before the reader some sketches of the Bellerophon, built upon the new prin. ciple of double bottoms and longitudinal cells, which the author urgently recommended to the comptroller and constructor of the navy, and which was ultimately adopted. This principle, first intro- duced into the construction of the large tubular bridges across the Menai and Conway Straits, applies with equal certainty and effect to the building of large ships; but although this had been previously demonstrated to the government, it required the introduction of new heads and new hands to act upon it. This is not surprising, as it is difficult for men after a certain age to divest themselves of opinions, which, in the early stages of their professional career, they were taught to believe invulnerable. Doubtless an adhesion to these principles, as far as they go, is commendable; but the progress of science and the adoption of an entirely new material of construc- tion involve new laws and new principles widely different from those previously in use. It is not, therefore, surprising that new constructions and new materials should require new heads and new hands to supplant exploded ideas and work out new ones. Young men enter upon the stage of life with fresh ideas, and readily adopt new principles; they grow up with the changes in progress, pre- sent to the world new conceptions in unison with those which the progress of science suggests. It is in this way that persons like ourselves are superseded in actual practice by younger and more MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cxxxvii. vigorous intellects, free from prejudice, and therefore better able to meet the requirements of the times. We have ventured upon these remarks to show that, in the case of the Bellerophon, the Admiralty were fully aware of the necessity of the changes now in progress, and were justified in calling to their aid a class of men conversant with iron constructions, and free to adopt and to apply every known prin- ciple calculated to improve the efficiency of her Majesty's navy. The Bellerophon is a medium-sized vessel, about 300 feet long, 56 feet beam, and measures 4216 tons burden. She is constructed entirely of iron, with lower, middle, and spar or upper decks. She carries a midship battery of eight large guns, with two 400-pounders at the bow and two 300-pounders at the stern. She is covered with armour plates, 6 inches thick all round, to a height of 15 feet above and 5 below the water line. At midships the armour plating is continued upwards to the spar-deck, and completely covers the guns on each side. The outer parts are not shielded, but left with no other protection than the sides and two enormous bulkheads at the midship battery. Fig. 11 represents a longitudinal section of the Bellerophon, show- Rig. 11. ing the position of the engines, boilers, bulkheads, &c. In this it will be observed that the engines, boilers, &c., occupy the spaces, A, B, B, and are fixed upon cross-beams attached to the keelson under the lower deck; c is the water-tight tube for the propeller shaft, and D the space occupied by the after-magazine and water tanks. Under these are the thrust chock bearers and iron-box bearers, supporting the line of the propeller shaft. In the divisions of this vessel there are four water-tight compartments, e, e, e, e, divided by iron bulkheads, and others that could be made water-tight if neces- sary; the first extending from the bottom to the underside of the fighting deck, and the others to the lower deck. Immediately behind the magazine is the mizenmast, between the engines and the boilers the mainmast; and the foremast is also close to the fore-magazine; thus distributing the weight so as to trim the ship. VOL. II. S cxxxviii LANGASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: Fig. 12 represents a half-transverse section of the Bellerophon at midships, in which are exhibited sections of the longitudinal cells, A, A, A, A, &c., and the principle of construction for the double bottom. It will be seen that there Tig. 12. are eight cells about 6 feet wide, | s and varying from 4 feet to 3 feet \ 4 inches deep on each side of the ############sº centre keelson. Each of the gº keelsons is composed of 3-inch thick plates, extending the whole length of the vessel to the point of convergence, where they re- spectively run into each other, and terminate on the centre keel- son, B, which connects with the sternpost and cutwater, and re- presents the keel. Figs. 13 and 14 show sections of the construc- tion of one of those cells, of which the following is a description. Fig. 13 is a longitudinal section showing the joint of the mid- feather of one of the keelsons at f, chain-riveted with two ſº, inch thick covering plates, one on each side, in order to resist tension, and the cross-ribs g, g, g, which form the cells and constitute the frames of the ship. Each of the keelson-plates is ; of an inch 㺺§àWAº > -#:º:- ; i : Fig. 14. ÉE.;º::::::::::::::::::H. º º # *|| : ... § | |s|≤ſº ſ ſ: |ºft : |###| || &ºtºcºl: sº thick, and is riveted with double angle irons to the outer skin, h, and the iron plates, i, i, which form the double bottom. Trans- versely the same principle of construction is pursued, with double angle irons to receive the gussets or stiffening plates, which are securely riveted to the angle irons of the floor-plates and the outer sheathing. This gives great stiffness to the bottom, as also to the iron flooring above; and these, with the water-tight bulkheads, offer Wºlſº 2 y-s H º | | | | | sº !. | ! §: Tºft iºns, MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE, cxxxix the necessary security against accident to the outer skin and frames of the ship. As respects the plating or outer skin of the ship, each of the transverse joints is treble-riveted, the same as the keelson- plates, on the chain-principle; and were it not for the wear and tear to which the hull is subject, the thickness of these plates might be reduced from To to # of an inch less than what is represented on the section at fig. 12, which gives the correct proportions of this portion of the structure. - The upper deck is covered all over with # inch steel plates, and the main deck with iron plates of the same thickness. To these are added stringers of thicker plates and angle irons along the decks on each side; and, taking into account the strength of the sides, teak- backing, and armour-plates at midships, we may safely apply the d formula W = **, which gives the strength of the vessel, when treated as a hollow girder supported on two points at the ends. In this case W = 670 sº = 4947-6 tons, the breaking weight in the middle, or 9895.2 tons, equally distributed throughout the whole length of the vessel. *T The next system of shipbuilding to which we shall refer is that of Captain Cowper Coles, who employs either wood or iron; but in place of the central battery at midships, as advocated by Mr. Reed, he substitutes two or more revolving turrets, from which the guns may be pointed in any direction without moving the ship. From this it will be seen that Captain Coles' system, with an arma- ment of four turrets and eight large guns on a vessel of the same size as the Bellerophon, would not be more than a match for that of Mr. Reed's midship battery and bow and stern guns, as before described. * It must be observed that the revolving turrets are covered with armour-plates of ten inches thick, and are capable, according to Captain Coles, of carrying heavier guns in proportion to tonnage than any other description of vessel. In Plate IV., figs. 1 and 2, we present an elevation and an upper deck plan of a vessel of this description, designed according to Captain Coles' system, with two turrets and carrying four 600-pounder guns, from which an accurate idea of its general formation and appearance will be obtained. The bulwarks, shown broken off in elevation, fig. 1, are made to turn down all round the vessel. The guns of the turrets (as shown by the cxl LANCASFIITRE AND CHESEIIRE . arcs of training marked on the plan) are capable of a concentrated fire of 2400 lbs. from either bow, as at a, a, b, b, fig. 2; and a direct fire in a line with the keel ahead, c, c; and astern from two 600-pounders. In closing this branch of our subject, we must not omit to notice the researches and experiments of the Iron-plate Committee, on the resisting powers of armour-plates and shot. Their results will be found, in detail, in four large Blue Books, and as many volumes of photographs, two of which show the destructive effects of shot at high velocities. The labours of the Iron-plate Committee led to results of con- siderable importance, as regards the composition and character of the iron used in the manufacture of armour-plates. The first series of experiments brought out numerous defects in the manufacture of the plates, such as imperfect welding, hardness, brittleness, and a great want of homogeneity in the mass, and many other defects, which have since been remedied. These defects were so apparent, that a shot passing through the plate broke it up into large masses, leaving cracks and fissures radiating from the centre of perforation in a star-like form, as seen in fig. 15. This was not, however, the only objection, as the laminated character of the plate, and the imperfect welding, caused the different layers to separate and tear asunder, like bark torn from trees, as shown in fig. 16; and these defects, taken in con- - nection with the brittle state of the plates, Fig. 15. and the numerous cracks (which extended -- from two to three feet) radiating from the centre in every direction, must have ren- dered the plate exceedingly insecure, if struck a second time by a shot. In this latter case, large flat pieces were, in actual practice, forced out, leaving an immense gap in the side of the target. - The effects of cylindrical bolts or shot from heavy rifled ordnance, and the difference between round and point-ended shot, will be best appreciated from the sketch in Plate IV., fig. 6, which exhibits the broken armour plates, A, the wood backing, B, and the outer plate or skin of the ship, C. The drawing is a little exaggerated; these effects, however, have frequently been the result of heavy firing, with large guns, at point blank range. We have dwelt longer on this subject than at first intended; MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cxli but as iron shipbuilding forms a very important part of the indus- tries of Lancashire, and, moreover, as its application to naval con- struction is of great national importance, our remarks will probably be excused by the reader. Its application to these particular vessels has become almost universal, and we have only to instance the immense scale of its extension on the Clyde, the Mersey, and the Tyne, to prove its importance as a branch of British industry. PRIME MOVERS AND THE MACHINERY OF TRANSMISSION. Having noticed the scientific and educational institutions, founded for the diffusion of knowledge, which bear directly upon practical science and the industrial resources for which these particular dis- tricts have for so many years been distinguished, we now arrive at that part of our subject which treats of the prime movers and machinery of the staple trade of the two counties—a branch involv- ing considerations of paramount importance. That the institutions to which we have referred have been highly beneficial in encouraging discoveries and affording facilities for the acquisition of knowledge, does not admit of doubt; and if English- men are to maintain that high character in chemical and mechanical science for which they have hitherto been celebrated, we must educate our workmen, if we are to compete with the growing intelli- gence of other countries. In the past age we were obviously indebted for some of our most useful discoveries to self-made men, whose native skill and energy of cxlii LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : character rose above every difficulty, and gave to the world the steam- engine, the mule, gas-lighting, throstle-spinning, power-looms, and many other inventions, from which all classes of the community have derived benefit. We still have amongst us many men of this class —uneducated, as we may call them, but deep thinkers, clear-headed, and of indomitable perseverance. These are, however, exceptions to , the general rule, and it has been questioned whether men of such strong powers would be able, under the present improved con- dition of society, to contend, as in former times, with competitors of superior education to themselves. It has also been questioned whether they would have done more, or have done it better, if they had been educated. To this we may safely reply that, in case their genius inclined in the same direction as before they were educated, the assumption must be, that education would have enlarged their conceptions, elevated their character, and produced equally important, if not superior, and more endurable results. On the other hand, it may be affirmed that, under the influence of education, the pur- suits of the individual might have taken a totally different turn ; and although the circumstances might be the same, the desire for investigation, or what is called “scheming,” might have been ab- sorbed by some problematical hypothesis more attractive to a refined mind, but less useful to Society. However this may be, we must take the world as we find it, and endeavour to prepare ourselves for the onward progress of nations to a higher and more intellectual state of existence. There is nothing so likely to contribute to such an end as the application of elementary force to machines, instead of animal power; and in order to give the reader a clear conception of the value of this sub- stitution and its effects on industrial pursuits, we shall have to notice —first, Prime Movers; and, second, Millwork, or the machinery of transmission. Prime Movers.-Of all prime movers the steam-engine is the most effective. In our notice of James Watt we have already traced its origin, and we have now only to consider its effects, and the vast importance of its action as applied to the staple articles of manu- facture in Lancashire and Cheshire. We may further have to notice its agency in a largely extended commerce, either as regards its powers of traction on railways, or its propulsion of our war and mercantile marine; in both of these channels it has largely contributed to the wealth and prosperity of the nation. These matters are of such MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - cxliii deep importance to the manufacturing and commercial communities, that in order to maintain our superiority, we must cultivate every improvement in this important agency, and continue to extend with unabated energy every process which may lead to economy in the use of steam. - When the steam-engine left the hands of Watt, about eighty years ago, it was perfect in its principle of condensation and double action. On these two points it has undergone no improvement, nor has it sustained any important change in its mechanical organiz- ation, as applied to machines, or any other medium of resistance, where the principle of reciprocating motion has to be converted into that of rotation. These, with its mode of condensing in a separate vessel and the discharge of its contents of air and water, are identi- cally the same as when it sprung from the fertile mind of Watt. Repeated attempts have been made at improvement, but none have been effected in principle; although much has been done in econo- mizing the steam employed, and a great variety of forms and other conditions have been given to steam-engines, in connection with the purposes to which they have been applied. What, however, speaks volumes for the profound judgment and genius of Watt is, that he left to posterity an invention which, above all others, has worked miracles on the relations and conditions of civilized life. In no part of the country has the steam-engine been applied with greater success than in Lancashire and Cheshire, and it may be interesting to enumerate some of its properties and effects as applied to the industrial resources of the two counties. To accomplish this, our remarks will apply with equal propriety to other districts, where a spirit of enterprise in commerce and manufacture is actively and energetically cultivated. - In treating of prime movers generally, we have to observe that they consist of mechanical combinations adapted to the element— such as water, steam, and wind—from which they receive their motive force. This, again, is transmitted to other combinations, such as machines employed for the purposes of manufacture, or for transmission, as composed of wheels and shafts conveying the power to any part of a building where machines are situated, and where the process of manufacture is carried on. Amongst other machines designated as prime movers is the water-wheel, which receives a certain portion of its energy from falling or flowing water, and its power or dynamic effect clearly cxliv LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : depends upon the amount of water supplied, the height through which it falls, and its velocity at the point of application. Hence water-wheels are usually placed on the banks of rivers where a large body of water is at hand, and near some considerable natural or artificial fall in the bed of the stream. In manufacturing establishments it has been found necessary, in order to prevent stoppages, that there should constantly prevail a uniform power, equal to the requirements of the mill. As the quan- tity of water varies at different seasons of the year, it is impounded by means of reservoirs placed near the sources of rivers to retain the floods of wet seasons. . - Reservoirs are generally constructed in hilly districts, at the bottom of a valley, into which the water drains from a considerable extent of country, and where the geological structure is such as to promise a large supply. - - In constructing reservoirs the quantity of water expected to accumulate annually should be known. For this purpose it is most important to determine the extent of the water-shed or the area of land draining into the valley, the average rainfall of the district, and the probable loss from evaporation, absorption, &c. Some forty or fifty years ago water was greatly in request as a moving power, and its force was estimated by Watt's rule of 33,000 lbs. raised to a height of one foot in a minute, which for years has been accepted as the measure of one horse-power. By this formula water has been estimated, allowing for certain variations in the height of the falls. - - For a great number of years, and before steam became general, water was chiefly employed for the purposes of manufacture, and the greatest improvements in water-wheels, since the days of Smeaton, have been effected in Lancashire; first, by the late Mr. Thomas C. Hewis, and more recently by the author. To the first we are indebted for the iron suspension wheel, and to the latter for the new principle of ventilating the buekets. Mr. Hewis' water-wheels consist of a drum or rim containing a series of buckets for the reception of the water, and these are sus- pended from the axis by wrought-iron rods, varying from 2 to 24 inches in diameter, as shown in the annexed plan, fig. 17. The wheel is 30 feet in diameter. In this construction it will be observed that the slender arms and braces, a, a, a, and b, b, b, are attached to the rim, and by means of MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - cxlv. Screws or gibles and cottars, as they are called, the circular arc, A, A, is securely drawn into the centres, B, B, from which there is no retreat. The power is generally taken from the wheel on the loaded Fig. 17. side of the arc by a spur pinion, C, which, placed at the point of gyration, removes all strain from the arms and braces, excepting only so much as is necessary to support the weight of the wheel. These are the chief points which constitute Mr. Hewis' improve- ments; but a still greater change was effected by the author in 1828, by the introduction of the ventilated buckets, which rendered water-wheels much more effective, and enabled them in most cases to work at a maximum. This is described in the author's work on “Mills and Millwork,” from which we make the following extracts. The cause of this discovery was the defect of a breast-wheel erected for Mr. Andrew Brown, at Linnwood, near Paisley, in which the air contained in the buckets was compressed to such a degree as to render the wheel exceedingly defective, and considerably to reduce its power. The defects are thus described — “It was observed that the wheel when loaded in flood waters was choked, each of the buckets acting as a water blast, and forced the water in the shape of spray to a height of six or eight feet above the orifice at which it entered. To remedy this defect openings were cut at certain distances right across the sole plate, and to prevent the escape of the water small internal buckets, as represented in fig. 18, were attached to the sole plates, as shown at b, b. The air contained in the buckets escapes through the openings, a, a, and passing WOI, II. 6 cxlvi LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE . upwards permits the free reception of the water, as shown at the opening, e, from the pent-trough. The buckets are thus effectually cleared of air during the time of filling, and in cases of obstruction - from back water the same facilities are Fig. 18. afforded for its admission and the free - discharge of the contents of the buckets as they rise from the tail water. “The effect produced by this altera- tion would scarcely be credited, as in consequence of the freedom with which - the wheel received and parted with its water, an increase of power to the extent | of one-third was obtained. “The amount of power gained, and the beneficial effects produced on Mr. | Brown's wheel, induced the adoption of the ventilating principle as a permanent Y. modification of construction. The first | wheel thus designed was erected at {H} Wilmslow, in Cheshire, and was started b in 1828. “Close-bucketed wheels labour under OZ great disadvantages when receiving the water through the same orifice at which the air escapes. When, as is frequently the case, the water is dis- charged upon the wheel in a sheet of greater depth than the opening between the buckets, the air is thus suddenly condensed in the bucket, and re-acting by its elastic force throws back the water upon the orifice of the cistern, and thus allows the buckets to pass imper- fectly filled. A similar obstruction occurs when the wheel is in back water, a part of which is lifted in the rising buckets; and the mouths being under water, the entrance of air is effectually prevented. From this it will be seen that the deeper the back water, the more com- plete the obstruction, and the greater the difficulty of discharge.” For low falls the principle of constructing the buckets is shown in fig. 19; the sole plate being dispensed with, the buckets are bent round and prolonged upwards so as to overlap each other, leaving the openings, indicated by the arrows for the escape of the air at e, e. The same principle is observed for high falls, excepting only that the wheel has a close riveted sole, perfectly water-tight, and the MANUIFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cxlvii buckets are ventilated one into the other, as shown in fig. 20 by the direction of the arrows, at a, a, a, which represents a portion of the wheel and buckets. By this outlet the buckets are enabled to clear themselves of air as the water enters at the open- ings,T,T,T,in passing the pent-trough. This principle . of extracting the air above, and its readmission below, is an invention which has greatly added to the efficiency of water-wheels, and its effects are so well known as to render the construction general where water is employed as a motive power. On the Continent and in America, where water is abundant, the horizontal wheel or turbine is now chiefly employed. It is cheaper than the water- wheel, such as we have described; but not so economical on certain falls, although it must be admitted that it is more convenient, and works with less resistance in back water. As regards the manufactures of Lancashire and Cheshire, many illustrations might be given of the application of the - steam-engine; we must, however, content ourselves, Fig. 20. from want of space, with referring the reader to the Saltaire Mills, wherein he will find the best examples Fig. 19. of our factory engines, and the force employed is T CZ, ſ from 1400 to 1600 indicated horse-power. Con- sidering steam as a motive power, it is necessary to sº-> observe that many changes and improvements have . | been accomplished during the last thirty years. As T O. before stated, there has been no change in the S-3 principle of the steam-engine as handed down to us by Watt. It has, however, been found necessary T. | - to increase the force of the steam, to work it expan- al sively in order to economize the fuel, and, in fact, \ Sº to perform double the quantity of work with the \ same quantity of coal. To show what has been done, the following extract from “Mills and Millwork” may be interesting — “It is now more than thirty years since it was found desirable to increase the power of steam-engines employed in manufac- tures, and instead of engines of from twenty to fifty nominal horse-power, as much as 100, and in some cases 200 horse-power, * Longmans & Co., 1861. cxlviii LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE . were required to meet the demand. To keep pace with the rapid extension of our manufactures, not only was the power itself doubled, and in some cases quadrupled, but a new class of men was brought into existence as mechanical engineers; and these, with the facilities afforded by new constructions and improvements of tools, gave to the manufacture of steam-engines, and machinery of every description, an impetus that in a few years produced steam-engines in the accelerated ratio of ten to one. “For some years previous to the great demand for power the mills were driven by single engines, some as much as fifty or sixty horse-power; but these had soon to give place to others of much greater force, or, what was found to answer much better, two were employed coupled together as one engine. Working thus in pairs, they were found to afford greater uniformity of action from the cranks being placed at right angles. Again, it was found that the speed of 240 feet per minute, considered as the maximum by Watt, was insufficient with the increasing demand for power, and speeds from 350 to 400 feet per minute are now become general. In some of the old engines, however, with such an increase of speed, the breakages became so numerous as to cause a retrograde movement, and, in some cases, a return to the old speed. “The increase of speed was, however, inadequate to meet the requirements for power in many cases, and the next resource was to increase the pressure of the steam. Unfortunately, many of the boilers and engines were not calculated to withstand the force to which they were thus subjected, and the result was an increase in the number of breakages and explosions, to an extent that was ruinous to life and property. The ultimatum of all this was to increase the number of steam-engines with an entirely new description of boiler, calculated to withstand higher pressures, and maintain the speed required to work the engine up to the required standard of power. - “In the above statement, I do not mean to attach blame to any person in his attempts to increase the power of the steam-engine to meet the requirements of the mill. On the contrary, the majority of manufacturers were against an increase of speed or pressure on account of the dangers they entailed, and the heavy responsibilities attached to them when the lives of the workpeople were at stake; and it required a long series of years, in which I advocated the use of high-pressure steam, before the reluctance of the manufacturers MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - cxlix was overcome. That is, however, now accomplished, and along with an improved principle of construction in boilers, the steam-engine is no longer what it used to be, when worked with steam of only one- fourth the pressure. To what extent the pressures may yet be carried, and how far the steam may be expanded, is a question still open for solution. But judging from what has already been done, the inference is that we have not as yet attained the maximum pressure, nor the rate of expansion calculated to afford the greatest economy in the use of steam as a source of power.” We might give numerous examples of the advantages peculiar to this new system of working steam-engines expansively with high-pressure steam; but these details are almost exclusively adapted to professional practice, and we simply notice them here in order to show the present improved state of the steam-engine compared with its condition thirty years ago. In its capacity as a prime mover we are unable to form any reliable conception of the extent to which it is employed, as we have no returns of the number of horse-powers in operation in the United Kingdom. We may, however, give approxi- mate results of the number of horse-powers employed in— Horse-powers. Manufactures, mining, &c., which, taken at 33,000 lbs. raised to a height of one foot in a minute, | 3,600,000 would give for the United Kingdom Steam navigation, about . . . . . . Employed on railways, nearly 8000 locomotive engines, which, taken at 500 horse-power each, | 4,000,000 gives e - * e , 2,420,000 t - *me = *- - Total number of horse-powers, . , 10,020,000 Out of this enormous force we may venture to state that about one- fifth is employed in Lancashire and Cheshire, in the various manu- factures and mines in which the two counties abound, on railways, and on the steamers entering and leaving the port of Liverpool. This immense force, working or in reserve, exhibits a rate of pro- gress, within a period of less than fifty years, without a parallel in the history of nations; and the effects of steam on the condition of man in every relation of life, whether social or political, have been so great as to change the destinies of nations, and enlarge the sphere of utility, comfort, and civilization over the face of the globe. The steam-engine, as a motive power, would be of little value cl LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : without its auxiliaries; and inasmuch as they relate to the manufac- tures of Lancashire and Cheshire, it will be necessary briefly to notice the machinery of transmission, and the improvements which have taken place in its construction, acting intermediately between the motive power and the machinery to which it gives motion. Millwork.-At the close of the last century, and for twenty years afterwards, the machinery connected with millwork remained in the same condition as it left the hands of Smeaton and Rennie. Large rectangular shafts moving at a comparatively slow velocity, with wooden drums, were employed for driving the machinery connected with cotton and other mills. They have since been replaced by others of one-fourth the size, and with small iron pulleys propor- tioned to the speed of the machines they have to drive. This reduction of weight and bulk has been obtained by an increase of speed approaching more nearly that of the machinery; and by the introduction of wrought iron in the place of cast. The circular form of shafting, turned and polished, has been introduced for the clumsy rectangular shafting previously in use. These improvements have been obtained by converting the periphery of the fly-wheel into the first motion from the steam-engine, and by this process of attachment the velocity of the shafting is brought much nearer to that of the machinery it has to drive. The increase of velocity and reduction of weight have been of great advantage to the mill-owner, as upon this principle only about one-third the weight is kept in motion; and since friction only increases as the weight, a considerable amount of power formerly expended in driving heavy gearing is saved. These improvements were first introduced by Messrs. Fair- bairn and Lillie in the cotton mills of Lancashire during the years 1822–23, and that of casting teeth on the rim of the fly-wheel in 1833. These important improvements have now become general in every district where the steam-engine is in use, and the different processes of manufacturing industry are carried on. - Our prescribed limits do not admit of much enlargement on this subject, especially as we shall have again to notice its application when we come to treat of the cotton manufacture, and that of other textile fabrics. It may, however, be interesting to show the extent to which this description of machinery is employed in the Saltaire Mills, near Bradford, which is one of the largest and most perfect establishments of its kind in the kingdom. The Saltaire Works, although built exclusively for the Bradford trade of mixed goods, MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - cli chiefly composed of alpacas, mohair, and other descriptions of wool, is nevertheless to a great extent similar to that which is used in the manufacture of cotton, and combines processes more or less allied to that material. It is, therefore, not without interest that we give the following description of this large and important edifice of industry. In the author's work entitled, “The Application of Cast and Wrought Iron to Building Purposes,” where dealing with iron beams as applied to fire-proof buildings, the following description of the mills at Saltaire, near Bradford, occurs:–“I select for illustration the gigantic establishment at Saltaire, not more on account of its general completeness, than as a means of conveying to the mind of the general reader some idea of the vast energies, resources, and confidence which are brought to bear upon the development of manufacturing industry by the more advanced and enlightened men who are engaged in the production of textile fabrics. It is impossible to visit the neighbourhood of these busy hives; to survey the silent and uniform action of the great motive powers; to listen to the constant and confusing din of spindle and loom ; to be informed of . the number of human beings employed under one roof, of the amount of their earnings, and the astounding total of their produce; and to reflect farther upon the enterprise and talent which must be in constant action, both abroad and nearer home, to keep this great whole supplied and at work—without admiring the intellect that can guide such a work, and feeling thankful for that national security and prosperity which justifies the risk. “The Saltaire Mills, the property of Titus Salt, Esq., are situated in one of the most beautiful parts of the romantic and well-known valley of the Aire. The site has been selected with uncommon judgment, as regards its fitness for the economical working of a great manufacturing establishment. The estate is bounded by highways and railways, which penetrate to the very centre of the buildings, and is intersected by both canal and river. Admirable water is obtained for the use of the steam-engines, and for the different processes of manufacture. By the distance of the mills from the smoky and clouded atmosphere of a large town, an unobstructed and good light is secured; whilst, both by land and water, direct communication is gained for the importation of coal and all other raw produce, on the one hand, and for the exportation and delivery of manufactured goods, on the other. Both porterage and cartage are •entirely superseded ; and every other circumstance which could tend clii LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : to economize production has been carefully considered. The estate on which Saltaire is built will gradually develope itself to a very considerable extent; and the part appropriated to the works, which is literally covered with the buildings, is not less than six and a half acres. Here the heavy operations of the manufacture are carried on ; but the superficies given to the several processes, and to the storage of goods, or, in other words, the floor-area of the establishment is, in all, about twelve acres. - “The main range of buildings, or the mill proper, runs from east to west, nearly parallel with the lines of railway running from Shipley to Skipton and Lancaster. This pile is six stories high, 550 feet in length, 50 feet in width, and about 72 feet in height, and the archi- tectural features, to avoid monotony in so large a dead surface, have been most skilfully treated by the architects, Messrs. Lockwood and Mawson, of Bradford. A bold Italian style has been adopted; and the beautiful quality of the stone, of which the whole is massively built, displays its features to great advantage. Immediately behind the centre of the main mill, and at right angles with it, runs another six-story building devoted to warehouse purposes, such as the reception and examination of the newly