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R A I L R O A. D. C C M S T R U C T I C iſ
FOR tº: IN
THE COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
CORNELL UNIVERSITY”
By C. ‘Crandall C. E.
Sixth Edition
1903

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lºss Diagram - 2
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTES ON RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION
General Statement
Loosening the Earth Ready for Shoveling
Loading with Shovels
Hauling
Spreading
Keeping the Cart Road in Order
Wear, Sharpening and Dépreciation of
Picks and Show els
Superintendence and Water Carriers
Profit, to the Contractor
With Wheelbarrows
With Whº eled and Drag Scrapers
With Cars and Locomotives on Level Trck.
Staam Show els
Examples of Suezm Shovel Work
Anºlysis, Cost Earthwork in Iowa
Rock Excºw ation by U. Wheelbarrows
:-
:i:
Rock Excavation with Carus 15
ROck Excavation. With Cars. & Locomotive 16
With Cars And Horses, on Level Track 16
Effect of Gradients 17
Excavation, Chicago Drainage Canal 18
Machine Rock Drills and Modern Explosives 2)
Economit Lead
Over-Haul
General Considerations
Preliminary Examination
General Methods of Excavations
Classification of Tunnels
Tunnels Through Hard Rock
Tunnels uhrough Loose Ground
Baltimore Belt Line Tunnels
The English kathod for Soft Ground
The Austrian Method
The Pilot, i.ethod
Cut and Cow ºr ***.i.J.
CHAPTER II. TUNNELING
36
37.
38. T
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
59
59.
60.
61.
62.
3.
4.
CONTENTS, ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION
Cut and Cover liethods
Submarine Tunneling
he Shield System
Shield Construction
Lining
Wentilation
Lighting
Cost
CH A P T E R I. I. I.
COST OF liaSONRY”
Cost of Quarrying Stone
... Cost of Dressing Stone
Cement and Sanu Per Cu. Yu. of Masonry
Cement and Sand and Stone Pºr. Cu. Yū. Conc.
Cost of Laying Stone
C H A P T E R I W,
CULVERTS AND BRIDGE ABUTRENTS
Standard Structures
Masonry Box Culverts.
Box Culverts of Wood
Pipe Culverts
Culverts With Rail Concrete Covers
Water Way Culverts
Arch Culverts
Bridge Abutments
Bridge Piers.
Pile And Framed Timber Abutments
C. H. A. P. T. E. R. W.
TRESTLES AND BRIDGES
Wooden Trestles
Principles of Construction
Trestle Plans
Wooden Culverts and Cattle Passes
Piling
Cost of Piling
II
41
42
44
44
46
70
72
75
8O
81

8%


º º -
º -
º
UUNTEN'S RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION" iii
65. Wooden Railroad Bridges. 85
66. Oregon Pacific Howe Truss Bridges. 85
67. Overhead Wooden Highway Bridges 87
68. Cost of Timber Work - 87
69. Comparison of Wooden Trestle and Embankment 89
70. Steel Bridges 90
71. Iron Trestles 93
72. Bridge Floors 94
C H A P T E R W I
ROADBEL, TRACK, ETC.
73. Cattle Guards 96
74. Track Laying 97
75. Roadbed Sections 100
76. Road Crossings 191
77. Fences 101
78. Estimates for one ºile of Track 102
79. Cost of Track, Penna. Standard 103
C H A P T 5 R V, I I
ESTIMATES AND RECORDS

80. Location 5stimates 105
81. Preliminary Estimates: 107
82. Capitalized Cost of laint. a Structure 108
83. Durability of Structures. 110
84. Railway Maps - 111
85. Construction. Records 113
T A E L E S -
I. Cement and Sand per c. yu. of Masonry 59
II. Mortar per cu. yu. of ilasonry - 51
III. Voids of Aggregates for Concrete 2:
IV. Cost of Masonry per cubic yard 56
W. West, Shore Masonry Culverts 57
WI. West Shore Semicircular Arches 64
VII. Trautwine’s Quantities for Semicir. Arches º
VIII. West Shore Bridge Abulêments 37
IX. Oregon Pacific Howa Truss Bridges 86
X Cost of Embankment to Subgrade 89
XI. Cost of Trestles to Subgrade %2
XII. Cost of Woouen Trestles Complete 90
XIII. Weights (relative) of Steel Plave Girders 24
XIV. Relative Weights of Steel Trusses: .92.
*
PLA.'lºs. ºv
- Jºº. U3.2°.
I: Cost of arthwork 5). 13
TT, Cost, of £arthwork QK) 18
III. Tunnel linings. 30 33
IV. Baltimore Béiſt Line Tunnel 32 35
W. Tunnebing in soft Ground 33 36
WI. The Austrian methnd of Tunneling 34 37
VII. The St. Clair tunnel Shield 38 42
VIII. Mortar Volumes for different Aggregates 47 52
IX. Concrete Volumes - 47 52
X. Mortar Wolumes 47 52
XI. West Shore Masonry Culwºrts 6O 57
XII. Canadian Pacific Masonry Culverts. 5O 58
XIII. Canadian Pacific Masonry Culverts 5O 58
XIV. Wooden Box Culverts 51 59
XV. Pipe Culverts 52, 60
XVI. Rail Concrete Cover Culverus 53 61
XVII. Pile Bridge Pier and Abutment 58 69
XVIII. Pila Pier or Bridge Seat 58 69.
XIX. Pile Abutment and Pier 58 70
XX. K. C. & Omaha Wooden Trestle §1 ºf
XXī. C. L. & N. Cluster Bºnt, frestle 61 75
XXII. Erie Railway Trestle Joints 31 77
XXIII. C. B. & N. Wooden Trestle 69 77
XXIV. C. B. & N. Wooden Trestle 61 77
XXV, Norfolk and Western Wooden Trestle 31 79
XXVI. Northern Pacific Pile Trestles 31 80
XXVII. Penna. Wooden Trestles 61 80
XXVIII, Stanuard Open Timber Culverts: 62 81
XXIX. Overhead #ooden Highway Bridges. 67 87
XXX. Overhead Wooden Highway Bridges 87 87
XXXI. Weight of Iron Railroad Bridges. 73 91
XXXII. Weight of Iron Railroad Bridges 78 91
XXXIII. Weight of Iron Highway Bridges 7O 93
XXXIV. Latimer Bridge Guard Floor 72 94
XXXV. Standard Pit, Cattle Guards 73 96
XXXVI. Standard Surface Cattle Guards 73 97.
XXXVII. Standard Roadbed Sections 75 100


º
L H A P 1 + tº I
COST OF EARTHWORK.
1. GENERAL STATEMENT. The following is largely
from Trautwine’s “Engrs. Pocket Book”. He gives
the credit of the work to Elwood Morris, who he says
was the first to properly investigate the subject.
Owing to irregular shrinkage in fills, earthwork is
usually measured in excavation, and it is so con-
sidered in what follows. In fills which are made
by plowing and scraping from the sides, it is often
more convenient to measure in fills; if this is to
be done it should be so stated in the specifications
together with the allowance, if any, for shrinkage.
Trautwine recommenus paying laborers by the yard
rather than by the day, as being fairer and con--
ducing to economy; experience having proved that
when laborers are scarce and wages high, men can
Scarce be depended upon to do three-fourths as
much as when wages are low and fresh hands are
waiting for employment.
Much will depend upon the skill, observation and
energy of the contractor and his superintendents.
It is no unusual thing to see two contractors
working at the same prices in precisely similar
material, where one is making money and the other
losing it from a want of tact in the proper dis-
tribution of his forces, keeping his roads in or-
der, having his carts and barrows well filled, etc.
Long spells of wet or bad weather may seriously
affect the cost of excavating.earthwork.
The total cost may be considered to be made up
of the following:
1. Loosening the earth ready for the shovelers.
2. Loading it by shovels into the carts or bar- ...
TOWS.

C.I.; 3). LOADING WITH SHOWELS. 2
3. Hauling, including Émptying and returning.
4. Spreading in layers on the embankment.
5. Keeping the roads for carts and the plank. . .
gangways for barrows in order. •
6. Repairs, depreciation and interest on cost
of tools. - -
7. Superintendence and water carriers,
8. Profit to the contractor.
9. Common labor is assumeu to cost $1.00. .
per day of 10 hours.
2. LOOSENING THE EARTH REALY FOR SHOWELING. This
is generally done either with plows or picks;
more cheaply by the former. A plow with two
horses anu two men, will cost on the above basis
of labor at $1.00 per day, 75¢ for each horse, and
37: "for plow and harness, or a total of $3.87 per day.
They will loosen from 200 to 300 cu. yus. of strong
heavy soils per day, or from 400 to 600 of ordinary
loam. The actual cost to the contractor per cu.
yu. may then be assumed as follows: -
Strong heavy soils 1.6% Very stiff, pure clay or
Common loam - O. 8 obstinate gravel (requir-
Light , sandy soils 0.4 ing 3 to 4 horses) 2.5¢,
With the pick, a fair day's work is about 14 cu.
yds. of stiff pure clay or of cemented gravel;
25 yds. of strong, heavy soils; 40 yds. of common
loam; 60 of light, sandy soils; giving per cu. yū.,
Stiff clay 74 Light, sandy soils 1.7%
Heavy soils 4 |Pure sand O.5
Loam 3:... 3.5 - - -
3. LOADING WITH SHOWELS. The amount loaded per
day per man will depend upon the matºrial, but
more upon so proportioning the number of pickers,
... and of carts, to that of the show elers, as not to

-
w
C. I. §4) HAULING, 3
keep the lauter waiting for either material or
carts. In fairly regulated gangs, " the shovelers
into carts are not actually engaged in shoveling
for more than six-tenths of their time; while under
bad management they may loose considerably more
than half of their time.
A shoveler can readily loau into a cart one-
third of a cu. yū. (an average cartload) of light
Sanuy soil in 5 minutes; loam in 6 minutes; and of
any of the heavy soils in 7 minutes. This woula
give per day after deautting four-tenths, or four
hours for lost time, 24 yards of light sandy soil,
20 yus. of loam, and 17.2 yards of heavy soils. -
When the show elers dc less than this, there is some
Iſil Sm2n+geſhëſ, L.
The actual cost per cº. y d. will thus be: Sanuy
soils 4.2%; loam. 52; heavy soils, clay etc. 5.8t.
*H.HAULING. The average speed of horses in hauling
is about 2 1/3 miles per hour; or 200 ft. per minute,
which is equal to 100 feet of lead or distance
transforted. About 4 minutes is lost each trip in
waiting to load, turning, quit.ping, etc. Therefore
the number of trips per day can be found by
dividing the number of minutes, 600 by 4 + the lead
in 100-ft. stations. Each load averaging 1/3 cu.
yd. the number of yards can be found by dividing the
number of trips by 3.
For loose rock more time will be required for load-
ing, so that the number of trips can be found by di-
viding 600 by 6 + the lead in 100-ft. stations.
With leads of ordinary length one driver can at-,
tend to four carts, making the cost 25¢ per cart.
The expense of a horse per working day, including
the cost of board on Sunuays and bad weather, is
about 75¢; and that of a cart including harness,

*C.II, 3, (1). SUPERINTENDENCE 4
oil, repairs, etc., 25¢, making the total daily cost
per cart $1.25, on the basis of labor at $1.00 per
day. Some contractors employ a greater number of
drivers, who also help to load the carts, so that
the expense is about the same in either Case.
Dividing the cost per cart by the above expres-
sion for the number of yards per gart will give: (1)
*Cost per ya. in cts., Earth = 375%t lead in statiºns)
600 → *m-.
Loose rock =375(6+ lead in stations)
600
5. SPREALING- A bankman will spread in thin lay-
ers on the embankment from 50 to 100 cu. yus per
day of either loam or any of the heavier soils, de-
penuing on their dryness. We may assume 1 1/24 per
yard as a fair average for heavy soils, while 1¢
will suffice for light sandy soils.
This expense is saved when the earth is £ither
dumpeu over the edge of the embankment, or is wasted,
still about 1/4¢ should be allowed in either case y
for keeping the dumping places clear and in order.
6. KFFPING THE CART ROAD IN ORDER. No ruts or
puddles should be allowed to remain unfilled.
Rain water should at once be let off by shallow
ditches and the road carefully kept in good order;
otherwise the labor of the horses, and the wear of
the carts, will be very greatly increased.
It is usual to allow so much per yard for road re-
pairs, but we suggest so much per cu. yu. per 100
feet, of lead, say O. 12.
. . . 7. WEAR, SHARPENING AND LEPRECIATION OF .
PICKS AND SHOWELS. Experience shows that about
1/4¢ per cu. yu. will cover this item.
8. SUPERINTENDENCE AND WATER CARRIERS. These ex-
penses will vary with local circumstances; but
1/2 per yard , will, unuer ordinary circumstances,
cover both of them. An allowance of about 1/4¢
may in justice be added for extra Urouble in digging
|
º

the side ditches. 1sveling off the bottom of the
cut to grade, and general Grimming up. In very
light cuttings this may be increased to 1/24.
9. PROFIT TO THE CONTRACTOR. This may generally
be set down at from 6% to 15%, according to the
Fagnitude of the work, the risks incurred, and
various incidental circumstances. Out of this
item the contractor has generally to pay clerks,
store keepers and other agents, as well as the ex-
penses of shanties, etc.; although these are in most
cases repaid by the profits of the stores, and by
the rates of board and lodging, paid by the laborer
to the contractor. For large contracts, or large
risks, profits up to 50% are sometimes addeu and re
alized while equally great losses are occasion-
ally sustained.
* , 10. WITH WHEELBARROWS. i.en in wheeling move at
- about the same average speed as horses in hauling,
i.e., 2 1/3 miles an hour, or 100 feet of lead per
minute. The time occupied in loading, emptying, etc.
(when as is usual the wheeler loads his own
barrow), is about 1 1/4 minutes ; besides which,
the time lost in occasional short rests in ad-
justing the wheeling plank and in other incidental
causes, amounts to about C. 1 part of the whole time;
leaving only about 9 actual hours of work in a ut
7 C.I.,(1), . 19). WHEELBARROWS 5
A - 600 x 0. 9 — = no. of loaus
…” 1.25 + lead in stations per day.
This number divided by 14 will give the number
of cu. yus. The cost, $1.05($1.00 for the man and
º for the barrow) divided by the number of yards
will give the cost per yard, or in cents.
- 105-14(1-#4 lead in stations) (2)
. ." 600 x 0. 9
* for loading and wheeling, to which must be addeu +\e
items of $54,5-9.
cost per Cu. yū. =


r
ſ C.I., § 11(2)). SCRAPERS. e 6
11, WTTH WHEELED SCRAPERS AND RAG SCRAPERS. The
sheet steel box of the wheeled scraper, open in front,
is about 3 1/2 feet square and 15 inches deep, giv-
ing a capacity of from 0.4 to 0.5 cu. yd. It can be
lowered low, enough to fill in the cut, raised high
enough (about 1 foot above the surface) to transport
to the fill, and dumped by rotation about a horizontal
3 xis, all by operating levers with the team in motion.
The two wheels have broad tires to prevent cutting on
sº, ground. Cuts can be seen in the “Aq’’ columns
of...ºngineering papers.
The drag scraper is now usually made of stee
and has a capecity of about 0.15 cu. y d.
2. Each scraper (wheeled or dragº requires the
constant use of a two-horse team and driver. Be-
sides, a number of men, depending on the shortness of
the lead and the number of scrapers, are required
in the pit and at the dump to load and unload.
Extra teams are also generally required to assist
in loading. Except in sand or very soft soil it is
economical to use a plow, before scraping.
Owing to the Pact that the hauling teams are con-
Stantly in motion, without rest, they travel slower than
with carts, say 150 feet per minute, or 75 feet of lead
per minute. We assume that the cost of iposºning,
spreading, repairs of road, wear, etc., of tools, superin-
tendence, etc., will be the same as with carts.
Daily expense of one scraper. In leads of ordinary
length (say from 50 to 500 ft. for wheeled scrapers
and 25 to 100 ft. for drag scrapers) the scrapers are
frequently used in gangs of 10, reqüiring:
1 foreman - $2.00
… 5 men at the pit and dump 5. OQ.
10 drivers 10.00
10 hauling teams - 22.00 $37.00
*
-
v. T.; 11. (5). SCRAPERS 7
Over $37.00
2 extra or “snap” teams to help load 4.00
depreciation, repairs, interest, etc. sºy - 3.20.
Dividing by number in gang 10)43.09.
Daily expense of one scraper 4. 30
... ... 690 × 0.75
-- - - —=llo. loads per day.
lead in St. aul Ons
This number multiplied by . 15 will give the num-
ber of yards for a urag scraper; by O. 4 will give
the number of yarus for a wheeled ácraper, unless
the lead is more than 500 feet, when a larger scraper
holding 0.5 yaru is used.
The cost divided oy the number of yards will
give the cost per yard in cents for loading anti
moving, to which must ce added the other items al-
reauy described.
Drag scraper = —º,” ** in stations(s)
O. 75 x 800 x 0.15
Wheeled scraper = - 430 × lead in stations. (4)
lead K 500' O. 75 x 600 x 0. 4
Wheeled scraper - 4:30. lead in stations(5)
lead 2 500' . . " O.75 x 600 x 0.5
The cost of loosening should not be included
for light, sandy soils, as it can best be done by the
scrapers themselves.
The Sidney Stężl Scraper Co., Sidney, Ohio, quote
as follows (1896): -
Wheeled scraper Ho. 1 .33 cu. yu., wu. 375; $20.00
2 . . 48 500 26. OO
3 . 6-3 350 30. 50
Drag Scraper 1 . 26 90 4.00
2 . 19 80 3. 75
3 . 13 70
3. 50


..I., 13.( (6). STEAM SHOVELS 8
13, WITH CARS, AND LOCOMOTIVES ON LEVEL TRACK.
#Trains of 10 cars, each car containing 1.5 cu. yus. of
earth. Average speed of trains, including starting
:and stopping; but not standing, 10 mi. per hour = 5
*miles of lead per hour. Loosening, loading (by
; (shovelers) , spreading, waar, etc., of tools, superin-
: tendence, etc., the same as with carts. Loss of time
in each trip for loading, unloading, etc., 9 minutes =
- 15 hour. 1O = No. of train
. . 15 + No. of 5-mile lengths in lead loads per day.
tºr -
*
. C
f
Daily expense of one train.
Cost of 10 cars at $100 $1000. OC)
Cost of locomotive 3000.00
: 4000. OO -
* One Q,ay’s interest on cost of train at 6% 0.57
Wages of engine driver (who fires his
* own engine) 2.00
Wages of foreman at dump 2. OO
iWages of 3 men g $1.00 (at dump) 3. OO
; Fuel 2.00
Water 1.00
. Repairs of locomotive and cars. 2. 33. .
Total 13. OO
- The daily expense of track for interest and re-
: pairs may be taken at $3.00 for each mile, or
fraction of a mile, of lead.
Dividing the cost by the number of yards will give
Hºhe cost per yard for hauling to which should be
: added the other items already described.
º = (1300 + 300 for each mile of lead ) ×
: O. 15 + No. of 5-mile lengths in lead
10 × 10 x 1.5 (6)
- 13. STEAM SHOWELS. These are economical for depths
a- |over 10 feet, where large quantities of earth are to
be excavated.
-


C.I.;; 13,06). STEAM SHOWELS, . 9
The 'shovel is mounted on a car of standard gage
which is provided with a locomotive attachment for
moving short distances, while it can be coupled in an
ordinary train for long ones.
The dipper is made of plate steel with a flat hinged
bottom for dumping, and steel teeth around the top
for excavating hard material. Hydraulic or screw.
jacks outside the track are used at the front end
of the car to give a broader pase for stability
when at work.
The machine will dig 4 to 5 feet below, the track,
some 22 feet on either side anu through 2/3 of a circle
while it will dump 10 feet above the track and 2 × 20
feet from the center. It moves forward 8 feet at a
time.
The No. 1 machine made by the Osgood Dredge Co.,
Albany, costs $7500(in 1896), weighs 40 tons, tank holds
600 gallons water, dipper holas 2 cu. yds.
The No. 2 machine costs $6000, weighs 30 tons,
tank holds 500 gallons, dipper holds 1 1/2 cu. yds.
In 2s and or gravel, it will take out while actually
uigging, 3 dippersful (= 4 1/2 to 6 cu. yas. in the
dipper = 3.75 to 5 cu. yds. in place) per minute;
in stiff clay, 2 difyersful per minute) 3 to 4 yards
in the difper = 2.5 to 3.33 in place).. An average
day’s work for a No. 1 machine, including time lost in
moving the machine, etc., is about 500 cu. yas. in
hard pan”; and from 1200 to 1500 in sand or gravel.
This allows for the usual and generally unavoidable
delays in having cars ready for the excavator. It will
burn from 100 to 150 lbs. of coal per hour, while it re-
quires 1 engine driver , 1 fireman, 1 cranesman, and 5
to 10 pitmen, including the boss.
After reaching the site of the work, about 30
minutes are required for getting the excavator into
Wprking condition; and an equal time after the comple-


|--
9. 1. § ( Ö). STEAM SHOWEL WORK 10
tion 6f the work in getting it ready for transporta-
tº lon.
The following figures are taken from the records of
the work done by a No. 1 machine from May to Now.
1885. he material was hard clay with pockets of
Sand. he expense: per day of 12 hours at $1.50 per
day for such labor were,
Water, (a very high allowance) $5.00
Coal 1 1/2 tons, bituminous O. OO
Wages of engineman - 4.00
Wages of fireman 1.50
Wages of cranesman or differ tender 2.50
Wages of pit boss - 3.00
Wages of 8 pitmen at $1.56 12.00
Oil, waste, repairsl etc. (estimated) 5.00
Interest on cost ($7500) of machine 1.25
- 44.25
Reduced to the standard of $1.00 per day of 10
working hours, this would be, say $3.9.00 per day. .
Reduced to the same standard, and allowing for the
greater proportional time lost in stopping at even-
ing and starting in the morning, the average daily
quantity excavated, measured in place would be, in
shallow cutting 530 yards, in, deep cutting 1200 yards;
average of the whole, 800 yards.
This would make the cost for loosening and loading
into cars, 5.672, 2.52 and 3.75%respectively; while the
cost by plowing and shoveling, in strong heavy soils
would be 7.4%. , and by picking and shoveling, say 10¢.
14. EXAMPLES OF STEAM SHOWEL WORK. The following
is an analysis by E. D. Hill (Engrg. News, June 8, '89)
of recent work. The shovel is of the Otis type,


made by John Souther & Co.; cuts about 24'. wide
to a depth of 4’. below the track. Train unloaded
with cable and plow.

º
l
- l
Fáreman $125 per Mo. 8.86%
Cranesman 2–2.50 per day 5.35
. Fireman, $1.50 per day 2.88
Laborers ºl. 25 7.86
Châûman & $1.00 per day. , 2.07
- **Shovel Crew. 27. O2
cI # 14. (6). STEAM SHOWEL WORK 11
Cost of Work per car load Ind. D. & Spring. Ry.


TI TY:
gºve gºoe ºfte,
5. 62 4, 80 3.54 5.57
3.37 2.87 2.90 3.27
9.92 8. 77 9-80 9.80
1.96 1.88 2.50 2.25

30.54. 26.32 27.7530.77.
14,50 T. 44 11.0013,36
14.60 5, 74 5, 25. 5.77
Engine D. and Fireman 12.00
Trainman (Cond. $2.50 -
Brakeman $1.50) , 5.97
Total, train crew 17. 97

29, 10 13. 1816, 2518.87
Spreading $1.10 per day
Loosening frozen ground,
for shovel, $1.10 per d.
T1. 12 - 2. 72
0.60


Track work at $1.10 9.81, 1.88 1.38 1.45 2.08.
Repairs to plant $2.50 ºff Iſà 0.15 ſidž -
Repairs to plant $1.10 , , 0.62 vosº
Shop hills, r. to plt. #69 flºi, 27 10.63 1.67
Total rep. to plant 1.34 43:10 1.43, 11.64 1.37.
Coal $1.25 to $1.41 per T. Tö. 31. 13.30. 4.47 4.31 3.23
oil, waste, etc. 9.5% 1:55 –0.75–2.86 Q, 36
Total, supplies 6.83 ſº. 85 T5. 32 5.T 3.64
Grand total in cents -- -------
per car load . 54.47 91.1947.53, 62. 2659.75
Cost per yard at 8 --
yards per car 6.81 11.40 5.94 7.78 7.47

Interest on cost of plant 1.00 - 1.00 1.00 - 1.00 1.90.
Total cost per yard in cts. 7.81 12.40 6.94 8.78 3.47
_ \-tº-fix 1885
first: car loaded 10-26
Ācar unloaded 12-18
Total no . of days 54
No. of working days 46
Days idle, except Sundays O
1886 1886 1887 1887
1–19 9-3 5-28 10-10
7-24 10-21 9-12 11-30
186 48 108 51
115 38 85 40
45 G 7 4


C.I.; 15. (6). ROCK EXCAVATION 12
Material lt.cly.(gravel) lt.cly. lt. aly. lt. cly
Height of bank 10°. 12". 10’. 10’. 12'.
Total, cars loaded2899. , 8631 2771 5254 2528
Greatest no. per day94, 124 90 80 75
Least no. pr. dy. 22 16 50 30 15
Average no. per dy. 63 75 73 61.8 63.2
Average haul 1 mi. 9 1 2 3/4
Grade, pit to dump, 1% variable -1% - 1% -1%
Tons of coal, shovel
and engines 141 853 99 170 65
No. cars per ton. 20.5 20.5 28 30.9 38.9
I is the Sangamon river trestle, 1885; II is the
Montezuma gravel pit; III is the Sangamon river
trestle 1886; IV, is the Guion trestle; W is the Nichols
Hollow, trestle. A-
. The following data is given in the same connection;
having peen taken from the report of the Roadmaster’s
Association for 1885.
1. The B. & O. road, with steam shovel and side
dump cars, claims to haul 5 to 25 miles, including
train service and supplies, at 8.1% per yard.
2. The M. C. road has a record of 20000 loads of
gravel at 4 1/24 per yard for loading, for coal,
oil, waste, labor and repairs. Hauling 30 miles, 44.
for labor only.
3. Ohio Central, with ballast unlāader, train 35 to
35 cars, average cost with various hauls, $1.00 per
car, or about 12¢ per yard.
4. The N. Y. P. & O. Ry, gives: 74 as the cost; for
loading.
5. The Central Iowa gives for 4808 car loads
Loading 38 per car, or 4.75 per yard
Unloading 15 1.9
Engine Ser. 25 3. 1
Total Cost 78% per_car, org. 7 per yard
: Č.I. §15 : "...(6). OOST OF EARTHWORK 13
: , wder is much used in loosening the firm soils-
Holes are drilled a short distance back from the
i adgé of the cut, enlarged at the bottoms by light
: charges of dynamite and then loaded with sufficient
"... powder to tip over or break up the face back to . "
the line of holes. - - -
15. ANALYSIS OF THE COST OF EARTHWORK IN IOW.A.
J. M. Brown, Engrg. Rec., Aug. 6, 1892, p. 151. Labor $1.50
; per day; teams $3.50. Sheet steel drag scraper of 4
; cu. ft. Twp-foot bank made from side ditches, leav-
ing 6-ft. v errºs, . Distance, center of ditch to:
center of bank, 33 ft.; seven to ten trips per cu. ya.
at 1.5 minutes; 60 yds. per day of 10 hours good
average work. Cost 5.83%. Plow team generally em-
ployed to loosen material, one plow to six scrapers.
Two horses per plow, in light soil, while 4 or more
may be required in very compact soils.
- Taking 3 horses as an average at $6.00 , anu 360
yds. loosened, cost per yard = 1.66%.
One man will hold and fill for 2 teams. Cost 1. 25¢
One dumper for 6 teams g º '3' $1.75 27 0. 50
: One foreman for 6 teams () ' 2.50 27 O. 70
Maintenance, scrapers and plows . 25
Total cost per yard = 10.19%
For double the lead, or 66 ft. , the cost of haul
would be 8.75¢ and wear of tools 0.3%, giving
- Total cost per yard = 13.6%.
For lead of 100 ft. , 12 teams would be required,
; each team moving 30 yds. per day at a cost of 11.7
, cents for hauling. Wear of tools. O. 44.
Total cost per yard = 15.8%.
* : ,, . Wheeled scrapers, Particularly adapted for
distances up to 600 to 700 ft. Sizes 9, 11, and 15
cu. ft., respectively. An Ohio scraper has an apron
in front for hölding the material in place after
the scrafer is filled. Good roads are necessary
for economy; ruts and hollows will raise the cost
out of bounds. -
The smallest size is used on short leads, each
l team filling its own scraper. There will be about.



a C. I. 3 15. (6). COST OF EARTHWORK 14
| 4 loads to the yard, each load requiring 2 to 2.5
minutes for a 100-ft. lead, giving about 60 yards
, per scraper. -
The force required for each gang will be one fore-
man; one plow, for each 6 scrapers; 1 scraper holder
for each 2 scrapers and one dumper. The cost will
be 4. 11¢ for labór; 5,834 for hauling; 2 and 0.39%
for waar; making a total of 10.33¢.
For 200-ft. lead an additional scraper can be
tended by the same ] .. holder. The trip will
require 4 minutes, giving 40 yds. per day, or 360 yds.
for the 9 teams. The cost will then be 8.75¢ for
hauling; 4. 11¢ for labor; and 0.55% for wear; or a.
to lal of 16.5¢.
For 400 feet, a No. 3 scraper should be used with
a snatch team for loading. With-good roads the time
per trip will not be increased by the larger scraper.
There will be 2 runs of 4 scrapers to each scraper
holder, and the 8 teams will move 360 yds. per day.
The cost will be 1.66% for plowing, 1.66 for holding
scraper, O. 5 for wear, and 7.77 for hauling, making a
total of 12.84 per cu. ya.
For 590 ft. add 2 scrapers, giving 4.52 for
labor, º/2 for hauling, and 0.61 for wear; a total
of 14.85¢.
For each additional 100 ft. add 2 teams, and the
cost will approximate 16.9% for 600 ft., 19¢ for
700 ft. and 21¢ for 800 ft. Beyond this it is not
advisable to use wheel scrapers. .
Cart work. 7 show elers are usually required per
cart; if not 7, then 5 is the best number. For a
lead of 800 ft., 7 shovelers can keep 3 wagons:
moving, and as one team can plow, for 3 gangs, 9 carts
can be used at 40 yds. each. The cost will be ,
Shoveling, 8.75¢; plowing 1.66; foreman and dumper,
1. 24: ; hauling , 9.03; total , 20.6% per cu. y q. The
driver furnishes his own cart, so no charge is made
for wear.
An additional team should be added for each in-
: crease of 200 ft, in the lead, making the cost 23.3%
for 1000 ft. and 26.2% for 1200 ft. .
These figures give average results for Iowa.