manufactured goods; and on either side of this, again, lie the combing-shed or apartment wherein the fibres of the alpaca, mohair, wool, &c., are combed by machinery, the handsome range of buildings devoted to the reception of offices, and the great shed for weaving by power-looms. Of these features of the establishment it may be stated, that it was in the combing-shed that in September last 3500 of Mr. Salt's guests sat down to dinner, without confusion or overcrowding, and with perfect ventilation; and that the great loom-shed would have similarly accommodated, under its single roof, more than double that number. Arranged in convenient situations are washing-rooms, packing-rooms, drying-rooms, and mechanics' shops. In the formation of the new roads which were requisite to secure free and easy access to the different parts of the mills, Mr. Salt was again not behindhand, and availed himself of the most recent experience of scientific practice; therefore we find bridges of the most durable and solid construction both in cast and wrought iron; one of these viaducts, on the tubular- girder system, crossing the canal and river Aire, being not less than 450 feet in length. More than 3000 persons are employed in these works, and immediately surrounding this palace of industry is a new town containing double that number of inhabitants, with all the . MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cliii conveniences of churches, chapels, Schools, mechanic's institute, baths, and wash-house, all of which have been established by the same spirited proprietor.” IMPROVEMENTS IN . PRACTICAL SCIENCE. In treating, historically, of the commercial and industrial resources of Lancashire and Cheshire, it would be unjust if we omitted to notice a branch of design and manufacture which has contributed more than any other to their prosperity, and has established facilities for the construction and perfection of machines, which a short time ago did not exist. The self-acting or automaton system of turning, planing, and cutting metals into every possible form, has created a revolution in the manufacture of machines; and these machines have, again, created a revolution in the manufacture of the articles for which they were constructed. Such, in fact, has been its effect, that it has enabled one machine to make another, not only of its own class, but of every other class employed for the purposes of manu- facture. The self-acting tool presents wonderful facilities, either as a self-producer, or as one of the most important instruments that can be employed in the production of other machines, and that with a degree of exactitude which baffles the most careful and steady operator to imitate by the human hand. All machine-makers are alive to these facts, and to be successful in business it is absolutely necessary they should be supplied with the very best description of tools. In the construction of all sorts of machinery employed in manufacture, it is imperative that the whole of the different processes should be done by self-acting machines. They not only do the work of hundreds of hands, but do it with greater accuracy, and multiply the same article over and over again without deviation from truth or form. These are some, but not all, the advantages peculiar to self-acting machines; but as the amount of production is only limited to the number of machines employed, and as each machine will turn off some hundred or thousand times more work than could possibly be done by hand in the same time, it follows that it must be done at a comparatively cheaper rate, and hence the value of the machine, and the immense extent to which the manufacturing interests of the country may be carried. It has been erroneously assumed that the invention of machines calculated to perform the same description of work which heretofore WOL II. ?!, cliv LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : had been done by hand, would reduce the amount of manual labour. There cannot be a greater fallacy; as the produce from the machine is not only superior in quality, but the increase in quantity is so great as to accelerate the demand, and create new branches of industry in connection with the article manufactured. It, moreover, promotes an increased demand for labour of a higher order in the manufacture of the machine itself, independent of the numerous off- shoots to which machine manufacture gives birth. On the other hand, it may be argued that the substitution of a machine to do the work formerly executed by hand will naturally throw the workman out of employ, and ruin his trade. To some extent this may be true; but it has ever been found of temporary duration, and is almost exclusively confined to a very narrow circle of operations, which continues to exist for a time sufficient to effect the transfer from manual to machine labour. In these operations, generally speaking, the employers and their workmen have found time to change from one description of work to another, and that not only of a more productive, but also, in most cases, a more attractive character, than that on which they were formerly employed. We have noticed these facts to show to those engaged in manu- facturing pursuits how essential it is to their individual interest that every description of labour, where power is required, should be done by machines, and that the resources of the human hand (or what is called physical force) should be reserved for a lighter description of labour which cannot be done by artificial agencies. There is, and always will be, a demand for hard labour in works, such as falls to the lot of the “navvy,” where muscular action is required; but it is much better for the skilled workman to employ machinery, with the aid of the power of steam or water, than to do the work of the steam-engine himself; for under such circumstances labour rises in the scale of mental acquirements, by calling to its aid the resources of nature, and applying them to the purposes required in the works of civiliz- ation and the production of the enjoyments and comforts of life. On the question of tools employed in the construction of machines, it is necessary to observe that, fifty years ago, tools and all other descriptions of machinery were chiefly made by hand. Blacksmiths' forges, stocks and dies, and lathes for turning metal and wood, were in existence, but were very imperfect in construction, single-handed, and void of those motions which constitute the slide-rest and self- acting machine. Planing, slotting, and paring machines were MANUE ACTURES AND COMMERCE, - clv unknown; and the machine for cutting the teeth of wheels was only just making its appearance. The rise and progress of tools is a curious and very interesting history. Many attempts have been made in this and other countries to supply the want of machines calculated to meet the requirements of other constructions, to lessen the cost of labour, and to facilitate the processes of manufacture; but until of late years the spirit of invention did not keep pace with the demand. At the close of the last century, some advances were made by James Watt and William Murdock in turning and boring the cylinders and other parts con- nected with the steam-engine; but it is only a few years ago since the old boring-mills for cannon gave way to the splendid tool machinery now at work in the Royal Arsenal of Woolwich. Smeaton erected the mills at Carron for boring and turning ord- nance; but Hargreaves, Arkwright, and Crompton experienced great difficulty in the construction of their newly invented machines for want of tools. Every part was done by hand, and spinners had to make their own mules and tools. Very few machine-makers existed in Lancashire before the beginning of the present century. We have heard it stated that Mr. Lowe, a millwright at Nottingham, made the first attempt at a planing machine, which was afterwards improved by the late Mr. Fox, of Derby. Subsequently, Mr. Clement was one of the most indefatigable and most successful inventors and makers of tools. His custom was first to see the article required to be manufactured, and then to make the tool to do it. His improvements in lathes are numerous and important, and he was amongst the first to introduce the self-acting slide-rest, of which the planing machine is a modification, working upon the same principle on flat surfaces. Mr. Clement may, therefore, be considered one of the pioneers of the slide-lathe and the planing machine. The late Mr. Richard Roberts did much for it, and since then it has received its finishing touches from Mr. Whitworth. Mr. Roberts' first machine was driven by an endless chain for moving the table; the rack and pinion followed; and it was still further improved by Mr. Whitworth, who introduced the screw for working the table, and the double revolving cutter (jim-crow), which did double the work in the same time. Both Clement and Maudslay were early in the field as construc- tors and improvers of tools; but the self-acting slide-lathe, planing, slotting, boring, and drilling machines, were greatly modified and improved in the workshops of Manchester, and in other parts of clvi LAN CASHIRE AND CHIESHIRE : Lancashire. Tool-making has since become an important branch of manufacture in most of the large towns of the United Kingdom. One of the most successful makers, however, has been Mr. Joseph Whitworth, to whose extreme accuracy as a workman we are indebted for the great precision of parts which characterizes the automaton machinery of this country. Mr. Whitworth has been long a resident in Manchester, and having been closely connected with almost every description of mechanical progress, a short account of his labours in this department of science, in which he has stood pre-eminent, may not be without interest to the reader. 1Mr. Whitworth was born at Stockport in 1803. He was educated by his father, who kept a school, until he was twelve years of age, after which he attended for eighteen months the Idle Academy, near Bradford. When nearly fourteen years of age he was removed to his uncle, a cotton spinner and manufacturer, at Amble Works, near Derby. He was in the habit of accompanying his uncle through the mill, and soon became interested in the working of the different machines. His uncle was desirous to keep him to assist in the management; but his intense longing to learn the construction of machinery induced him to visit Manchester, where he engaged himself to Messrs. Crichton & Co., acquaintances of his family, and was employed in making grinding, scutching, and spreading machines. After remaining fourteen months he transferred his services to Messrs. Marsden & Walkers, in Salford, where he studied spinning machinery. Next he went to Mr. Houldsworth's cotton mills, in Lever Street, Manchester, where he was employed in the repair of machinery. His uncle advised him to join this firm for the purpose of witnessing the fine spinning process, and the preparatory systems of carding, roving, &c. About this time, his uncle dying suddenly, he determined to remove to London, where he was fortunate enough to obtain employment at Messrs. Maudslay & Co's. Here he remained three years and a half, and afterwards repaired for a short time to Messrs. Holtzapffel's, and subsequently to Mr. Clement's, where he remained until he commenced business on his own account in Manchester, in 1833. His first essay was in the manufacture of stocks and dies, for cutting the screws of bolts and nuts used in the fitting up of the steam-engine and other machinery. His great object was to obtain regularity in the manufacture, in order that every machine-maker and manufacturer should have a uniform system of screw bolts, the pitch of the thread being a constant of a given MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - clvii diameter. It does not appear that any attempt was made before Mr. Whitworth's time to establish the principle for regulating the pitch, depth, and form of thread, in order to give strength, power, and durability to the screw. Every manufacturer had his own ideas on this subject, and hence the great variety of forms and the anomalous conditions to which it gave rise in every description of machinery that had to be united by bolts. s - To rectify these defects, Mr. Whitworth collected a number of screw bolts from the principal workshops in England, and having taken the average of the 4, #, 1, and 1% inch screws, he selected them as the fixed points of a scale by which the intermediate sizes might be regulated. From these data the pitches were obtained for angular threads from 3 to 6 inches in diameter, as shown in the following table:– Diameter in inches, . . . . # #, 3 || || || 3 || 3 || 3 || || || 1 || 1 || 13 Threads to the inch, . . . . . 20 | 18 | 16 || 14 | 12 | 11 || 10 || 9 || 8 || 7 || 7 Diameter in inches, . . . . l; 1} | 13 || 13 || 1 || 2 || 23 2} || 23 || 3 || 3} Threads to the inch, . . . . | 6 || 6 || 5 || 5 || 4 || 4} || 4 || 4 || 3 || 3} | 3} Diameter in inches, . . . . 3% 3% 4} | 4} || 4 || 5 || 5} | 53 || 5 || 6 Threads to the inch, . . . . 3} | 3 || 3 || 23 2% 2} | 23 || 23 || 23 2} | 2} It will be observed that above 1 inch diameter the same pitch is used for two sizes. This could not have been avoided without introducing small fractional parts. The economy of screwing appa- ratus was also promoted by repetition of the thread. This uniformity of thread has been greatly extended. It has been adopted on most of the railways and engineering establishments in Scotland and England, as well as by the Government in the Royal Arsenal and Dock Yards, and the system has become general in nearly the whole of the first-class workshops and steam factories, both at home and abroad.* * “Previous to Mr. Whitworth directing his attention to this subject, the late Mr. Henry Maudslay's love of accuracy had led him from an early period to study the subject of improved screw-cutting. The importance of this branch of mechanism can scarcely be overrated, the solidity and permanency of most mechanical structures mainly depending upon the employment of the screw, at the same time that the parts can be readily separated for renewal or repair. Any one can form an idea of the importance of the screw as an element in mechanical construction by examining a steam-engine, and counting the number of screws employed in holding it together. Previous to the time at which the subject occupied the attention of our mechanics, the tools used for making screws were of the most rude and inexact kind. The screws were for the most part cut by hand; the small by clviii LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : Another interesting example of Mr. Whitworth's extreme accuracy of workmanship is the true plane and a decimal system of measurement. In his address to the Institution of Mechanical Engineers at the meeting at Glasgow, he observes that “the latter (meaning the power of measurement) would not be obtained without the former, which is therefore of primary importance; and its accomplishment is so easy and so simple as to leave without excuse any establishment neglecting to secure it. It is necessary to make three planes in order to obtain a perfect one, and cast iron is the best material generally to use. Whatever the size of the plane required, the tripod form is absolutely essential for its support; and the strengthening ribs must be placed with reference to the supports. I cannot impress too strongly on the members of the Institution, and upon all in any way connected with mechanism, the vast importance of possessing a true plane as a standard for reference. All excellence in workmanship depends upon it. I may mention it was at the meeting of the British Association, held in Glasgow in 1840, that I read a paper on the mode of producing a true plane, to which I would refer those desiring information on the subject.” He then goes on to state, that the next in importance to a true plane is the power of attaining extreme accuracy in measurement. In reference to this subject he says:—“I have brought with me, for your inspection at the close of the meeting, a small machine, by which a difference in length of the one-millionth part of an inch is at once detected. The principle is that of employing the sense of touch instead of sight. If any object be placed between two parallel true planes, adjusted that the hand can just feel them in contact, you will find, on moving the planes only the fifty-thousandth of an inch nearer together, that the object is dis- tinctly tighter, requiring greater force to move it between them. In the machine before you the object to be measured is the standard inch, in the form of a small square bar, both ends being true planes; filing, the larger by chipping and filing. In consequence of the great difficulty of making them, as few were used as possible; and cotters, cotterils, or forelocks, were employed instead. Screws, however, were to a certain extent indispensable; and each manufacturing establishment made them after their own fashion. There was an utter want of uniformity. No system was observed as to “pitch," i.e., the number of threads to the inch, nor was any rule followed as to the form of these threads. Every bolt and nut was a sort of speciality in itself, and neither owed nor admitted of any community with its neighbours. To such an extent was this irregularity carried, that all bolts and their corresponding nuts had to be marked as belonging to each other; and any mixing of them together led to endless trouble, hopeless confusion, and enormous expense. Indeed, none but those who lived in the comparatively early days of machine-manufacture can form an adequate idea of the annoyance occasioned by the want of system in this branch of detail, or duly appreciate the services rendered by Maudslay to mechanical engineering by the practical measures which he was among the first to introduce for its remedy.”—Smiles' Industrial Biography. J. Murray, 1863. MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE. - clix and in this case, in order to measure with the utmost accuracy, a thin flat piece or bar is introduced, having its two sides also made perfect planes. This is placed between the inch bar to be measured and one of the end surfaces of the machine. If this thin bar, which I name the gravity piece, is brought into closer contact by even the one-millionth of an inch, the gravity piece will be suspended, friction overcoming its gravity. This machine, and a larger one, are used for making standards of length. When the standard yard, which is a square bar of steel, is placed in the larger machine, and the gravity piece adjusted so as just to fall by its weight, the heat imparted from the slightest touch of the finger instantly prevents its fall, thus showing the lengthening of the bar by so small an amount of heat as that I have indicated. We have therefore, in this mode of measurement, all the accuracy we can desire; and we find in practice in the work- shop that it is easier to work to the ten-thousandth of an inch from standard of end measure, than to the one-hundredth of an inch from the lines on a two-foot rule. In all cases of fitting, end measures of length should be used instead of lines.” In addition to this accurate system of measurement, Mr. Whitworth has substituted for the two-foot rule, as divided into eighths and sixteenths, the decimal system, which he very prop- erly contends should always be employed in the mechanical art, where accuracy is the principal element of construction. When treating on this subject he says—“To state the case broadly, instead of our engineers and machinists thinking in eighths, six- teenths, thirty-two seconds of an inch, it is desirable that they should think and speak in tenths, hundredths, and thousandths. I can assure those who have been accustomed to the fractional system, that the change to the more perfect decimal one is easy of attainment, and when once made, it will from its usefulness and convenience amply repay any trouble which may have attended its acquirement. In the manufacture of my standard gauges of size, the workmen measure to the goºroo of an inch, and these measures are as familiar and appreciable as those of any larger dimensions. It will, therefore, be at once conceded that the only scale of measurement which can be used for such small sizes and proportionally small differences must be a decimal one, as any other would be productive of insurmountable difficulty, if not of utter confusion.” Two years after the Exhibition of 1851 an Industrial Exhibi- clx - LAN CASHIRE AND CHESEIIRE : tion was held at New York. Mr Whitworth was appointed one of the commissioners, and his special report on the mechanical resources of the United States embraces a variety of subjects, and includes a number of highly interesting remarks. He took an opportunity of visiting most of the engineering and mechanical establishments of the Northern states, and collected a great deal of useful information, which he ingeniously contrasts with the data obtained at similar works of this country. In his remarks at the close of his report he states, that “I could not fail to be impressed, from all that I saw there, with the extraordinary energy of the people, and their peculiar aptitude in availing themselves to the utmost of the immense natural resources of the country. “The details which I have collected in this report show, by numerous examples, that they leave no means untried to effect what they think it is possible to accomplish, and they have been signally successful in combining large practical results with great economy in the methods by which these results are secured. “The labouring classes are comparatively few in number, but this is counterbalanced by, and indeed may be regarded as one of the chief causes of the eagerness with which they call in the aid of machinery in almost every department of industry. Wher- ever it can be introduced as a substitute for manual labour, it is universally and willingly resorted to. Of this the facts stated in my report contain many conclusive proofs; but I may here specially refer, as examples, to plough-making, where eight men are able to finish thirty per day; to door-making, where twenty men make a hundred panneled doors per day; to last-making, the process of which is completed in one and a half minute; to sewing by machinery, where one woman does the work of twenty; to net- making, where one woman does the work of a hundred. It is this condition of the labour market, and this eager resort to machinery wherever it can be applied, to which, under the guidance of superior education and intelligence, the remarkable prosperity of the United States is mainly due.” He then goes on to notice the general welfare of the country, and the ingenious contrivances of tools and machines for the working of wood, in which he observes that “the early settlers found in the forests which they had to clear an unlimited supply of material, which necessity compelled them to employ in every way, in the construction of their houses, their furniture, and MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE. - clxi domestic utensils, in their implements of labour, and in their log-paved roads. * - “Wood thus became with them a universal material, and work- people being scarce, machinery was introduced as far as possible to supply the want of hands. The character thus given to one branch of manufactures has gradually extended to others. Applied to stone-dressing, for example, one man is enabled, as I have shown, to perform as much work as twenty masons by hand. So great, again, are the improvements effected in spinning machinery, that one man can attend to a mule containing 1088 spindles, each spinning three hanks, or 3264 hanks in the aggregate, per day. In Hindostan, where they still spin by hand, it would be extrava- gant to expect a spinner to accomplish one hank per day; so that in the United States we find the same amount of manual labour, by improved machinery, doing more than 3000 times the work. A still more striking comparison between hand and machine labour may be made in the case of lace-making in England. Lace of an ordinary figured pattern used to be made on the cushion by hand, at the rate of about three meshes per minute. At Nottingham a machine atended by one person will now produce lace of a similar kind at the rate of about 24,000 meshes per minute; so that one person can, by the employment of a machine, produce 8000 times as much work as one lace-maker by hand. “The results which have been obtained in the United States by the application of machinery, wherever it has been practicable, to manufactures, are rendered still more remarkable by the fact that combinations to resist its introduction there are unheard of. The workmen hail with satisfaction all mechanical improvements, the importance and value of which, as releasing them from the drudgery of unskilled labour, they are enabled by education to understand and to appreciate. With the comparatively super- abundant supply of hands in this country, and therefore a pro- portionate difficulty in obtaining remunerative employment, the working classes have less sympathy with the progress of invention. Their condition, is a less favourable one than that of their Ameri- can brethren, for forming a just and unprejudiced estimate of the influence which the introduction of machinery is calculated to exercise on their state and prospects. I cannot resist the conclu- sion, however, that the different views taken by our operatives and those of the United States upon this subject, are determined VOL. II, Q} clxii LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: by other and powerful causes, besides those dependent on the supply. of labour in the two countries. The principles which ought to regulate the relations between the employers and the employed seem to be thoroughly understood and appreciated in the United States; and while the ‘law of limited liability affords the most ample facilities for the investment of capital in business, the intelligent and educated artizan is left equally free to earn all that he can, by making the best use of his hands, without let or hinderance by his fellows.” - It should be observed that these remarks were made before the last war, and that labour of every kind was then greatly in demand. Since that time the workmen of the United States have become more like the English type, and are now under the subjection of unions, to whom, as in this country, they owe subordinate allegiance. It is now several years since Mr. Whitworth directed his attention to the construction of fire-arms. In 1855, he was requested by the Board of Ordnance, owing to the extreme accuracy of his workman- ship, to undertake the construction of some rifle guns, in order to ascertain what could be done in the way of improving the Enfield rifle. For some time previously the needle-gun had been partially used in the Prussian army, and considerable improvements were effected at Enfield in the manufacture of that arm; but Mr. Whit- worth was the first to show what could be done by correct workman- ship, and in place of a series of small spiral grooves in the barrel, he adopted the hexagonal form, and by this means attained a wonderful degree of accuracy in the fitting, and thus gave to his rifle an amount of precision and range that we believe has never yet been equalled. In carrying out his experiments, Mr. Whitworth was aided by the government to the extent of a covered shed and the necessary apparatus, but the experiments were long and tedious, and had to be conducted with the utmost care in order to obtain satisfactory results. These instruments are now so perfect that a Whitworth rifle will place ten shots within a circle of twenty-four inches diameter at a distance of 900 yards. Most people will consider this good shooting; and at the same distance—upwards of half a mile—the power of penetration is sufficient to perforate a board two inches thick. - The rifling of small arms has led to the rifling of cannon; the principle is the same, and the only difference is that the latter are on a larger scale. In this description of manufacture Mr. Whitworth has applied the same hexagonal form, and secured the same precision MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. clxiii of fire with either solid shot or shell. The number of experiments made, and the sensation produced upon the public mind, have been without example in the history of the manufacture of ordnance. Mr. Whitworth, by his system of rifling, secures three very important advantages:– - First, Uniformity of system; Secondly, Simplicity of construction; Thirdly, Economy in production; all of which are the same both in the small arm and in the large cannon. His method may with propriety be termed the Hexagonal System of Rifling, and is peculiar to Mr. Whitworth. The drawing, fig. 3, Plate IV., exhibits a longitudinal section of a 7-inch muzzle-loading gun, having a solid breech and an interior tube composed of steel, hooped in the usual way, as shown in the different layers, a, b, c, d. These tubes or hoops are carefully turned, bored, and drawn over each other by the hydraulic press. Fig. 4 shows the form of the shot, and fig. 5 a transverse section of the shot, which corresponds with the hexagonal bore of the gun, as represented at B, in advance of the charge of powder, A, in the chamber of the gun. - As a general rule, Mr. Whitworth has found that, to insure accuracy of fire and penetration, the best length for a solid projectile is three diameters, and that the total amount of powder the gun can consume before the shot has left the gun is about one-seventh of the weight of the projectile. This proportion holds good with Sir William Armstrong's guns, as well as Mr. Whitworth's; and taking these proportions, the Armstrong 600-pounder, which has a bore of 13 inches, should fire a 990 lbs. shot and consume 141 lbs. of powder. The Rodman American 13-inch smooth-bore gun should fire a 1522 lbs. shot with 217 lbs. of powder. These are some of the facts elicited by the experiments with the Whitworth gun. We might multiply these calculations from the actual experi- ments at Shoeburyness, but they are so well known to professional men and the public that further details would be uninteresting. In gun-making, as a branch of industry, Lancashire has performed an important part, and there is probably no other town in the United Kingdom which could supply so large an amount of ordnance, with such despatch and accuracy, as Manchester. On the subject of tool machinery it is important to notice, that in almost every manufacturing town of South Lancashire large works clxiv LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : for the manufacture of tools have been established. In Manchester alone may be enumerated Messrs. Whitworth & Co., Sharpe, Stuart, & Co., Collier & Co., Smith & Coventry, and several other firms, all of whom are largely engaged in this description of manufacture, and employ in it a great number of hands. In conclusion, it would be unjustifiable on our part if we omitted noticing an act of beneficence on the part of Mr. Whitworth, which deserves every praise. In a letter addressed to the first lord of the Treasury, dated March 18, 1868, by Mr. Whitworth, the following official minutes of her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council on Education was announced to the public as follows:— “At Whitehall, the 27th day of March, 1868, by the Right Hon. the Lords of the Committee of her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council on Education. “My Lords consider Mr. Whitworth's letter to the First Lord of the Treasury, dated the 18th of March, 1868. In this letter Mr. Whitworth offers to found thirty scholarships of the annual value of £100 each, to be applied for the further instruction of young men, natives of the United Kingdom, selected by open competition for their intelligence and proficiency in the theory and practice of mechanics and its cognate sciences, with a view to the promotion of engineering and mechanical industry in this country; and he expresses hopes that means may be found, for bringing science and industry into closer relation with each other than at present obtains here. It is unnecessary now to repeat the thanks which the First Lord of her Majesty's Treasury, and the Lord President of the Council, have already conveyed to Mr. Whitworth for his generous offer, which they are convinced the country will fully appreciate. Mr. Whitworth proposes that these scholarships should be tenable on conditions to be defined by a deed of trust regulating the administration of the endowment fund during his life, and that thereafter the management of this fund, subject to the conditions specified therein, should rest in the Lord President of the Council, or other minister of public instruction for the time being. It is the wish of my lords to see provision made in several large centres of manufacturing industry in the United Kingdom for affording to all classes of her Majesty's subjects ample opportunities for acquiring instruction in the sciences which are applicable to productive industry. My lords are of opinion that by the union of local and private efforts, supplemented as far as is proper by state assistance, this provision will be best made. This will be rendered easy if the munificent example set by Mr. Whitworth shall be extensively followed by others. My lords will be happy to receive any further suggestions from Mr. Whitworth should he desire to make them, and to be informed if the department can render him any assistance in carrying out his liberal intentions.” - From this statement it will be seen that this generous benefaction of £100,000, for the purposes named above, received not only the warm thanks of the premier and the lord president of the Council on Education, but it has also been fully appreciated by the country, as one of the noblest gifts ever applied for the advancement of mechanical engineering, and the promotion of practical science. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. t - clxv THE COTTON TRADE. In our treatment of this subject it will be necessary to take a succinct view of the early history of cotton, and the means which have from time to time been employed to convert its fibre into yarn and cloth. We shall, moreover, have to notice the progressive improvements which have been introduced in its manufacture, and the number of useful inventions which have been applied to perfect its production, and supply the enormous consumption which, in this luxurious age, the necessities of the people require. - From the time of the Norman conquest down to the middle of the last century, the textile fabrics manufactured in this country consisted chiefly of wool, flax, and silk. For a great number of years during the middle ages, when men were employed more in war, pillage, and plunder, than in the industrial arts, and when the means of production were limited to the loom and the distaff, the leather jerkin or a sheep's-skin jacket was the common covering of the poor; and these, with the wool side next the skin, not unfre- quently constituted the chief habiliments of the peasantry during the winter months. In process of time, as the country advanced in civilization, a rude manufacture was introduced, and coarse woollen serges were substituted for the leather jerkin. These fabrics, such as they were, were produced by the rack and distaff and the loom, and were chiefly spun and woven during the winter months. During the reigns of the Tudors, and down to the days of Elizabeth, this description of manufacture was greatly patronized ; but a new and important impetus was given to it, in both form and variety, by the introduction of new processes from France and Bel- gium, owing to the immigration of the Huguenots and their ultimate settlement in this country. To these industrious and skilful immi- grants we are indebted for many improvements in the woollen, flax, and silk manufactures, effected many years before the introduction of Cotton. sº - The manufacture of cotton, although formerly unknown to the nations of Europe, is, nevertheless, of great antiquity. It had its origin in the East, where the plant is indigenous, and where the climate renders a light absorbent fabric suitable as an article of clothing. At an early period the Romans imported cotton cloth from India; but the quantity was inconsiderable, and depended more upon the taste of the rich than the demands of the poor, in a clxvi. LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: climate where sheep's wool had the preference. In the second cen- tury of the Christian era the exportation of cotton goods became more general, and the muslins of Bengal, and the coloured chintzes of Surat, were greatly admired for the beauty of their texture and the brilliancy of the figures with which they were adorned. The implements used by the Hindoos in the different processes, from the cleansing of the wool to its conversion into the finest muslin, were then, as they are now, of such rude and simple con- struction as to be evidently the invention of a very early period. Dating the rise of the manufacture from these remote times, it is surprising that it should have remained for so many centuries with- out any attempts at improvement ; but it is the characteristic of all the Eastern nations to remain stationary. For many centuries the district between the Ribble and the Mersey had been noted as a manufacturing country, and evidence still exists of the woollen manufactures as far back as the reign of Edward II. It is, however, doubtful whether cotton was at all known at that early period, or even for a long time subsequent, as we find no reliable accounts of its import until the middle of the seventeenth century, where it is noticed in Lewis Robert's “Trea- sures of Traffic.” We there learn that, in 1641, Manchester still retained its linen and woollen manufactures, but was adding to them cotton imported from Smyrna and Cyprus. - From this it is evident that cotton manufacture had been estab- lished in Manchester at that time, if it had not long existed as a substitute for linen yarn, which was chiefly used as warp in the manufacture of fustians. It is stated in Aikin’s “History of Man- chester,” that a considerable trade was carried on in Manchester and Bolton as late as the middle of the seventeenth century in woollen fabrics, such as fustians, mixed stuffs, caps, inkles, tapes, &c., and that numbers of men, women, and children were employed in that description of manufacture. This appears to have been the state of the county from the Union of Scotland and England to the commencement of the reign of Charles II. It must, however, be borne in mind that Man- chester and the south of Lancashire had for a number of years previ- ously been making an independent progress in mixed manufactures of their own, and that cotton yarns were woven into a great variety of fabrics before and long after that epoch. More recently, and before the introduction of machinery, cotton yarn was used as weft MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. clxvii in combination with woollen and worsted and flax warps into the heaviest moleskin and the finest velvets. It was also employed in the manufacture of velveteens, and it contributed largely to the production of stuffs and Orleans cloths, with other portions of figured fabrics. Such was the state of the cotton manufacture at the close of the seventeenth century, and more recently, when a new era in the history of cotton and other textile fabrics burst upon the country by the invention of a machine for spinning cotton, first intro- duced by John Whyatt, of Birmingham. Before entering upon this and many other subsequent inventions, by means of which the cotton trade has attained its present colossal proportions, it may be interesting to make ourselves acquainted with the properties of the material, and the state of its manu- facture in other countries, where it has from time immemorial been cultivated. There is no textile substance whose filaments are so easily drawn and spun into threads of uniform twist, as cotton. It derives this property from the smoothness, flexibility, tenacity, and elasticity of its fibres. It may be pulled between the finger and the thumb, and from the peculiar adhesion of the filaments which lay hold of each other, and from the shortness of the staple, a number of other fibres in contact with those in tension will be drawn out. Were they much longer, they could not be attenuated into a fine thread; and were they much shorter, the thread would be deficient in cohesive strength. Even the differences in the lengths of the fibres are of advantage, in their adaptation to different sorts of spinning and different qualities of cloth. There is another property peculiar to cotton which admits of its being drawn and attenuated into a remarkably fine sliver, and that is its retention of form, being, in this respect, more like flax than wool. In this process it will be seen how easily the fibres glide past each other, and with what facility they arrange themselves parallel to each other, and yet retain their connection. This ductility and adhesion may be seen to still greater advantage as the transparent fleece is “doffed” from the cards, where again the filaments are laid parallel to each other, and finally pre- pared for further extension as they issue from the drawing frame in a flat ribbon ready to receive a slight twist, which, in the next process, is performed to hold it together till it is finally spun into thread. - We have now come to the description of machinery required clxviii. LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : to convert the cotton fibre from the raw material into yarn, and to give it all those parallelisms necessary to prepare it for the different processes under which it is treated, before it arrives at the last form and finish of thread. The late Dr. Ure, who was justly considered an authority on this subject, states, in his description of a cotton factory, that, “After freeing the wool from all foreign substances of a lighter or heavier nature, the next thing is to arrange the filaments in lines as parallel as possible, then to extend them into regular ribbons, to elongate these by many successive draughts; doubling, quadrupling, or even octupling them, meanwhile, so as to give them perfect equality of size, consistence, and texture, and at the same time to complete the parallelism of the fibres by undoing the natural con- volutions they possess in the pod. “When the rectilineal extension has been thus carried to the fineness required by the spinner or to that compatible with the staple, a slight degree of torsion must accompany the further attenuation; which twist may be either momentary, as in the tube roving machine, or permanent, as in the bottom and fly frame. Finally, the now greatly attenuated soft thread, called a fine roving, is drawn out and twisted into finished cotton yarn, either by continuous infinite gradations of drawing and twisting, as in the throstle, or by successive stretches and torsions of considerable lengths at a time, as in the mule.” . To complete the above description, it may be stated that this valuable material undergoes not less than ten or twelve distinct operations before it appears in the shape of cloth; with some slight variations, now and then, they are as nearly as possible as follows:— First, The opening or the separating of the wool from extraneous matter, as imported in bags, and to prepare it for the sketcher or blower. Secondly, In these machines it is beat and driven round a perforated cylinder by a revolving double-armed scutcher at a velocity of 1600 revolutions per minute. There are generally two beaters and a fanner to blow off the dust and free the wool from impurities. It leaves the machine in the form of a fleecy sheet, which is wound upon rollers ready for— º . Thirdly, The lap machine, where it is again scutched, blown, and formed into a lap similar to what was done in the blower. In this state it is perfectly soft, clean, and fit for the carding machine. Fourthly, Carding: Here the lap is placed behind the feed rollers MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - clxix and carding cylinder, where every tuft or knot is broken and disen- tangled, and every other impurity which might have eluded the previous operation is removed; and from this process it is removed by the action of the doffer,” in the shape of a snowy fleece, and in this state it is drawn through rollers and deposited in spiral coils into a cylindrical can. - * Fifthly, Doubling and drawing is a process by which the slivers, as they are called, are drawn from the can in which they were coiled when delivered from the cards by two or three sets of rollers; and from the last of these they are again delivered into cans to be con- veyed to the- Sixthly, Slubbing and roving, where it is again drawn through rollers and wound, with a slight amount of twist, on to a bobbin, which, when full, is transferred to— - Seventhly, The fine roving or jack frame. On this machine the slivers are drawn and doubled, and for some descriptions of yarn trebled, with a considerable amount of twist, forming the sliver into a compact thread of such density only as will enable it to be drawn a tenth or twelfth turn, as it passes from the bobbin on which it was coiled to the- . - Eighthly, Spinning, either on the mule or the throstle, which, in the first, is effected by the reciprocating motion of the carriage which contains the spindles, or by a continuous motion, as exhibited in the rapid rotation of the bobbins attached to the spindles of the throstle. From this statement may be inferred the number of ingenious machines through which the different processes of manipulation are carried, and the care and attention which are requisite to insure economy in the manufacture of a superior quality of yarn. On comparing this system of manufacture with that of the distaff, as it existed in its primitive state in India and every other country of Europe, the enormous gain in production will at once be manifest. It will not be exaggerating to say that the amount of increase is from 3000 to 4000 per cent. ; and even taking the spinning-wheel, which was a great improvement upon the distaff, the increase must be from three to four times greater per spindle than what could possibly be delivered by that instrument, which for so many years was in use as the only means by which wool, flax, and silk could be converted into yarn. * These technical names will be more fully explained when we come to treat of the machines to which they apply. VOI, II. º/ clxx LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: But this is a mere fraction of the amazing increase of production which the improvements in mechanical science have effected. It is not the rate per spindle which has produced such astonishing results; but the number of spindles that are now employed in comparison with the two processes of hand spinning. If we take the imports of cotton into this country, before the inventions of Whyatt, Ark- wright, Crompton, and others, and compare them with those of the present time, we shall have the following comparison:- At the commencement of the last century the quantity of cotton wool imported, on an average of five years, did not exceed 1,170,881 lbs. a year.” Very little, if any, of the quantity was exported, so that we may safely take it as the rate of consumption. From 1840 to 1860 the consumption was in 1840, . . . . . . . . . 528,142,743 lbs. 1856, . . . . . . . . . . 891,400,000 “ 1860, . . . . . . . . , 1,040,000,000 “ which gives an increase in twenty years of nearly 100 per cent. In the manufacture of cloth a much greater increase took place from 1830, when the power-loom came into general use. The quantity of cotton cloth manipulated in 1830 amounted to 914,773,563 yards, 1860 “ “ 4,431,281,728 “ showing an increase of 384 per cent. During a period of five years, from 1850 to 1856, the number of spindles employed in Lancashire and Cheshire was in 1850, . . . . . . . . . 17,099,231 1856, . . . . . . . . . 23,619,167 showing an increase in five years, according to the calculations of Mr. David Chadwick, of 6,519,936, or at the rate of 1,303,987 per annum. This increase is still further extended by the same authority, who calculates the number of spindles required to work up the cotton consumed in 1860 at 33,000,000, at a rate of accelerated increase in four years of about 2,500,000 spindles per annum, or as 2.5 to 13, nearly double that of the previous five years.f This unparalleled success will, however, appear more conspicuous at the close of this treatise when we come to the question of statistics. On the same principle the statistics may be extended to the * Baines IIistory of the County Palatine of Lancaster, f Dr. John Watts' Facts of the Cotton Famine, 1866. MANUE ACTURES AND COMMERCE. clxxi present time; but that would not be a fair criterion, as the American civil war seriously interfered with the previously rapid extension of this important manufacture. It is, however, curious to observe with what energy the spinners and manufacturers contended against the diminution of imports, and with what vigour and enter- prise they fell back upon other resources. Nearly the whole trade depended upon the American imports, and yet a considerable number, nearly the whole of the fine spinners, worked their mills full time. It was, however, different with those who manufactured coarser yarns. They suffered severely; but far from being discouraged, they went energetically to work to find a substitute, by supplying capital and giving encouragement, through the help of the Cotton Supply Association, to India, and all other countries suitable for the growth of cotton. To that Association, and to the energy of its members in procuring the raw material for the mills, the country is indebted for the preservation of the trade, and the maintenance of the population in a comparative state of employment; though in addition to these resources the public sympathy was aroused, and there were not want- ing those who cheerfully subscribed to the wants and necessities of the occasion. But above all was conspicuous the patient suffering and exemplary conduct of the sufferers; and it will long be remembered how manfully they submitted, without murmur or complaint, to a visitation of which the effects have seldom been more awfully severe. We have already stated that the cotton cloth manufactured in 1830, before the introduction of the power-loom, amounted to 914,773,563 yards, and from that date to 1860 it increased to 4,431,281,728 yards, or nearly five times that manufactured by hand. Owing to the cotton famine, from that period down to the present we have no reliable returns, and cannot, therefore, furnish the actual number of yards produced. It may, however, be inferred that no increase has taken place, if, on the contrary, it has not been seriously diminished, owing to the late high price of cotton, and the present stagnation of trade. It is a curious fact that the power-loom and its accessory machines have undergone nearly the same changes and improvements as the machinery for spinning; and although it did not come into general use till 1830, many attempts, and some of them at an early period, were made to introduce it. Dr. Cartwright, of Glasgow—a man of considerable attainments and great ingenuity—endeavoured, in 1784, to introduce weaving by power, in order to keep pace with clxxii LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: spinning, which at that early period was making considerable progress. For this purpose he constructed a loom, which, on trial, failed to realize the intention of the inventor, and after repeated trials was ultimately abandoned. Dr. John Watts, treating on this subject, states that “after Dr. Cartwright's failure, Mr. Bell, also of Glasgow, produced, in 1794, a power-loom of improved pattern; and two years later, Miller, of Preston, tried his fortune in the same direction. It was not till 1813—a generation after Cartwright's attempt—that a really useful loom was produced by Horrocks, of Stockport; which like the self- acting mule, received its final improvement from Mr. Roberts, of Manchester—a universal mechanical genius, the owner of nearly a hundred patents, who nevertheless died at last in great poverty. One of the chief difficulties in power-loom weaving was the want of an automatic dressing machine. In 1804 Johnson, of Stockport, patented a plan for dressing a whole length of warp at once; and two years later this machine was improved upon by MAdams, of Glasgow, and a few years later still, was further improved by Messrs. Ross & Radcliffe, of Stockport.” - . The services rendered to power-loom weaving, and the improve- ments introduced by Mr. Horrocks, were never rewarded nor duly appreciated. Like the great majority of inventors, he died poor and neglected—a daily witness of the success of his own inventions, from which he derived no benefit, while others were realizing colossal fortunes. - The immense value of the cotton trade and its cheapening pro- cesses is a consideration of almost vital importance to all nations, but more especially to our own, where the different processes have been matured and developed, and where a skilful, industrious, and choice population have been created, whose very existence depends upon the manufacture of this invaluable material. In a national point of view it is equally valuable and important ; and when we consider its present extent (represented as it is by a sum ranging from £70,000,000 to £80,000,000 per annum of exports), it is equally entitled, in order to support its productive energies, to the consider- ation of the statesman and every liberal mind in the kingdom. This can only be done by making the public mind acquainted with its importance, by freeing it from all restrictions, and by liberally encouraging its growth and distributing its benefits to every corner of the globe. This principle being judiciously carried out, we should MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE. clxxiii have nothing to fear from competition, as the mechanical skill and the intelligence of our hard-working population are ever ready and willing to co-operate in maintaining and upholding a trade of native origin, which, if conducted with energy and perseverance, will long continue to give wealth and prosperity to every class of the community. Viewing the subject in this light, it requires no apology on our part if we endeavour to put the reader in possession of the different machines and the uses to which they are applied in the varied forms of manufacture, and the admirable precision with which they are endowed for the due performance of every stage of preparation, from the grower to the finished article in cloth. In this description we shall endeavour to trace the origin of the invention of each separate machine, from its first introduction and subsequent improvements, to its present state of perfection. We shall, moreover, endeavour to picture the patient labour and perseverance necessary to produce the varied forms, motions, and conditions of a perfect machine. These, and other casual remarks, will constitute the chief part of our descriptions of the machinery for the manufacture of cotton. Manufacturing Processes—We have now arrived at that stage of the inquiry where it is necessary to show by what means and contrivances this production of cotton yarn and cloth has reached its present gigantic dimensions, and also to show the principle on which it is governed, and the certainty by which it is produced. In every manufactory, the different processes are conducted by auto- matic machines, and these are continuous from one to another, until the raw material has acquired the form and condition of the manu- factured article. In this, as in all other manufacturing processes, it is essential that a complete system of organization should be observed, and that upon sound principles of economy and saving of labour in every stage of the process. Without classification and a careful system of management, the business of the factory will never succeed. In addition to this, the manufacturer must have first-class machinery, the most convenient buildings, and well-trained hands to work his machinery to advantage, in order successfully to meet every competitor at home or abroad. In fact, his mill should be so constructed and furnished as to enable him to open his bales of raw cotton at one end of the factory, and receive it in the state of yarn and cloth at the other. These are some of the essentials to begin with ; the next is, a moderate amount of capital, which, supplemented clxxiv LAN CASHIRE AND CHIESHIRE : with persevering industry and attention to business, will overcome every difficulty. We now proceed to describe the machinery requisite for such a purpose, and to show how it is worked. In India the first process in the preparation of cotton wool is to free the fibre from the husk, or the small hard nut to which it is attached. From time immemorial this has been done by hand with a pair of wooden rollers, fig. 21, called a churka. It consists of a wooden frame, with two conical hard-wood rollers, the ends of which are cut into three spiral grooves, A, through which the fibre is drawn, and separated from the seed behind. Into the slots, a, a, two wooden keys are driven to bring the rollers in tight contact, and on the operator placing his foot on the board or stud, B (which projects some distance from the case), and his right hand to the handle, and the left behind the feed-rollers, the whole operation of clearing the fibre from the ###NES㺠#E -------------. - ** —-----====== -- ... =+---. ==== The Churka. husk is accomplished. As a matter of course, the quantity cleaned must be inconsiderable; but labour is cheap in India, and this rude and simple instrument has, without improvement, continued to meet the requirements of cleaning cotton for several thousand years. During the cotton famine, when exports were prohibited, and when an embargo was laid on the Southern states of America, it became necessary, in order to encourage the growth of cotton in India, to send out machinery to clean the cotton from the husk and other impurities. This was done to a considerable extent by an association, which was instituted in Manchester for the supply of cotton from all countries where the land and climate were fit for its growth. Most of these machines were imitations of the churka, and were calculated to be worked either by hand or power in order to facilitate the cleaning, and to be thus enabled to produce properly cleansed cotton in greatly increased quantities. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. clxxv The first of these machines is what is called the Churka Gin, worked by hand. It is composed, as shown in fig. 22, of two rollers, the lower end of which is covered with hard wood, and is 1, inch diameter in its working parts; the upper end is of steel , inch diameter, with a finely fleeting surface. They are worked in contact, and are coupled by gearing, so that their two circumferences travel Fig. 22. Cotton Gin—Hand. at the same rate. It will clean all kinds of staple from hard seeds, one of its rollers being so small that the minutest seed cannot pass between the rollers. When the fibre is separated from the seed, it is drawn through the rollers and delivered in front, whilst the seed, when released, falls through the grid to a can under the machine. This is the first process by which the cotton filaments are freed clxxvi LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : from the seed and rendered fit for packing in bales as received at the ports of Liverpool and Glasgow. There are several other gins by different makers, all of them containing improvements, and exhibiting some novelty of construc- tion. Those by Messrs. Platt Brothers & Co., Oldham, who are the | | | |, . Cotton Gin–Steam Power. chief makers, are, however, of the best construction, and by confining our descriptions of the machines employed to those made upon the preceding system, we shall elucidate everything that can be said in reference to the machinery for cleansing cotton. During previous years, when the consumption of cotton wool was limited, the hand machine was sufficient to meet the demand; but of MANUE ACTURES AND COMMERCE. clxxvii late years, when large imports were received from America, it became necessary to employ steam or water power machines. These were first introduced into the American states, and thence transferred to this country, where they are chiefly made and exported to India and other cotton-growing districts. One of the best and largest machines of American origin is the Patent Churka Gin, fig. 23, and the Macarthy Gin, fig. 24, both of which are now in general use. The novel improvements introduced into the latter consist in holding the rollers in contact, supplying them with seed cotton by a self-feeder, and preventing them from lapping. They operate as follows:–The cotton containing the seed is spread on an endless travelling lattice, which conveys it to a series of three-spiked rollers, the first of which, revolving over the lattice, and its circumference travelling at the same speed, holds the cotton; the second, which travels much faster, fills the spikes with cotton; whilst the third moves at an intermediate speed to the other two, its object being to prevent the second from carrying pieces of cotton on its surface. The next operation is to strip the second roller, and convey the cotton to the churka rollers. This is done by a comb having a circular vibratory motion given to it through an elastic connecting- rod, to prevent breakage in the case of obstruction. After this operation of the rollers and comb the fibres are loosened from the seeds, and are in the most favourable condition for being passed through the wood and steel churka rollers. The steel roller is held in contact with the wooden roller by a weight and levers bearing upon its journals. A knife is fixed in a frame over the top of the steel roller to keep it clear. This frame also carries a roller, covered with leather, which runs in contact with the wooden roller; this knife and the roller prevent the steel roller from being wrapped with cotton, and can be lifted together out of the way. The bottom or wooden roller is kept from wrapping by a fluted roller revolving under it on the delivering side, and driven by one of the other rollers. This gin will separate from hard seed about 600 lbs. of clean cotton weekly. z The Macarthy Gin, fig. 24, originally consisted of a roller covered with leather, about five inches diameter, having a number of Small grooves cut in spirals on the surface, making about 110 revolutions per minute. On the face of this roller is a thin steel plate, acting against it with a slight pressure; it is also furnished with a wire- grid, upon which the seed with its fibre attached is pushed by hand VOI, II. & clxxviii LAN CASEILIRE AND CHESEIIRE : against the face of the roller, which, by means of the spiral grooves and the adhesive nature of the leather surface, draws the fibre under the steel-plate until the seeds come in contact with its edge. Whilst the fibres are thus held the seeds are pushed off by the edge of a bar which has a vertical vibratory motion, so as to pass the edge of the The Macarthy Gin. plate where the seed is held, and thus separate it from the fibre, which is carried forward and delivered by a fluted roller placed in front, and which revolves in the same direction as the Macarthy roller. It is important to make the spaces of the grid to the size of the seed the machine is cleaning: for, if too coarse, the seeds will pass through before they are cleaned, and, if too fine, they will accumulate. MANUIFACTURES AND COMMERCE. clxxix The improvements introduced are in feeding the machine with seed cotton, which is placed on an endless travelling lattice, and conveyed by it to a series of rollers, the last of which is furnished with spikes, and travels at an increased speed, so as to separate the tufts in detail from the sheet prepared upon the lattice. From this spiked roller the tufts are transmitted to the Macarthy roller by a comb having a circular vibratory motion given to it through an elastic connecting-rod, by which breakage from obstruction is pre- vented; also, in the introduction of two bars with vertical vibratory motion, moving alternately from a double crank, for the purpose of pushing the seeds from the fibre whilst held by the steel plate. These improvements effect a vast economy of labour, as previously each machine required an attendant, whilst one can now superintend several, and each machine clean more than double the quantity. This machine cleans all kinds of cottom, but is especially adapted to such as contain soft and woolly seeds. A machine 24 inches wide will separate from hard seed about 1000 lbs. of clean cotton weekly. We now proceed to describe more in detail the different machines and processes to which cotton is subjected in the mill before it arrives at the finished state of yarn or cloth. The first process consists in selecting suitable bales, and mixing the cotton for the class of yarn required. The contents of each bale are spread out in layers, so as to form a stack, and from the sides of this stack, taken vertically, the opener is supplied. Before we attempt to describe the second and opening process, it may be interesting to trace the origin of these machines. It will be in the recollection of some of our readers that, some years before the close of the last century, Mr. A. Meikle, a millwright of East Lothian, invented the thrashing-machine, which consisted, as it now does, of a table, feed rollers, and an iron rod or wire cylinder, of sufficient width in the interior divisions to allow the grain to pass and the straw to move forward until it was caught by the teeth of a revolving rake, by which it is discharged at the end of the machine. In the cylinder a drum, with beaters, revolving at a high velocity, beat out the grain, and separated it from the straw, which latter was carried forward, as above described. This useful invention was applied in a few years to the beating and cleansing of cotton, which before was done by women, under the names of pickers and batters.” * The first introduction of the blower was by Mr. Snodgrass, of Glasgow, who, in 1797, constructed a scutching-machine, which some years later, lu 1809, was improved and modified by Messrs. Strutts of Belper. clxxx LAN CASEIIRE AND CEIESHIRE : The second process is effected by a machine, fig. 25, to open out the cotton fibre after it has been pressed in bales, and extracting the sand, dried leaves, and other impurities imported with it, which it is important to do without entangling or injuring the fibre. The machine used for this purpose comprises an endless lattice on which it is spread, and an iron roller with ribs on its surface, which together convey the cotton to a pair of fluted feed rollers, and is delivered by them to the first of a series of four cylinders, which is furnished with twelve rows of teeth; the second, third, and fourth having only four rows of teeth. These cylinders revolve in the same direction, in journals or bearings supported by a horizontal framing, at a speed of about 1000 revolutions per minute. These cylinders are all cased - -- Cotton Opener. upon the upper side with sheet iron; the first part of the under side of each is cased by angular bars with spaces betwixt them, forming a circular grid, which allows the dirt disengaged by the action of the cylinders to pass through to the floor. The remaining part of the under casing is made from a perforated sheet of metal, which allows the dust to escape through whilst the cotton is passing over it. The first of these cylinders strikes the cotton from the feed rollers, passes it over the circular grid and perforated plate, and de- livers it to the second cylinder, whence it receives a blow equal to the combined velocity of the two cylinders, and passes it on to the third and fourth, so that this action is repeated three times with the four cylinders, each making a deposit through its respective grid and perforated plate; and as only the light fibre offers any MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE: clxxxi resistance to the quick blows of these cylinders, it is impossible it should receive any injury in this operation. The last or fourth cylinder drives the cotton over a straight grid to the back of two wire cylinders, when it is collected and afterwards stripped by two iron rollers, which carry it to a delivery lattice in front of the machine; so that, throughout the whole passage of the cotton from the feed rollers to the wire cylinders, there is a continual deposit of impurities. The two wire cylinders are exhausted by a fan, which collects the dust within the casing of the machine and forces it into any place provided for its reception, by this means Fig. 26. …" - -- | - - - - - * - | | * * Double Scutcher. keeping the rooms where such machines are in operation perfectly free from dust. These machines are also constructed with one or two cylinders, and with lap machines attached, so as to prepare laps to be after- wards transferred to the scutcher. Third Process—The scutching and lapping machines, fig. 26, are supplied with cotton from the opener in a uniform fleece, by two methods; one by dividing a feeding lattice into a number of equal parts, and spreading uniformly upon each part a given weight of cotton to present to the feed rollers. The other is by driving the lattice and feed rollers of the scutcher at a speed varying in propor- tion to the thickness of cotton supplied, which speed is regulated by clxxxii T.A.NCASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : -** the rise and fall of the top feed roller, multiplied by levers, so as to guide a strap, communicating motion to the lattice and feed rollers, from a cone pulley revolving at a uniform rate to a second cone pulley. These pulleys are on parallel vertical axes attached to the sides of the feeder. Thus, when the feed roller rises its speed is diminished, when it falls it is increased, and an almost uniform supply of cotton is presented to the first cleaning cylinder, which is furnished with twelve rows of teeth ; and these, in revolving, strike the cotton and pass it over a circular grid to a revolving beater with three blades, which, in its turn, passes it over a second circular grid and a straight grid to a pair of wire dust cylinders that are exhausted by a fan. The cotton is stripped from these dust cylinders by a pair of iron rollers, and passed through a second set of two pairs of feed rollers which revolve more quickly than the first, thereby delivering a thinner fleece to the second beater, which again passes it over a circular and straight grid to two other wire dust cylinders, which are stripped by rollers as before. This latter pair of cylinders and rollers travel at three times the speed of the feeder, so that they deliver a fleece one-third the thickness first supplied to the machine. The next operation is to form the cotton into a large roll or lap. This is done by the lap machine attached to the scutcher, forming together one machine. - The rollers which strip the last dust cylinders deliver the fleece to a set of four calender rollers placed over each other, so that the cotton, in passing through them, receives three compressions, which form the fleece into a kind of felt. Three of these calenders have their surfaces kept clean by bars of iron covered with flannel, which are pressed into contact with them. The cotton then passes over one of two large fluted rollers which revolves in the same direction, and under a smaller plain roller which is above the fluted roller and receives its motion from it, by contact through the fleece. This small roller also cleans the second calender roller, by running against it in a contrary direction with a slight pressure; it also breaks the fleece when the lap is formed. - The fleece is now wound upon an iron tube, slightly taper, that is placed in the channel between the two fluted rollers, and driven by contact with them, having gudgeons at each end, on which it receives pressure from two friction pulleys revolving in racks placed verti- cally, and gearing into pinions upon a shaft across the machine. This shaft, again, communicates by gearing to a break pulley, which has MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. clxxxiii a slight pressure given to it by a lever that can be released by the foot of the attendant; by this means, as each successive layer is wound upon the roller, the break slips and allows it to rise. One of these fluted rollers has a worm on its axis, geared into a wheel with such a number of teeth that a single revolution will indicate the length of fleece to form the lap required. On the same axis as this wheel is a tappet, which stops the feeding motion and calenders, by pulling the support from under the hand levers that carry the end of the driving shaft. When the wheel drops out of gear, the two fluted rollers carrying the lap continue to revolve and break the fleece; the foot lever releases the break, the racks are lifted by a hand wheel, and the lap is taken out and stripped by dropping the small end of the tube upon a block of caoutchouc placed conveniently on the floor, and which, by its elasticity, causes the tube to rebound from the lap, when the attendant seizes it, lifts it out of the lap, and again places it on the machine, lowers the rack and friction pulleys by the hand wheel, lifts up the gear levers, and the process again COIOIO €10C6S. The fourth process consists of the lapping machine, which, in this process, is precisely similar in its feeding part to that already described. It is so arranged, that three of the laps made by the scutcher can be placed in such a manner upon it as to be uncoiled by the traverse of the lattice. This is done as follows:—Through the centre of the laps rods are inserted; the laps are then placed upon the lattice with the rods in slits or guides made in the framing to receive them, and thus keep them parallel; the laps are then uncoiled and spread upon the surface of the lattice in three layers on the top of each other, so as to