ºv. -
C.I.º. (6). Rock EXCAVATING WITH CARTs, 15
ºve ROCK EXCAVATION BY WHEELBARROWS. About
1/24 of a yard of rock, measured in place may be
taken as a load, it waighing about the same as the
assumed load of earth, or 174%. A yard in place
will measure about 1.3 yards when broken up.
The total cost is made up as for earth; 1.6 minut
is allowed for loading, 0.2% for each 100 ft. of
lead for keeping the wheeling planks in order, and
45¢ as the actual cost for loosening, including tool
drilling, powder, etc. as well as mouerate drain-
age and every ordinary contingency not included in
thº cost of loading, wheeling, and emptying; contrac-
tor’s profit not being considered. . -
Ample experience shows that when labor is $1.00
per day, 45% per yard is a sufficiently liberal
allowance for loosening hard roºk under all ordinar.
circumstances. In practice it will generally range
£rom 30¢ to 60¢ depending upon the position of the
strata, hardness, toughness, water and other consider-
ations. Soft shales, and other allied rocks, may fre-
quently be loosened by pick and plow, as low, as ..., ſº
to 203; While shallow cuttings of very tough rock,”
with an unfavorable position of staata, especially in
the bottoms of excavations may cost $1.00 or even
considerably more. These, however, are exceptional
cases of comparatively rare occurrence.
The quarrying of average hard rock requires
about 1/4} to 1/3% of powder per yard; but the
nature of the rock, etc., may increase it to 1/2},
Or more.
Soft rock frequently requires more powder than
hard. A good churn-driller will drill 8 to 10 ft.
in depth of holes about 2 1/2 feet deep, and 2 inches
diameter , per day in average hard rock, at from 12 to
18% per foot. Drillers receive higher wages than
common laporers. - : -
17. ROCK EXCAVATION WITH CARTS. A cart load of .
rock may be taken at 1/5 of a yard in place, weigh- .
9. I. , ; 19.(8). ROCK BY CARS AND HORSES 16
ing abut 850;, or a little more than 1/3 of a yard
of earth. n estimating the cost per yard, 6 min-
utes are allowed for loading and dumping; 45.4 per
yard for blasting and loosening up, 84 per yaru for
loading, 24 per station of lead for repairs of road,
and the other items as already given for earth.
19. ROCK EXCAVATION WITH CARS AND LOCOMOTIVES - The
Cost of loosening and loading is the same as in # 17,
and the other items the same as for earth, exc6pt
only' one yard can be carried per car.
19. WITH CARS AND HORSES ON LEVEL TRACK. The trains
Vary from 2 to 5 cars, with one horse in small cuts
&nd short haul, to 10 cars, with 2 to 4 horses for
heavier work and longer haul. The capacity of
each car is about 1 cu. ya. A side track is put in
the cut, and two trains are used, one being loaded
while the other is being unloaded. .
(a). 3-car grains with one horse. Áverage speed
2 1/3 miles per hour, Tor 100 feet of lead per min-
ute, time lost each trip in switching, changing from
unloaded to loadeu cars and dumping, 6 minutes.
Assuming the horse to cos (, 75¢ per day, the driver
$1.00, and each car 10¢.
Cost per cu. yu. & = ′ 305(6* lºad # *2nsky)
600TXT3 -
Similarly for hard rock, - - -
Cost per cu. ya. § – %5(3 + lead, is stations) + (;
-800-3-3- 3.
where 5 + 3 is the ratio of loading of rock to earth
from ' '. A 17.
The track is about 18" gage, the rails are from 15 #
to 2) # per yard; the ties are of plank or of from 3".
to 6" round timber. The cost of laying, interest on
track, and shifting track as required, per cu. yu. per
100 ft. of lead may be taken at .35¢; it will be rather
more in light Uhan in heavy work.
The cars cost (1890) about $40.00 ºach.
(b) 10-car trains with three horses, other data
àS above. - - - -
Some 10 minutes will be lost in switching, changing
cars, unloading, etc., and an extra man will be require


C.I.,920., (9). EFFECT OF GRADIENTS 17
at the dump, giving, -
Cost per cu, yū.
a = 525(10+ lead in stations)
600 x 10 T(G)-A
20. EFFECT OF GRADIENTS. Gradients will affect the
Cost with cars more than with carts or scrapers, be-
cause the gradient resistance (20% per ton for each
1%) will form a larger percentage of the total on
account of the smaller rolling friction. For cars
the difference in tractive effº can readily be
computed for a given condition dif track(the fric-
tional resistances being some 25% per ton in start-
ing and 15 # when under motion for fair horse car
track), and from this a close estimate can be made
of the difference in cost. For carts and scrapers
the variations in road surface and the effect of
gradients upon its drainage and condition so vary
the frictional resistances that it is difficult to
find the relation of the gradient resestance to the
total. Again the tractive effort of a horse can be
greatly increased for a short distance if decreased
for another portion of the day’s journey, or if the
day's journey be shortened, S.C. Thompson (Pavements
and Roads, p. 354) states that it is estimated that
with one-horse carts, one foot vertical costs as much
as 14 ft. horizontal. He also states that with
wheel barrows a 10% gradient reduces the load which
can be wheeled to 2/3 that on a level, and that 3
ft. vertically will cost as much as from 80 to 100
ft. horizontally.
With shovels, earth can be cast horizontally from
5 to 10 feet, and vertically from 5 to 7 feet, the
cost for the maximum distance being about the same
either way. -
Óften the top of a cut can be worked into the lower
portion of a fill on the up grade side, leaving
the bottom of the cut for the down grade side,
especially where cars are used which are not very
sensitive to variations in lead. For heavy work
mechanical traction or some form of lift (vertical


--
C. I. § 21. (9). EXCAVATION CHIC. CANAL 18
or inclined) would usually prove economical, as on
the Chicago Drainage Canal.
For convenience the cost per yard by the differ-
ent methods and for the different kinds of material
is shown graphically on plates I and II. The varia-
tion of cost with method and with material is
t
-
-
-
---
juhus more readily seen.
21. EXCAVATION, CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL... Condensed
from argiglés in Engineering News, Vols. 33 34.
The average."of wheel scrapers on Section N, under
favorable conditions , -sº-60 cu. yds. per day of
10 hours, car measure; the material was brought up
an incline of 5:1 for 50’. to a level platform or
hopper 12'. square and dumped into cars for removal,

, the scrapers moving on down a corresponding incline.
The material was not hard, and the contract price,
including removal from the right of way, was 23%.
On sections L and M, the bottom was 110' . wide, with
slopes 2:1, giving 270' between slope stakes for the
depth of 407; the be ms were 80’, to the spoil, banks,
and the spoil banks 237’. on one side and 175% on the
other. The material was prairie soil for 5' or 6".
then hard, compact clay. The average contract price “
for the two sections was 2.). 42. A double track
portable trestle was ouilt from the canal to the
bank, ending in a tipple some 40'. high. A hoisting
engine pulled one car up by a cable while the other
was being loaded by a steam shovel. The capacity
was limited by the shovel. The track and tipple
were moved forward as the work progressed.
The cost was divided as follows: coal 142; repairs
14%; excavating 36%, conveying 42%, .3% of the re-
pairs and 7% of the coal ºffargable to the ex-
cavator, making a total of 48% as compared with
52% for the conveyor. One shovel excavated 276,

400 cu. yas. in 3 months, in double shifts, at a cost
of $200. for repairs. The average was from 75 to
80 cu. yus. per hour. -


ſº
9. I. s 21. (e). EXCAVATION CHIC. CANAL 19.
On section 1 the “glacial drift” next the rock
"as a tough gravelly soil mixed with boulders from
1 to 10 feet in diameter. Most of it had to be
blasted for the special heavy shovels used, and these
shovels averaged only about 50 cu. y ds' per hour.
the material was moved by cars, as on Séctions L and
4, contract price 42.92.
For the rock portion 9 tracks were placed in the
*xcavated channel with their ends extending up to
the breast or heading where the cars were loaded
by hand or by air hoist derricks. At the rear ends
ºurntables connected the tracks with a double track
*ncline plane and tipple similar to the one already
ºscribed. Horses were used for the level tracks.
he contract price was 30¢.
On Section 2, Lemont, Div., the cemented gravel above
"he rock was blasted and loaded by steam shovel upon
*ump cars. The cut was lengthways of the canal, work-
*ng down from one side. The cars were drawn in the
9ut by horses (maximum distance 750’), up the incline
y &able, and on the dump by horses. The show els
*Veraged less than 50 cu. yus per hour.
The rock was removed by Liugerwpou traveling cable-
"ays, spanning the canal and dump, some 600' . to 700.
*nd supported on towers mounted on cars running on
Stacks parallel with the canal. See Engrg. News Wol.
°4, p. 62. Weight of cableway, cars, skips, eve., com-
Flete 450,000%, and cost $14,300. Ten skips and about
80 laborers were worked on each face. Some 12000
°u-yus. per month were moved by each machine at the
**te of about 280 yds per shift of 10 hours.
the cost of the work was distributed as follows:
ºilling 17%; blasting 21%; loading 30%; conveying
7% channeling 5%; pumping 6% superintendence and
Éh, 4%. The labºost about 65% and materials
º. Contract priºz.
9n Section 6 a scraper worked by power from a
**ble at right angles to the canal did economical
"9rk on soft material.
On Section 7, 2 Hulett-McMºyler conveyors were
*S*d in removing rock. Each consisted of a canti-
*.
Q.I.", 22. (9) MACHINE ROCK DRILLS 20
ever bridge, one arm 80’. long extending half across
th; canal, the other 90’. extending over the dump, the
ceſtral pier: 50’. resting on a track parallel with the
tanal, along which it could be moved. Five skips of .
1 5/8 yás. capacity each, and from 25 to 30 men were
used, with each conveyor. -
The cost of operating the conveyor was about $10.70 .
per 10 hour day for an average of 190 cu. yas. .
Two high-power derricks were also used, boom 123’.
balanced on turntable, on 20’, gage car. Rate of
travel along track 400'. per minute; skip (1 5/8 yds.)
taken, dumped and returned in 45 seconds. Weight
95 tons; cost $15000; capacity 219 yds. per 10-hour
Shift at a cost of $10.00. -
On Section 8, the chaſſel ers cut about 30001.1'.
of face per month at a cost of s” $270.00 each, or
92 per tºr’. This was in sound flock on the upper lift,
and did not include interest; seamy rock would add
25% to 30%, and the lower lifts from 30% to 50%.
On Section 9, much of the rock was removed by
Cars, , using horses at top and bottom and steam for
the incline, at a cost comparing favorably with that
of any of the methods in use. The average per month
per incline per 10-hour shift was about 500 cu. yus.,
or 250 per face for 36 men (30 loaders, 5 sledgers,
1 foreman).
On Section 10, Brown Cantilever cranes were used,
Bach weighing 150 tons and costing $28000. Each
took out an average of 490 cu. yus. per 10-hour shift
with about 50 laborers anu foreman and 1.6 tons' coal
On Section 15, staam shovels were used to load the
rock after it had been blasted.
22. MACHINE ROCK DRILLS AND MODERN EXPLOSIVES.
*Machine drills are used extensively in open cuts and
tunnels, where the work is heavy enough to warrant
the outlay. They are worked by steam or by compresse
air; the latter being preferable in underground work,
as the released air aids in ventilation. Two kinds
are used, rotating drills and percussion drills.
-



-
º, “I., § 22., (9). MACHINE ROCK DRILLS. 21
". In the former the drill rod is a long tube revolv-
*ng about its axis. The end, hardened to form an
*nnular cutting edge, is kept in contack with the rock.
Solid core is usually, brought up inside the tube.
he diamond drill is the only form in common use
ºn this country. * - It is especially valuable
9t: prospecting or other work where an accurate
knowiedge of the material passed through is desired.
Holes several hundred feet deep can be drilled at . .
* cost for from 2 to 3-inch holes in ordinary granité.
lmestone, or hard sandstone, of from $1.00 to $2.00
Pºr foot, and at the rate of from 1 to 2 feet an hour.
In the percussion drill, the drill is driven
*ěainst the rock by direct steam pressure acting
*śainst a piston on the bar. A slight rotation is
Éiven with each blow, to prevent the bit from constant-
*y striking in the same place. A 1 to 2-inch hole
* ºn be drilled at the rate of from 3 to 10 feet par
| *9tar, depending on the character of the rock and the
$122 of the machine, at a cost of from 10 to 25¢ per
lnear foot with labor at $1.00 per day.
. Drinker (Tunneling, 1882), in attempting to compare
!he cost of hand and machine drilling in open cuts,
finds the data, too conflicting to allow, of sauis-
factory conclusions. In tunnel work, however,
"here the rock is firm and the work well pushed, the
Pºogress is five times as great with machine as
"ith hand drills; in soft rock the difference is less.
** finds that the diamond drill is not as economical
*s the percussion for short holes in either open work
°r tunnels. -
He gives tables of recent tunnel work in many
Pºrts of the U.S. where the cost per foot of drill
°le averages about 50% less by machine than by hand
*ills; the percentage computed on the total cost
Per yard would of course be much less.
º Trautwine says, that when work is done on a large
**ale, blasting can sometimes be done at from 10 to 20
Pºrcent less cost per cu. yd. by means of machine drills
*nd dynamite than by hand drills and gunpowder.


#6'3,. -HAUL
... I’.3% (9). --~l- + 22
ºily; hºwever; the cost is about the same, and
ººie, advantage consists rather in economy of time,
| £ºnvenience, and having the work more entirely under
§trol. to a.a.
ºš. ECONOMIC LEAD. To find the limit of . beyond
º it will be cheaper to waste at the cut and
Fºofrer at the fill than to transport : Find from
Täbles I and II, or otherwise, the cost per yard
for wasting from the cut for the lead from cut to
ºpoil bank. Find the cost of borrowing for the lead
from borrow pit to fill. The removal of these two
Wºrds will accomplish the same as the transportation
one yard from the cut to the fill, so that the limin,
economic lead can be found by adding the two
*9sts and finuing the lead corresponding to the sum.
. If land—has to be purchased - for either the
"åste or borrow its cost per yard of material moved
; Should be added to the cost of removal proper in
*::me the comparison. -
| , ºº, OWER-HAUL. On many roads earthwork is paid
; for by the cu. yd., with an allowance per yard -
ºr station for all leads beyond a certain limit, or
ºr over-haul. On others, the contractor makes
*S' own estimate of haul (lead times yardage) and
fixes the price accordingly. " .
...in making an estimate from the profile, the limit
... * *condmic lead for the method of transportation
*opted must be found or assumed in order to find
...” “pay” quantities; only such fills being included
** are beyond this limit from available cuts and
*st be made by borrowing material. In other words
the pay earthwork quantities for the road bei proper
iyº including drainage ditches, excavations for
ºructures, etc.) will include all the excavation and
| Much of the filling, with shrinkage added, as econ-
*ºy requires to be made from borrow pits. -
... *9 find the limit of lead on a fill; assume the
º, ada the yardage (computed from the cross-sec-
...:90s, for accurate estimates or from center heights
|** preliminary estimates) station by station as
:
of
º

- -
C.T.I. $24 (9). OVER-HAUL, 23
º
an on the profile back Uo the cut, with the allon
for shrinkage; continue into the cut and add the -
yardage station by station until the amount of the
fill (with shrinkage ) has been reached. The
distance from this point in the cut to the assumed
point in the fill will give the greatest lead
up to the assumed point; if this is less than the
economic, more stations can be taken in the fill and
the corresponding number found in the cut until the
limit is reached. If intermediate cuts or fill
are passed over, the yardage should be included
with the proper sign. -
- -- If, working similarly from the other
end of the fill, the central portion is beyond the
economit limit either way, it would be estimated
as borrow. Similarly if the central portion of
the cut is left it would he wasted. 11 ~ 3 -
- - - - - - - If the points
on the fill overlapped the overlapped portion could
be filled from either side as desired. If the
points on the cut overlap, there is a shortage of
material. In this case assume the division point
in the cut, and find the corresponding limit for the
fill on, each side. Beyond these fill limits, the
material must be borrowed unless within the range
of the adjacent cuts.
To find the overhaul: first find the limit of

free lead from the cut in the fill as above; then
beyond this multiply each yardage between stations.
by the horizontal distance of its center( center of
gravity strictly), from some convenient point on the
profile; sum the products for the cut and divide by
the sum of the yardage for the distance of the
center of gravity: from the point; similarly for the
fills. The distance between the centers of gravity
of the cut, and fill, less the free lºad will give
the excess lead, and this multiplied by the yardage
will give the required over-haul.
-
.N * ,
* C.I.,525, (9). F. 1) ASS DIAGRAM , 24
- 25. MASS LIAGRAM. The results of 524 can je obtained
and the relations more readily shown graphically
º, by means of the mass adagram. It is constructed
by starting at any point, as the left end, and . Cººk
… *ach station or plus to the right laying off as
ordinates from a horizontal reference line the toual
Wardage up to the station, and joining the enus of
the ordinates by a curve. Cross-section quanti-
ties should be used except for preliminary work.
Cuts are positive. Shrinkage should be allowed
for as usual. The following properties result from
the method of construction (Fig. 1);
.
.
| TTH
- | . . H
TSA l
. . . Nº. 1.
- - I ^
N.
| | | |
| | |E_ I
| Eziº
it...les-
tº -
—' 1–1–1–1–1–1 - -
S” - -- º
1. Grade points of the profile correspond to max-
limum or minimum points of the diagram; the increment
Changing siga in passing from cut to fill, or vice
V &rsa. * See. G and H.
2. In moving to the right an upwaru slope of the
Contour line of the diagram indicates excavation
and a downward slope embankment. --
3. The algebraic difference in length between any
two vertical ordinates gives the Loual yardage (added
algebraically) between the corresponding points of
the profile; consequently
º 4. Between any two adjacent points of the contour
Cut by the same horizontal line excavation equals em-
bankment, anu the length of the horizontal between
intersection points is the lead for the material at
either point.
-


*
:
:
º:
--
-
-
-
--
--
-
:-
-
3. * *5
3. I* / (g) F. 1) HAUL 25
#: The area cut off by any horizontal line is
§ the measure of the haul for all material between
sº, the Ung, points cut by the line. For, since by No. 4
the maperial in the cut to the right of, e.g., A B,
will just make the fill to CD, the material repre-
sented by the increment dz to the ordinate must be
moved to F, a distance EF, giving for the product,
yardage into the lead, the area uz × EF,
Similarly for the other dz’s, giving total haul equal
the area above EF as already stated.
If area or haul be divided by yardage the result
Will be the average lead for the portion taken.
The yardage for any one cut or fill will be the
difference of the ordinates at the grade points of
the cut or fill.
6. Plus areas or those above the reference line,
represent lead to the right, anu minus areas lead
to the left, the diagram having been constructed
from left to right.
If the contour is formed by joining the ends of
the ordinates by straight lines, it is equivalent to
assuming that the center of gravity of each earth-
Work solid lies at its center; ; a curved contour,
with the area determined by planimeter or Simpson's
rule, will usually be more accurate.
The mass diagram thus shows the direction of
the lead; the limit of the lead in each direction
for each cut and fill and the length of lead for the
material at any point; besides the haul and average
... lead for any cut or fill or for any portion of the
. Same. Having the lead, the best method of transpor
tation can be seen from Tables I and II; also the
lead which will double the total cost per yard, or
fik the limit beyond which it will be cheaper
to borrow, and waste rather than transport. This
† : lauter limit will be modified by the haul for the
ºr material wasted, the cost of the land upon which to
Waste, the haul of the borrowed material, its classi-
fication, and the cost of the land borrowed from;

C. II., § 26.,(9)..f. 1. ; GENERAL CONSILERATIONS: 26
when dear the limit, the cost by each Lethod should
be estimated and the cheaper taken. If the lead is
on grades, and especially on steep ones as is often
the case in borrowing or wasting material, the effect
Should be taken into account.
In Fig. 1 the lead is all to the right, except for
the portion JK; the cut at the left, laakes the fill
to J, leaving all to the right of K vo be moved -
to the right or wasted; the leau for material at AB
is EF; and the haul for the first cut is the area
LH.M. Should the cut at the left be wasted, draw
a horizontal through H, and the portion of the cut on
the right required to make the fill, and the lead,
are at oncé given. If material can be wasted
as cheaply from one cut as from the other, a hor-
izontal drawn so that the area above it, au the left
plus the area below it near the center is a minimum
haul) will give the most economical method of dispos-
§§ of the material, etc.
wº- - - - ~~
*************śApriºr II

TUNNELING
26. G3'NERAL CONSIDERATIONS: The depuh of earth
cutting at which a tunnel becomes tiesirable is
usually given at from 60 to 70 feeu, in rock
it would usually be more. Track work is usually
cheaper in open cut on account of more room and .
better light, but a tunnel well built and well lined
with masonry when required, is more permanent than ºve
slopes of the ordinary deep cut. This means cheaper
maintenance and greater freedom from accidents due
to land slides. The freedom from snow as compared
with the deep cut may also be of advantage. On the
other hand a tunnel, if of much length, is a source
of solicitude for the operating department on ac-
count of the greater danger of, and more serious

results from, collisions.
Tunnels and subways are also used in cities for
- - - - - -*- Fºrº.
the elimištion of grade crossings and the separation,
Street traffic in order to reduce accidents and expe-
... .
-
- '•
C.II.,? 27, (9). F. 1) PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION 27
dive railroad traffic, but at a greatly increased
Cost for construction
27. PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION. A. geological surve:
of the locality should be made, aided by geological
maps if any exist. For a long deep tunnel this
Should be done by an experienced geologist. From
this survey there should be determinad, (1) the
character of the material, (2) the inclination of
the strata, and (3). the presence of water.
The character of the matºrial can best be found
by a series of diamond urill borings along the line
when the method is feasibl.; often surface indication
have to be depended upon.
The material is divided into (a) hard rock,
(b) soft rock, (c) soft soil.
The hard rocks have sufficient cohesion to stand
vertically when cut to any depth, and if unaffected
by the atmosphere the tunnel can often be left -
without lining: graniuº , gnaiss, feldspar and basalt
are of this class, but sometimes and especially if
mixed with pyrives they will disintegrate upon ex-
posure, and thus require a Lunnel lining.
Soft rocks have less cohesion and they are al-
ways affected by the atmosphere. They require to
be supported by vimbering during excavation, and to
be protected by a strong lining to exclude the air,
Support the vertical pressures, and prevant the fall.
of fragments.
Sandstones, laminated clay shales, mica-schists, and
all all schistose stones, chalk and some volcanic
rocks belong to this group, Some of the boulder
clays and cemented gravels Light be included for
tunnel work.
Soft. soils are composed of detrital
materials, and may be excavated without explosives.
Heavy timbering is required during construction
vo support the pressures and prevent caving; strons
lining is also requireu. -
Gravel, sand, shale, clay, quicks and and peat are the
soils usually met with. Quicks and and peat are
proverbially treacherous materials, while some of
the laminated clays with water are as bad.



*
*º:--
C.II., § 28, (9). F. 1) METHODS OF EXCAVATION 28
: A knowledge of the inclination of the strata is
ecessary in predicting the material to be met
*Along different portions of the line. The inclina-
ºtion also affects the cost, blasting being more ef-
ſective if the rocks are attacked perpendicular
to the strata, while lighter timbering and lining
can be used for vertical than for horizontal strata.
For detrival material, inclined strata develop un-
symmetrical pressures, which cause greater distor-
Lion of timbering and lining, while the danger from
slides and cave-ins is increased.
. The presence of water can be inferred from a
study of the hydrographic basin of the locality.
Having, the source and direction of the springs
and cri 2ks the water bearing, strata can be found
and Uraced by their inclination to the line of
the tunnel. Water follows the pervious strata as
sand and gravel and is deflected by the impervious
as clayºnd most of the rocks. Ground high above
the tunnel with porous strata opening to the surface
will usually give plenty of water and heavy pres-
sure, especially if the water comes through rock.
Grevices. Sand and other fine water.”
# bearing material flows readily under water pressure
and often causes great difficulty in Uunnel work.
* 28. "GENERAL METHODS OF EXCAVATION. Unless
a tunnel is vehy deep or short excavation is carried
on from the ends and from intermediate shafus. Tº =
The use of shafts adds their cost to the construc-
tion account, and usually increases, the cost for
drainage and for haulage, as the water must be
“pumped and the excavated material raised through the
: shaft to the surface, except in the rare cases where
the shafts are lateral and horizontal . But the -
vine of construction is shortened, it being in about
# the ratio of the distance between shafts to the
total length of tunnel. The shafts are afterwards
$closed up unless the tunnel is so long that some or
#hem are needed permanently for ventilation. II] .
isome cases for earth tunnels, a drift or small tunnel
His driván the entise-length along the bottom (or a
-
t
cº
****


C. II. § 29. (9). F. 1) CLASSIFICATION OF TUNNELS 29
heading along the top) before the enlargement to
full size is begun and then break ups, or full sized
enlargmenus are begun midway between the shafts as
* Wall as at the shafts and potals. This explores
the ground, checks, the alignment provides gravity
drainage, cheapens transportation, and halves the dis-
tance to be excavated from any one face.
A drift or heading should be 7 feet high anu from
6 to 8 feet wide so that cup men can stand up and
work at the face and a material car can be run with-
out disturbing the wall strutting.
Temporary shafts are usually rectangular, and
lined with timber when necessary. 9 × 9 feet in
the clear is about a minimum. Permanent shafts 3
are more often cylindrical and lined with brick.
They are usually over the center, but some French
engineers, prefer them on the side with a transverse
gallery to the tunnel. In this case when the uepth
** is not great they are sometimes inclined for greater
Convenience in handling material.
29. CLASSIFICATION OF TUNNELS, ACCORDING TO MATERI-
AL PENETRATED.
Hard Rock . With machine drills and modern ex-
ploitizs this is the cheapest and safest material
through which to drive a tunnel. A top heading or
a bottom drift may be used for the advance section.
Ordinary loose soil. There are 4 general methods
ln use:
(1). Belgian, in which the soffit section is exca-
wated ; the arch built upon longitudinal plank
Festing upon the unexcavated material along the
Springing lines; the lower central portion ex-
Cavated, and finally the arch unuerpinneu by the siue
walls. -
(2). German method, in which a top heading is driven
*nd the excavation extended each way to the bottom
Without disturbing the central portion; or in which
**o botvom side drifts are driven, when extended
*PWärds to the springing lines; to the top center
*nd then to the haunches; the lining is then built
from the bottom up; the central portion excavated;
*
º
º




-
C. II. § 30 (9). F. 1) TUNNELS THROUGH ROCK 30
and finally the invert built if necessary.
(3). English and Austrian methods, in which a short
length of the entire section is excavated before
beginning the lining. In the English, the excava-
tors and masons work alternately, the lining is built
from the bottom up, beginning with the invert, and
the length varies from 10 to 25 feet. In the Aus-
trian, the length opened is great enough Uo allow, the
excavators to continue work ahead of the masons,
and the invert, when used, is built after the
side walls and arch. -
(4). Italian methou, in which the lower half is
excavated anu lined, including the invert; it is
then refilled except a narrow, passageway for the
cars; the upper portion is then excavated as in the
Belgian methou and the arch built.
Quicksanu. The sofu ground methods are used if the
water can be drained or is not excessive, otherwise a
submarine method.
Cut and Cover. For shallow tunnels, it is often
better to excavate from the surface, build the lining
and fill around it, then to drive as a tunnel.
| Submarine. For impervious materials, one of the or-
dinary methods can usually be used. For pervious,
a shield in advance of the lining may be necessary
to protect the workmen and prevent caving, and Com-
pressed air to hold back the water and aid in hold-
ing up the material at the face. If on the river
bed, coffer dams inclosing alternate sections of
the work can be used, or pneumatic caissons sunk
close together anu communication afterwards opened
between them.
30. TUNNELS, THROUGH' HARD ROCK. In driving the
heading or drift, two methods are in use, the circular
cut, and the center cut. In the former, some 4 to
6 holes 4 to 5 ft. deep are driven around a cir-
cle in the face, all pointing to a central point and
forming a cone. Around the cone a set of holes
is drilled 4 to the face inclosing a cylinder, and
around this a set inclosing a second cylinder if

necessary. Each set is fired in the order in which

* &
side the lining. The
C. II: $30. (9). F. 2) TUNNELS THROUGH HARD ROCK 31
they are drilled. In the center cut method, the
one principally used in this country, the holes are
d?illèd some 15 to 20 feet deep in vertical rows,
the first two converging towards each other so as
toº blast out a wedge, which is gradually enlarged to
full size from the other holes.
In bard rock American engineers usually prefer
* heading the full width of the tunnel, on account
of more room for working, and of allowing deeper
holes for blasting. In loose or fissured rock which
requires timbering a small heading is necessary.
Mount Cen is tunnel, about 8 miles long, mainly
through calcareous schist and carbonaceous Schist,
all solid rock, was excavated from the enus by blast-
ing with gunpowder. The drilling was first
done by hand, afterwards by "perforators”. The drift
with hand work was about 10 feet square, with machine
work 9.5 wide and 8.5 high. An average of 80
holes about 1 meter deep were used, starting with
the circular cut. The enlargements were made in
the order shown in Fig. 2,
the finished section be-
ing about 26 feet wide
and 24.5 feet high, in- L-1 Tº *H