present to the feed rollers a uniform fleece, equal in thickness to that which is fed upon the first scutcher. The machine is then set in motion, the cotton is passed through the feed rollers, and the remainder of the operation is precisely the same as in the machine previously described. By thus doubling the laps the fibres are more thoroughly mixed, and the fleece is made more uniform in thickness; and as the fleece must be uniform in its length and breadth as well, it is absolutely necessary that the beater should produce one uniform current of air, and thus waft the fibre over the straight grid direct to the wire cylinder. It is thus, whilst the cotton is floating, that the heavier impurities, loosened by the beaters, drop out and fall through the grids into the dust boxes. clxxxiv. LAN CASHIRE AND CEIBSEIIRE : The laps formed by this machine are then taken to the breaker carding engines. From the above description the great perfection of the machines, and the pains taken in the preparation to cleanse the cotton from every impurity, will at once be seen. It has undergone four distinct operations in being whipped and blown, and that with a degree of severity adapted to its purification, though not more than it is able to bear. No injury is done to the fibre, which is stretched but not broken, and the tenacity of which is preserved for succeeding operations of still greater intensity. It will be observed, from the above figures, with what accuracy and style of finish these machines are constructed; and when it is considered that the introductory processes are exclusively for the purpose of cleansing and freeing the fibre from impurity, it is surprising that, in the working of the new machines, there is not a particle of dust to be seen, and, moreover, that the hands who feed them—chiefly women—breathe a pure and wholesome atmosphere. It used to be very different with the old blowers and scutchers, when the room was enveloped in dust, and when the “tenters” were almost invisible. Things are now pleasant and agreeable; and this arises from the improvements in the construction of the machines (the fans carrying off the dust), and parliamentary enactments for the preservation and protection of the people employed in factories. In former years, and for a great length of time, serious difficulties presented themselves in the various conditions and improvements requisite for perfecting this class of machines. These difficulties have been overcome, and we are now enabled to clean cotton wool without injury to the fibre, and to produce fleeces of uniform length, width, and thickness, so neatly prepared and felted that they uncoil themselves, without entanglement, to the feed rollers of the carding engine. The fifth process, first carding, continues the operation by a kind of combing, from the lap machine to the drawing frame. For low coarse yarns one only is used (single carding) to change the lap fleece into a sliver; but for finer yarns, and for coarse yarns made from the best description of cotton, two cards are used, one acting as a “breaker,” and the other as a “finisher;” the laps to supply the latter being formed from slivers delivered by the breaker on a machine called the lap doubler. By this process the felted fleece delivered by the lap machine, with its fibres crossing in all directions, is combed and MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. clxxxv. straightened, and the light impurities still adhering to it, such as short fibre and the moss-like covering of the seeds, are taken out; for if allowed to pass this operation, they would give a roughness to the yarn. To straighten and clean each fibre in the fleece, it requires to be combed many times, and this is done in its passage through these machines as follows:–The breaker-card has a taker-in, three self- || º | * | | - | | - --- - E Breaker Carding Engine. stripping dirt rollers, and the remainder of its upper surface covered with rollers and clearers. This card is supplied or fed by a lap of the fleece from the lap machine, which is placed on a roller at its feeding end, guided by plates at each side, which have slots in them to receive the ends of the rods passing through the lap's centre. The unlapping of this fleece is governed by the motion of this roller. It is WOL. II. - - 2 a. clxxxvi LANCASHIRE AND CEIESHIRE . now passed over the plate to the feed roller, which delivers it to the taker-in roller; at this point the combing or carding commences, whilst the fleece is held by the feed rollers travelling at a slow speed, the taker-in running much faster and having its surface covered with cards, a kind of wire brush covered with crooked teeth so fixed that the points of the teeth strike down into the fleece held by the feed rollers. As these fibres are combed the impurities separated fall to the floor; the taker-in passes the fibrous tufts of cotton as they are released by the feed roller on its under surface to the large cylinder, which is also covered with cards, and which revolves in an opposite direction to the taker-in. The points of its teeth incline in the direction of motion, and its surface travels much faster than that of the taker-in, from which, in passing, it takes the fibrous tufts and carries them to the self-stripping dirt rollers, the cards on which have their hook-points to face those of the cylinder, so as to hold in the interstices of their wires such impurities as they may receive, which are carried forward by their motion and stripped by a vibratory comb, so as to form a roll on their upper surfaces, to be taken away at intervals. These dirt rollers revolve with a very slow motiv., so unat they assist in stretching the fibres as well as in collecting the dirt. From the dirt rollers it passes under the first clearer to the first carding roller, whose hooks also face those of the cylinder, so as to straighten the fibres and divide any tuft remaining. This roller passes the fibres fixed in its teeth (by their antagonism with the cylinder) back, to be stripped by the clearer; this again delivers them to the cylinder, to be again divided by the same roller. This operation is repeated by each of the five rollers and clearers, till the tufts are all reduced to straight fibres, which pass on to the doffer (another cylinder about half the size of the main cylinder). The hooks of the doffer face the cylinder; its motion also recedes with it and travels at a much slower speed. The fibres are again stretched whilst they are left on its surface; they now pass on its under side to be stripped by the doffing comb, which is formed of thin plates of steel having fine straight teeth on their lower edge, which are hardened to prevent wearing. These plates are fixed to a channel bar, which is connected at each end to a crank running at high speed, and which gives to it a vertical vibratory motion, so as to strip a portion of fleece from the face of the doffer by its downward motion, and clear itself by its rising. The fleece is then contracted through a funnel and taken forward by the MANUE ACTURES AND COMMER.C.E. clxxxvii drawing rollers, which deliver it in the form of a sliver or riband to the coiler and can. -- The coiler or revolving-can motion is attached to the carding engine, receives the slivers as they are delivered from the breaker cards, and coils them into the can, for the purpose of taking them to the lap doubler. It works as follows:—The sliver from the draw- box of the carding engine is passed through a funnel in the top cover of the machine to a small pair of revolving rollers underneath, by which it is taken in, and delivered through a tube and revolving plate to the can over which it is placed ; the top end of the tube is con- centric and the lower end eccentric to its motion ; i.e., the tube is placed at an angle. The can is situated below in a revolving dish, whose position is eccentric to the top plate; by means of these two motions, and the top plate running a number of revolutions for one of the bottom plate, the can receives a number of coils each revolution. The outside of these coils is laid so as to touch the inside of the ..cans, where they form circles of coils continually crossing each other until the can is full up to the top plate, which, still continuing to deliver, presses more slivers into the can, and thus causes them to come out without adhering to each other. From these remarks it will be obvious that carding is one of the most important preparatory processes in the manufacture of cotton, and that no small skill and labour have been required to bring it to its present state of perfection. In the earlier stages of cotton spinning, when both carding and spinning were done by hand, it was regarded as a domestic manu- facture, until the demand became so great as to induce improvements of the simple implements then in use. The first attempt to increase the quantity and reduce the labour in hand-carding was by fixing one of the cards to a board; and, according to the late Mr. Kennedy's description, a boy and a girl could work two pairs of stock cards so as to produce more than they could formerly. This continued for a short time when further improvements followed, until one person could work four or five pairs by holding hand cards against stock cards fixed to a cylinder revolving on its axis, now called a carding machine, the inventor of which we have no account of.” This hand cylinder-carding machine was actually in use from 1755 to 1760, when it was discovered that it might be so far enlarged that * Mr. Kennedy's paper “On the Rise and Progress of the Cotton Trade.” Manchester Memoirs, Second Series, vol. iii. p. 119. clxxxviii LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : twenty pairs of hand cards, adjusted by screws to a cylinder, might be worked by one person ; and this constituted the nucleus of the machine in its present high and efficient state of perfection. The father of the first Sir Robert Peel attempted cylinder-carding unsuccessfully at Blackburn about 1760, and Hargreaves, in 1773, introduced the crank and comb for stripping the cotton from the cylinders in one continuous fleece, which, being drawn through a tube, formed a sliver ready for the drawing frame. Two or three years later this invention, rightly or wrongly, was patented by Sir Richard Arkwright. Derby Doubler. This appears, as far as it is known, to be the history of the carding machine; it was followed by the drawing frame, which, as stated above, was patented by Arkwright, along with other improvements on the carding engine. Several new processes have, however, been found necessary since these primitive machines were introduced. Sæth Process—The Derby doubler is a machine shown in fig. 28, by which the slivers from the breaker card are formed into a fleece, and coiled into a lap to supply the finisher card. It operates as follows:–Two rows of tin cases containing slivers are placed on each side of the feeding table, which forms the section of a cone; it is MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. clxxxix furnished with two pair of plain rollers the entire length of, and parallel to the frame; these take the slivers from the cans filled by the coilers, and deliver them upon the surface of the table. In their course from the cans to the table the slivers pass through holes in a bar of iron to guide them over a curved plate, under which is a revolving shaft that carries a boss with three wings opposite each sliver. On the top edge of the curved plate is a fulcrum, which carries a small two-ended lever; the lower end hangs under it, and is heavier, to give it a vertical direction, so as to cause it to fall in contact with one of the wings in the revolving shaft. The top ends of these levers project above the plate, and are pressed down by the slivers passing over them, when the shaft is free to revolve till one of the slivers either breaks or runs out, when its lever falls and stops its motion. The stopping of this shaft puts in motion a cam that moves the strap on the loose pulley, and stops the machine; the end of the sliver is again supplied, and the machine proceeds as before. By this means missing slivers, or “singles,” is entirely pre- vented, and the fleece is uniform. Two slivers, one from each side, pass up the centre of the table, close to each other, from the apex of cone; the others are supplied in equal divisions of each side, so as to fill the whole surface. The lap machine is connected to the wide end of the table, and the first of its calenders that receives the sliver travels at the same surface speed as the smaller rollers that supply the table from the cans, so that the slivers move in straight lines from one to the other, and are drawn over the table by mutual assistance, as the long ones up the centre would break if not assisted by those at the sides. The machine that winds the lap is similar to that described for the scutcher, but the laps are wound upon wooden bobbins that are taken with them to the cards. These bobbins are weighted by Knowles' patent motion, consisting of an iron roller which presses on them, whilst their ends are formed against revolving washers guided in their centres, without gudgeons, which facilitates the removal of the laps. These machines are constructed to form laps, either one-third, one-half, or the full width of the lap required, as may be desired. The novelties introduced are, improved stop motions (Knowles' patent), revolving plates to lap ends, feeding table, and improved general construction of machine. The seventh process consists of the finisher card, which continues CXC LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : the operation of combing and cleaning commenced by the breaker. In some cases, for carding middling qualities, cards similar to the breaker cards before described are used as finishers also ; so that, if desirable, both may be used for single carding. For fine qualities those of the construction illustrated and exhibited are most generally used; for fine qualities of still higher counts, this construction of carding engine is used for both breaker and finisher; and for the finest qualities it is used as a breaker | || || - - ". . | | || º - ºf º | sº I |Wººlººlºº lº - Tº card for cotton, to be afterwards combed by the combing machine. The finisher is supplied with laps (formed by the lap doubler before described) of ninety-six slivers from the breaker card, in order that the mixing of the cotton may be more thoroughly effected, and to insure more perfect uniformity of the sliver. These laps are placed between two rollers at the feeding end of the card, which unlap the fleece and deliver it to the feeding roller; they are guided at each side by a plate to keep the fleece | | n |º , - - MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - cxci -**-------- ----...- . . . . central with the cards. The taker-in roller combs it from the feed rollers, and carries it to the main cylinder, which is covered on a portion of its surface with a train of iron flats, covered with cards, and united at each end by links, so as to form an endless travel- ling lattice. This lattice is carried on shafts, having a slow motion and supported by bearings in the general framing. Those flats in operation slide upon a curve that is adjustable to the cylinder. The sliding portion of the flat is formed with a slight angle to the face upon which the card is fixed, so that the point of contact with the cylinder will be near to the front or leading side of the card. Those flats not in operation slide on plain slips on each side of the cylinder to support them, whilst the faces of the cards on their sur- face are ground true and sharp by a short disc of metal covered with emery, and running at a quick speed, and at the same time traversing over the lengths of the strips of card on the flats, so as to form the points of wire to a true surface. The hooks of these cards face those of the cylinder, so that each flat combs the fibres as it passes on the face of the cylinder. The main cylinder and doffer are also made true by this method of grinding. The impurities sepa- rated are carried forward by the motion of this train, and are stripped off by a vibratory comb in front, when they fall into a box. After passing the flats the fleece is again combed and delivered, as before described in the breaker carding engine. The novelties consist in the arrangement of the machine so that the flats can be accurately ground whilst the card is working, and the other portions of the machine can be stripped and ground with- out being moved from their place; and in the application of a motion to stop the doffer when breakage of sliver or other obstruction occurs. Until recently, the finisher cards were constructed without taker-in rollers, the main cylinder, taking the fleece direct from the feeding roller, causing the fibres to fill the cards; and any impurities which passed the feed rollers damaged the cards on this large surface. By using taker-in rollers these evils are prevented, the fibres being delivered to the cylinder without pressure. The original difficulty with the carding engine was to maintain true surfaces, on which the cards were fixed. These being generally constructed of timber, varying with every change of the atmosphere, had to be made true each time by grinding the full parts from the ends of the wires. The cylinders and rollers were not carefully constructed so as to run with a steady motion. cxcii LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : The fixings for carrying the different journals were incapable of fine adjustment, neither were they steady after being set. These defects prevented the cards working sufficiently near to each other without occasionally coming in contact, which destroyed the carding point. The above defects are now overcome, by using iron instead of wood, and by the aid of machinery in construction. The moving parts are capable of fine adjustment, and are as firm as the fixed a gºº S. Rºe ºze Ż & º Í. \ , | | - . | º | I jº s’. ŠN N | | ' ' ' 'i'i: iii.; , ; ; : *: º ! * 5 #. º | Drawing Frame—Cross Section. ones when set. These improvements in construction cause less grinding and stripping to be required; as the finer and truer the points of the wire can be maintained, the clearer will be the card. The eighth process is a machine, fig. 30, by which the cotton, already cleaned, carded, and straightened, is partially drawn and formed into ribands or slivers, which are again doubled and drawn by passing a number of them—say about six—over guides MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cxciii depressed by their weight, through four pair of rollers, each pair travel- ling at a different speed ; the difference in this case between the first and the fourth pair being about as one is to six; that is to say, the circumference of the fourth roller travels through a space six times greater than the circumference of the first pair, and by so doing elongates or draws the sliver to six times the original length, thus forming a single web, which is passed through a funnel to a pair of calender rollers, through which it passes to the coiling can, as described in the carding engine. The sliver thus deposited, being doubled six times and drawn six times, is the same weight or thickness per yard as each of the slivers received by the back roller; and the object sought by this is to equalize the quality of the cotton, and to make the slivers of uniform strength and texture by the combination. This process is repeated three times in this machine, and the amount of doubling and draught is equal in each case, say 216. The guides depressed by the sliver in passing to the back rollers act as stop motions when the sliver breaks or runs out, by being thus released and coming in contact with a spider having a circular vibratory motion communicating to it through a catch box con- nected with a strap fork. The novelties introduced are in the use of rollers made from Bessemer steel, Leigh's top rollers with revolving bosses, for front row; in an improved top clearer or flat which hangs upon hinges, and is provided with an endless cloth which clears the top rollers by travelling over them. Its advantages are, a saving of power, labour, oil, and roller leather; it is much cleaner than the ordinary flat ; there is less friction, and consequently less heat and electricity; the oil is less fluid, and the greasing of the pivots of the rollers is much better; facility of inspection is much greater, and the “flat waste” is never taken away by the sliver; and a stop motion for stopping the machine when the sliver breaks betwixt the front rollers and the calender, and which is driven from the same shaft and catch box as that used when the sliver breaks betwixt the can and the back roller. - The ninth, tenth, and eleventh processes consist of slubbing, inter- mediate, and roving frames, which receive the single slivers of cotton as delivered from the last operation of the drawing frame ; they are first conveyed in their cans to the back of the slubbing frame. This frame is furnished with guides, similar to those described in VOL. II. 2 b cxciv LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : the drawing frame, over which the ends pass to a series of three pair of rollers revolving at varying speeds; the speed of the first pair being to the speed of the last in the proportion of one to five, so that the sliver is again increased in length five times in passing through them. In front of these rollers are two rows of spindles, which are furnished with flyers having two hollow legs, and upon these spindles bobbins about eleven inches long are threaded. These spindles and bobbins are both made to revolve, but at varying rates, and from distinct and separate movements. Fig. 31. 7– - s Bººmmºn | *V. - º º º º- -- - - - - - = -º - | º - - - º i. |- a - - - == tº illiºl|| - Dº- | Nº. º - --- -º- - – º nºn-un-nnnnºun _- - - - Nº ºxº r |- - - – - - - - \\ – wº- 7. - - - º - º % Nº \ º __ mºm *-m- I º º º * m_m - º º º iº º | W . lºw- Tº | Tº -E = - E- E. - º ºf - ºn ). º Wºº Vº E. l ºº ſºº ºùù'º','!" º ...' . º L. º º Wºº, º ººmººlºº Fºººººººº- -º-º-º: ſº º ºlººl lºº |Nº. º | º -- - - - ºº: |A lº - ºil. º - - º º | º | º: - l | | | | | l ||| | | … - 'gºlº ſ: | º i. º - | *E****º º *º- º - º \ miniºn " | lº º | - |W ||||||| III. ||| - lºilº || || || || || || ||. º- º * |illiºlſº Roving Frame. The cotton, now called slubbing, delivered by these rollers, is partially spun or twisted by the revolutions of the spindles, passes through the hollow legs of the flyers, and is wound upon bobbins. Two of these bobbins are then filled into the creel of the intermediate frame. The slubbings are then doubled by passing the ends of two of them through another series of three pair of rollers; joining, drawing, twisting, and winding are again repeated ; and the cotton, now called roving, is wound upon bobbins about eight inches long, ready for being spun in the mule or throstle. The twisting of the cotton, after being delivered by the rollers of these machines, is MANUIFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - CXCV effected by the revolutions of the spindles, the slubbing or roving is passed through a hole on the top, and down one of the legs of the flyer to its finger or presser, round which it is coiled, and deli- vered to the bobbin. This presser hangs loosely upon the flyer leg, but is parallel with and carried round by it at a uniform rate, causing a uniform pressure to be given to the bobbin through its weight and the resistance of the air in its circuit. As the bobbin is being wound it is caused to traverse up and down the spindle against the finger, So as to equally distribute the roving. The winding of the roving upon the bobbin is regulated by increasing or diminishing its speed, accordingly as the bobbin follows the flyer, or the flyer follows the bobbin. Frames are made in both ways. When the bobbin fol- lows the flyer its speed must be increased, as its diameter increases by winding, or the roving will be irregularly stretched or broken. The speed of the front roller delivering the roving and the speed of the spindle which twists it are constant. In these frames the bobbin follows the flyers, and the first motion communicat- ing with the bobbin is at its greatest speed when the bobbin begins to wind; the speed gradually diminishing as the layers are wound on. This diminution of speed is effected by moving a strap upon two conical drums, one concave and the other convex; the speed of the concave drum is constant. These drums also communi- cate motion to a rail, which, in its up and down motion, traverses the bobbin upon the spindle, and by this means regulates the speed of this traverse to suit the increased diameter of the bobbins. The length of these drums is arranged to suit the diameter of the bobbins to be filled, so that when the strap has been traversed across the drum the bobbin has attained its full dimensions when the frame knocks off. The bobbins, being now filled, are taken off and exchanged for empty ones; the end of the convex drum is raised so as to release the strap, which is wound back to the opposite end of the drum by means of a rack and pinion, and the frame is ready for starting again. We may here interrupt our description to furnish a brief account of the origin and the subsequent improvements of this ingenious machine. As described above, there are three different processes to which the cotton in the shape of ribbons or slivers is carried from the drawing frame to the slubber and the double roving frames. These machines, although distinct in themselves, are nevertheless the same in principle, and may be considered as one and the same machine. Similar to the process of drawing and doubling, the slivers cxcvi LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : receive a twist after the process of elongation is finished, and this continues through all the three frames until it leaves the fine, or last frame, in bobbins formed in the shape of soft yarn, ready for the last process of spinning. Before the introduction of the bobbin frame a machine like the drawing frame was used, but with this difference, that the sliver, as delivered from the drawing rollers, was received into a revolving can, which gave it the required twist to hold it together till it was spun into a soft thread by a machine called the ‘billy.” The billy was a coarser and more muscular machine than the “jenny,” and did the heavier work formerly done by the jenny, but more recently for the mule. The introduction of the bobbin frame in these processes ulti- mately dispensed with both the can frame and the billy, and the rovings are now transferred on bobbins, as already described, at once to the spinning mule. In fine spinning another ingenious process of combing has been introduced, intermediate between the breaker card and the drawing frame, which we shall shortly describe. Our present purpose is, however, to trace the origin and experimental researches connected with the bobbin frame; and as these are in immediate connection with the writer, who rendered assistance to the inventors in their investigations, he will probably be excused for going a little more into detail. - * * The bobbin frame was unknown to the early spinners; the can frame was the only intermediate process between the finishing card and the billy, and from this latter machine the rovings went direct to the mule or throstle. On this principle the preparatory process was imperfect, and a great variety of schemes was adopted to give the required twist and a higher finish to the sliver in its reduction from the drawing frame, in the shape of a well drawn slightly-twisted roving, to the mule. Messrs. Cocker and Higgins, of Manchester, were amongst the first machine-makers to construct the bobbin frame, which for several years remained in an imperfect and unsatisfactory state. The ques- tion of improvements was, however, taken up by the late Mr. John Kennedy and Mr. Henry Houldsworth, whose united efforts produced the differential motion, which ultimately gave the finishing stroke to the perfect winding of the roving on the bobbin. This for several years was the difficulty to be overcome, which, in fact, is to wind the roving on the bobbin with the required degree of tension, so as to fill it with a certain degree of hardness; but not so tight as to prevent MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE, cxcvii its unwinding itself without breaking, as it is drawn from the bobbin of the creel to the rollers of the mule. Mr. Kennedy, for many years a fine spinner in Manchester, did a great deal to encourage improvements in every description of machinery for the manufacture of cotton. He was the first to introduce the double speed or twisting motion to Crompton's mule, and he may be considered as the imme- diate successor of Arkwright and Crompton, to both of whom he was personally known. The late Mr. Henry Houldsworth was a gentle- man of great ingenuity and talent. He was the nephew of Mr. Thomas Houldsworth, formerly member for Pontefract, and one of the finest spinners in the kingdom. Both gentlemen have been contributors to a class of improvements in machinery, which has raised the spinning of cotton to its present high state of perfection. Before entering upon the finishing process of spinning, it is incumbent that we should complete that portion of our descrip- tion which relates to the preparation of cotton before it assumes the character of yarn. In doing this, we must not omit one of the most important machines, which of late years has changed the quality of the yarn and increased its fineness up to 300° or 400°; or what is the same thing, it has enabled the spinner to make fine yarn out of inferior cotton. To this machine may be attributed the preservation of the finer qualities of yarn during the late American civil war, when South Sea Island cotton could not be obtained from the Southern states. It was then that the combing machine became useful in separating the finer filaments from the Egyptian and other inferior cottons. Twelfth Process—The Combing Machine.—In describing the opera- tions of this machine we shall have to go back to the finishing card, or the seventh process, of which it takes the place in fine spin- ning. It is thus described by Messrs. John Hetherington & Sons, the makers of the machine:— “The combing machine is the invention of Mr. Heilmann, of Alsace, in France. It first made its appearance in this country at the International Exhibition of 1851, and shortly afterwards a com- pany was formed in Manchester for the purchase of the patent, as applicable to the cotton trade, and for which they paid £30,000. The company consisted of five firms, the most extensive in the trade in the spinning of the finest yarns; and the-firm of Messrs. John Hetherington & Sons, of Manchester, was selected as their machine- maker. For some time the Patent Combing Co. restricted the cxcviii LAN CASEIIRE AND CHIESEIIRE . making of machines to the supply of the members; but after their wants had been provided for, and they had obtained a command of the market, they, on numerous applications from other spinners of fine yarns, consented to supply the trade generally at a price of £500 per machine, .42300 of this amount being a charge for royalty. These charges were afterwards modified, and gradually reduced as the term of the patent ran out. The patent was, however, practically extended by the improvements introduced by Messrs. Hetherington, which improvements were embodied in all the machines made subsequently, and ultimately purchased from Mr. Hetherington by the Patent Combing Co. - * Although the combing machine was at first thought applicable only to the counts of yarn finer than No. 200, it was soon found that its range was a much larger one. Where quality was an object it became indispensable, and instead of No. 200 being the minimum, this was speedily reduced to No. 120. Nor did it stop here; for it has since been found that superior combed single yarn will supersede with advantage the doubled yarn previously used, and this opens another wide field for the use of the combing machine. In the manufacture of sewing thread also, the advantage of yarns made from combed cotton was soon appreciated, so that now Nos. 50, 60, and 80 for such work are combed, as well as some special yarns of Nos. 32 to 40. Some idea of the advantages which have attended the introduction of combing machines can be formed from the fact, that there are already more than 1200 of them at work, each producing weekly from 120 to 200 lbs. of combed cotton, spun principally into the finest counts of yarn. - The following description and reference to the drawings in Plate V. will explain the working of the machine. It is usually made of six heads; but as each of the heads works in a precisely similar way, the cross section, fig. 2, showing a view across the middle of one of these heads, will serve to explain the working parts. The lap of cotton, a, is placed upon the two rollers, b and b%, and motion is given to these rollers to unwind the fleece of cotton from the roller or lap, a ; as it is unwound, the fleece passes down the inclined guide, c, and between the feeding rollers d and d", the under one, d, being a fluted steel roller, and the upper one covered with cloth and leather, made also of steel, to resist yielding where the diameter is small. These rollers receive an intermittent motion MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE, - cxcix whilst the nipper is open; each turn of the cylinder shaft through a star wheel of five teeth and other gearing moving the roller, d, ſo to ſº; of a revolution. From the feeding rollers the fleece passes between the top and bottom jaws of the nipper; the top one is the nipper blade, marked e, and the bottom one, e, is usually called the cushion plate, as it is covered with cloth and leather. To the nipper blade, e, motion is given from a cam at the gearing end of the machine, transmitted through the lever e”, and connecting rod, e”, lever, e”, and shaft, e”. More motion is given to the nipper blade, e, than is required to close it upon the cushion plate; and as the cushion plate is hung from the pivot, e”, and is held forward by a spring, it is forced backwards by the continued movement of the nipper blade into the position best suited to present the front ends of cotton fibres to the action of the combing cylinder. The reverse movement of the cam allows the cushion plate and nipper blade to move forward, with the cotton between them, into such a position that as soon as the nipper blade rises, the ends of the partially- combed fibres are taken hold of by the top detaching roller, g’, and fluted segment on the cylinder, f". The shaft, f, carries the combing cylinder, f". This cylinder is covered on one part of its circum- ference by a series of seventeen combs, commencing with combs having thirty teeth in a lineal inch, and gradually getting finer to the last, which has ninety teeth in the inch. On the opposite side of the cylinder to the combs there is a fluted segment which acts in connection with the leather roller, g’; there is a space at each side between the fluted segment and the combs, which gives time (as the cylinder has a continuous motion) to make the necessary changes between the combs ceasing to act and the fluted segment coming into action, and vice versá. º The top comb, h, is furnished with a row of fine teeth ; its use is to comb the tail ends of the fibres, and it prevents any fibres being drawn forward except those the front ends of which have been straightened out and cleaned by the cylinder combs. The only move- ment the top comb has is given by a small cam which lifts it out of the way, whilst the cylinder comb passes under it, and allows it to drop into the tuft of fibres before the fluted segment and rollers draw these fibres forward. The roller, g, called the detaching roller, with its top leather- covered roller, g, and accessory roller, g”, receives its motion from a cam on the end of the machine; the movement of the cam is CC LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE . arranged to turn the roller, g, one-third of a revolution backwards, then to reverse and move two-thirds of a revolution forwards, and there stop till the cylinder combs have prepared another length of fibre. The reverse movement is given to the roller, g, to take back the tail ends of the previously-combed fibres, so as to place them under and piece them up, with the fibres coming forward from the combs, into a continuous sliver or riband; for it is necessary to detach the fibres under operation from the remainder of the fleece as fed in, and also from the fibres already combed. The piecing-up being effected, the roller, g, reverses, and removes the next length of fibres out of the way of the cylinder combs. In order properly to catch the partially-combed fibres, the top roller, g’, is allowed to move round the axis of the roller, g, into contact with the fluted segment of cylinder, f', thus forming a revolving nipper. The top roller, g’, is let down into contact by the lever, gº, and its connections from a cam at the gearing end of the machine; this top roller, g”, is in contact with the fluted segment only for a portion of the time that the roller, g, is making the partial revolution forward, but is always in contact with the roller, g. This completes the process of combing, and the fibres thus treated are passed forward to the rollers, and ", and pulled by them through a trumpet tube to press them together and form a round sliver; and the united slivers from the six heads are brought together and pressed through a drawing head at the end of the machine, and by a coiler or other suitable means put into a can. As the combing process entails a certain amount of waste, or, more correctly speaking, an amount of short fibres, with neps and dirt, separated from the long fibres, which are taken out, as de- scribed, at the front of the machine, the following description will show how this waste is disposed of at the back of the machine — On the roller, gº, and the fluted segment getting hold of the front ends of the half-combed fibres, the top comb drops a little in advance of the part upon which the cylinder combs had previously operated; and as the roller, gº, and the fluted segment of the cylinder draws the fibres forward, the top comb prevents anything coming forward except the long fibres, which are protruding through the teeth of the comb. Consequently the short fibres, neps, and dirt are left in that portion of the fleece from which these long fibres have been separated ; therefore, on the feeding rollers, d and d", MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE. cci delivering a fresh length of the fleece through the nipper, e and e, the combs on the cylinder, fº, passing through the projecting part of this fleece separate from it all the dirt and the short fibres that are not long enough to be firmly held, and consequently take not only the waste from the front ends of the fibres, but also that which was left by the action of the top comb, which, before the cylinder comb came round, had been lifted out of the way. The teeth of the cylinder combs carrying the waste are cleaned out by the revolving bristled brush, 2, which revolves more quickly than the cylinder. This brush throws the fibres into the doffing cylinder, ac, covered with a metallic brush or card clothing; and this doffing cylinder is stripped by the oscillating comb, y, driven by an eccentric on the main driving shaft, and the waste drops down at the back of the machine into a receptacle provided for it, and becomes available for spinning the coarser counts of yarn in which quality is not so much an object. Having described the machine in detail, its action may shortly be stated as follows:–The lap, a, is unwound by the rollers, b and b*, and the fleece is passed down the conductor to the feed rollers, d and d". These having fed a certain portion to the nipper, e and e", this nipper closes and moves backwards till the protruding portion of the fleece is presented to the combs on combing cylinder, fº. These sepa- rate the waste from the front end of the fibres, and the nipper moves forward and opens, and the combed ends are taken hold of by the top roller, g”, which had fallen into contact with the fluted part of the cylinder, fº. As they revolve together they draw out and separate from the fleece the long cotton; the short fibres or waste in the tail ends of the fibres being prevented coming forward by the top comb, which drops amongst the fibres for this purpose. This would complete the combing of one length of fibres; but the fibres previously combed require piecing-up to the fresh ones that come forward ; consequently, in anticipation of these coming forward the motion of the roller, g, is reversed, thus returning those previously combed, and the fibres which have just been combed are placed so as to overlap those immediately before, by which means a con- tinuous fleece or sliver is produced. The action of each of the six heads being simultaneous, there is a sliver coming forward from each, and these are united upon the plate in front of the machine, and passed along it through a drawing head, consisting of three pairs of drawing rollers and a pair of calender rollers. These consolidate the VOL. II. . . 