-
roof arch was built as
no. 4 was removed, and
underpinned by the S 2] 1 17: 5
side walls as no. 5 was
removed. But little 2.
timbering was re- Lºll
quired, and there was wka. * .
but little dis-
turbance by water. The work was begun in 1857,
and the two drifts, ware connected in 1870. The ad-
vance by hand labor was about 2 ft. per day, and by
machines, about 7.5 ft., at each end.
St. Gothº... d Tunnel. See. Simms Practical Tunnel-
ing, p. 277. Top heading; widened to full width and
roof arch constructed; then center cut extending


C. II. § 30 (£). F. 2) TUNNELS THROUGH ROCK 32
to boutom; side benches taken out and arch under-
pinned by side walls. Heavy timbering in places,
both for heading and for enlargement.
Simplon Tunnel, See Prelimi, Tunneling, p. 94.
Busk tunnel, Colo. Midland R. R. in Colo. 909 fee
long, 15 ft. wide, 21 feet high, partially lined with
timber. Material penetrated, gray granite of irreg
ular character, some very hard to drill, some disin-
Vegrating upon exposure and requiring lining, some
full of seams and faults and requiring support for
the detached fragments. Large cavities filled with
mud ware found in a few places. -
-" A top heading 7 ft. high and full width
"as driver.", , using 8 holes 12 feet deep, center cut,
for the first blast, and holes parallel to the axis
for blowing out the rema” of the rock. The botto
portion was excavated in a single bench, anu by near-
ly the same method as the heading.
The machinery used at the Ivanhoe enu was 3
100 h.p. boilers; 2 20 x 24 in. Ingersoll compres-
Sors; a 20 × 24 in. Norwalk compressor; a 10 h.p.
Engine driving an electric light dynamo; a 20 h.p.
engine driving a No. 6 Baker blow er, forcing fresh
air into the tunnel through a 14" pipe. In the
Wunnel a No. 7 and a No. 9 Cameron, and a 10-in.
Stroke Deane duplex, pump were useu for drainage, the
grade being uown into the tunnel. At the
Busk end there were 3 80-h. p. boilers, 2 20x24-in.
Ingersoll compressors; a 10-h. p. engine for the
electric light tynamo, and a 29 h.p. engine for the
blower . 4,3 1/2-jn Ingresoll eclipse drills
**re used in each heading anu 2 on each bench, or
6 at each end of the tunnel.
The timber lining is shown on Pl. III. The bents
are 4 ft. apart c. to c. , and the lagging is 2"
Whick. The arches were set up as fast as the heading
"as driven, and the posius inserted as the bench was
taken out. Where there were mud pockets the lag-

º
C. II. 3 31. (9)3F.2) "[UNNE Lº THROUGH LOOS3 GROUNL 33
£ing was extenuad down the sities, and where the ground
yas heavy the lining was uoubled.
The average progress was about 4 faet per day
per face, and the cost per lineal foot $83. 14, for
10. 19 cu. yus excavation per foot without lining and
13.79 cu. yus. with, the lining including 78% of
the length.
31. TUNNELS THROUGH LOOSE GROUNL. Loose ground is
intended to cover all material cauwaen solid rock anu
quicksand. For this material ha avy timbering will
usually be required with poling boarus driven out-
side the vimber to hold the earth from caving or
flowing in . with water, and to give the pressure
over to the Limber. It is usually difficult to ºc-
count for all the material remoy £4, by the gross
- - - --" ; ºr e^*\g ºn grº - -
cross-section on account of caving, ini & impression
of the timbering . This disturbenice often causes
damage at the surface if the tunnel is not very
deep. -
The cost and difficulties will usually be
than for solid rock. The methods (1), (2), (3
(4), of $ 29 can be used.
In (1), the Belgian method, the Lop central heading
is driven a certain distance ahead anti immediately
surutted; : it is then deeperiºd to about the Spring-
ing lines of the arch; then widened to full section
and the arch built; a central section is then taken
out full depth; finally the side ..
benches are taken out by uigging uransverse trench as
back under the springing lines and underpinning the
arch, then taking out the remainder of the material and
completing the side walls, and the invert if necessary.
If the material is sufficiently firm the heading
is enlarged laterally as well as vertically, giving
the full section down to the springing line.
The longitudinal system of strutting is used;
See Pl. III. In driving the heading a pair of verti-
cal posts with cap is set up at intervals. These
Bupport the 2 longitudinals, G anti H, which carry the
transverse poling-boards or sagdle plank. As the
beading is deepened, the vertical posts are replaced



I
**C.II.9 31. 43).
-
). F. 2) TUNNELS THROUGH LOOSE ROCK 34
by the battºº and B resting on the sill MN.
The widening is begun at the top, the poling boards
3 and b inserted and supported by the longitudinals
X and Y. The posts C anu L are then inserted, and
the excavation carried sue p by step to the springing
lines as shown. The rows of posts are placeu
from 3 to 6 feet aparu, depenuing upon the pressure
developed.
The arch masonry is carried up from short heavy
longitudinal plank at the springing lines. The posts
are removed as Uhe masonry is built up, Uhe longitua-
inals being supported from the arch lagging by
Short struts, until reached by the masonry, when they
and the poling boards are removeu and the space
behind the masonry rammed full of earth or stone
vo prevent settlement and to uistribute the pres-
Sure over the arch. -
In taking out the arch centering, horizontal struts
Should be inserted as shown to prevent the arch
from being pressed in before the side walls are built.
In digging the trenches under the springing lines
inclined struts are inserted for support and the
masonry built behind them as high as convenient be-
fore removal.
In soft material there will be considerable settle-
ment of the arch before it is supported by the invert
and side walls. If this is uniform anu allowed for
in setting the centers it is not very serious, espec-
ially if the brickwork of the arch is laid up in sec-
tions 10 to 15 feet long without bonding into ad-
jacent ones. -
Since the arch is built ahead of the excavation
for the bottom, material will be hauled both ways
from one level to the other. This can be accom-
plished, as shown on Pl. III, by an inclined plane
for the narrow gage track of the upper section, or an
elevator can be used for lifting the cars from one
level to the other. After one side at the bottom has

:: been excavated, the track and all must be moved over.
3. The narrow £age track can be carried to the tunnel
entrance if the tunnel is not too long; otherwise a
C.II. § 32(9). F. 2) BALTIMORE BELT LINE TUNNEL 35
3rd. rail can be laid or Uhe material transferred
to the standard gage cars used in the finished secti
The advantages claimeu for the method are, that
the excavation is carried on simultaneously at sev-
eral points, insuring rapidity; that it is done by
driving small urifus which are iſ: mediately strutted,
thus causing little disturbänce of the surrounding
maverial; and that the roof where the gºssure is
£reatest is first lineu. The Xàtivantages
are due to the unavoidable sevvlement of the arch
when built upon soft material, and the danger of .
disturbance of the arch anti also of the side walls
before the loads anu lateral pressures are finally
given over to Uhe invert. -
32. BALTIMORE B3LT LINE TUNNEL. Pl. IV. This
may be taken as an illustration of the second or
German method for soft ground. For average conui-
tions the method is expensive, mainly because of
the small space for hauling, Uhe spoil cars nearly
filling the narrow bottoſ, side drifus in passing
back and forth to the front and greatly interfer-
ing with the carpenter and masons at work upon the
timbering and £ide walls.
In the Howard Street portion of the tunnel, which
extenued under the principal business section of
the city, much of the line was through soft, sandy
ground with considerable water. Unusual precautions
were necessary to prevent, teutlement of street sur-
face and buildings.
Bouvom side drifts were first uriven, the object,
being to provide drainage for the upper portion;
they were enlarged upwards to the springing lines;
a top center heading was driven, then enlarged as
shown; the side walls and arch built; and finally …
the center core removed, the latter being kept froſſ
- - -- - - 5-sº
50 uo. 75 feet to the rear of the 2The
side drifts were about 8 × 8 feet except as carried
down below the floor line in soft material for a
better foundation.
The drift and heading were structed in the usual
way with benus about 4 feet apart, resting on boards,



s
C. II. 8 33. (9). F. 2) ENGLISH METHOD FOR SOF'ſ GROUND 3
the ex3avation back of the poling boards being large
enough so that the new bent can be set up and the
next length of poling boards driven one by one be-
tween the bent and the old length of boards.
For the roof arch 5 rings of brick was the rule, but
8 were sometimes useu. The arch was built in about
18' sections.
All the timber outside the ring was left in
place and the voids filled with rubble masonry in
Cement, mortar".
For the invert, 2 12 x 12 in. transverse tim-
bers were wedged between the side walls and short
sheet piling driven outside of them. The inclosed
area was excavated and covered with eight inches
of concrete, when the brick invert was built.
In some places planks sheeting was held down by struts,
and used as a foundation.
The crown of the arch settled 2 to 6 inches due
to compression of the joints. The settlement at the
ground surface was frequently a foot Some damage
was dona to water pipes, and one building collapsed.
33. THE ENGLISH º'IHOD FOR SOFT GROUND. Pl. W. This
is well described in Gripper's Railway Turineling in
Heavy Ground. He takes a tunnel a mile long through
material requiring heavy timbering and heavy lining;
drives a bottog drift along the center line for the
Uunnel and deep cutting at the ends; excavates: 5
shafts, one at eagh portal and 3 intermediate ones;
puts in 4 “crea;ips” and thus has 16 faces for
work in enlarging to full section. -
The shafts are 9 × 9 feet clear with horizontal
timber frames about 4 feet apart supporting the
poling boards, which are driven one by one as the
shaft is deepened.
The enlargement is made in 15 fu. Sections by first
driving a top heading, Uimbered and poled as usual;
then drawing the central bar, A, forward, supporting
it, with the caps and poling boards above, by a post
B; removing Uhe posts of the heading on one side


v. 11; 34 (9). F. 2) THE AUSTRIAN ETHOL 37
and bringing forward the next bºr A=uc., until the 5
(or 7) drawing bars have been placed and propped, anu
as many others as are necessary to support the roof
while the sill is being placed (J is scarf spliced
in the center after the two parts are in position).
The bars A are then supported from the sill, the ex-
3.Vation carried to the next level and K inserted,
2nd finally uo the bottom, leaving 15 feet clear for
the lining which is put in while the excavators are
taking out a length at another face.
The poling boards are left in, while the timbers
are taken out one by one as the arch is built and
the voids carefully filled up to the “drawing bars” A.
Between these, smaller timbers, D, are inserted as
shown, and propped up from the arch by masonry to
Support the poling boards so Uhat the bars A can
be drawn forward for the next length. The timbers
D and others F. project out to support the poling
boards which are not built in until the next length
of arch is built.
A narrow gage urºck is laid in the original drift,
and this can be used up to its full capacity for
spoil out, and supplies in, from the ends, the balance
if any having to be taken through the shafts.
34. Iłż AUSTRIAN }. ETHOL.
Plate WJI. The order in:
which the material
is exºd is Shown * | * : *H º
in Figsº.” 4 being siT 5 *+ H
3. 5 3.

used for firm ſmº.… N - ?
terials. The strut- e. 7% ----- S
ting is shown on Pl. W.I. T !, |
The masonry is built \ t (a | G
in sections from ‘à N ‘5 | |
12 to 20 feet long as in T. F
the English. The in- F-cy S
vert is usually built last
to avoid disturbing whe Strutting.
The Italian method is too expensive for us
for very soft material. For a description' s
lim's Tunneling p. 167.

º,
at . . - -
- i. -
C.II. : : * $35(9). F.3) THE PILOT METHOD 38.
: 35. THE PILOT METHOD. This method was used by
;Anderson and Barr in the construction of the Brook-
lynx relief sewer in 1892. Trans. Amer. Soc. C.E.,
ºol. 26, p. 484. The tunnel was circular, anu from 10
* Loº; 15 feet in diameter. Shafts were sunk and a
º pilot about 6 feet in diameter built along the
axis of the tunne) of boiler plate with inside angle
iron flanges held together with bolts. When the
length had reached about 30 faet the enlargement
was begun at the rear using light poling boards and
bracing from the pilot until th: shell plates could
be put in place one at a time and boltad. These
plates extended over about 1/3 of the perimeter on
the top, except for treach-rous matºrial, wh:n thºy
Were carried down to the springing lines of the ºrch.
They were of the proper size for the masonry lining
and were left in place. T-irons' braced from the
pilot were used as ribs for the masonry lining.
The lagging boards were insertelſ one by one and
the braces to the outside removed as the Uricks ork
was laid. When the arch was closed to within about
a foot short transverse lagging boards were used ,
and the key built forward from the back enti.
After Uht mortar had harden: u the bracºs and Cºn-
tering ware reſov 21, the rear plates of the pilot
Carried forward 2nu bolved in place at th: front,
working from the top ºach way around Uh: circuiſit ºr -º-º:
The Excavation follows the outsid: contour of whº
masonry so closely what wher: is but little loss even
in bad laterial, whº was tº Lºzing from lack of co-
hesion to hold in place until the poling boards can
be put in position. -
$6,0ut, And Cover Methods. For tunnels near the sur-
face, and especially under city streets, this laethod
is often safer and less 2xpensive than driving as a
tunnel. For city strºets provision must be made for
the traffic, sometimas for a portion of the width of
the street, and sometimes for the whole width, except
at certain hours during Ghe night.
If traffic can be axcluded for the whole width



-- ºn r
C.II.335 (9). F. 3) eur ANDéow ER Na B-twot, SS
I of the tunnel a single trench can be excavated,
$vrutved, the side walls and roof built, the Uop re-
: filled with well rammed material, and the street sur-
; face restored.
; : If traffic can be excluded from only a portion of
... the Width, a narrow trench can be dug and structed
, , and one side wall built, then the process repeated
for the other. If the roof is an arch it can be
built from the first wall over to the center, rest-
ing on the core below, anti refilled before the second
Urench is dug. If the roof is supported by trans-
verse beams extending from wall to wall, and the full
width for even a short length cannot be opened, a -
Movable bridge or platform can be used over which
the traffit passes and under which the excavation
is carried on, the beams inserted, and the brick or
concrete arches built betwºer, them anu ready for
refilling and restoring the street surface piece
, meal as opportunity offers. Street car tracks can
be shored up, first from below, and then from the roof,
until finally supported by the new filling.
- The core, or remainder of the tunnel section, is
... readily excavated and the material removed through
... shafts or portals after the siue walls and roof are
; : built.
For a portion of the Boston subway transverse trenche
12-feet wide were excavatºi. across the street, for
the width of the subway and bridged over with heavy
timber flush with the street surface. The bridging
was done at night and of course ahead of the excava-
tion. The street railway tracks were also supported
in a similar manner. -
º, . In these trenches, several of which wºre under Way
# once, the lining was constructed and the top back
filied in 12-ft. sections. - -
ºer pipes, sewer pipes, etc., which are above ºhº.
Foof grade can be suppºrted during construction, until
*overed by the back filling, but if, within the finished
3::::::::::::::: would have to be changed.