2 c ccii LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : sliver, so that it may be more readily lifted out of the can or receptacle into which it is placed, either direct from these calender rollers, or, for the coarser qualities of work, through a coiling motion, which puts a larger quantity into a can, in which it is taken to the next process, and is again doubled six ends into one and drawn down, and reunited in one sliver.” The Thirteenth Process—The throstle, fig. 32, is generally used for spinning yarn for warps, and winding it upon small bob- Tſ [[IIf iſiſ Fº | *AT Throstle, with Spindles and Flyers. bins; it has also been sometimes arranged for spinning weft and winding it in the form of cops, but never with good practical results, and always at a cost of increased complication in the mechanism. Throstles are used for spinning from 40s downwards. The creel for supporting the bobbins filled with rovings to be spun by the throstle, is placed upon the top of the frame between two sets of three pairs of rollers, which travel at varying rates; the variation between the first back rollers and the third or front, being one MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - cc.iii in eight. Through one of these three pairs each roving is drawn, and afterwards passed through an eyelet or guide wire, which is fixed in a bar of wood (hinged to the beam for supporting the rollers), and whose position when at work is immediately over the centre of the revolving spindles which twist the yarn, one row of which is supported by rails, parallel and perpendicular to the rollers on each side of the machine. The tops of these spindles are furnished with flyers, round one leg of which the thread is coiled and passed through another eyelet at the bottom to a bobbin, which is threaded upon the spindle, and upon which the yarn is wound. The lower rail or bar for supporting the spindles is fixed, and the upper one is movable, and upon it the bobbin rests. This rail or bar has an up and down motion given to it by means of racks and pinions in communication with a heart cam; the bobbin is thus moved up and down the spindle past the eyelet of the flyer, and the yarn is equally distributed upon it in winding. The motion of the bobbin round the spindle is variable, being obtained from the tension of the yarn whilst winding; and as the revolutions of the spindle and flyer cause the yarn to drag the bobbin after them, and the weight and friction of the bobbin upon the movable rail acts as a break, the yarn is wound tight on its surface. The novelties introduced are as follows:–Oiling plates for both bottom and top spindle rails the whole length of the machine, which can be lifted by racks so as to allow the attendant to oil the whole of the spindles without interruption; also, an improved iron Creel plate fitted with steel pegs for the tin tubes of the roving bobbins to revolve upon; and an arrangement by which yarns of one count may be spun on one side of the machine, whilst those of another count are being spun on the opposite side. The Fourteenth Process.-The self-acting mule, fig. 33, unites all the former processes, drawn and twisted into the finest yarn. It is thus shortly described by Messrs. Platt Brothers & Co.:- “These machines are used for drawing and twisting into yarn the rovings as prepared by the machinery before described, and coiling or winding it upon spindles in the form of cops by automatic means. Like the common hand mule jenny, this machine may be divided into two principal parts—one part fixed, and comprising the Creels for Sup- porting the bobbins, the rollers for drawing or elongating the fibres, the frame-work or headstock, containing the movements for effecting the changes required in the operation, and for communicating motion cciv LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : to the movable portion of the machine called the carriage, which sup- ports the spindles and the drum for imparting motion to them, and which is made to traverse in and out from the rollers upon iron rails or slips as the yarn is being drawn out or wound upon the spindles. The average length of this traverse or draw is about 63 inches. “As the fibres of the roving are being drawn and delivered by the rollers, the carriage is caused to move from the rollers until it arrives at the end of the stretch, when it stops; the rollers and drawing-out motions are disengaged, the twist motion is acting, the spindles con- tinue to revolve until the quantity of twist necessary to be put in the º ſº º - - - --- ºv - | - * - Self-acting Mule for Cotton–View of Headstock and part of Carriage. yarn has been given; the change is then made from the twist to the backing off, by causing the direction of motion of the spindles to be reversed, and the yarn to be uncoiled a little, so as not to break by the depression of the fallen wire upon it. The winding-on and taking- in changes are then made, the carriage advances to the rollers, the yarn is wound upon the spindles, and the operation is complete. The different changes are effected by means of a cam shaft in con- nection with the long lever, which is acted upon by the traversing in and out of the carriage, the locking of the faller, and the revolution of twist motion.” MANUEACTURES AND COMMER.C.E. cov It would be ungracious on our part to close our description of the cotton trade, and the self-acting mule, without referring to its principal author, one of the most ingenious inventors that this country has produced. It would be difficult to enumerate the number of successful and unsuccessful inventions to which the late Mr. Roberts devoted his attention. No difficulties and no complications, how- ever intricate, seemed too great for his fertile intellect; and he only required a knowledge of the existing process, and the means by which it was accomplished, by hand or otherwise, to enable him to devise a machine or a tool for enlarging and perfecting its produc- tion. This was the character of the man, and these peculiar proper- ties of his mind will account for the numerous patents, many of them successful, that have been recorded in his name. Richard Roberts was born at Carrighova, in a house which stood on the borders of Salop and Montgomeryshire, the front door open- ing into one county and the back into the other. His father was a shoemaker in poor circumstances, and could ill afford to give his son much, if any, education. He was sent early to work in a quarry; but having an ingenious turn of mind he soon left this occupation, and engaged himself as a mechanic to John Wilkinson, the famous ironmaster, who was the first that could bore a cylinder with any degree of accuracy for James Watt. After acquiring some practical knowledge he went to Birmingham, then to Manchester, and afterwards to London, to avoid being drafted for the militia, where he worked under Maudslay and Clement. In these two establishments, both of which were pervaded by a spirit of active contrivance, Mr. Roberts' dexterity as a workman was greatly increased, and he again returned to Manchester, ultimately to settle there as a mechanical engineer. Nſr. Smiles, in his “Industrial Biography,” gives a list of the various results of Mr. Roberts' inventive skill, during the period of his settlement in Manchester, which would occupy more space than we can well afford; but we may briefly mention a few of the more important — In 1816, when carrying on business on his own account in Deans- gate, he invented his improved lictor for correctly sizing screws in blank, previously to their being cut, which is still extensively used. In the same year he invented his improved screw-lathe, and in the following year, at the request of the borough of Manchester, he con- trived an oscillating and rotating nut gas meter of a new kind, ccvi LAN CASEIIRE AND CHIESEITIRE : which enabled them to sell gas by measure. This was the first meter in which a water-lute was applied to prevent the escape of gas by the index shaft, the want of which, as well as the great complexity of the only other gas meter then in existence, had pre- vented that meter from working in a satisfactory manner. The water-lute was immediately adopted by the patentee. The planing machine, though claimed by many inventors, was constructed by Mr. Roberts after an original plan of his own, in 1817, and became the tool most generally employed in mechanical workshops—acting by means of a chain and rack; though it has since been superseded by the planing machine of Whitworth, which works both ways upon an endless screw. Improvements followed in the slide lathe, giving a large range of speed, with increased diameters for the same size of headstocks, &c.; in the wheel-cutting engine; in the scale beam, by which, in a weight of two oz. on each end, the fifteen-hundredth part of a grain could be indicated; in the broaching machine, the slotting machine, and other machines.” Such were some of the early inventions of Mr. Roberts; but what we have most to do with in this case are those which relate to the manufacture of cotton, and here we have the crowning effort of his mechanical skill in the production of the self-acting mule. The spinners, and manufacturers are greatly indebted to Mr. Roberts for the valuable improvements and finishing touches which he introduced into this machine. He entered upon the task with reluctance; but once engaged in it he surmounted every difficulty, laboured incessantly, and ultimately produced the machine as nearly as possible in the state in which we now find it. For several years previous to Mr. Roberts' time it was in the hands of Mr. W. Strutt, Mr. Kelly, of Glasgow, Mr. De Jung, of Manchester, and others; but none of their machines were worthy of the name of self-actors, and it was reserved for Mr. Roberts to introduce one really entitled to that designation—a perfect self-acting mule. It is interesting to trace the rise and growth of machines as substitutes for hand labour. Many of them have had their origin in “strikes and turn- outs,” as was the case to a certain extent with the self-acting mule, and with the machine for riveting boilers and iron-plates, invented by the author as a competitor with the hand-riveters, who refused to work. These constantly recurring contests between workmen and their employers, although injurious and annoying to a great * Smiles' Industrial Biography, p. 267. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE: ccvii extent, have, nevertheless, been fertile in inventions, and have on many occasions produced some of our most useful and ingenious machines. Our space will not admit of further allusion to the inventions of Mr. Roberts. We may, however, in conclusion, state, that few men have done more for the advance of practical mechanics. His im- provements in looms and the Jacquard are well known; the latter principle as applied to a machine for punching iron plates is one of the most perfect of its kind, and to these we may add the double steam propeller, now coming into general use for the propulsion and manoeuvring of ships of war. * - We cannot enlarge to any further extent upon this important manufacture, for we have yet to notice briefly different processes of weaving, &c. All these are important branches, and intimately con- nected with the cotton trade, as will be shown when we come to treat of the statistics of this staple manufacture in Lancashire and Cheshire. WEAVING AND THE POWER-LOOM. The cotton trade, in all its branches, is so intimately connected with the industrial resources of Lancashire and Cheshire, that we need make no apology for attempting to vindicate its importance by describing its manufactures from the state of yarn into that of cloth. In our endeavours to trace the different stages, we have avoided, as far as possible, everything in the shape of technical description. We have not, however, hesitated to give full descriptions of the machinery (accompanied with illustrations) by which these processes are so admirably and so ingeniously effected. In our explanations it will be seen that every succeeding stage of the manu- facture has been effected by automaton machinery, with a degree of precision that cannot fail to create in the mind of the reader a feeling of admiration towards those pioneers of practical science whose lives have been devoted to the invention and construction of such admirably adapted machines. In no part of the known world has mechanical invention and chemical discovery been more fruitful than in the north of England; and in Lancashire alone they have been nourished and cultivated to a degree which reflects the greatest credit on its inhabitants, whose labours have multiplied nearly a hundred-fold the luxuries and necessaries of life. The introduction of the power-loom has contributed largely to coviii LANOASHIRE AND CHIESHIRE : these results, and has done for weaving what Arkwright and Crompton's machines have done for spinning. The earliest introduction of the loom for the construction of textile fabrics and the interlacing of threads is of remote antiquity, but the exact date is unknown, The loom is supposed to have had its origin in India, and, at an early period, to have been imported into the eastern and western states of Europe. This simple machine was in existence in the ancient cities of Egypt ; and from the specimens of linen cloth which are found enveloping the bodies of the mummies, it is evident that the loom, on the Indian model, must have been in great demand at a very early period amongst the Egyptians. Little or no improvement was attempted for centuries on this primitive machine, and the only trace of advance towards a more perfect construction was a wooden frame, which united the roller- beam of the warp with that of the cloth, In this state the loom descended from father to son successively for years, until towards the middle of the last century, when Kay introduced the fly shuttle. From an able and interesting article in Macmillan's Magazine for October, 1862, we transcribe the following very lucid and interesting account of the calico-loom:-“Weaving is defined as ‘the interlacing together of two lines of threads at right angles to each other,’ and the threads running from end to end of the piece are called the “warp,' and those that cross from Selvage to Selvage—that is, from side to side of the fabric—the ‘weft.’ This is the definition of plain weaving. The process by which this interlacing is effected consists of three motions, which must be performed in succession, There is, first, the shedding of the web for the introduction of the shuttle with the weft shot; second, the throwing of the shuttle through the shed; and, third, the striking home of the shot. Now, all the improvements which mechanical skill has effected on the first rude contrivance by which these three motions were effected by the ‘rude Indian’ for centuries, and by the English hand-loom weaver up to 1738, are but expedients for facilitating these motions. “When John Kay, of Bury, in 1738, substituted the fly shuttle for the hand shuttle, by which the production of the hand-loom was trebled, his improvement was simply a facilitating of the second of the three essential motions in the process of weaving, ‘the throwing of the shuttle through the shed;’ and the various “picking’ motions applied to the power-loom, with the improvements which have suc- cessively been made in them, are but further expedients for performing MANUE ACTURES AND COMMERCE, ccix with greater speed and facility the same primitive and fundamental motion. With the hand-loom, as improved by the application of the ‘flying shuttle, the weaver could throw a hundred shots a minute on a web a yard wide, while on broader work the number would be reduced to about eighty; and this rate of shuttling was about three times greater than what had been previously practicable with the hand-shuttle. - “The next great improvement effected in the hand-loom was the substitution of what is called the ‘friction pace’ for the bore-staff previously used in tightening the web. It will be readily understood by those most ignorant of the art of weaving, that the cloth, as woven, is rolled on to a beam or roller in front of the loom, while the yarn which forms the warp is unrolled from a beam at the back of the loom. In the old hand-loom the weaver had to stop shuttling after every two inches of cloth he wove, and draw the bore, and then he had to adjust the warp to the proper degree of tension, by means of a ratchet and click. This interfered very much with his progress of weaving, and he was not always able so to adjust the ratchet and click as to secure a uniform tension of the warp. The ‘friction pace’ remedied all this. This was an arrangement by which a weight, suspended to a rope passed two or three times round the end of the yarn-beam, converted the yarn-beam into a friction-roller. The amount of friction determined the degree of tension in the warp, and by changing the weight this could be either lessened or increased; but when it was once adjusted to the fabric to be woven, uniformity was secured, and the weaver could ‘draw the bore’ without disturbing the tension of his warp. Under this improved arrangement the weaver was exposed to less interruption in his shuttling, and he secured the advantage, so essential to the making of good cloth, of having his web kept at a uniform degree of tension. By a subsequent invention, applied to what is called the ‘dandy loom,’ and which forms the principal peculiarity of that kind of loom, the weaver was saved the necessity of stopping to ‘draw the bore.’ A simple motion connecting the lathe or slay with a ratchet fixed on the end of the cloth-beam, caused the beam to take up the cloth as it was woven. A similar motion is a feature in all power-looms; but, as applied to the hand-loom, although it was adopted as an improvement of con- siderable importance in the weaving of the coarser fabrics, it found little favour with the weavers of muslims and the finer kinds of cloth. “The invention of the power-loom is due to a doctor of divinity WOL. II. 2 (l CCX LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: . in England, and a doctor of medicine in Scotland, both of whom seem to have conceived the idea about the same time, and to have worked on, unknown to each other, in developing their respective projects. The English inventor was Dr. Edmund Cartwright, a Church of England clergyman, who was incited to the rumination of a subject so foreign to the studies connected with his sacred calling, by a tea- table conversation while on a visit to a friend at Matlock, Derbyshire. Richard Arkwright, who had left Lancashire to avoid the fate of Hargreaves, had recently erected, in the vicinity of the reverend doctor's temporary sojourn, one of his large spinning factories; and the con- versation turned on the great success which had been achieved in the application of machinery to spinning. Already the genius of Ark- wright, Hargreaves, and Crompton had increased the production of yarn three hundred-fold, and the question was asked—Could not machinery be as successfully applied to weaving as to spinning This turned the genius of the doctor in the direction indicated: he set himself to solve the suggested problem, and the result was a loom, theoretically capable of performing the three motions which are the essentials of weaving, but practically defective to an extent which rendered the invention useless. The doctor was not a weaver; he had not studied practically the nature of the material with which the weaver has to deal; and his loom lacked those organs of sensation, if we may so speak, which the more perfect machine of modern times possesses, by which every slip or hitch in the working, caused by bad yarn or breakage, is either prevented or provided against, and which stop the loom when a ‘smash' is otherwise inevitable. The doctor could see the defects of his loom; but his want of practical knowledge denied him the power of remedying them, and the difficulties with which he long struggled proved to him insurmount- able. It is surprising, however, on looking back, to see how near he came to the results of modern times, “Dr. Cartwright's first patent for a weaving machine is dated the 4th April, 1785, and of it he says:—‘It is worked by mechanical force. The warp, instead of lying horizontal, as in the common loom, is in this machine (which may be made to hold any number of warps at pleasure) placed perpendicularly. The shuttle, instead of being thrown by hand, is thrown either by a spring, the vibration of a pendulum, the stroke of a hammer, or by the application of one of the mechanical powers, according to the nature of the work, and the distance the shuttle is required to be thrown; and, lastly, the MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. Coxi web is taken up gradually as it is woven.' The number and variety of the mechanical expedients to which the reverend mechanic appeals for aid in throwing his shuttle, shows the crude and imperfect notions he had of what was requisite to produce the desired result. In practice, as we learn from the details of his invention which have been preserved, Dr. Cartwright used springs for throwing the shuttle, and these springs were “connected with a cylinder placed beneath the machine, which also gave motion to a lever, which reversed the shed of the warp. Successive improvements made in the machine, and patented in 1786, 1787, 1788, and 1792, did not bring it the length of practical utility; and after spending a fortune of between £30,000 and £40,000 in this and other mechanical projects, the doctor was rewarded with a Government grant of £10,000, in consideration of his inventions having led to the partially successful adaptation of machinery to weaving, which soon after came into general use. “Contemporaneous with these unsuccessful efforts to develop the power-loom in England, Dr. Jeffray, practising as a physician in Paisley, invented a loom which in principle was very similar to that of Dr. Cartwright. The leading feature in each was, ‘that the shuttle and lathe were worked by the reaction of springs, and the power applied to them consisted in repressing them so as to bring them into a state fit for reacting at the proper time.’ In one respect the loom of the Scotch physician was superior to that of the English divine, and that was as to the means adopted for preventing the “smash’ caused by the stoppage of the shuttle in the shed. A spring, which kept the shuttle from recoiling when it entered the shed, also supplied a motion which stopped the lathe when the shuttle was accidentally caught in its passage through the warp. But even this improvement did not entirely overcome the difficulty, and Dr. Jeffray's loom was never brought into practical use. “The man who first completed the improvements which made weaving by power practicable, was Mr. Robert Millar, a calico- printer by trade, and the manager of a printfield near Glasgow. He patented, in 1796, an improvement called the ‘protector, which stopped the loom altogether when the shuttle was prevented by any cause from accomplishing its passage from the one box to the other; and he substituted the direct action of the motive power for the spring formerly used in throwing the shuttle. He had also a motion for taking up the cloth as woven. These improvements, which were still further developed by Messrs. Radcliffe and Ross, Mr. Thomas ccxii LANCASEIIRE AND CHIESEIIRE : Johnson, and Mr. H. Horrocks, all of Stockport, are features in all the power-looms which have since been made ; and even in those models of mechanical skill exhibited in the Western Annex of the International Exhibition of 1862, which present, in so many respects, such a striking contrast to the comparatively rude machinery for weaving which was in use at the beginning Cf the present century. Millar's looms have been at work in Scotland until a comparatively recent period; and in the Great Exhibition of 1851 Mr. Joseph Harrison, of Blackburn, exhibited, in contrast to an improved loom of his own make, one of those antique and now almost unique machines. Of the contrast thus presented, it is well said in the ‘Encylopædia Britannica,’ ‘It needs no great culture of the eye to have noticed, in exhibitions of machinery, how often and how strikingly improvements in power and efficiency are, at the same time, improvements in form and appearance.” With the im- proved ‘power and efficiency' we have more to do than with the improved ‘form and appearance;’ and what did that amount to ? The loom of 1800 required the undivided attention of one operative to each warp, or in special cases five persons might tend six looms; but the loom of 1851 accomplished so much by itself without the weaver's attention, and in spite of his carelessness, that two, and in many cases three looms, were worked by a single operative. On the loom of 1800 the most industrious operative could produce, in a week of sixty hours, no more than four pieces of printing cloth, 25 inches wide, 29 yards long, and with eleven picks or shots of weft in the quarter-inch ; whereas, with the loom of 1851, twenty-six pieces of the same kind of cloth could be produced with equal facility. The remuneration of the operative of 1800 was 2s. 9d per piece for the description of cloth which we have selected for illustration, and this made his weekly earnings 11s. ; the price paid to the operative of 1851 was only 6d. per piece, which raised his weekly earnings to 13s. “The improvements of Mr. Millar, which gave to his loom the name of “wiper, from the motion of the shuttle being effected by eccentric wheels of this description, and those of Mr. Horrocks, which gave to his loom the name of ‘crank,' from this agency being the means made use of by him for working the lathe, were soon com- bined; and they are to be found, more or less improved and variously modified, in all power-looms. But these improvements, great as they were, and demonstrating, as they did, the practicability of MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. coxiii weaving by power, did not dispose of all the difficulties connected with the manufacture of cloth by the power-loom. One process to which we have not referred, necessary in the hand-loom, and still more in the power-loom, is ‘dressing’—the application of starch or size to the warp, to give the yarn such a stiffness and consistency as may enable it to stand the strain to which it is subjected in the process of weaving. In the old hand-loom, the weaver dressed’ as much of the warp as was stretched from the back of the heddles or healds to the warp-beam, which might be about a yard. He then worked his cloth till the end of the dressed part came up to the heddles when he again stopped and dressed a yard, and then resumed his weaving ; and this process he had to repeat throughout the whole length of his web, as every yard of warp was unrolled from the warp-beam. It is evident that, however little this might be considered an obstruction or a hinderance In the case of hand- loom weaving, it was quite incompatible with weaving by power. It could not pay the weaver to stop his loom while he dressed a yard of warp ; and the yarn would not stand the double strain of being pulled forward by the process of weaving, and dragged backward by the process of dressing. This difficulty rendered almost nugatory, for a while, the comparative perfection to which mechanical ingenuity had brought the process of weaving. But the inventive genius of those interested in the progress and extension of manufactures was soon turned, and that successfully, to the consider- ation of the means by which warps could be dressed or sized by power, and given out to the weaver in a state which would obviate the necessity for dressing. And there was more to stimulate the progress of invention in this direction than the desire to test the capabilities and obtain the full benefit of the power-loom; the great and rapid improvements which had been made in spinning machinery, by which the production of yarn had been increased three or four hundred fold, demanding means of consumption for the produce of the mule greatly beyond the capabilities of the old hand-loom and the new power-loom. The greatest desideratum towards this object was a machine for ‘dressing' by power, and this was soon supplied, and also improved by successive inventors, who gradually substituted ‘sizeing' for ‘dressing’ till the perfection had been attained which is now observable in the sizeing machine known as the ‘slasher. By the use of these machines, the weaver is saved the necessity of dressing his warp yard by yard, as in the hand-loom; or in Snatches, cCxiv. LAN CASEIIRE AND CHIESEIIRE : or at irregular intervals, as in the power-loom; and being thus enabled to devote the whole of his attention to the process of weav- ing, makes greater progress in his work, and also makes better cloth. The invention of the sizeing machine demonstrated for the first time, not the practicability of weaving by power, but the capabilities of the power-loom; and since then each successive improvement, both in sizeing machinery and in weaving machinery, has increased its productiveness. “But the important advantages of sizeing and weaving by power were not recognized at once. Machines for both purposes had been brought to a comparative degree of perfection in 1805; but in 1813, eight years after, it is estimated that not more than 2400 power- looms, with about 100 sizeing machines, were in use in all parts of the country. From 1813 to 1820 the number of power-looms in- creased in a more rapid ratio, there being then upwards of 14,000 in use in England and Scotland. In 1830 the number had increased to 60,000, and in 1833 to 100,000, this latter figure showing the rate of increase to have been greatly accelerated during the three years from 1830 to 1833. But there was sufficient, in the daily augmenting productive power of the loom, to justify this great and rapid increase. The shirting, of which a good hand-loom weaver of full age and strength could weave only two pieces per week, could in 1823 be produced by two power-looms, attended by a youth of fifteen, at the rate of seven pieces per week, and, in 1826, at the rate of from twelve to fifteen pieces a-week; while in 1833 a weaver of from fifteen to twenty years of age, with the assistance of a girl of twelve, could produce, from four looms, eighteen or twenty pieces per week. & “The loom of 1862 is a striking contrast to that of 1833. In general appearance the two machines may not be so dissimilar, or present so great a contrast, as that which is observable between the loom of 1800 and that of 1851; but in many points of detail the loom of 1862 has been so improved, by modifications and additions which may, singly, be comparatively unimportant, but in the aggre- gate amount to almost a revolution in its mode of operation as a machine for weaving, that the progress made during the last thirty years must be considered as important as that which resulted in the development of the loom of 1800 into that of 1851. The first improvement to be noticed is that beautiful expedient for stopping the loom when the weft thread breaks. It is evident that, when a MANUE ACTURES AND COMMERCE. CCXV weaver has three or four looms to attend, he cannot always notice on the instant the breakage of the weft thread; and should the loom continue working for even half a minute after the weft has broken (at the rate of, say, only 150 picks or shots per minute), the cloth beam, by the motion which regulates its movements, will have taken up from an inch to an inch and a half of the warp before it has received the weft necessary to make it into cloth. In such a case, the weaver would be under the necessity of ‘letting back’ his web, so as to resume working at the exact spot where the weft thread broke; and this would prove a very great hinderance to him, in the case we have supposed, of his having three or four looms to attend. But mechanical ingenuity having devised, and mechanical skill having successfully adapted to the power-loom, a peculiar motion, endued with sufficient sensibility to know when the weft thread breaks, and sufficient power to throw the loom out of gear, and stop, almost in an instant, all its rapid and complicated movements, the weaver is apprised of the breakage the moment it occurs, and is enabled to remedy the defect with the least possible loss of time. The first expedient for this purpose was the invention of John Ramsbottom and Richard Holt, of Todmorden, who, among other improvements in power-looms patented by them in 1834, had a ‘contrivance for stopping the loom on the breakage of the weft thread.’ It consisted of what the patentees called ‘hands and fingers'—a sort of lever so placed that the ‘fingers’ rested on, and were supported by, the weft when the loom was working and all was going right, and fell down when the weft broke and the support on which they rested was thus taken away. The effect of the ‘fingers’ falling down was to disconnect a lever, which caused the next stroke of the ‘slay' (which contains the reed, and by the movement of which the weft is beaten up) to throw the driving strap on to the loose pulley, and so stop the loom. The same patentees had also an improved contrivance for stopping the loom when the shuttle failed to reach the opposite box. These contrivances were improve- ments on the power-loom, but practically of no great value, except for paving the way for subsequent inventions. So far as regards the stoppage of the loom when the weft thread breaks, the ‘hand and fingers’ were superseded by the motion invented and patented by Messrs. William Kenworthy and James Bullough, both of Blackburn, in 1841. The superiority of this latter appliance consists in the certainty and promptness with which the object in view—the stop- ccxvi LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : page of the loom for the prevention of damage—is secured. The patentees styled their apparatus ‘the weft-watcher or detector, and it well deserves the name; for with unerring certainty, on the break- age or absence of the weft thread, it instantaneously disengages the “taking-up motion' and entirely stops the loom. The “detector' bears a general resemblance to the ‘hands and fingers,’ to the extent that the absence of the weft thread, releasing the lever over which it passes while the loom is working, is the ‘prime mover, if we may so speak, in the stopping of the loom ; but the invention of 1841 has the decided advantage over that of 1834, in respect of the means by which the rising of a delicately constructed lever—so delicate that a thread, fine as gossamer, holds it in check—effects the almost instan- taneous stoppage of the whole machinery of the loom. “The contrivance of Messrs. Kenworthy & Bullough has not been superseded by the ingenuity of any subsequent inventor, and all the improvements since effected in it are simply such as are owing to the superior skill and workmanship displayed by the different makers of looms. - “To Mr. James Bullough is also due the credit of another invention, patented in 1842, for the prevention of damage and the stopping of the loom when the shuttle is caught in the shed. The contrivance for this purpose, patented in 1834, was not found to be always effective; but the importance of preventing the great damage to the web which was inevitable when the slay, with the reed, beat up the shuttle instead of the weft shot, prompted and justified great efforts to remedy the evil. Mr. Bullough effected this desirable object by the invention of the ‘loose reed’— a contrivance by which the reed is carried by a spring cap and swivels in the top rail of the slay; and thus, when the shuttle is caught in the shed, the reed is forced back and acts upon levers, which stop the loom. This is an arrangement by which all uncer- tainty of action is done away with. The reed can never fail to be acted upon by the shuttle when it is in the shed; and there is a mechanical certainty that the movement of the reed will operate effectually on the levers connected with the stopping motion. We need only remark further on the subject of the loose reed—which is applicable to all the lighter kinds of cloth up to cloths having eighteen to twenty picks in the quarter-inch—that it has enabled looms to be worked much quicker than was formerly practicable. A 40-inch loom, for instance, which before the invention of the ‘loose MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE. ccxvii reed’ might be worked at the rate of 120 picks per minute, could afterwards be worked at the rate of 180 to 200 picks per minute, or at an increased speed of more than fifty per cent. ; and further improvements have since increased the practicable speed at which the same loom can be worked to about 230 picks per minute. “But the loose reed is not applicable to the weaving of heavy fabrics. The force with which the weft in the heavier class of goods requires to be beaten up is greater than could be applied with a slay fitted on the loose-reed principle. The looms, therefore, for weaving cloths coarser than eighteen to twenty picks in the quarter-inch, are all fitted with fast reeds; and it is left to an application called the ‘stop rod' to throw the loom out of gear when the shuttle is prevented, from any cause, from completing its course through the warp. This ‘stop rod' is acted upon by the shuttle as it arrives at each end of the slay; and on its failing to arrive at either end, the ‘stop rod' falls upon a movable bracket, and instantly stops the loom. But this sudden stoppage of the loom, in the first application of the ‘stop rod, was attended by a great shock, which caused damage, not only to the warp, but to the loom itself; and as the ‘stop rod' proved in practice very uncertain in its working, the mishaps it was intended to guard against were not always prevented. This led to another improvement of considerable importance, as applicable to fast-reed looms—an improvement known by the name of the “break’—which was patented by Mr. John Sellers, of Burnley, in 1845, and by which the loom can be stopped instantaneously, whatever the speed at which it may be working, without the great shock to the machinery which the ‘stop rod' produces when used without the “break.” These several contrivances for stopping the loom, the most of them self-acting, requiring neither the presence nor the intervention of the weaver, effectually obviate the mischief which would otherwise be inevitable, and which, in the absence of these mechanical appliances, the most watchful vigilance, supposing no more than one loom was under the care of each operative, would be powerless to prevent. “We must now notice the “taking-up’ and “letting-back’ motions. We have already referred to the tedium of the process which compelled the hand-loom weaver, as every two inches of cloth were woven, to stop his loom and ‘draw the bore, and then adjust the warp to the proper degree of tension. Contrivances which, in view of more modern inventions, must be characterized as rude, superseded this method of winding the cloth on the beam; but they were far from VOL. II. 2 e ccxviii LAN CASIIIRE AND CHESEIIRE : securing uniformity in the make of the cloth, the quality of which was left largely dependent upon the skill and care of the weaver. The importance of the ‘taking-up' motion in securing uniformity in the texture of the cloth will be apparent, if it is considered that every stroke of the slay (180, or it may be 250, per minute) brings the reed, by which the weft shot is beaten up, forward toward the cloth-beam to precisely the same spot; and this required that the web be pulled on the cloth-beam the length of a pick (which may be the eightieth or the hundredth part of an inch) as each shot is beaten up, or 180 to 250 times per minute. These conditions, severe as they are, have been secured by the “taking-up’ motion introduced by Messrs. Kenworthy & Bullough in 1841, and which has never yet been superseded. In this motion change-wheels are made use of, which secure, with the greatest nicety, that any given number of picks shall be put in each inch of the cloth; and this it secures with a mechanical accuracy which is in no way dependent on the weaver, who, either for the purpose of getting out more cloth, or from carelessness, might vary the number of shots per minute, and so produce a fabric which would be unsaleable on account of the irregularity of the texture. “Closely connected with the taking-up motion is the letting- back motion—a simple expedient, by which the web can be let back any number of picks which the loom may have worked after the breakage of the weft shot, that the beating up of the slay may be resumed at the exact spot at which it left off when the weft broke, and so the unseemly blemish of ‘gaws' in the cloth may be prevented. “Another important part of the power-loom is the “temple, which keeps the cloth stretched the proper width, and which requires to be, like everything else connected with a loom driven by power, self-acting. In the hand-loom the temple was of wood, flat, and hinged in the centre with a button, which kept the hinge locked while the loom was at work. The length of the temple was the breadth of cloth, and a series of small spikes or needles at either end, caught in the Selvage of the cloth, kept the web at the proper width. The shifting of the temple was a great hinderance to the weaver, as it required to be shifted every time the bore was drawn, or after every two inches of cloth he wove. In the power-loom such an appliance would be perfectly useless. In the earliest efforts to con- struct a temple adapted to weaving by power, metallic discs were made use of, with small spikes or needles upon the periphery, which MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. - ccxix caught in the Selvage of the cloth, and thus kept it stretched to the required breadth. As the cloth was pulled forward on to the beam by the action of the taking-up motion, the discs revolved, and fresh spikes took the place of those which were thus disengaged from the Selvage, so as to keep the cloth always stretched. This was the characteristic of the self-acting temple invented by that ingenious mechanic, Mr. James Smith, of Deanston, who had the spikes or teeth on his discs set at a slight angle, in a direction outwards from the fabric, so as to give them a better hold on the Selvage. It was a very successful invention, and very extensively used, till superseded by the ‘roller temple,’ invented by Messrs. Kenworthy and Bullough, in 1841. This contrivance was a small roller, covered with fine sand, emery, or other rough surface, revolving in a semi-circular trough or casing, and the cloth passing under the roller, and between it and the casing, was transmitted of a parallel and uniform breadth to the cloth beam. An improvement effected upon this roller temple by the late Mr. John Railton, of Blackburn, was patented by him in 1842. In this improved temple two or more rollers or bars are used, which are chased with a screw thread, one-half right-handed, and the other left- handed, and also fluted, so as to present “a continuous surface of small points or pins.’ The cloth, being led over one roller and under the other, is kept distended tightly and transmitted over the breast beam to the cloth roller. Another temple, combining the features of Mr. James Smith and Messrs. Kenworthy and Bullough's patents, was invented and patented in 1852 by Messrs. John Elce, of Man- chester, and John Bond, of Burnley. In this invention two or more rollers are used, as in Messrs. Kenworthy and Bullough's, and they are covered with rowels, and provided with guards and fells, so shaped ‘that the fabric to be distended in the loom is carried about half round each of the rollers.' But the temple which has stood best the test of experience, and is now in most general use, is the trough and roller temple of Messrs. Kenworthy and Bullough.” The calico looms, and the preparatory machinery connected with them, inclusive of the process of weaving, consist of the operations of winding, warping, dressing, or sizeing, and may be described as follows:— 1. The Winding Machine, which is used for winding the yarn as it comes from the spinner on the cop or spool and bobbin, for the pur- pose of warping or beaming. The threads are unwound from either cops or spools, and the yarn is then passed through minute slips or Coxx LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : guides like the teeth of a comb, in order to keep the threads separate and to wind them in parallel layers on to the bobbins. The threads also pass through brushes, which clear them of dust and clean the fibres. In this machine there is an arrangement for winding the yarn from throstle bobbins on to warper bobbins, and the movement for coiling is effected by a heart-shaped cam, on a separate shaft, by which the bobbin is filled to the required shape. 2. The Warping Machine simply consists in the operation of wind- ing the yarn from the bobbins on to beams suitable for the sizeing machine, which is now substituted for the dressing machine. 3. The Sizeing Machine is an important apparatus for sizeing or Fig. 34. dressing the warp, which is taken from the former machine on roller beams to prepare it for the loom; and as on this machine depends the efficient working of the loom, we give an outline of it in the above illustration. The machine was constructed by Messrs. P. Harrison & Sons, of Blackburn, and we are indebted to them for a description of it :- “The yarn is brought from the warper's beams through boiling size, and over drying cylinders, and is ultimately wound on the weaver's beam. The warper's beams, usually six in number, some- times eight, are hung on a creel or stand, and set accurately in line by means of adjusting screws. The boiling size is contained in a MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. ccxxi box lined with copper to prevent oxidation, and the threads from the several beams are all run together into the sizeing-box, and pass under the immersion or sizeing roller, which is of copper. The yarn then ascends, and is passed between two pairs of Squeezing rollers, over the size-box, of which the upper rollers are covered with flannel, which preserves the round form of the thread; whilst at the same time it presses the size into the thread, and so strengthens it considerably. The quantity of the size required to be put into the thread can be, in a great measure, regulated by the quantity of flan- nel put on the rollers. The under rollers, one of which is of copper, cast in a piece, bored out, and expanded on a mandrel, are hooped at the ends with brass, and run on brass pulleys, giving a smooth motion, and preserving the ends of the rollers from injury by the size. The sizeing roller is lowered and retained by gearing; the copper roller being seamless is free from the objections to brazed rollers, in which the seam is acted on by the acid matter in the size. The yarn is now passed over two large drying cylinders of copper, or of sheet-iron, which are heated by steam of 10 lbs. or 12 lbs. pressure, having a temperature of 240° Fahrenheit. The supply of steam, and consequently of heat, is regulated by means of a throttle valve; and when the machine is stopped the steam is shut off altogether by the same handle that stops the machine, which is an important provision to prevent accidental overheating of the yarn. The cylinders are made with man-holes in one end, covered with steam-tight lids, and there is a provision for the escape of condensed steam from the cylinders through the axle. There are also syphon- boxes for the purpose of condensing the steam as it comes from the drying cylinder, with provision for turning the waste steam direct into the size-box to boil the size when needful. There is also a diminishing or reducing valve, to regulate the supply of steam to the cylinder, and to keep it at a uniform pressure and temperature therein. From the drying cylinders the yarn is led by means of guide rollers over and around a fan, which directs a strong current of air over the yarn to complete the drying of it: thence it passes over a larger roller, driven from the last pair of sizeing rollers, with an adjustable friction coupling at one end, to regulate the tension on the yarn during the drying process. The yarn is finally wound on the weaver's beam, which is driven by means of a pair of conical drums, with a shifting belt to maintain a uniform winding speed as the roll enlarges, and to equalize the drag on the yarn. By ccxxii LAN CASHIRE AND CHIESHIRE : means of this improved machine 100,000 yards of warp may be dressed per week, sufficient to supply 300 looms. Surat and American cotton may be worked equally well, as the degree of tension may be adapted to the quality of the yarn.” Calico power-looms, like every other description of machinery connected with cotton, have undergone many changes and great improvements since they were first introduced. A remarkable variety of looms is in existence, and the makers have each their own form of construction, characteristic of their respective estab- lishments, and for which they claim a preference in consideration of some peculiar movement which they have introduced for the manufacture of certain descriptions of cloth. These varieties were seen at the Exhibition of 1862, and that of Paris in 1867. Messrs. Harrison, of Blackburn, Messrs. Platt, of Oldham, and others, are large constructors of these machines, which consist of the calico loom with loose reed, the calico loom with fast reed, and other looms with numerous cams, tappets, and shuttles; all of which are adapted for weaving fancy goods. A brief description of two or three of these looms, aided by the annexed representation of the calico loom, will be sufficient to give an idea of the kind of machinery now in use for producing all the varieties of cotton cloth comprised in twills, drills, dimities, ginghams, diapers, velvets, linsey-woolseys, &c., &c. All these are manufactured with a degree of exactitude and despatch, which must be seen before the self-acting principle on which the machinery is founded can be appreciated. The calico loom, with loose reed, is adapted for weaving calicoes, shirtings, printing cloths, Cambrics, and jaconets. It can also be arranged to weave twills and fancy cloths, and may be driven from 180 to 300 picks per minute, according to the width of the cloth, which varies from 36 to 38 and 40 inches. An improved loom, with loose reed, invented by Mr. Dickinson of Blackburn, in 1827, has lately been further improved by the introduction of Mr. W. E. Taylor's crank-arm, or connecting rod, for working the slay. It is thus described in Clark’s “Exhibited Machinery of 1862:”— - “Calico Loom, with Loose Reed—This loom was noted for the crank-arms, on Mr. W. E. Taylor's principle, which were applied to it. The crank-arm is what a steam-engineer would call a connecting rod, connecting the crank on the first shaft to the back of the slay. The speciality of this crank-arm is that it is very MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. ccxxiii short, being reduced from 12 inches, the usual length, to 4 inches long, about one and a half times the length of the crank; and to those who are familiar with the motion of the piston of the steam-engine, it must be obvious that whilst the crank revolves at a uniform velocity, the slay will be promptly moved up to the Fig. 35. web and withdrawn from it during one-half of a turn of the crank, and will be retained nearly stationary during the second half turn, causing thereby a dwell; during which time the shed may remain open for the passage of the shuttle, and for a longer period, at a given speed of loom, than with a crank-arm of the usual length. ccxxiv. LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESEIIRE . The principle of this crank-arm is good, but it must be worked in moderation. The loom may, no doubt, with this crank-arm, be worked at a higher speed, whilst the shuttle travels at a lower speed than with the common arm ; but it is obvious that the strain on the slay and its connections, being extremely irregular, must be excess- ive at the higher speeds. A clearer shed is obtained for the shuttle, for which a saving of half the breakages of yarn is claimed. Be that as it may, it is obvious that the picking motion may be worked with greater ease, and with a saving of power, at the same speed. Mr. William M'Naught, of Manchester, having tested, by a differential dynamometer, the comparative power to work two looms of the same construction and working at the same speed—about 230 picks per minute—weaving the same breadth and quality of cloth, found that one of the looms having one of Taylor's crank-arms attached, required from twenty to five and twenty per cent. less power to work it than the other, with an ordinary crank-arm. If this result be adopted, it would show that the proportion of power required to throw the shuttle is greater than that required to work the slay; and that the saving by reducing the speed of the shuttle was greater than the increase of power required to work the slay with an unequal movement. The loom frequently worked at 350 picks per minute, and at 420 picks as the maximum. The weft threads were frequently broken. Messrs. Dickinson have applied Taylor's crank-arms to all , the looms in their own mills, about 1000. Though the principle of the short crank-arm is not novel, there is no doubt that the revival of it, as shown at the Exhibition of 1862, has redirected general attention to its capabilities. Whether it will ultimately lead to a general increase of speed in looms is a question for further experience, but there appears to be no doubt that, for the same speed, Taylor's crank-arm may be advantageously substituted for the ordinary arm. It is also especially adapted for wide heavy looms, where a ‘dwell’ is desirable, for a long throw of the shuttle.” The calico loom, with fast reed, is constructed for weaving twilled goods, heavy domestics, strong drills, and tweeds; it has the over- pick motion, and makes 180 picks per minute. “The fancy loom is adapted for weaving dress-pieces, as checks, ginghams, &c. It is constructed similarly to the first loom already described, but has in addition a three-shuttle drop-box for three shuttles, with eleven healds and the “dobby, patented by Mr. W. Bullough, attached. Provision is thus made for changing the sub- MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. ccxxv stance of the web and working it out to a pattern; first, by means of the shuttles, which carry three bobbins of threads of different texture and colour, to introduce three varieties of thread into the weft ; second, to make several changes in the disposition of the warp for making the shed, by means of the healds, which control the warp threads. As the changes are necessarily irregular in time and in sequence, they are provided for by special appliances. In the first place, the changes of the weft are made by raising or lowering the shuttle-box, which holds three shuttles deep, so as to bring the proper shuttle to the level of the picker, to be thrown across the warp and back again. The same thread may be required to be thrown several times successively, and the shuttle-box remains stationary till the next change of thread is required. By means of a self-acting motion derived from the dobby frame, an endless chain, with links of three different depths, is shifted round, one link at the right time, upon an axis; and a lever, which is connected with the drop-box, bearing upon the particular link of the chain which is uppermost, by means of a friction roller, is at the same time raised or lowered by the lever, and so makes the change of shuttle. The num- ber of links in the chain is therefore equal to the number of changes in the weft thread requisite to complete the pattern, which of course repeats itself. “Again, to make the consecutive changes in the warp threads for the shed, the healds, eleven in number, which control the warp threads, are suspended by the medium of wires and levers from the dobby frame; the changes are made similar to those of the Jacquard, by the instrumentality of two series of ‘lags,' or cross pieces of wood, attached to and travelling with two endless bands numbering, in this instance, 180 lags on each band. There are eleven lines of pegs fixed on the lags, with certain vacancies, and where there are no pegs there are holes in the lags. As each lag is presented successively to the wires from which the levers or jacks and the healds are suspended, the pegs which are present knock back the wires opposed to them ; and the wires which are not knocked back—namely, those which are opposed to the blanks—are carried up to form the shed. The lags are changed by means of a ratchet motion worked by a crank on the second shaft, which turns a pin-wheel on the axis of the cylinder on which the lag bands are shifted. Jacks for the taking-up motion are worked by the dobby frame alongside the heald-jacks. The tension- roller vibrates in front, just over the taking-up rollers, to equalize VOL. II. 2 f ccxxvi. T.A.NCASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : the tension on the warp yarns, instead of behind, as is usual. This loom weaves three yards per hour. The combination of the simple direct-acting dobby with the chain motion of the deep boxes, affords facilities for weaving any length of pattern, and any change can be made in the design with ease (fig. 36). 57mmº- *Hildiſſºlº T}''.1% º =# | |||||||Nº|| º ENI –º fºur. - Waa. sº-NY } } ". º !" Fancy Loom, for Weaving Dress-pieces. “Fancy Loom, with Single Shuttle.—This loom is constructed in all respects like the foregoing fancy loom, except that it has but one shuttle. It is adapted for weaving Indian Scarfs. It produces about four yards per hour.” The next loom entitled to consideration is the Jacquard loom, which first made its appearance at Lyons, in France, at the beginning MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. ccxxvii of the present century, but although it was then known in this country, it did not come generally into use till about 1830. As the invention of this loom has enabled the weaver to interlace the weft and warp in such forms as to be able to produce any required figure, it is fit that we should devote both to the loom and its inventor more than a passing notice. . Joseph Marie Jacquard was born at Lyons on July 7, 1752, of humble parents, who gained their livelihood as weavers, and the young Jacquard was brought up to the same trade. At an early period of life he exhibited great ingenuity, and a strong desire to improve the hand-loom, for the purpose of incorporating figures by the simple operation of selecting the threads of the warp, and form- ing a shed for the passage of the shuttle. After close thought, and many contrivances worked out under very great difficulties, he at last produced the loom which now bears his name. This, with its complicated and beautiful apparatus, was sent to the National Exhi- bition of the products of industry at Paris in 1791, and gained the bronze medal. For many years he struggled against opposition, which assailed him from all quarters; but he lived to see his inven- tion receive its just value, and successfully introduced into all countries. He died at Lyons in 1834, but not before he had received the cross of the Legion of Honour and other well-deserved dignities for his discoveries in mechanical science. In 1840 a public statue was erected to his memory in the city of Lyons. Our treatment of this subject would be incomplete if we omitted a description of this ingenious and important machine, and we are fortunate in being able to refer for this purpose to a paper on Figure Weaving, by Mr. P. Le Neve Foster, read to the Society of Arts in February, 1860. From this document we make the following extracts :— “Prior to the advent of the power-loom, the treddles were acted upon by the foot of the weaver for raising the warp threads to form the shed for the passage of the shuttle. By a reverse action the upper portion of the warp threads is lowered and the lower portion raised, when the shuttle again passes and the interlacing is effected, which produced the desired fabric. Such is the operation of plain weaving, and from this it will be readily understood that if the warp threads are not raised or depressed in the alternate order of succes- sion above described, there will no longer be produced a plain and uniform surface. For instance, in a twill the weft threads do not ccxxviii LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE . . pass over and under the warp threads in regular alternate succession, but pass over one and under two, over one and under three, over one and under eight or ten, according to the kind of twill intended to be produced. The effect of this is to produce a kind of diagonal-ribbed appearance, either on the right or wrong side of the cloth, and a Smooth and glossy effect on the other, according as the one thread is crossed above or below by the weft. In order to allow the weft to pass under two, three, four, or more threads at once, an arrangement is adopted, by means of which the weaver can, by the action of his foot on a series of treddles, raise and depress the warp in groups, and in the order of succession required for the particular twill he desires. By various combinations among the treddles, he produces many varieties of movements, giving rise to the different kinds of twill. But when in addition to, or instead of a twill, flowers, sprigs, spots, or any kind of figure, are required, then an amount of com- plexity arises which cannot be got over by any manageable number of treddles. The weft may pass over four and under one at one part of the width of the cloth, over two and under two at another, over one and under four at another, and so on, according to the part of the figure which may happen to occur at any particular part of the width of the cloth. The next weft threads would pass over or under in a different order, and hence the warp threads would have to be elevated or depressed in a continually varying order; and to effect this by increasing the number of treddles is obviously impossible—the loom could not contain them, nor the feet of the weaver move them. The difficulty was, however, got over by what was termed the draw-loom, in which strings were so arranged that a boy, by drawing them, could raise the requisite warp threads in readiness for the shuttle to pass. The principle on which this is done is simple enough, though the draw-loom itself, with its endless variety of strings, appears to a visitor a most incomprehensible piece of apparatus. The warp threads pass through eyes or loops in vertical strings, each thread having one string; and these strings are so grouped that the boy, by pulling a handle, draws up all those warp threads which are necessary to be raised for one particular shoot of the weft : when a different set of warp threads are required he pulls a different handle. It will thus be seen that, in order to produce any particular pattern, the arrange- ment of the strings and handles, and the order in which the latter are to be drawn, must have been previously formed with a view to that special pattern. To effect this arrangement, which is termed MANUIFACTURES AND COMMERCE. ---- CCXXix cording the loom, would employ a man several months, and then, of course, it could be used for the one particular pattern only. Endea- vours were then made to render the loom more automatic, and thus get rid of the boy, and his possible mistakes of drawing the wrong handle. One of these, called the drawboy, is an ingenious arrange- ment of mechanism, which enables the weaver, by means of a treddle actuating a curved lever, to raise and depress the warp; the lever travelling along a rack so as to act on the different warps in succes- sion. This arrangement was much used, whilst another extremely ingenious invention for the same purpose, the automatic carpet-loom, by Mr. Duncan, failed to come into use. In this loom the warp threads were raised or depressed by pins inserted in a rotating barrel, the pins being placed in their proper order of succession, according to the pattern desired. - - - “The object contemplated by Jacquard, in the invention known by his name, was to substitute an automatic mechanical action in lieu of the boy who actuated the warp threads by pulling the handles. At the upper end of the loom he arranged a series of perpendicular wires having a hook at each end, to the lower one of which cords communicating with the warp threads were attached. These wires he raised or lowered by means of a treddle, raising or lowering a frame called the ‘griff frame, which caught the hooks at the upper end of the wires. In order, however, to raise or lower these wires separately, or in groups, so as to form the required pattern, the following contrivance was adopted:—-Each of the wires was made to pass through an eye formed in the middle of a horizontal needle, one end of which was acted on by a spring horizontally, so as to bring the needle back again after being pushed out of its place. Opposite to the ends of these horizontal needles he placed a hollow quad- rangular prismatic box of metal, pierced with as many holes as there were needles. This box, by the action of the same treddle, was at each stroke turned one-fourth round, and its face brought to strike against the ends of the needles, which, being exactly opposite the corresponding holes in the box, would pass into it and be no way disturbed. To the face of the box, however, a perforated card was attached, the perforations of which corresponded accurately with some of the perforations in the box, whilst the unperforated portion of the card covered over the remaining holes. Hence, it is clear that when the face of the box bearing the card is pressed against the ends of the needles, those will be driven back which are unable to CCXXX LANCASHIRE AND CEIESEIIRE . . enter the box; the needles, thus pressed back, act on the vertical wires so as to remove the upper hooks from the reach of the rising and falling griff, which thus acts only on those wires the needles of which have passed into the holes of the box. It will thus be seen that, by varying the holes in the cards, the wires may be raised or lowered accordingly, carrying with them the warp threads, so as to form the pattern. The cards must, of course, be carefully pierced in conformity with the desired pattern, and are joined together loosely at their edges, forming an endless chain, and are hung over the hollow prismatic box, which, turning on its axis, and having a reciprocating motion given to it by the weaver's foot, brings a fresh card forward at every stroke to be presented to the ends of the needles. The accompanying woodcut shows the principle on which the box and cards are arranged in connection with the needles and hooked wires. A few only of the needles and wires are shown, in order to prevent confusion. The arrangement usually includes from 400 to 600 hooks, and sometimes, for very extended and special patterns, as many as 1200; even a double 1200 for some patterns. It will at once be perceived that the perforation of a series of cards so as to produce any given pattern, is a task which requires Some skill, labour, and time, varying, of course, according to the simplicity or complexity of the design. “For the purpose of transferring the design to the cards it is, in the first place, prepared on paper by the designer, and is handed to another artist, who prepares from it what is termed the mise en carte drawing. For this purpose a paper ruled with lines crossing each other at right angles, and at a distance of about one-sixteenth of an inch apart, is used, every Square of which represents the intersection of a warp and weft thread. The design is transferred to this paper, which thus, on a greatly enlarged scale, represents the formation of IMANUIEACTURES AND COMMER.C.E. CCXXXi the pattern as it should appear when worked in the fabric. This mise en carte drawing, which takes some considerable time and skill to prepare, is then put into the hands of the ‘reader, as he is termed, who takes it as his guide for perforating the corresponding cards, which is precisely the reverse operation to that by which the card produces the pattern. It is, in fact, a beginning at the other end of the process; and instead of the cards regulating the action of the needles, and through them governing the warp threads, the pattern being formed by hand, warp threads are made to actuate the needles, which thus form the punches used for perforating the cards. The reader forms, in a frame, a series of stout vertical cords to represent the warps, and with these he interlaces by hand, following the mise en carte drawing, a series of horizontal cords representing the weft, thus forming the design of large size, loosely, and in a very coarse material. As he proceeds in the formation of his pattern, he takes the warp threads which stand forward at each particular portion of the pattern, representing those which would actually be elevated in the loom, and carries them to the hooks of small rods, which represent what, in the loom, would be the hooked wires of the Jacquard; so that by suitable mechanical arrangements, when these warps are pulled, a number of Small steel punches are driven into a metal plate pierced with as many holes as a card is made to contain. This metal plate, with its loose punches, is then placed on a table over the card, the whole put under pressure; and as the steel punches are somewhat longer than the thickness of the plate, they are forced through the card, which thus represents accurately the warp threads at that point of the pattern. The next series of warps in the pattern is dealt with in the same manner, until the pattern is exhausted. The cards, previously numbered as they are punched, are strung together in their proper order, and thus form the means of producing the pattern in the fabric in the manner previously described. Many months, in some instances, are occupied in this process. It must be remembered, too, that the set of cards thus made serves for the one pattern only, and is