-
* .
- - - -
". . . . . . .
- - - . -
*...*

º
º:
* C.II.338... (9). F.3), THE SHIELD SYSTEM 41
-
rushes of water which sometim?s occur.
For an interesting description of difficult
wpré, see the Severn Tunnel, in Prelia's Tunneling, p. 204.
Also, the East River Gas Tunnel, p. 208, The Milwau-
kee Water Works: Tunnel, p. 230. The second was
Started in solid rock at each end; decomposed strata
... ware met untier the river which ware so soft anu
porous that shields were required in passing through
then with an air tight bulk head and air pressure,
3 direct connection au one placº having bººn es-
tablished with the river.
Much of the Milwaukee Gunnel was through hard
inpermeable clay, and the prehiminary investigations.
led to the conclusion that this material extended.
for the whole leagun. Coats: gravel with large
boulders anti plenty of water, ware howevºr aet with,
#5 also fins quick stanti, anti a portion of the work

was a xtremely difficulu.
38. IHK SHIKLD SYS'ſ'kº. Hrun ºl is 3iv en credit
for the invahtion of the system, which was tried
under his direction as engin: ºr for the first. Thºmes
tunnel, apout 1323. This first shield failed for
lack of strength; the second was rectangular 22’ 3”
high by 37' 3" wide, made up of 38 cast iron frºm:s
3 deep and 12 Kide, placed side by side and articulated
together to reduce friction anti to allow aach to be
pushed forward 6 ins. *t, * viſiº, the brickwork lin-
ing résisting the prºssure of Lha jack screws.
The floors of thº uppºr and cºntral row ware the
full length of the shield (about 9 ft.) giving 2.
working platforms abov * the botton, while the roof
extended back to cow ºr the 2nd of the lining. Struts
held 500 instal plates or poling boards, in placá
4%ainst the pressure of the face, -
In operation, thº poling boards were raiovºd in
front of a top cell, th: material excavated for *
about 3 inches, the frams now 3.1 forward and the
boards replac-d; the central cºll was: nekt Lovel,
then the bottom one; and the process repeated until
the whole shield had been alwanced. . The lining -
was built in short sections, under cover of the shields
C. II 39.49). F3) SHIELD CONSTRUCTION 42
The shield weighed 120 tons, and it was driven
for several months at the rate of 2 feet per day
of 24 hours. The tunnel was completed in 1843,
at a cost of about £5600 per lineal yard.
The next shield tunnel was a 7-fc. circular one
through compact clay 1 ° 1350 feet long under the
London towar, in 1869. The shield was designed by
Barlow, and improved by tire attead. It consisted of 4
cylindrical , or slićhtly conical, shall having a -
cutting edge in front, a Lºil or thin shall in the
rear, and 3 central diaphragm with op-nings through
it for stiffnºrs and for protection in the case of
a sudden inrush of water. ‘ſhe vunnel lining was
made up of cºst iron segments, with inside flanzes,
and the shield was pushed forward by & screw jacks

resting against the lining. Compressed air was
used, and liquid cement was injected outsids the
lining to fill up the space occupied by the Gail
shell. - -
The St. Clair tann: ; , untier th& St. Clair Riv ºr *
at Port Huron, Mich., was one of the first, largº
tunnels in this country in which a shield was success-
fully used, finil with v 3ry bad material. For i=scription
tion, see Fnºrs. Nºws. 1399, 2nd. Vol. pp. 291,425,457, 493,
546, 569, 574, and for cut of shi:ld Pl. W.J.I. -
39. SHIELD CONSTRUCTION. The following davá
is given by Prelimº; , ;hey are usually cylindrical
or semi-cylindrical, with circular curvature; * semi-
elliptical was used on the Clichy sea er tunnel, Paris,
and a semi-circular on the calvinors Căl w line and *
the Boston Subway. The shell should be silicoth -
on the outside, wall braceu , anti as thin as strength
will allow at the rear whara iu, projects over the
lining- - 4 (Simploi a cotehier...) suggests
for chicºsiº’snell, in inilliſºvers,
- - t = 2* +(us-4.) (10)
where the diamºtºr, d, is in meters. -
-
º

*
C. II $ 39 (10).F. 3) SHIELD CONSTRUCTION 43
The front &nd , or portion L. Üwºn whº cu v Ging
3dge and diaphragm, can be made short for very soft
material, but the present L-tidžncy is Lo 13 at then it
so that the face can b. attachº. 1 iirº-ctly by
Suantiing in front of th: diºphragºn, rather than from
the back through holºs in it. 3xperience has shown
that if the roof is supported, the excavation can
be safely extended some distance in front of the dia-
phragm, using compressed air for soft material and
allowing the face to assume a natural slope if need
be. In the latter case a visor-shaped front end,
or horizontal working floors at the front, 3rº use:
to keep the slope clear of the diaphragm.
“. . The following front &nd lengths
Wºr'e used:
City and . . London, 1 ft. ; Ś
u. ; Huttson river, 5.7 fu. ; Aiersey P.
3.3 G. River, 3.7 fu. ; Blackwall, 6.5 ft. a .
The cutting eage may be, colved to the . .
shell, or brackets may exuanu from the front, eage
back to the diaphragm, with their webs in rauial
planes with edges sloping back from the front and
carrying a conical ring of plating.
Large shields require bracing uo preserve the
cross section, and this is usually supplied by the
Working platforms; vertical webs are sometimes
*:::ied dividing the working chamber into cells.
For some of the flav segmental or roof shields
sufficient thickness is given for curved I-32 ºms
under the shell and the working platforms are
omitted, as well as the diaphragm. . . . .
The diaphragm at the rear of the working chamber.
furnishes a refuge in case of an irruption from
the face. Openings are provided (not extending
GO, the vop) for the men and the excavated Inºue:rial.
The body at the rear of the triaphragm is for the
f
S
location of the jacks, pumps, etc., and to aid in
itlistributing the weight over a greater area; a short
length is desirable for grºater eas: in changing
direction. A heavy cast iron ring is sometimes Y.
s
C.II. 49 (10). F... . . . ... W&NTILATION 44
used for the autachment of the jacks, etc., anu the
transmission of the pressure uo the shell, but brack-
ets and beams appear to have the preference on ac-
count of less waight.
The tail should be thin and smooth on both sides
So as to slip easily from between the lining anti
earth ar.” leave a small void; for firm materials it
may be "visor shaped, or extend over the roof only;
for soft materials it extends around the whole . . . .
perimeter; its length is sufficient for about 2
lengths of lining.
The jacks are usually hydraulic, with their
cylinders attached to the body as described above
at regular intervals around the inside of the shell,
and their piston rods extending back to the lining.
In stiff clays a jacking.8° 4 to 5 tons per sq. yā.
of frictional area has usually been found sufficient.
The pistons are 5 to 6 ins. in diameter and the
water pressuse about 1000%, which can be supplied by
hand pumps. In sofu sticky material a jacking force
of 18 to 24 tons per sq. yd. is required; 6 Uo 7
in. pistons are used with a pressure of 4000; to 6000;
per sq. in., requiring power puiāps.
40. LINING. For tunnels in material so soft that
shields extending around the entire perimeter are
required, cast iron lining in segments with internal
flanges is usually used. This may be lined in
whole or in part with Masonry. If the material is
fir: enough so that the masonry can be used with-
out the iron shell, struts can be built in
in line with the jacks to re”ve the fresh mason-
ry from the thrust. On some of the Chicago tunnels,
a plank shell was used insteau of the iron, and the
jack thrust given over to it.
41. WENTILATION. The waste products of respira-
vion, the gases from blasting, and sometimes the
gases developed from the decomposition of carbonif-
erous and suiphurºº rocks, tend to foul the air during
construction. These can be removed or diluted by
withdrawing the air in the tunnel, Qr by forcing it
out by the introduction of air.’”
, *:

*
5
C.II. $ 41 (10). F. 4) WENTILATION 4
The difference between the nearly constant temper-
ature of the tunnel and the variable temperature
outside, gives a difference of density which will
Cause a circulation, the cold air flowiń.3üt along
the boutom and the warm air out or in along the top.
When a shaft is reached there will be twp openings
with a consideraple difference of elevation. This
will give a difference in weight available for
ventilation of the two air columns as high as the
difference in elevation of the openings, one at the
inside the other at the outside temperature. During
spring and fall it may be necessary to heat the
air at the bottom of the shaft, in order to secure a
sufficient difference in density or temperature.
With artificial ventil avion the plenum and “
vacumim methods are both used; in the former the
fresh air is forced in ; in the latter foul air is
drawn out. When explosives are used the vacumm metho
allows of withdrawing the foul air through pipes,
without fouling the air for the whole length of the
tunnel. If compressed air is used in the tunnel for
drills, etc., , it aids wentilation to the extenu of
the air furnished.
The most common of the vacumm methods consists
in leading a pipe from the working face back to a
shaft or to the entrance and heating the vertical
portion by a furnace. A steam jet discharging
into the vartical pipe, or an exhaust fan attached,
would also accomplish the same purpose. Fans are
also used for the plenum process.
On the basis of oxygen consumed, Prelimº gives
the following quantities of fresh air as necessary
for ventil auion in cu. yus. for 24 hours:
Workman and lamp, 240; horse, 850; 1; gunpowder
burned, 100; 1; dynamite, 150. As much of the
fresh air will be mixed with, and carried out by
the foul, the actual quantity supplied should be con-
siderably greater than given above.


C.II. § 43. (10). F. 4) COST 46
43. LIGHTING.
43. COST. Drinker: . Explosive Compounds, p.127) give
a table shoning the time required to excavate 1 cu.
yū. of material in 8-hour days prepared by J. C.
Schoen from Eurnopean practice.
laterial Tunnel Open cut
Soft ground • 13 . O7
ground, picked • 31 . 12
Ground, using gad(steel wadge. 34 . 16
Rock, quarried. .96 . 39
Fock, quarried and blasted 1.71 . 54
Pock, blasued 3. 27 . 87
This is for a tunnel section of about 50
S q-ytis. For the advance heading of about 6 sq.
yus. , or for any other section, he increases the time
anu cost inversely as the square root of the area.
This does not include loading and hauling.
Prelimi, p. 301, quotes M. Rhiza for comparative
costs, including stru Gºing and hauling.
Boutom urifts $9. 20 per cu. yj.
Top headings 4. 80 * 77 ºn
Enlargement of profile 2.84 " ”. *.
P. 302, the convract price for exoavation, including
hauling, for the new Croton Aqueduct,
º
Heading - per cu.”3.00 to $10.00
Tunnel. in soft ground $8.00 to $2.00 per cu. yu.
Tunnel in rock $7.00 to 8.50 *, * *
Brick masonry 19.30 ” ”, ”
Timber in place 40.00 per M. ft. B. M.
For rock, Trautwine : *es the cost (labor $1.00
per day) at from $2 to . S. per yard, depending on the
character of the rock, for the main tunnel, from $3 Uo.
$10. for the heading, and about 50% more for the
shafts than for the heading; the average excavation
extending from 1.5 to 2 feet beyond the clear
dimensions. D. Rosser, C. E., Kingston, Pa., quotes
contract price in 1894 in the surrounding coal re-
gions for total labor in solid rock tunnels at 84
C.II. § 43. (10).F.4) COST 47
per cì. ft. for section greater than 7 by 12 ft.,
and 10.5% for section less than 7 by 12 feet.
The contract prices for the Vosburg tunnel, a double
track tunnel 3902 feet long, through sandstone and
Shalºs on the Lehigh W. R. R., built 1883-6 were:
(The Vosburg Tunnel, Rosenburg)
Tunnel Excavation per cu. yºl. $3.40
Masonry, Side walls, etc. ., ". ". 8. OO
Stone arch ”, ” m. 12. OO
Brick arch " ". -- 12.00
Dry suone backing over arch " . -> 1. 50
Concrete backing * * -- 5. OO
Rock, dry, in foundation, not in tunnel 1.25
Earth, dry * ". ». . 25
Solid rock in water m, "; , 2. OO
Earth iri water . 90

The average cost of the tunnel proper per lineal
foot was $180. The tunnel was ºil lined; part of
the way the side walls were omitu ed., and part of the
way temporary support for the roof was necessary.
Laborens were paid $1.27 per day and drillers
(machine) $2.50.
kir. Woodman (Jour. As. Eng. Soc., Oct 1891, p. 464) gives
the cost of some single track railroad uunnels
through St. Peter sandrock in Wisconsin as follows:

Name Length Yardage Cost per foot
in feet per foot
West Wisconsin 831.5 $43.01
New Greenfield 1230 60. 54
No. 1 N. Western 1694 11.98 58. 44
” 2 North West 1594 12.64 47. 40
" 3 * m. 3810 11.2 64. 90
Some of these were afterwards lined with masonry.
He also states that in . .1872 the average cost of
“hard rock tunnels in tº Jnited States was $5.89
per Cu. yj. -
* The clear width for single track should be 15
feat, and for double track 27 fu., with recesses
tº jºss's at intervals if the tunnel is long. The
clear height above tie should be at least 18.5 feet