useless for any other. Such being the case, it is not to be wondered at that men's minds should have been constantly engaged in endeavouring to devise means for simplifying or, if possible, getting rid entirely of this tedious and costly though very ingenious portion of the arrangement; and many contrivances having this for their object, or for the improvement, have appeared. In 1844 an arrangement was rewarded by the Society of Arts. It was ccxxxii - LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : invented by Mr. W. C. Riding, was called an index-machine, and was a modification of Duncan's barrel, with shifting pegs for chang- ing the pattern. The pegs, in Mr. Riding's apparatus, acted in connection with the Jacquard wires. It was, however, applicable for Small patterns only, and though brought into use at the time, has not been extensively employed. A loom on this principle was shown at the Exhibition of 1851 by M. Moreau. Mr. Barlow also exhibited in 1851 a double loom, in which the cords were made to revolve over two prismatic boxes, by which means two fabrics of the same pattern were woven at once from the same set of cards. Subsequently, a very ingenious invention for getting rid entirely of the cards was brought out by Mr. E. Laforest—described in a paper read before the Institution of Civil Engineers. The object of this invention was to substitute a continuous band of perforated paper for the cards. Not only, by this means, was a great amount of weight and expense got rid of; but by means of a ‘reader, also the invention of Mr. Laforest, the bands of prepared paper, it is said. could be cut at the rate of 3000 per hour, instead of the slow and tedious process of producing the cards. This arrangement, though ingenious, has not come into operation, partly from the minuteness and crowding of many of its parts rendering it liable to get out of order, but chiefly on account of the expansion and contraction of the paper in varying states of the weather. “The Jacquard loom did not come generally into use in this country till about thirty years ago, but now it has completely super- seded every other description of apparatus for producing figured work in the loom. It is applied to the power-loom, and has been adapted to carpet-weaving and lace-making. Numerous improve- ments in detail have from time to time been made, among which, and in particular, the invention of Mr. Bennet Woodcroft deserves notice, namely, an arrangement by which, while one portion of the warp threads is elevated, the other is not merely left at rest, but depressed. This has been found of essential service in certain classes of weaving.” Before closing this department of our subject, it will be necessary to notice an invention of considerable importance—the figure-loom of Signor Bouilli—which at some future time may come into general use. It was exhibited before the Royal Society and afterwards sent to Manchester, where it was worked for some weeks, but ulti- mately abandoned, owing to some financial or other difficulties. MANUEACTURES AND COMMER.C.E. ccxxxiii The principle of this loom is the application of electricity to do away (so far as regards the greater number of figured stuffs of two colours) with the mise en carte, the necessity of “reading,” and the “cards” themselves. In this application it became necessary to find some practical mode of obtaining the same results in the fabrication of tissues containing several tones and shades of colour. After numerous experiments Signor Bouilli discovered a process—simple in the extreme—by which the electric current is made to select the colours in the design, and to raise the threads of the warp in the succession necessary for the production of the tissue. This process, which enabled weaving to be done in various colours, without entailing the mise en carte, or even necessitating the lengthening of the pattern, consisted in the following arrangement: the outline of the pattern having been traced on paper covered with tin-foil, the metallic portion of the paper was cut through, following, of course, the outlines in such a manner as to isolate each portion of colour, or shade of colour. This done—and it may be very rapidly performed—all the parts of the pattern are united which are of the same tint, by means of fine copper wires tied through them, the ends of these wires being carried behind the pattern to the margin. This margin is divided in the same manner into so many isolated vertical bands, of which one is in communication with each colour. Thus it is evident that the metallic teeth of the electric apparatus resting on the entire width of the pattern, if the first tooth of the comb, which represents in fact one of the poles of the battery, touches one of the bands, those parts only of the pattern which are connected with this particular band can complete the circuit, or can act on such of the teeth as are in contact with them. In this position Signor Bouilli, by a simple mechanical contrivance, has so arranged the appa- ratus, that the first tooth of the comb, or, to speak more clearly, one of the poles of the battery, during the movement of the loom, rests upon the margin of the pattern, touching at each stroke of the shuttle one of the metallic bands which represent a colour; the said tooth touching in the necessary succession each of the metallic bands. This is the arrangement by which Signor Bouilli is enabled, with- out the mise en carte, or the “reading,” to weave in many colours, and, especially in patterns of striking effects, he is able to produce important results. For designs on which, on the other hand, the effects are dependent on minute details, he has also invented a mode of electric reading, by which the pattern is easily transferred upon the VOL. II. 2 g ccxxxiv. LANCASHIRE AND CHIESHIRE : metallic paper. In this case the metallic paper moves forward at each stroke of the loom one millimetre; in the former, the metallic paper remains stationary until all the colours which are upon the same line are produced. Some few years since another description of loom was brought into notice by its inventor, Mr. Harrison. It consisted of a new mode of working the picker, and for driving the shuttle across the shed of the warp by compressed air; and the object of the inventor was to increase the number of picks, and get rid of the deafening noise which accompanies the present mode of working the shuttle. In carrying out this principle it was necessary either to have a sepa- rate engine, or sufficient power to compress the air and force it along pipes under consecutive lines of looms to work the shuttles. From these pipes an elastic india-rubber tube communicated with the shuttle-box at each end of the lathe, and by means of a small valve, which was opened and shut by the action of the lathe, a puff of com- pressed air sent the shuttle across the shed of the warp, without noise and with a celerity that effectually answered the purpose. This invention, we apprehend, failed, like many others, on the score of expense, and in all probability has found its way, ere this, to the museum of inventions at South Kensington. It might have been interesting to the professional reader to have gone further into detail on the various intricate and ingeni- ous machines employed in the cottom trade, but we have already exceeded our limits; and instead of entering upon the principles of construction and the objects obtained by the applied mechanism of the parts, we have only to observe that, in order to become acquainted with the numerous contrivances by which these objects are effected, the reader must spend some time in a cotton factory and see the machinery actually at work. COTTON STATISTICS. In our effort to furnish a general description of the cotton manu- facture we have not yet exhausted the subject. We have now to show that it is the largest and most important trade in the United Kingdom, corn alone excepted. We have now before us the official returns of the Board of Trade, supplying a correct statement of imports and exports, and other statistical data connected with this vast and important branch of industry. In Table I. will be observed the amount of imports and exports of MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE. ccxxxv Cotton for the last fifteen years, from 1853 to 1867, and the countries where it is grown. The total imports in 1853 were. . . . . . . . . . . . 895,278,746 lbs. The total imports in 1867 were. . . . . . . . . . . . 1,262,536,912 “ Showing an increase in fifteen years of . . . . . . . . . 367,258,166 “ During the same period (1853) the exports were 148,569,721 lbs., or an excess of imports of 746,709,028 lbs. ; the quantity consumed in this country being in the ratio of 5 to 1 to that exported. In 1867 the exports were 350,626,416 lbs., or an excess of imports of 911,910,496 lbs. ; the quantity remaining in this country being in the ratio of rather more than 2% to 1. This low average fluctu- ated from 1860 to 1867, during the whole of the American war, down to the present time. In 1860, the most flourishing year of the cotton trade, the imports were 1,390,938,752 lbs., and the exports 250,339,040 lbs., which leaves for home consumption 1,140,599,712 lbs., being in the ratio of 4% to 1. During the four years' war between the Northern and Southern states of America, the total imports were greatly reduced, and from 1861 to 1866 the home consumption was less than one-half what it was in 1860, before the outbreak of hostilities. - Table II. is the Board of Trade return of the number of cotton factories, spindles, and power-looms, together with the amount of moving power and the number of hands employed in Lancashire and Cheshire. This table is divided into factories where spinning is exclusively performed, those in which weaving alone is carried on, and those in which both spinning and weaving are done. From this it will be seen that in Lancashire and Cheshire there are 2191 cotton factories, in which are employed 24,903,645 spindles; 339,349 power looms, driven by 242,628 horse-power;” and for the daily working of the machinery there are employed 356,487 persons, men, women, and children. This Table supplies us with some very interesting and important data as to the extent and value of this colossal manufacture. If we take, as shown in Table III., the number of spindles and power-looms at work in the United Kingdom, and compute the length of yarn and cloth produced in a given time, we shall find that it reaches in yarn * The motive power is evidently taken at what is called nominal horse-power, but the indicated horse-power, or the work actually done, is taken on the datum of 33,000 lbs. raised to a height of one foot in a minute, which will make the force from three to four times more. ccxxxvi TANCASHIRE AND CHIESEIIRE: alone to a length exceeding almost the bounds of calculation. A single spindle will turn off upon the average ten yards of 40's yarn per minute, and this multiplied by the number of spindles, 30,387,467 gives a distance, if stretched in a straight line, of 172,650 miles per minute, or 103,590,000 miles for every working day of the year of ten hours each, a distance greater than that of the earth from the sun - - It is, therefore, evident that the length of cotton yarn spun in Lancashire and Cheshire in one” year would, if wound round reels, one fixed at the sun and another at the earth, amount to 279 times that distance, or 26,586,157,400 miles; and the cotton yarn spun in the United Kingdom in one year would be 340 times the same distance, or 32,423,670,000 miles. We might increase the magnitude of these distances, but we have said enough to show the greatness of this important manufacture. Of this large quantity of yarn only a portion is converted into cloth in this country, the remainder being exported to different parts of the world. Let us, however, for the sake of illustration, take the number of power-looms at work in Lancashire and Cheshire, as given in Table II., and computing the amount of work they do in the same manner as we have done the yarn, we find that a single power- loom will on an average turn off forty yards of calico in one day, which, multiplied by the number of looms, 339,349, at work, gives 13,573,960 yards of calico, or 7712 miles a day. If we add to this 60,643 for the number of looms in the other counties of Eng- land, Scotland, and Ireland, the amount of cloth is then increased to 9090 miles. Again, if we add to this the increase that has taken place up to 1869, we may fairly assume that the extent of this manufacture in the whole of the United Kingdom has reached, in the shape of cloth alone, 10,000 miles of calico a day, or 3,130,000 miles per annum. We might multiply these calculations in a variety of forms and to a much greater extent, but a series of figures as the representatives of cotton are not required; and our object in treat- ing the subject in this form is to give the unprofessional reader a more clear and distinct conception of this vast and increasing manufacture. - We have now to refer to the following Tables, which furnish more in detail the extent and value of this branch of industry. * Only the working days are taken—that is, six days out of the seven—which gives for the whole year, 313 days. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. 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RETURN OF COTTON FACTORIES IN LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE, # 3 Numb Number Nºe: Amount of Number of children §: º: - No. of | No. of b loyed Countres. #.5 uper of P. er | Moving Power. under 18 years. . is females males Total number employed. dº 58; Spindles. Power . loom and 18 above 18|above 18 2: É ** weavers, steam. I water. M. F. years. years. years. M. F. M. & F. Factories employed in spinning— Cheshire, . e e 126 1,526,855 - - 11,715 287 841 510 1,285| 4,415, 8,703 5,829 4,925] 10,754 Lancashire, 727 11,072,899 *- - 73,284. 1,319 5,711 || 3,879 8,984 38,997 22,876. 37,571. 42,876 80,447 853 | 12,599,754 - *-*. 84,999. 1,606 || 6,552 4,389 || 10,269 43,412 - 26,579 43,400. 47,801. 91,201 Factories employed in weaving— - - Cheshire, º e • º 19 - 3,159| 1,288 723 40 9 6 80) 1,091 474 563| 1,097. 1,660 Lancashire, . . . . . . 571 - 116,446|44,367 18,627 183 1,513 | 1,475 4,193 33,077 16,371 22,077 34,552 56,629 590 cº- 119,605|45,655 14,350 223 1,522 1,481 4,273 34,168 16,845 22,640 35,649 58,289 . Factories employed in spinning and weaving— - Cheshire, . º - º & 56 1,846,258 29,694. 12,989 || 23,168 883 873 660 2,389| 16,608 7,730. 10,992] 17,268 28,260 Lancashire, , e º º 565 10,457,633 189,977| 79,814 || 113,236 1,828 9,551 || 7,740 15,710 90,389 48,616. 73,877| 98,129, 172,006 621 | 12,303,891 219,671 92,803 || 136,404 2,711 || 10,424 8,460 18,099| 106,997 56,346 84,869 115,397 200,266 Factories not included in the above descrip- - *— tions— - Cheshire, . te o º 11 - 73 48 52 14 4 3 13 93 67 87 99 186 Lancashire, . . . . . . . 116 *- – | – || 2,195 74 || 36|| 115 846 4,878 1,178 1,557 49ss 6,545 127 - | 73 48 2,247 88 40 118 359| 4,966 - 1,245. 1,644 5,087 6,731 Tºlº ºne in cºir and 2,191 24,903,645 |sº 138,506] 238,000. 4,628 18,538 14,448 || 33,000 189,543; 101,015 152,553 203,984856,487 T A B L E III. RETURN OF COTTON FACTORIES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND. 5 à Number Number Amount of Number orandºn No. of No. of Wo. of Countries. #'s 3 Nºte: Of P&€r- Moving Power. l under 13 years. º: *: fºil, à: Total number employed. Ż : Spindles. POWer loom and 18 above 13 above 18|. - - P-4 *** weavers] steam. I water. M. F. years. years. years. M. F. M. & F. §. and Wales, e • • 2,713 28,352,125 368,125 149,539 263,136|| 9,825 21,774 17,382 38,210 |216,512; 113,720 173,704 233,894. 407,598 i. . j º - & º 163| 1,915,398 39,119 15,663. 17,618, 2,352 307 325 2,661 | 32,884 5,060 8,028 33,209 41,237 and, e * 9 119,944 1,757| 1,007 909 290 - - 336 1,910 488| 824, 1,910 2,734 Total, 2.887 30,387,467 399,992] 166,209 281,668 12,467 |22,081 || 17,707 |41,207 |251,306 119,268] 182,556|269,013 451,569 i : MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. cCxxxix CALICO-PRINTING. Calico derives its name from Calicut, a town in India, formerly celebrated for its manufactures of cotton cloth, and where also it was extensively printed. The process consists in the art of producing figures from drawings on cotton cloth in colours, or mordants which subsequently become colours when dyed. Other fabrics besides cotton are now printed by similar means, such as silk, wool, linen, and mixtures of those with cotton and flax. The earliest method adopted for ornamenting cloth with designs was, no doubt, by embroidering with the needle; and this, in all pro- bability, was coeval with the art of dyeing, which is of very remote antiquity. Herodotus mentions that Amasis, king of the Egyptians, sent to the Lacedemonians a pictoral of linen adorned with many figures of animals, woven into the cloth, and enriched with gold in a variety of colours. From this it may be inferred that both figure weaving and embroidering are of high antiquity, and that the staining or dyeing of cloth was practised by the Egyptians, and probably, before them, by the earlier inhabitants of our Indian empire. It is recorded that the Scythians, by bruising the leaves of a tree in water, stained their garments with figures of animals, which were fast and would not wash out. It would be interesting to know how this was accomplished, and what was the nature of the dye. Dr. Ure, in his “Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines,” states that those garments were probably woollen; but of this there is no positive proof. Robes and white veils of cotton and linen were, however, manufactured and stained or dyed in great variety of forms, showing the high antiquity of the art of dyeing and printing upon cotton cloth among the Egyptians and other Oriental tribes, - * It is evident, therefore, that calico-printing is of very ancient date in India, and as the manufacture of cotton cloth originated there, it is more than probable, from the abundance of dye, that so also did staining, dyeing, and printing. This country and France, may, how- ever, be considered the birthplaces of the art, as it now exists; and the application of science to colour-printing has led to results almost incalculable, as regards the facilities of the process, and the cheapness of the prints which are now produced. The process by which the tribes of India produced the chintzes and calicoes, which were celebrated in Europe for so many years, was ccxl LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : tedious and cumbrous. In many of the more remote parts of the country that process is, from the low price of labour, still continued; but European science, the introduction of railways, and the formation of roads and canals, are working a rapid change, and must ultimately raise our Indian empire to a state of prosperity in the industrial arts of which at present we have no conception, as well as exercise a mighty influence on the regeneration of the inhabitants. It is not our object to enter into the details of the washing, dyeing, and penciling, as practised in ancient times. Suffice it to observe, that calico-printing was not in all Oriental countries executed by the pencil, as small wooden blocks were used for the complicated patterns of the Cashmere shawls; and it is well known that the Chinese employed block-printing long before any species of printing was known to the natives of Europe. It is believed that the first attempt at imitating the process of calico-printing as carried on in India was made in Holland; the Dutch East India Company having introduced the Indian chintzes there, before they found their way into this country. It is uncertain when or where these first attempts were made, but it appears that the art spread to Germany; for about the close of the seventeenth century Augsburg had obtained a notoriety for printed linens and cottons. The art was most probably introduced into England about 1676 by the Flemish immigrants. Mr. James Thompson, of Clitheroe, one of the most eminent English calico-printers, fixed the date at the year 1690, and supposed that a Frenchman, a refugee at the time of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, was the first to print calicoes in this country, and his works were at Richmond on Thames; but there is evidence to show that the process was introduced prior to this date. It appears from a petition addressed to the House of Commons by the East India Company, in 1627, that Indian calicoes were at that time imported, and in 1631, in a catalogue of legal imports from India, printed calicoes are mentioned. In 1624, apparently, attempts were made to ornament fabrics with coloured patterns by mechanical means, as in that year Charles II, granted an exclusive patent for fourteen years for the art or mystery of fixing wool, silk, and other materials of divers colours, upon linen, silk, or cotton cloth, leather, and other substances, by means of oils, size, or other cements, to make them useful for hanging, &c.” It would seem, therefore, that the art of calico-printing is of greater antiquity than has * Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. ccxli been generally supposed. Properly speaking, however, it was not practised in Europe till 1689, when Jacques Deluze, of Neufchâtel, first introduced it with great success, and it shortly afterwards became general, both in France and Germany. This led to the establishment of similar works in this country, and several in Essex and Surrey were actively employed in the beginning of last century, for supplying the London merchants with chintzes and other printed goods. From the first the silk and woollen weavers manifested the most determined hostility to the introduction of printed calicoes into the market, whether brought from India or made at home. They mobbed the India House in revenge for some large importations of chintzes from the coast of Malabar, and they subsequently induced the sapient legislators of that day (1720) to lay the trade in printed calicoes under an absolute interdict. The effect of this absurd law was to put an end to the printing of Calico in this country, and to confine the trade to the printing of linens and mixed goods. Mr. Edmund Potter, in his papers on calico-printing, states that in 1750 the entire production of goods printed in Great Britain was estimated at 50,000 pieces, and it was not till 1774 that the obnoxious law was repealed. Its repeal, however, did not release the calico-printers from imposts, as according to Mr. Potter a duty of 3d per square yard was retained, to which a halfpenny was added in 1806. On the accession of Lord Grey's government this duty was repealed, and from that time to the present calico-printing has been on an equal footing with other trades. - France pursued a similar policy with regard to calico-printing, but she abandoned the monopoly Sooner than England. Her avowed object was to cherish the manufacture of flax, a native product, instead of that of cotton—a new material for which prejudice urged that money had to be expended. Her intelligent statesmen of that day replied, that the money spent on the purchase of cotton was the product of French industry beneficially employed; and they, therefore, took immediate measures to put the cotton fabrics upon a footing of equality with others. Meanwhile, popular prejudice was roused to such a degree, by the project of permitting a free manufacture and sale of printed cottons, that every French town possessed of a Chamber of Commerce made the strongest remonstrances against it. The Rouen deputies declared to the government that “the intended measures would throw the inhabitants into despair, and make a VOL. II. 2 h ccxlii LANGASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: desert of the surrounding country;” those from Lyons said that “the news had spread terror through all the workshops.” Tours foresaw “a commotion likely to convulse the body of the state.” Amiens said “that the new law would be the grave of the manufacturing industry of France;” and Paris declared that “her merchants came forward to bathe the throne with their tears on that inauspicious occasion.” Instead of these terrible disasters being realized, the actual results were immensely advantageous, and France at the present time produces upwards of 5,000,000 printed pieces of calicoes per annum, and these, probably, of the finest quality. To show what have been the advantages of free trade, we once more quote from Ure's “Dictionary of Manufactures, Arts, and Mines,” in which it is said that “the great disadvantage under which the French printers labour is the higher price they pay for cotton fabrics and fuel above that paid by the English printers. - “The repeal, in 1831, of the consolidated duty of 3%d. per square yard upon printed calicoes in Great Britain, is one of the most judicious acts of modern legislation. By the improvements in calico- printing, due to the modern discoveries in chemistry and mechanics, the trade had become so vast as to yield, in 1830, a revenue of £2,280,000, levied upon 8,596,000 of pieces, of which, however, about three-fourths were exported, with a drawback of £1,579,000 ; 2,281,512 pieces were consumed in that year at home. When the expenses of collection were deducted, only £350,000 found their way into the exchequer, for which pitiful sum thousands of frauds and obstructions were committed against the honest manufacturer. This reduction of duty enables the consumer to get this extensive article of clothing from 50 to 80 per cent, cheaper than before, and thus places a becoming dress within the reach of thousands of females in the humbler ranks of life. Printed goods, which in 1795 were sold for 2S. 3d per yard, may be bought at present for 6d. The repeal of the tax has been no less beneficial to the fair dealers, by putting an end to the contraband trade, formerly pursued to an extent equally injurious to them and the revenue. It has, moreover, emancipated a manufacture eminently dependent upon taste, Science, and dexterity, from the venal curiosity of petty excisemen, by whom private improvements, of great value to the inventor, were in perpetual jeopardy of being pirated and sold to any sordid rival. The manufacturer has now become a free agent, a master of his time, * Mr. Potter's Lecture on Calico-printing, MANTUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. ccxliii his workmen, and his apparatus, and can print at whatever hour he may receive an order; whereas he was formerly obliged to wait the convenience of the excise officer, whose province it was to measure and stamp the cloth before it could be packed—an operation fraught with no little annoyance and delay. Under the patronage of Parlia- ment it was easy for needy adventurers to buy printed calicoes, because they could raise such a sum by drawbacks upon the export of one lot as would go far to pay for another, and thus carry on a fraudulent system of credit, which sooner or later merged into a disastrous bankruptcy. Meanwhile, the goods thus obtained were pushed off to some foreign markets, for which they were possibly not suited, or where they produced, by their forced sales, a depreciation of all similar merchandise, ruinous to the man who meant to pay for his wares. - “Calico-printing was first practised in Scotland in 1738, twenty- six years previous to its introduction into Lancashire. The following sketch of the early Lancashire printing is taken from Mr. Potter's pamphlet:—‘The trade was established in Lancashire in 1764 by Messrs. Clayton, of Bamber Bridge, near Preston; the cloth that was printed being made with linen warp and cotton weft, and produced principally at Blackburn. This was the reason of many printers settling near Blackburn, which was for a long time the great seat of the print trade. The introduction of power-loom cloth caused the migration of a considerable print trade to Stockport, Hyde, Staleybridge, and North Derbyshire. The Claytons were followed by Mr. Robert Peel, who entered into the cotton business, and added to it that of printing. He carried on the business for some years at Brookside, near Blackburn, aided by his sons. The eldest son afterwards branched off from his father's concern, and established himself at Bury with his uncle, Mr. Haworth, and Mr. William Yates. “‘During the period from 1796 to 1821 the Forts, Hargreaves, and Thompsons fairly established themselves as extensive and wealthy printers, not more by their energy and business talent than by their scientific attainments, and by the unbounded and lavish support which they gave to everything that art and science could suggest to assist them. Mr. James Thompson, of Primrose, near Clitheroe, was for forty years the recognized head of the print trade. The era of his commencement in the trade was the beginning of a series of discoveries and new applications in chemical science to ccxliv T.A.NCASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : the purposes of calico-printing. During forty years he devoted him- self, and the ample funds which his business placed at his disposal, to the advancement of taste in connection with his trade. No sums, however large, were spared to draw into its service the talent even of royal academicians, and of many other eminent men high in art.’ Mr. John Mercer, of the house of Fort Brothers, and a contemporary of Mr. Thompson, but now retired from business, for a long period rendered valuable service to the trade by the introduction of chemical novelties; and many styles founded by him are still popular. The house of Hargreaves Brothers & Co., during the same period, took a prominent position in the production of new and original colours and styles. “In France, M. Koechlin was looked up to as the leader of the trade, and was mainly instrumental in establishing Sound Scientific principles in the art. “During the progressive improvements dating from 1831, one house may be named of high standing, who introduced a colour superior in brilliancy, fastness, and utility for domestic wear, to any other previously known. This was the madder purple of Messrs. Thomas Hoyle & Sons—a colour which may be said to have superseded the old Mary blue print in English wear. Messrs. Hoyle & Sons maintained their well-deserved superiority for many years, The London printers, up to the repeal of the duty, still held their position for first-class goods. They made great use of the flat press printing machine. Their plates were well engraved, and for a long time they succeeded in getting a smartness of impression better than any at that time obtained from the cylinder. Some few of the Lancashire printers adopted the press, the better to compete with the town printer. The rapidly-increasing trade in Lancashire, and with it the power of so much cheaper production, gradually under- mined the London printers, and brought about a complete change in their class of work.’ The London printers now print fine shawls, handkerchiefs, waistcoatings, and a superior class of cotton prints for furniture hangings. The present annual production of printed cloth of all kinds in Great Britain may be estimated at 20,000,000 pieces. In 1840 the quantity produced was about 16,000,000. The quantity now, probably, rather exceeds 20,000,000 pieces; but, from the absence of any authentic statistics, the quantity is very difficult to arrive at. The print trade, according to Mr. Bazley, consumes a weight of cotton about one-seventh the entire import into this country. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. f ccxlv. “Owing to her natural advantages, England has by far the larg— est portion of the calico-printing trade, and especially of the export trade; and probably at the present time she produces as many printed pieces as all the rest of the world put together. The United States produces, next to ourselves, in quantity; France and Swit- zerland, the next to America in quantity, but far superior to her in quality, and second only to ourselves in value of production. France is the only competitor we have to meet in the neutral markets of the world. The Zollverein, Austria, and Bohemia produce for their own markets, and by high protecting duties prevent any other supply, except of very fine French goods. Holland produces a small quantity of medium goods; Belgium also produces a few; Naples has a few small print-works; Russia produces for her own market, and the number of works has rapidly increased of late: her market is almost prohibited to us. Spain produces a limited quantity of inferior goods; Portugal has a slight production. Turkey produces a few printed goods, hardly worth notice; the Sultan, Abdul Medjid, tried the experiment of organizing print-works on the English principle, with English artisans and foremen, but the experiment was a complete failure. Egypt also has revived the art, with very inferior results. The Chinese undoubtedly practised calico- printing many centuries before ourselves. Mr. Potter was able to exhibit samples of Chinese work to the Society of Arts, which he described as of very primitive taste and rude execution. “Mul- hausen, it may not be uninteresting to mention,’ says Mr. Potter, “is certainly the seat of the finest printing in the world. Calico- printing was first established there in 1746, by the firm of Koechlin and Co., and is still carried on by descendants of the original firm; and during the whole period, and not less so now, the house has had a high and justly deserved reputation for talent and taste, and to them the chemistry of the trade is most deeply indebted for many valuable processes and discoveries. Other houses of almost equal celebrity followed, and Mulhausen has justly maintained its repu- tation of being, for fine goods, the first calico-printing district in the world.” Descriptive Processes of Calico-printing and the Machinery Employed. —Had space permitted we should have entered more fully into this department of our subject, and given details of the bleaching process, so closely allied to that of printing, and indispensable in every well-regulated print-work. But we must content ourselves ccxlvi LANCASEIIRE AND CHIESEIIRE : with a brief description of the different processes in this branch of industry, and of some of the principal machines employed in it. The first step in calico-printing is the bleaching, by which the cloth, as it comes from the loom, is deprived of its natural colour, and rendered nearly or altogether white. In ancient times bleach- ing, washing, and fulling were, in some respects, practised in greater perfection than at present; and the different processes, if not so rapidly performed, were, at all events, more effective in producing purer whites, and with less injury to the cloth. It is obvious that the ancients were well acquainted with pigments, and could produce not only fine whites, but finely dyed cloths of various colours. The Babylonians wore white cloths, and by their method of washing the discovery of bleaching became inevitable, as repeated washings and dryings of the cloth in the sun would have the desired effect. But records are in existence to show that alkalies, and soda mixed with lime, were in use for bleaching amongst the Egyptians and other eastern nations. Their mode of washing and stampin the clothes in a tub with their feet, as practised in Scotland at the present day, was employed in the time of the Romans. When well washed the fabrics were immersed in ammoniacal liquors and soda, and urine was highly esteemed for the same purpose. In ancient Rome the fullers obtained it by placing vessels at the corners of the streets, and Vespasian imposed a tax upon it, turning it to account as a source of revenue. The same method of carefully collecting this fluid is still in existence in Yorkshire, under the name of “old lant.” Our modern system of bleaching is much more elaborate, and consists in the use of chlorine, a greater abundance of soap, and the employment of machinery. In the last century Holland obtained the first name for bleaching, and all the finer descriptions of goods were sent there from this country to undergo the process. The first attempt to compete with the Low Countries was made in Scotland in 1749, and was persevered in until 1787, when Berthollet com- municated his investigations on chlorine to the French Academy; these were made known by James Watt, a friend of Berthollet, to Mr. Macgregor, of Glasgow, and again, through Dr. Henry, to the manufacturers and printers of Manchester. In 1798 Charles Tennant, of Glasgow, introduced the use of chloride of lime, which to the present day is the best form of applying chlorine. An interesting communication was made to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in 1848, which gave the theory of bleaching; but MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. ccxlvii chemists are not entirely agreed upon any one reliable principle of action. In practice the different processes and chemical agents are distinctly understood, and we confine our description to the bleaching of cotton, as the staple manufacture of Lancashire and Cheshire. . The object of bleaching is to separate from the textile fabric the substances which would tend to mar its intrinsic whiteness, or which, in the course of dyeing and printing, would produce injurious effects upon the colours. The substances which in cotton goods require to be removed are as follows:— 1. The resinous matter natural to the filaments. The colouring matter of the plant. - The paste of the weaver. The fatty matter. A calcareous soap. The filth from the hands. Iron rust, earthy matters, and dust. The cotton fibre itself. The carbonaceous matter caused by singeing. 