C. III.3 44 (10. F. 4) COST OF QJARRYING STONE 48
for single, and 20 feet, with 16.5 feet over outer
rail, for double track. To clear a brakeman’s head,
as in bridge practice would require about 21 feet
from top of rail.
Much of the material for this chapter has been
taken from Prelini's Tunneling. -
References.
Railway Tunneling in Heavy Ground. Gripper
Tunneling under the Hudson River, Burr.
" ' ". Tunneling. Lrinker. Tunneling Simms
Large Tunnel Shafts. Buck. Emploi du Bouch iºr. Legou
Blackwell Tunnel. Eng.,Lond., May 21, 1897. Repr. of "
Tunnel, E. News, Jan. 26, 1899. Hydraulic Shield for
Paris Sewer, E. Nerºs., July 9, 1896. Hastings Shield,
Chicago, E. News, Aug. 3, 1899. Ventilation, St. Gothard,
R. R. Gaz., July 14, 1899. Ventilation, Park Ave.,
E. News, July 11, Aug. 3, 1901. Ventilation, E.
R. R. G., March 8, 1901. **a-mony,
Improvement, Park Ave., E. News, Jan. 23. 1902.
f :
C H A P T E R I I I.
COST OF MASONRY .
44. COST OF QUARRYTNG STONE. . From Trautwine.
After the preliminary expenses of purchasing the
Site of a good quarry, cleaning off the surface eartti
and disintegraved rock, and providing the necessary
tools, trucks, cranes, etc., the total neat expenses for
getting out the rough ston: per cu. yd. ready for
delivery may be roughly approximated, thus:
Stones of such size as two men can lift readily,
measured in piles, will cost about as much per ya. as:
from 1/4 to 1/2 the daily wages of a quarryman.
Large stones ranging from 1/2 to 1 cu. yd. each,
gotten out by blasting, from 1 to 2 daily wages pes
yd. Large stones ranging from 1 to 1 1/2 cu. yds.
each, in which most of the work must be done with
wedges, in order that the individual stones shall
come out in regular shape, and conform to stipulated
dimensions, from 2 to 4 daily wages per yd.
C. III; 45 (10. F. 4) CEM.ENT AND SANL 49
The smaller prices are low. for sandstone, while
the higher ones are high for granite. Under ordi-
nary circumstances, about 1 1/3 yards of good sand-
Stone can be quarrieu at the same cost as 1 of
granite; so that the means of the foregoing values m:
be regarded as rather full prices for sandstone;
rather scant for granite, and about fair for lime-
Stone or marble.
45. COST OF DRESSING STONE. A liberal allowance
Should be made for waste. Éven when the stone wedg:
out handsomely on all sides from the quarry, in
large blocks of nearly the required shape and size,
from 1/6 to 1/4 of the rough block will generally
Hot more than cover waste when fully dressed.
In blocks averaging about 1/2 yard, gotten out by
blasting, from 174 to 1/3 will not be too much waste
for stone of medium character as to straight splitt
ing. About the last allowance should be made for
well scabbled rubble. The smaller the stones, the
Éreater must be the allow anme in dressing.
When freight forms an important, item, it thusba-
comes expedient to have the stones dressed at’ the c
quarry as far as possible, unless Uhe chips can be
used to advantage for concrete.
A stone cuuper will take out of wind, and then
fairly patent hammer dress about 8 to 10 sq. ft. of
plain face in hard granite per 8 hour day, or twice
as much of such inferior dressing as is usually
given to the beds and joints, anu generally wo the
faces also, of bridge masonry, etc., when a very
fine finish is not required. In goou sandstone
or marble, he can do about 1/4 more than in graniue.
Of finest hammer-finish graniue, he can do only
4 to 5 sq. ft. - -
See also Baker's Masonry Construction. App. II.
* 46. CEMENT AND SAND PER CJBIC YARD OF MASONRY.


*. -
-
C. III. 46. (10). F. 4)
Table I.
CFjäßNT AND SANL PER CJ. Y.D. MASONRY 50
Cement and Sand per Cu. Yard. of Hortar (Baker)
----- ------- ---------- ——----------- -
By weight TT By volume
By volume
: ; 3. - - -
* 3: |Packed cem. loose sand; Loese ceſſ...} loose sanu
{{Portland Natural Portland Natural Poruland 2* Natural
**Cem. Sand Cem. Sang Nºem. Sand. Cell. Saga: Cem. Sand. Cem. Sand.
ſº 7.43 0.00T8.40|0.00; 7.40|0.00; 8.4010.307.40; 0.00; 8.40 O.00
| 1 || 4.05; O. 57 5.23|0.51. 4.17 3.74-872:33.572-5; 4.3.2-g
& 2.39: 9.78! 3.35|Q-72. 2.9112.783.249.7° 3.4% 9.342.9′9.78
3- 3.29. §§
| 4 | 1.69 0.89 2. 17|0.84; 1.68|9.89; 1.80;0.86; 1.3519.91 1.64 0.87
| 5 | 1.30 2.91. 1-749-33; 1.3: 3.911.480-81. 1919.931.22 p. 39
e i 1.10: 9.931.480.83; i.1415.33, 1.30.841,096.94/1.175.99
The Portland is in barrels of 3.5 cu. ft., packed , waighing 370 to
380 lbs. net (370 lbs. apparently is used). The natural cement is in
barrels of 3.5 cu. ft. packed, weighing 265 lbsaneu. If eastern
or Rosendale cement is used weighing 300 lbs. neu, all the natural
cºment, quantities would be reduced in the ration 265 : 300.
The table is based upon actual tests, made by mixing 3.5 cu. ft. of
each kind of mortar. The quantities will vary with the cement, with
the sand, and with the amount of water. The sand used contained
37% of voids loose; while moisture flushed to the surface when the
mortar was tº suruck with the mixing shovel.
–––––1
i
1
|
l
-:



TABLE II.
Amount of Mortar for 1 cu. yu. of Masonry
TCU.TYūS.T.Orºńr"
Concrete, broken stone, no screenings 9.50 to O. 55
--------------------
! or gravel.
; Rubble, small rough stones ! .33
| Rubble, large rough hammer iressed - 20
Squared stone masonry - 1:
| Ashlar, 12" to 20" courses 3/8" to b
1/2", joints . O7
Ashlar 18" courses, 1/4" joints | .03
Ashlar 12" courses 1/4” joints ! .06
Brickwork 5/8" to 1/2" joints. . 35 to:
º 3/8" to 1/4” joints .25 to
*, 1/8” joints | - 10 to.
squared stone, 18" courses, 3/4" joints, 2.
". . " 12" courses 3/4" joints: 20
|- - -----------------------
5 /
. 44
O. 30
. 20
O. O8
.04
.08
.40
. 35
15
. 15
. 25
—


º
,
šiii. s.47 (10).F.4), CEENT SAND AND STONE 52
łºś.sº AND STONE PER Cu. YD. OF CONCRETE,
i. Pls. WiTI, IX, X. Thacher (Vol. X Trans. A.C.E. of C.U.)
gives experiments for volume of cement, sand, etc.
* (originai volumes of materials measured loose, but
gently shaken down) as follows:
Atlas portland cement 1.00, mixed with water by
measure, 0.35, to a stiff paste, 0.78. Louisville
cement, 1.00, water 0.43, to a stiff paste, 0.78.
6. 56 bbls. loose cement = 1 cu. ya.

._ _TABLE III. WOIOS QF AGGRE3ATES FOH CONCRET.
REFºlºriº volume (loose), Räimea or saturated vol.


Hº Hº; ###################4
É said £1.05"; 3.5% 5.35" 5.33 T 3.62 "3.21 (25
5 Screenings to 3.58 0.42 0.71 9.58 Q. 13 18
* Gravel 1.99 9.67 2.33 2.83 : 3.67 2.21 24
7. §º 1.3% 3.5% 3.2% 5.3i 3.54 i. 2; 3
8 Stone 1.00 9.55 0.45 9.88 9.55 i2.33 : 33
is Stone i 1.00 || 0.59 0.41 9.85 || 0.59 ± 0.26 31.
No. 3 Moist, coarse anti fine sand mixed. * ****** ***
. 5 Stone screenings and dust for artificial stone.
.* Gravel 3/4" and under (6% coarse sand).
7 Broken stone. 1" and under.
tº 8 Broken stone to pass 2 1/2" ring, most small
Stories screened out.
No. 9. Broken Stone 2 1/2" anu unuer, dust only.
SCreeneq Out.
Diagram No. 1. Pl. VIII, gives the mortar volume
for different proportions.
The other diagrams give the concrete volume
for different proportions of mortar.
To find the volume of concrete from the dia-
grams . Assume a 1, 2, 4, concrete of No. 7 stone,
: Biagram 1, for 1 cement, 2 sand, gives 2.17 mortar.
Liagram 1, for 1 cement, 2 sand,


C.III. 948. (10). F. 4) COST OF LAYING STONE 53
2.17 mortar to 4 suone = 1 mortar to 1.84 stone.
Liagram 3 gives ordinave at 1.84 stone = 2.08 con-
crete. . .4 yus. Stone = 4.52 concrete.
For 1 cu. yu. concrete:
Cement 6. 56 bbls. W4.52 = 1.46 bbls.
Sand 2 c. yus./4.52 = 0.44 C. yds.
Stone 4 c. yus. W 4.52 = 0.89 c yds.

48. CCST OF LAYING STONE. Every item composing
Uhe Uotal cost is liable to much variation; art ex-
aminavion will show the method of making an estimate.
Wages assumed at $2.00 per 8-hour day for a
common laborer, and $3.50 for & Eason.
Ashlar fated masonry. Average size of stones, say
5’ x 2 - 1.47, 6T2 stories to a cu. yu. For granite ov
gneiss, the cost will be about as follows:
Getting out the stone by blasting, allowing 1/4
for waste in dressing; 1 1/8 yds. at $3.30 $4.00
Dressing 14 I.]" . of face at 35¢ 4.90
Dressing 52' th' of beds and joints at 13% +3-33
-- - - N * ~ *-os- tº qYº-Yº"A . 26
Hauling, say 1 mile, loading and unloading 1. 2.)
Mortar, Say . 40
Laying, including scaffolu, hoisting machinery
Superintendence, etc. 2.00
Neat Cost 21.86
- Profit, say 15% - 3.3---
Cost per cu. y d. of masonry 25. 14

Rounded or molded faces will cost more for
dressing and more for was ve.
If the stone is sandstone with good natural
beds, getting out may be placed at $3.90; face dress -
ing au 25¢ per tº "... =$3.64 per cu. yu; oeds ºn a joints
au 13t = $6.76 per yard; making the neau cost laid
$17.00, instead of the $21.86 found for esanite.
The Loval cost of lar e well scabbled ranged sanu-
Stone masonry in mortar, may be taken at a tout $10.00
per cu. yu. The above are for common mortar.


• *
-
º
-
C.III; 48 (10). F. 4) LAYING STONE 54
Cost of large scabbleu granite rubble, such as is
generally used as backing for the foregoing ashlar; "--
Stones averaging about 1/2 cu. ya. each.
Getting out stone from the quarry by blasting,
... allowing 173 for waste in scabbling, 1 1/7 gu.
yards at $3.00 - $3.43
Hauling one mile, loading anu unloading 1. 20
Mortar (1 1/3 bbls. Rosendale cement and
2 2/3 bbls= 10 cu. ft, sani and mixing) 2.60
'Scabbling, laying, including scaffold,
Hoisting machine, etc. -2.52-
Naat cost 9. 73
Contractor's profit, say 15% 1. 55
------
For common rubble of small stones, such as 2 men
can handle, w8 may say, allowing for waste; stone
$1.00; hauling $1.00, laying and scaffold, tools,
etc., $1.2%); mortar as above $2.60, total $5.80.
With smaller stones such as one man can handle:
stone 702; hauling $1.00; laying, scaffold, euc.,41.00;
mortar $2.60; Loval $5. 30.
All the above are on the basis of common labor
at $2.00 per day; which is probably some 25% too high
for most railroad work in Lhe U. S. The distance from
quarries where suitable suone can be had, the means of
transportation, the proportion of cement to sand, etc.,
will greatly affect the cost of the different items,
So that the above should not be used in place of acu-
ually computed values except for rough estimates.
The following analysis of actual cost for about
600 yds. of culvert masonry is inade by E. D. Hill
(Engr. News, June 8 '89). The work, was on the
I. D. & S. Ry. in Putnam Co. In 1. ( &n 1887) to re-
place a trestle some 70', high. The stone was hauled
from a sanustone quarry, about 2 miles away, Unloaded
onto a timber shute and allowed to slide down to
the site of the culveru. They were furnished at
à Contract price of $1.50 per yard for dimension
Stone, f. o. b. , and measured in the work. The stone
resemples, whº Berea stone of Ohio; it quarries in

* -
C.III. § 48 (10). F. 4. LAYING STONE 55
blocks of large size , without flaw or seam; is at
first soft and easily worked, but hardens, by exposure.
COST OF ARCH CULVERT. 613 CUBIC YARDS OF MASONRY.
ITEMS Total Cost Cost pr. cu. yol.
Cutters and helpers $1370. 43 $2.24
Templats, bevels, etc. 11.00 .01
Repairs of cutters tools 52. 39 .09
Water boy. 11.75 __.02
Total, cutting stone 1445.63. 1445.62 2.36
Masons, laying stone 384.87 .63
Helpers to masons 453. 66 . 74
Mortar mixer 121. 72 . 20
Track laying 7. 70 .01
Water boy 11. 75 .02
Derrick, stone shute, etc. 14.63 .02
* Arch canters, erected 37.65. •06.
Total laying 1031. 98 1031. 98 1.68
Pointing - 39.02 —-05.
Total, labor - 3597.62 -4.99.
613 yas. stone at $1.50 919.50 1.50
100 bbls. Alsen P. cement 315. OO
30 bbls. -- r m. 97.50
40 ” Burham ”; " 130.00
20 °. Louisville ". 20.00
10 m. - -- 8. 75
- Total, cement 571. 25 571. 25 .94
7 car loads sand at $5.50 & D - 38.52 – 26
Total, material 1529. 45 2.50.
Grand total 4036.85 6.59
Concrete 43. 75
Excav. found. & Drainage 280. 77
Sheet piling 19.69
Timber for drain trough 2.59
* Extra allowance on sheeting
º STOne 29.00


Total 346.80 $346.80
iáranu total 4383.65

5
6
C. III. 548. (10). F. 4) LAYING STONE
Miscellaneous data.
Cement 12.5% per yard of masonry, or . 2. "Swas
masonry per barrel of Louisville of 300k, anu 3 1/5
yds. per barrel of Portland 400%. Scale of wages.
Foreman $3.50 per day of 10 hours; Cutters
$3.00; carpenters, $2.50; mortar mixer $1.50; laborers,
$1.25; water boy 50¢, Cars loaded with about 12 yds.
of stone each.
Baker (i.asonry Construction) gives, prices for dif-
ferent kinds, of work based on actual cost during the
past few years among which are the following.
TABLE \\! .
SUMMARY OF COST OF C MASONRY, pr. cu. yard
Min. Max. Average
Arch masonry, first class $7.00 $12.99 $10.00
Arch masonry, second class , 5.09 19.95 3. OO
Box culvert m. in cement 2.5 5. OO 3.50
Brick masonry 6. CO 10.00 8. OO
Bridge masonry, first class 10.00 ° 20.00 14.00
Bridge mas. 2nd. class in cement 6.00 12.00 10.00
Concrete 2.50° 6. OO 4.00
Coping-, - 8.00 14. OO 13.00
Dimension stone. m., granite 40. OO 60. OO 50.00
Paving - 1.00 4.00 2.00
Slope wall masonry . " 2.00 5. OO 3.00
Squared stone masonry 6. OO 10.00 7. OO
Riprap - 1.00 2.50 1.50
Rubble, first class 4.00 6.00 5. OO
Rubble, 2nd. class in cement 2.00 5.00 ‘. OO
C H A P T E R IV, 3.
CULVERTS ANL BRIDGE ABUTMENTS,
49. STANDARL). STRUCTURES. It is convenient and
economical uo design standard types for most of the
ordinary structures met with in railroad construction,
these types to be only mouified when necessary to:
• Suit special local conditions. For small structures
the advantages of uniformity in construction and in
order bills of material, and the increased conveni:
iênce and rapidity with which repairs and renew-
als can be made by keeping mauerial in stock, out-