10. The seed vessels. These, according to Dr. Ure, are the different ingredients or combinations which require to be removed or neutralized before a perfectly pure white can be obtained; and as all the different modes of treatment have been often and ably pointed out, it is only necessary for us to notice a few of the leading processes and machines by which fabrics are whitened and prepared for the printer. In describing the general operations of bleaching it will be seen, from what we have said, that these are resolvable into treatment with alkalies, and the action of chlorine or of light. The operations are very numerous, but some of them, instead of being finished at once, require to be repeated gently, so as not to injure the fibre of the finer description of goods. The different processes, may shortly be described as follows:– 1. Singeing is performed by passing the cloth over a red-hot plate of iron or copper, and for fine goods it is sometimes necessary to shear the nap of the cloth instead of singeing. 2. Bowking is the process of boiling the cloth in alkaline liquids, generally lime or soda, or both, in what is called a keir. 3. After bowking, the goods are carefully washed with perfectly pure water in the four divisions of a “dash-wheel,” which causes them to plunge and fall during the time of rotation. A dash-wheel i 9. ccxlviii LAN CASHIRE AND CHESHIRE: will wash 300 pieces an hour, or 3000 per day. Another machine, invented by the late Mr. Bridson, washes 900 pieces an hour, or 9000 pieces per day. 4. After boiling in the first keir and washing, the goods are scoured in muriatic acid. This is done in stone cisterns, where the cloth is delivered from the rollers, in which it receives the acid solution, and by this process the acid decomposes and washes out the lime and soap. - 5. The next operation is with soda, which removes the remaining greasy or fatty materials. 6. Powder bleaching is chloride of lime, added to the solution in the vessels where the goods are allowed to lie. Instead, however, of allowing the cloth to remain long in such strong solutions, it must be passed rapidly through the rollers of the calender so as to soak it thoroughly, and then transferred to the acid, and forward to be washed. - - 7. “Squeezers” are rollers through which the cloth is passed for discharging the greater part of the water, or any other liquid, that may be used in the different processes of bleaching. 8. When the goods are run through the squeezers they are taken to the “candroy,” or spreading machine, where they are stretched together, ready for the mangle or stone calender. 9. The calender answers the same purpose as the mangle, and consists of two paper and two iron rollers; the small roller, being hollow, is heated by steam, and in cases where a polished or glazed surface is required the rollers are driven at different velocities, which gives the cloth a smooth and polished surface. 10. The last process is drying, which is done on a machine of eleven cylinders, 22 inches diameter, heated by steam ; it will dry 1000 pieces of bleached calico per day, which, when properly dried and wound upon reels, are fit for the printer.” Calico-printing.—The first step in calico-printing, as in bleaching, is to remove the fibrous down from the surface of the cloth; and this is done by passing it rapidly through a flame of gas, or over a red-hot semi-circular plate. In France the process is different ; a * There is another mode of bleaching, called the new or continuous process, which owes its origin to Mr. David Bentley, of Pendleton, Salford. It consists in drawing the goods in a continuous line through every solution with which it is desired to saturate them. This is done by means of rollers, which draw the cloth in any direction, and through any number of solutions. When the goods are sufficiently acted upon by one solution, another is used ; so that the mode of calendering has the effect not only of moving the goods from place to place by means of rollers, but also of thoroughly saturating the cloth with the solution and washing. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. ccxlix machine, similar to that used for shearing woollen cloth, with a series of spiral knives round a roller, is employed to shear off the fibres which project from the surface. Calicoes intended for prints require much greater care in the bleaching than those intended for shirtings, &c., which are sold in their white state. Every particle of resinous and glutinous matter must be removed from the cloth previous to being steeped in chlorine and the high-pressure keir, and a thorough scouring is essential to the reception of clear and fast colours. A hundred years ago the printing of linens and calicoes was done by hand with wooden blocks, on which the pattern was raised in relief. About the same time the paper printing press was adapted, with copperplate engravings, to linens and calicoes; but in 1785 the cylinder printing machine was invented by a Scotch printer named Bell, and was brought into successful use by Messrs. Livesey, Hargreaves, & Co., at Mossley, near Preston. Blocks are still used for some descriptions of prints, such as muslins, &c., and for the introduction of additional colours after printing by the cylinder and dyeing. º It will not be necessary in this place to give a long description of block-printing, as it simply consists in the cloth being stretched upon a table covered with a woollen cloth ; the colouring matter, or mordant, being spread with a brush, by a boy, on a fine woollen cloth stretched in a frame close to the hand of the printer. Thus prepared, the printer presses the face of the block on the cloth, so as it may take up the requisite quantity of colour and receive dis- tinctly the impression. The introduction of different colours, called “grounding,” is done in the same way, care being taken that the design is not injured ; this is provided against by pointed pins at the corner of the block, as a guide to the printer in introducing the impression on the right spot as shown in the pattern. In our sketch of block-printing, we have not noticed the flat press, which is in every respect similar to that used for printing on paper from engraved plates. This mode of printing is now really obsolete, having been superseded by the cylinder printing machine. The cylinder printing machine will be better understood by an extract from Ure's “Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines.” In referring to this machine he states, that “it is one by which one or more colours are rapidly printed from engraved copper cylinders or rollers, by the mere rotation of the machine, driven by the agency WOL. II. 2 . ccl LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESEIIRE . of steam or water. The productive powers of the automaton are very great, amounting for some styles to a piece of thirty yards per minute, or a mile of printed cloth per hour. Fig. 38 will give the reader a general idea of this elegant and expeditious plan of printing. The pattern is engraved upon the surface of a hollow cylinder of copper, and the cylinder is forced by pressure upon a strong iron mandrel, which serves as its turning shaft. To facilitate the transfer of the impression from the engraving to the cotton cloth, the latter is lapped round another large cylinder, rendered Fig. 38. elastic by rolls of woollen cloth, and the engraved cylinder presses the calico against the elastic cushion, and thereby prints it as it revolves. Let A be the engraved cylinder, mounted upon its mandrel, which receives rotatory motion by wheels on its end connected with the steam or water power of the factory. B is a large iron drum or roller, turning in bearings of the end frames of the machine; against the drum the engraved cylinder, A, is pressed by weights or screws, the weights acting steadily by levers on its brass bearings. Round the drum, B, the endless web of felt or blanket stuff, a a, travels in the direction of the arrow, being carried round with the drum, B, which again is turned by the friction of contact with the cylinder, A. C repre- sents a clothed wooden roller, partly plunged in the thickened colour of the trough, D D, That roller is also made to bear with a moderate force against A, and thus receives by friction, in some cases, a move- ment of rotation. But it is preferable to drive the roller, C, from the cylinder, A, by means of a system of toothed wheels attached to their ends, so that the surface speed of the wooden or paste roller shall be somewhat greater than that of the printing cylinder, whereby the colour will be rubbed, as it were, into the engraved parts of the latter. As the cylinder, A, is pressed upwards against B, it is obvious that the bearers of the trough and its roller must be attached to the bearings of the cylinder, A, in order to preserve its contact with the colour roller, C. b is a sharp-edged ruler of gun-metal or steel, called the colour doctor, screwed between two gun-metal stiffening bars, the edge of which wiper is slightly pressed at a tangent upon the engraving roller, A. This ruler vibrates with a slow motion from side to side, or right to left, so as to exercise a delicate shaving action upon the engraved surface, as this revolves in the direction of the MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE. ccli arrow. c is another similar sharp-edged ruler, called the lint doctor, whose office it is to remove any fibres which may have come off the calico in the act of printing, and which, if left on the engraved cylinder, would be apt to occupy some of the lines, or at least to prevent the colour from filling them all. This lint doctor is pressed very slightly upon the cylinder, A, and has no traverse motion. What was stated with regard to the bearers of the colour trough, D–namely, that they are connected, and moved up and down together, with the bearings of the cylinder, A–may also be said of the bearers of the two doctors. The working of this beautiful mechanism may now be easily comprehended. The web of calico, indicated in the figure by the letter d, is introduced or carried in along with the blanket stuff, a a, in the direction of the arrow, and is moved onward by the pressure of the revolving cylinder, A, so as to receive the impression of the pattern engraved on that cylinder. The cylinder printing machine, although a Scotch invention, has received its wonderful development in England, and does the great- est honour to this country. The economy of labour introduced by these machines is truly marvellous; one of them under the guidance of a man to regulate the rollers, and the service of two boys to supply the colour troughs, is capable of printing from two to three hundred times the number of yards that could be done by one man and a boy with the block. In mounting three or more engraved cylinders in one frame, they must be carefully adjusted to 'insure perfect correspondence in the figures, as each successive roller is worked into the pattern of that which precedes it. This is a sine qué non in printing; for unless figures in the engraved cylinder are accurately inserted into their respective places, utter confusion would ensue. Too much pains cannot, therefore, be taken in the adjustment of all the cylinders to attain perfect uniformity in the patterns, as the cloth advances from cylinder to cylinder to receive the required number of colours. As many as a dozen colours have been printed by a machine; but to give the reader an idea of the process, we have selected for illustration a three-coloured cylinder printing machine, of which the following is a description:- Fig. 39 is an end section, of which A is the cast-iron frame, B the hollow cast-iron cylinder, which receives the pressure of the engraved rollers, c, c, c, and e, e, e are the rollers in the colour trough from cclii LANCASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : which the engraved rollers are supplied; d, d, d are levers attached to the steel doctors, on the end of which weights are hung to force them against the copper rollers as cleaners, to remove all the colour from the plane surface that is not engraved. The pattern rollers revolve in double slides for the convenience of adjustment; and the slides are moved by screws, either direct against the cylinder, B, or transversely, as may be required to suit the patterns. In order to give the successive impressions direct upon the figure in their proper places, the rollers are respectively set up against the piece on the pressure roller alternately, until the whole is adjusted; which done, Fig. 39. | §| sº| º ;º º(r :- º t the machine is thrown into gear, and the piece, of whatever length it may be, is printed off. The operations of the machine are both simple and effective, and may be described as follows:–Having prepared the pieces of purely bleached cloth, by placing them together and passing them over stretchers, they are wound on a roller and put into the frame, at D, whence they come in contact with the blanket, which conveys them round the roller, B, and to the engraved rollers, c, c, c, from which they receive the pattern impressed in different colours. As the cloth passes between the rollers and the cylinder, B, it is conveyed to a MANUEACTURES AND COMMERCE. - ccliii certain height, where it is separated from the blanket and carried forward over the surface of iron boxes, heated by steam, into the drying stove. At the end of the stove it is folded by a motion from the machine, and in this perfectly dry state it is ready for hanging in what is called the “ageing” room, where it remains suspended from two to six days. These rooms are of large dimensions, and the printed cloth, to the extent of some hundreds of pieces, is folded and suspended from the rails at a height of from fifty to sixty feet by a machine. “Ageing” is a very important process, as in cases where colours are required to absorb a certain amount of oxygen, such as mordants, catechu, brown, &c., the necessary conditions are found in this exposure. It is the same with the colours before as it is after printing, and in both conditions the cloth requires to be aged; that is, it must contain a quantity of hygrometric moisture to enable the colouring matter, or mordant, to penetrate it, which it does with much greater facility when the proper amount of moisture is present. This end is often obtained in another way, by storing the cloth in the print-room before being printed. Another system of “ageing' is to pass the cloth, after being printed, through rollers, in a small room heated by steam. This room contains a mixture of air and aqueous vapour derived from the steam-pipes by allowing a small quantity to escape, sufficient to keep the atmosphere moist, and to give the pieces of cloth a feeling of softness. In a single night the prints are fit for the dye-house. -- Before closing this part of our subject, it may be proper to give an account of the machine for engraving the copper rollers. They were formerly engraved by hand till the introduction of Mr. Jacob Perkins' system of transferring engravings, by means of steel-roller dies, from one surface to another. Mr. Lockett took advantage of this discovery, and applied it in 1808, according to Dr. Ure, before Mr. Perkins' arrival in this country. It is thus described:– Fig. 40 is an elevation of the engraving machine. A A is a man- drel which carries the copper roller, B; the mandrel is fitted in the universal joint, C, which is secured on the shaft of the wheels, D D, which are a double pair of wheels for the purpose of altering the speed from fast to slow, and are moved by the winch-handle or pulley. The lever, E, is fitted to, and works loosely on the shaft, on which is keyed the wheel, F. By means of the screw, G, the lever, E, can be secured to the wheel, F. By this contrivance the motion ccliv LAN CASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : termed rocking is effected; that kind of motion being required when the pattern repeats at great intervals. The mill works in bearings attached to the pillar and carriage, H H, which is moved from right to left by the screw, I I ; the mill is forcibly pressed against the copper roller by a weighted lever, which forces down the bearings of the mill in the pillar, H: this lever cannot be shown in the figure, but is at right angles to the roller. The mill, being in contact with the copper roller, revolves with it simultaneously on the roller being moved by the wheels, D D, or the lever, E, and consequently impresses or engraves its pattern on the copper roller. When the mill has traversed the circumference it is then moved to its next relative position by the screw, I, which moves the pillar and carriage, H ; the exact distance the mill moves is determined by an index on the Fig. 40. i_1 -º-º-º: H. "|"; E E º tº- #: wheel, K, which is divided into segments corresponding with the number of repeats laterally on the roller. The apparatus shown at L is used occasionally when the machine is employed for turning off an engraved pattern, which, however, is generally employed in a slide lathe. . The preparation of colours is of great importance in printing ; but as this department chiefly belongs to the chemist, we can only observe that the colouring matter requires to be thick, or in a semi- fluid state; as, if laid on thin, it spreads, or is drawn by capillary attraction into the cloth, and spoils the pattern. When thick colour is used on engraved plates or rollers, a finer and Smarter outline of the figures is produced. The impression given to one side of the cloth should not penetrate to the other; in order that the colours MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE: cclv may appear brilliant, the back or white should act as a mirror to bring them out. - We might extend our remarks on this interesting subject to a much greater length; but we have already exceeded our limits, and must leave unnoticed the other processes of colour-making, dyeing, and finishing. For general information, however, we may observe that formerly all the decoctions and mordants used in print-works were made on the spot ; their manufacture has now become a sepa- rate business, and printers can be supplied with them at as cheap a rate as they could be produced at the works, or even cheaper. This is a great convenience, as the colour-maker has only to combine the primary materials so as to form the different colours for the style of work required. A large quantity of colouring materials and decoc- tions are kept in stock. These are:— Catechu liquor, Ammoniacal cochinealliquor, Extract of indigo. Gall liquor, Persian berry liquor, Cochineal liquor, Fustic liquor, Logwood liquor, Peachwood liquor, Sapan liquor, Quercitron bark liquor, And the various mordants and solutions are:– Red liquor, or acetate of alumina, Iron liquor, or acetate of iron, Buff liquor, or pyrolignite of iron, Pernitrate of iron, Permuriate of iron, Protomuriate of iron, Protochloride of tin in solu- tion, Oxymuriate of tin in solu- tion, Nitrate of copper in solu- tion, Acetate of copper in Solu- tion, Lime juice, Ammonia liquor, Acetic acid, Pyroligneous acid, Nitric acid, Muriatic acid, Sulphuric acid, Caustic soda liquor, Caustic potash liquor. Many other dry acids and salts are kept in stock for constituting the different mordants, the chief variety of which is madder-dyeing for black, red, purple, and a variety of styles which it would be impossible to enumerate. In madder-dyeing the styles may be roughly classed as indigo blues, china blues, turkey reds, &c.; but their numbers and varieties are infinite. Dyeing is another branch of industry connected with the cotton trade which it might be desirable to notice, as it is sometimes carried on in Lancashire and Cheshire as a separate business. It is, how- ever, more frequently combined with calico-printing, as it is hardly possible to conduct the one without the other; the dye-house being in almost every case essential to a properly conducted print-work. * For more extended information, see Ure's History of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines, new edition, by Robert Hunt, Esq., F.R.S., &c. cclvi LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE : VALUE OF THE EXPORTS OF YARN AND COTTON GOODS. In our attempts to give a succinct account of the rise and progress of the cotton trade we should have failed in our purpose, had we not endeavoured to show its importance as a branch of industry which has added greatly to the riches and prosperity of the nation. It may be said to have carried us through one of the most expensive and disastrous wars in which this country has ever been engaged, and now still adds to its wealth. It appears from official returns that the value of the export trade, in yarn and manufactured cloth of every description, amounts to the enormous sum of £74,600,000 per annum, nearly equivalent to the national income from all sources. How much more is due to the home trade in cotton we have no exact information; but the following table shows the increasing value of the exports for the last fifteen years, from 1853 to 1867 — PARLIAMENTARY RETURNS OF THE DECLARED IREAL WALUE OF COTTON EXPORTS FROM THE UNITED KINGDOM. Year. Cotton Yarn, ...” .# .. §. Other ICinds. Total Value, £ £ £ £ f 1853 6,895,653 12,072,039 11,829,901 1,915,309 32,712,902 1854 6.691,330 | 13,129,155 10,352,351 1,573,021 || 31,745,857 1855 7,200,395 14,527,055 11,596,422 1,455,269 34,779,141 1856 8,028,575 14,736,849 12,784,710 1,682,607 38,232,741 1857 8,700,589 14,513,325 14,273,321 1,586,185 39,073,420 1858 9,579,479 18,527,302 13,514,812 1,379,729 43,001,322 1859 9,458,112 21,807,583 15,230,955 1,705,575 48,202,225 I860 9,870,875 23,309,437 17,036,905 1,795,163 52,012,380 1861 9,292,761 21,913,113 14,211,572 1,455,043 46,872,489 1862 6,202,240 16,216,399 12,346,067 1,986,265 36,750,971 I863 8,063,128 23,341,213 14,292,322 1,890,525 47,587,188 1864 9,083,239 26,791,694 17,125,777 1,881,619 54,882,329 I865 10,342,737 27,791,035 17,085,328 2,047,021 57,266,121 I866 13,685,627 35,807,984 22,095,216 3,024,219 74,613,046 1867 14,870,562 33,727,447 19,405,384 2,840,299 70,843,692 Volumes might be written on this important manufacture ; but the limits assigned to us in this article do not admit of our further enlarging. In conclusion, we can only express a hope that the labours of an industrious and ingenious people may still further extend a manufacture that has contributed so largely to the wealth of the nation and the comforts and enjoyments of the human race. We have dwelt with more than ordinary attention on the subject of the cotton trade, which is, as we trust it may long continue to be, the staple manufacture of the two counties of Lancaster and MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE, cclvii Chester; the subject is, however, far from being exhausted, as there still remains a great variety of manufactures, which we have not noticed, in immediate connection with it, and which entirely depend on its prosperity. - - - In the recollection of the present writer the machinery for the manufacture of cotton has been, at least three times, changed by the introduction of new inventions, all of which have tended to improve the manufacture and cheapen the article produced. These changes have been highly beneficial, in not only advancing the trade to its present high state of perfection, but in enabling these districts to take the lead of all other countries in every part of the globe. If we consider for a moment the amount of capital employed and the amount of returns derived from this gigantic trade, with all its accessories, it will no longer appear surprising that we should be anxious for its retention, and desirous that every possible means should be employed to free it from every description of interference, whether legislative or local, tending in the least degree to arrest its freedom of action. If left perfectly free the trade will expand and prosper, and we shall best consult the true interests of the country by leaving it alone in the hands of an intelligent and enterprising public. Freedom of action and security of property are the true elements on which to depend for the preservation and prosperity of this particular trade, which had its origin and full development in Lancashire and Cheshire. . - The same principle will apply to all other trades, in looking at the commercial and manufacturing interests of the country. In our attempt to give a clear and succinct account of the numerous industrial pursuits successfully carried on in Lancashire and Cheshire, we have given in the foregoing pages a very imperfect outline of that of cotton, on which so many other trades depend. We have reliable statistical returns of the extent and value of the silk trade, as carried on at Manchester, Macclesfield, Congleton, &c.; and we have records of the woollen and blanket manufacture as it exists at Rochdale, on the borders of Yorkshire; also that of mixed goods, as practised at Halifax, Bradford, Leeds, and Huddersfield. Most of these are prosecuted with energy and success, in both Lan- cashire and the West Riding of Yorkshire. A large business is also carried on in the manufacture of iron and steel in Liverpool, Man- chester, and most of the surrounding towns; and if we add to these the numerous foundries, engineering, and millwrights' shops, we vol. II. 2 ſº cclviii LANCASEIIRE AND CHESHIRE : - shall inclose within the limits of the two counties an extent of trade and spirit of enterprise withdut a parallel in the history of nations. In illustration of these views we have only to refer to the value of yarn and manufactured goods exported from the United Kingdom, during the year 1866, to show the extent of textile manufactures of Great Britain and Ireland, three-fourths of which is spun and con- verted into cloth in Lancashire alone. According to the returns of the Board of Trade it stands thus:– º Cotton yarn and manufactured goods, . . . . . . . . . . 474,613,046 Linen yarn and manufactured goods, . . . . . . . . . . . 11,950,377 Silk (thrown, twist, and yarn) goods, . . . . . . . . . . . 1,947,586 Woollen and worsted yarn and goods, . . . . . . . . . . 26,538,379 Total, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fºllà,049,388 This large sum constitutes a very important item in the industrial progress of Lancashire and Cheshire, and contributes largely to the national wealth. Its maintenance and continued progress is of vital importance to the whole country; and when we consider the number of persons engaged in the manufacture of textile fabrics, we arrive at the conclusion that the national prosperity is intimately connected with these four branches of industry. - In these pages we have endeavoured to give, as far as our limits would admit, a full description of the extent, value, and prospects of the different trades carried on in the two counties. We have also noticed the several scientific and educational institutions, including short biographies of some of the most distinguished men, who have contributed, by their inventions and discoveries, to the advance of practical science and the commercial prosperity of the country. If we add to these the industry and intelligence of a hard-working population (united to our mineral resources), we may safely calculate that the progress in future will prove in proportion to that of the past and present of Lancashire and Cheshire. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Introduction, º ſº Lancashire and Cheshire in Feudal Ages, . e º Camden's Survey of Lancashire and Cheshire in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, . tº te º © Early Manufactures of Manchester, tº º sº Introduction of the Cotton Manufacture into Lancashire, Invention of the Steam-engine by James Watt, Mechanical Properties of Heat, . • e Dr. Black's investigations as to the Nature of Heat, Count Rumford's inquiries, o º º º e Dr. Joule on the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, º -Experiments of Regnault, Thompson, &c., on Heat, . Mr. J. Dyer's views on the Nature of Heat, e & Dr. Henry's opinions on the Nature of Heat, • Great value of Dr. Joule's experiments, . e º Notices of the Literary and Philosophical Societies of Lancashire, . ſº º ę © tº © & Ilearned Societies of Manchester, o g º • Chetham Library and School, . e e º Catalogue of Books in Chetham Library, . º The Free Library and Museum of Manchester, founded in 1851, º º º e ſº º * Catalogue of Free Library at Manchester, . Library of Peel Park, Salford, . Royal Institution, Manchester, . g • ſº Concentration of people on discovery of the Steam Engine and Machinery, . º e º º Manchester Mechanics' Institute, e e The Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, Early Members of the Society, . º e º Notice of Dr. John Dalton, - © Dr. Angus Smith's Memoirs of John Dalton, Notice of Dr. William Henry, . • º º Notice of Eaton Hodgkinson, - º s Notice of Dr. Joule, . tº - ſº Notice of living Members, . . . e º e Owen's College founded at Manchester in 1845, . Author's Address to the members of the Working Man's Institute, Manchester, . g & º º xxxii Literary and Philosophical Societies of Liverpool, XXXV Free Library and Museum of Liverpool, . xxxvi Royal Institution of Liverpool, . º - - xl Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool, . xli Public Schools of Liverpool, & * xliii Liverpool Observatory, ſº º º xliii Civil Engineering in Lancashire and Cheshire, xliv Canals of Lancashire, - e xliv Bridgewater Canals formed, . . . xlv. Genius and Works of James Brindley, xlv. Genius and Works of Smeaton, . xlvi Formation of Railways in Lancashire, xlix Genius and Works of George Stephenson, xlix Locomotive trials at Rainhill, li Progress and extension of Railway, lii Supply of Water to Towns in Lancashire, lvi Supply of Water to Liverpool, lxvi Birkenhead Waterworks, lxxx Blackburn Waterworks, º º º * . lxxxi Waterworks of the other principal Towns of Lancashire - and Cheshire, º - e º º ixxx;i PAGE . XV XV XV xvi xvii xviii xxi XXV . xxviii ... xxviii . xxviii PAGE Plan of Mr. Bateman, C.E., to supply London with Water from the Mountains of North Wales, . . lxxxv Docks and Harbours of Lancashire and Cheshire, xci Docks of Liverpool and Birkenhead, . & © e xcii Description of Dock-work by Mr. George Fosberry º Lyster, Engineer to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, º e • º - º o . xciii Progress of the Dock Dues at the Port of Liverpool, . xcv Area of the Liverpool Docks, . º tº e . xcvii Area of the Birkenhead Docks, . - e º . xcviii Liverpool and Birkenhead Landing Stages, - . xcix Description of the Town and Harbour of Barrow-in- Furness, . g º e º º ci Blast Furnaces at Hindpool, & civ Iron Trade of Furness, . º - e e cvii Iron Shipbuilding and Iron Bridges, . º . cviii Wrought-iron Bridges and Girders, . º * . cviii Iron Shipbuilding, . º & © * CXX On the Strains of Iron Ships, . - º - . cxxvi On the Construction of War Ships and their Armaments, csxix On the System of Armour Plating, • • . cxxxiv. Prime Movers and the Machinery of Transmission, cxli Prime Movers, & . . . • • . cxliii Horse-power of all the Machinery of the United Kingdom, cylix Horse-power of the Machinery of Lancashire and Cheshire, . ſo º º ſº g tº cxlix Millwork, - º e º - e cl Improvements in Practical Science, . º - cliii Tools employed in the Construction of Machines, cliv Manufacture of Tools by James Watt, Murdock, and Smeaton, . e © º - e . . clv Manufacture of Tools by Lowe of Nottingham, and Fox of Derby, • e - e • e cly Manufacture of Tools by Clement and Maudslay, clw. Sketch of Life and Inventions of Mr. Joseph Whitworth of Manchester, . e s - & - º clvi Manufacture of Screw Bolts by Mr. Whitworth on a Uniform Principle, . e º t- º . clvii The True Plane and Decimal Measurement of Mr. Whitworth, tº e e -> º - . clviii Mr. Whitworth's Report to Industrial Exhibition of 1851, on the Mechanical Resources of the United States, tº º • e º & º e clx Construction of Fire-arms by Mr. Whitworth, . . clzii Advantages of Mr. Whitworth's system of Rifling both for Small Arms and Heavy Guns, . º © . clziii Establishment of Thirty Scholarships by Mr.Whitworth, claiv Cotton Trade of Lancashire and Cheshire, . . clxv Early History of the Cotton Trade, sº º clxw Cotton introduced into Lancashire about 1641, . clxvi Discovery of Wyatt's Machine for Spinning Cotton, clxvii Description of the several processes in a Cotton Factory, clzviii Discoveries of Arkwright, Crompton, and others, clxx Immense Increase of the Consumption of Cotton up to the year 1860, . e & • º - clxx Number of Spindles in Lancashire and Cheshire, . clxx Manufacture of Cotton Cloth in 1830 and 1860, clxxi Cartwright's Experiments with the Power-loom in 1784, clzxi Improvement of the Power-loom by Mr. Bell of Glasgow, in 1794, . . . . . . . . clxxi cclx CONTENTS. 1853 to 1867, . . . . . . . END OF WOL. II. * PRINTED BY WILLIAM MACKENZIE, 45 & 47 IIoward STREET, GLAscow. PAGE - PAGE Great Improvement by Horrocks in 1813, gº clxxii Number of Cotton Factories, Spindles, and Power- Final Improvement by Roberts, of Manchester, . clºxii looms, in Lancashire and Cheshire, . º • CCXXXV Great National Value of the Cotton Manufacture, . clzxii Illustrations of the Magnitude of the Products of the Description of Processes in the Cotton Manufacture, clzxiii Cotton Manufacture, e tº tº e • CCXXXV Churka Gin, º “ * • º clxxv Table of Quantities of Raw Cotton Imported into the Macarthy Gin, . º º e e c clxxvii United Kingdom from various Countries, and First Process—Selection and Mixing, . o . clxxix Excess of Imports, . & º e º . ccxxxvii Second Process—Opening and Cleansing, l clxxx Tabular Return of Cotton Factories in Lancashire Third Process—Scutching Machine, * o clxxxi and Cheshire, . {º . . . . ſº . ccxxxviii Fourth Process—Lapping Machine, o clxxxiii Tabular Return of Cotton Factories in England and - Fifth Process—First Carding Machine, . © clxxxiv. Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, . c.cxxxviii Sixth Process—The Derby Doubler, o o . clxxxviii Calico-printing, . g º tº º ccxxxix Seventh Process—Finisher Carding Engine, . . clzxxix Introduction of Calico-printing into England, . ccxl Eighth Process—The Drawing Frame, . º © cxcii Opposition to the Introduction of Printed Calicoes, . ccxli Ninth, Tenth, and Eleventh Processes—Slubbing, Repeal of the Duty on Printed Calicoes, . e ccxli Intermediate, and Roving Frames, . e . cxciii Introduction of Calico-printing into France, . ccxli Twelfth Process—Combing Machine, . e . cxcvii Great Extension of the Trade in Printed Calicoes in Thirteenth Process—Throstle, Spindles, and Flyers, . ccii Great Britain since the Repeal of the Duty, e coxlii Fourteenth Process—Self-acting Mule, . e º cciii Introduction of Calico-printing into Scotland and Sketch of the Life and Inventions of Richard Roberts, into Lancashire, º • e c . ccxliii of Manchester, . © e • º w - CCW Mr. Edward Potter's account of the Improvements of - Weaving and the Power-loom & § Vº º ccvii Messrs. Clayton, Mr. Robert Peel, Mr. Hayworth, Winding Machine, - e º º º • ccxix and Mr. William Yates, . º e • . ccxliii Warping Machine, º * e tº º • CCXX Subsequent Extensions of the Trade by the Forts, Sizeing Machine, . ccxx the Hargreaves, and the Thompsons, and by M. Calico Power-looms, - º º e ccxxii IGoechlin in France, . tº © e o o ccxliv Fancy Loom, & e º e * . ccxxiv. Immense Extension of the English Calico Trade, . . ccxlv. Fancy Loom, with Single Shuttle, . ccxxvi Description of the Process of Calico-printing, and of Jacquard Loom, º º & ccxxvi the Machinery employed, . º - - ccxlv. Figure Weaving, . º º e e e . ccxxvii Account of the Earlier processes, . º ccxlvi Improvements by Mr. W. Duncan, Mr. W. C. Riding, Berthollet's Investigations in Chlorine, . e ccxlvi M. Moreau, Mr. Barlow, Mr. E. Laforest, and Mr. Description of Different Processes in Calico-printing, ccxlviii Bennet Woodcroft, . e e º º . ccxxxii Cylinder Printing Machine, . º º º ccxlix Figure Loom of Signor Bouilli e e . ccxxxiii Perkin's system of Transferring Engravings, ccliii Mr. Harrison's Pneumatic Loom, . e º . ccxxxiii Process of Colour Dying, . º tº e. cclv Cotton Statistics, . o e tº . e. e . ccxxxiv. Value of the Exports of Yarn and Cotton Goods, cclvi Great Increase in the Consumption of Cotton from Immense value of the Cotton, Linen, Silk, Woollen, * CCXXXV and Worsted Trades, o º e & . cclviii ERSITY º {5686596 HIGAN | - J n_Y ( /// ()/. — a y !, - ~ 2. - "y 0/ 5///////V W/2/1/7/)/A G ſ/, % º/ º, Z J . UNIVERSITY of MICHICAN … .... * .** ſººſ rºſ: º sº Bºº. ...: sº zºº. … &} （ e ）; .* . . . . „ . . ., ， … . .|×----· ， , ）：* 3. .·，·، ：5 ） .-^~--~*… . .§• × · ·:·º·:·º·：·º·:·º·：·º·：·º·:·º·：·º·:·：！！！， ！-2！！！！！！！！！