TABLE Y HEST SHORE CILVERTS. See. Pl, XI --Stºkº, BSX, S.W.A.N. E. Rºs
- -------- -- - ---- -------- ---- ---- ~~~~-->
ºß Cover ſº Paving ... ER3. º T a
º - - - ºr ºt. ~x-wick, Q-o-t Nºtorº i
- -> *-º-º-º-º: 'ssºr tº Essº º sº- -- ****
2' by 2.5; 2' by 2.5, 4.5×10" .51. 7x1 0.26; .66 10×3×2.5 9x4' ×2 9. 26
2.5 by 3 2 by 3 2.13 .69; 7×1 0.28 -83. 12×3×2.5 11x4%-2 12, 14
i2.5 by 35 2.5 by 3.5 4.5×10; .81; 8×1 0.32: .93| 12:3-3 11:5; 2), 16.49
3 by 45 by 4 |::::: 1.15; 10x1 9.37:1.19, 14-3-3.5 |13×63 34.0%
4 by 5 3.5by 5 6.5x15 1.65 12×1 0.441.75, 18×3×4 17: 7.5×3:41.40
* Bººts. … ------, - ...--
2 by 2.5 Å by 2.5i 2-13 ſ.33 11 ×13.401.34; 14 ×3×2.5||13 ×4 ×2 12.18
2.5 by 3 |.. by: 9×19 ... 93 12×1 9.441.67; 16.5×3×2.5|1.5~432 15.49.
2.5 by 3.5%:5by3.5 9×10 1.22 13×1 0.48; 1.85; 17 ×3×3 16×5%:3.5 (3.6%
3 by 4 É. 11-12 1.78 15.5-10.572.44. 19.5×3×3.518.5× 6 **
- - - -
4.
|4 by 5 §º 13-15 2.56 19x1 2.793.55:24.5×3×4 |23s 73:351.64
| -
-------|--|--|--— ! –––. f :
weigh the saving in direct cost of construction which might be secureu by
a more minute adaptation to the special local conditions.
The features which experience has shown to be desirable can be seen from a
study of the accompanying plans of some of the available stanuaru suructures
of the leaging railroads. .. -
50 AS5NRY 36x CULVERTS. Masonry culverts are the kind in most general use,
especially on old roads. ...If well built, on, good foundations, protected from
undercutting, and with sufficient, waterway, uhey are very durable.
West Shore Standards. Pl. XIf pub. by Graphic Co for Eng. Depu,1882)
-
;
-
I
§


#":21.4%:4) MASONRY BOX CULVERTS 58
he coping projects about 4" ; the thickness can be
found by subtracting the height of the opening, plus
the thickness of the cover, from the height of the neat
work of the efid wall. The distance from the sub-
grade to top of the cover is not made less than 20",
so that the earth will distribute the load on a tie
and prevent the shock from readhing the cover stone.
The length of culvert is such that the side slopes
about intersect the lower back corners of the cop-
ing stones, as may be seen in Pl. XI. The “trunk”.
is measure g_betw: en end walls, hence its length is
.* ºistſ& - --->
the 2r "between slope stakes if set at the
height of the bottom of the coping.
The second thickness under "side walls” for Double
Culverts is for the partition wall. The section of
paving holds only for the trunk; the curb, 3 ft. dee
and 1 ft. thick, and the paving under the opening
at the end walls are given under “ends”: in the paving
columns. The end walls are given in the original
by height, thickness and yardage; in assuming a
length the new, yardage as given differs slightly
from the old. The “end walls” do not extend under
the opening; their foundations are 3 ft. deep.
The length plus twice the Chickness, anu minus, the
width of the opening, should be at least 3 times
the height to the coping to prevent dirt from
running down in front of the opening.
To take out a quantity for a culvert; multiply
Jºhe length of the trunk by the per foot under
ºnd Walls for the masonry in cu. yds. ; multiply
the per foot untier Paving by the length of the
trunk and add to the Ends for the paving in cu. yids.
A.Pls. XII, XIII, Redrawn from £ng. News Dec 29, 1888.
ſ' The practice of extending the paving unuer the side
' ' walls is on Pls. XII and XIII, is not considered the
}, best practice by many &ntºineers; it should be limit-
'ed to small culverts with good end walls and curbs
to preventoutting. Many of these culverts were
\laid ary; they would be more durable if iaid
'in hydraulic cement inor var. The arch culvert wing
wºlls of Pl. XIII increase the discharging capacity:
! Y-vs-Y tº cº ºwe tre+co ºr Rºc-
º'-º'-ºxicº. "Prº tº sº ºn , . c-º-º-º-º:
-
- -
* *.
º


C. IV. § 50 (10). F. 4 BOX CULVERTS 59
of the culvert; and shorten its length; the cost
per yard of masonry is probably a little greater
than with plain end walls; the relative quantities
can be seen by compáring Pl. XIII with Table W.
The News does not believe in 4 ft. spans excepu
where the best of stones are available for covers,
nor in covers less than 12" thick for spans less
than 3 fu.. and 15" for 3 ft. and above.
The thickness of the side walls is sometimes
increased as the depth of fill increases.
Generally, however, for such small spans, the increas-
ed protection from atmospheric disturbances,
and from shocks, will about compensate for the
increased pressure. .
51. BOX CULVERTS OF WOOD. The usual practice
when masonry could not be obtained or was too
expensive has been to put in two trestle bents
far enough a part to allow of constructing the
culvert later, when means would allow. The ob-
jections to thus breaking the continuity of the
earth and ballast roadbed has led to the quite
expensive use of wooden box culverts. They do
good servite for many years, are out of the way
of fire and do not cave in even when very rotten
on the inside unless large and close to the ballast.
They should not be placed in very deep fills
unless with the intention of inserting iron pipá
inside the box without excavating when the Uimbers
decáy.
Plate XIV, shows some of the forms in use.tſhe
K.C. & O. are from Engiºg. News Harch 3, '88; the Ore-
gon Pacific, from Jan. 12, '89, and the D. L. & W. from
the Co’s blue prints. The C. M. and St. P. Ry. use a
standard similar to the last, with sills 6". x 12"
spaced 8' - c. to c, covered with a 2" plank floor to
prevent cutting when necessary, 6", x 12" side timbers
laid flat, and with cover from 6" to 10", thick de-
pending on span and depth from roadway.
The cost of framing and putting in place, after
the materials are delivered, should not exceed from
$4.00 to $6.00 per 1000”. B. M. with labor at $2. per tº


C. IV. # 52 (10).F.4) PIP3 CIJLVERIS: 6O
52. PIPE CULVERTS. Pl. XV, Couble th_ick glazed sew-
ar pipe is much used for small openings. When laid
Without a concrete bed, as is quite common, the un-
disturbed earth should be carefully scraped out,
with places for Uhe hubs, so that the pipe will be
bedded for its circumference. Fine
material should then be used for the first foot or .
more of covering. Considerable slope should be giv-
an go the pipe and clear drainage at the lower end
to prevent water from standing and freezing in
the pipe.
The center should generally be laid high to allow
for the grº aver sev Cling of the foundation under
the higher portions of the fill .
The sewer pipe list is:
9" inside diam. 26% per foot i , i. 60
12 45 1.00
15- 3 1. 35
18 84 1. 70
20 99 2.25
24 130 3.25
30 226 5. 5
36 330 7. OO
The discount in car load lots delivered
(3.an 1903) is about 73% for 1st. quality anu 78%
for 2nd. Quality.
Some of the ma Chods of laying when masonry is used
are shown on Pl. XV.
Wrought, anu cast iron culverts are also used for
small openings, also for large ones where masonry is
expensive. Wrought iron pip: should be heated and
immersed in a preparation of coal tar to prevent rust.
Cast iron culvert pipe (2nd. Quality) costs about
1 1/4¢ per lb. at founury.
- Its weight per foot is about as follows: 12"
60; 16", 88; 20", 118; 24”, 175; 30" 240; 36”, 32%
42", 400; 48° 5.10%. -


º .
*
C. IV. § 53. (10).F 4) CULVERTS WITH COWERS. 61
Care is required in tamping the earth around the
Yipe, and in fixing the masonry & "plank ends, to
... prevent water from working along the outside of
the smooth surface and finally undermining the -
track. Wooden pipes have been used by the C. B. & Q.
R. R. for several years with satisfactory results.
Sticks 10" or 12" thick, depending on the size of
the culvert, and 8" wide on the outside are dressed
to form a cylinder º 4’. 1/2 or 6' in diameter.
They are built around iron rings made of old rails.
and placed about 10’ apart. The pieces break
joints and are drift-bilted together. A 4-inch
brick lining is added between the rings, and stone
or concrete end walls, after the timber is seasoned.
\ , . 53. CJLVERTS WITH RAIL CONCRETE COWERS. Pl. ',
* : XVI. N.Y.C. R. R. Standard of 1901. The rails under
the ties are figured as per 1900 Standard Bridge
Specifications. The rails are 4 ft. longer than
the coping span, except those which receive the
tie rods as shown. These are 5 ft. longer, and
two are placed in the concrete curb which retains
the ballast, and two between the tracks in case of
double track. The vie rods are 3/4” x 18 1/4”.
: The distance from pop of wall, or bottom of floor,
to base of rail is 2' 7". This may be reduced to
1’ 6” when necessary. -
The side walls are 2'3" thick under the coping.
They are back filled with broken stone or other
material which drains readily and weep holes are
provided near the bottom. The wing walls make an
angle of 30° with the side walls.
The rails are cleaned , given a coat of red lead
and oil, a coat of bridge paint, then a 1, 2, 3, con-
| crete is filled in 1 1/2" thick at middle and 1/2". .
ºi at ends and covered with 1/4” American straight run
- coal tar pitch.
In some other standards, a sufficient thickness of .
Concrete is used to resist the compression in the .
I upper portion, and expanded metal, I-beams, or old
; rails, are used to resist the vension in the lower
- - * QY +lºn.
:
-
C. IV. 554 (10 (15). F. 4) WATER WAY CULVERTS 62
54. WATER WAY CULWERTS. If other culverts can be
found over the same stream, or draining about the
same area with about the same surface slopes, they, ii.
connection with the high water marks, will serve as
the best guides. If none exist and the conditions
cannot be studied during high water, the following
formula by Maj. F. D. Myers will serve as a rough guide.
c drainage area in acres (11)
1.0 as a min. in f#au country,
1.6 in hilly compact ground,
4.0 as a maximum in mountain-
ous, rocky Country.
Rudolph Herring proposes, the following as more ac-
curately taking into account the effect of distance
and slope on the time required for a given rain-
fall to reach the culvert,
Q = 50 WTM F2500 - 2500 + 0.00037 M (12)
for flat rural countries;
q = 65 W M + 1142 – 2200 - 0.0001 M (13)
Area of opening, ti'
Where C
for hilly countries;
Q = 83 ſº 640 -2100 –0.00078 M (14)
for the most unfavorable conditions.
Q = cubic feet per second to be discharged,
and -- - -
1W. drainage in acres.
Having Q, the Water Way can be computed from the
following formula and table by Professor Church,
which supposes the culvert to be flowing full but
not under pressure. -
q = A area) Rs (15)
where s = grade of bed and of water surface; R =
hydraulic radius – ratio of area of cross section
to wetted perimeter, dimensions in feet; A = co-
efficient depending upon R, S, and the smoothness of
the culvert; for sºy .001 it may be taken from the
following table. -


:
C.IV;55(15) F. 4) WATER MAY_CULVERTS_____63.
| R = 0.5TTT1. 5 || 2 T3 || 6 15
| Bottom and sides of --—
Ashlar brick or
clean pipe, A = 110 |114 122 128;149 150 160
|Rubble or badly in- . i
|crusted pipe A= 66 78 85 90 95; 110 || 120
|Earth, A = 4
Usually the data optained will not be sufficient
to warrant very extended computations, but the above
will afford useful guides.
A slope should not be assumed which will give a
velocity greater than from 8 to 10 feet per second.
On the Santa Fea road a survey is made to determine
the ace eage and slope for a small culvert, while a
geological map is used for a large one, the opening is
then computed by an empirical formula.
Ex. 1. Find the size of a W. S. R. R. box culvert re-
quired to drain 100 acres of hilly country, if s =2%
Solution: - -
From (13), q = 65/100+ 1142 -2200–0. 1 = 91
Try a 2 1/2 ×34* .
Area =7. 5; wetted perimeter = 3+ 2 1/2 + 3 = 8.5;
R =7.5 / -8.5 = .88;
A =66 +(36/ 50) 12 = 75
(15), 75 × 7.5W53 ×.02 = 75 = capacity of culvert.
Hence a 2 1/2" x 3 1/2" or a 3’ x 4’, would be re-
quired, depending on whether the ground was near
(12) or near (14).
(11) would call for a 3’ x 4' ,or a 4' × 5’. tº->h º
Find the capacity of a W. Shore 10-ft. arch with's #1%
Solution
Area = 5×10 + (Tr 25)./ 2 = 89; wetted perimeter =
5 + 10 ++5 +TI 5 = 36; R = 89 + 3é = 2.47; A = 92.5.
(15), 925 x 89x 2.47 x.01 = 1295 cu. ft per second,
= L 45 || 55 |_60 |_64 || 70ſ 801.99.
-------
* : C. IV.5, 55. (15) F. 4) ARCH CULVERTS 64
-- 55. ARCH CULVERTS. Pl. XI. The arch culvert, or a
... culvert with a concrete steel or rail
cover, is safer than a double box against clogging
where there is danger, from ice or debris. .
Hammer dressed joints are not necessary for the arch
ring until the pressure per E. " becomes greater than
bhe hydraulic mortar can safely carry. Bricks are
of ven us?d for the arch ring. Only such as have
been thorºughly burned will suand exposure to wa-
ter and frost. The West Shore Standards, See 35o,
may be tabulated as follows:
TABLE W. WEST SRORE STANDARD SEWICIRCULAR ARCHES
See Pl. XI for plan and references.
------ I - - - - - - T-I-T ---|---- T--
S. **Hy —le la le.|r clºs I t T
&T3. Tº lºſiº iſ . T."
8 4 33 6 ºf 1:13 |14 || 8 || 14 3 12
10 : 4' 614 5 (1.1% is g|... " is... 3
12 5 4 6 9 & 1614 20 64 19 6 || 8
14 5 615 11 |18 || 4 || 24 6 4
17 6.3% 6 |13 & 1344 89.3 4, , , 23 19
2. le 1516 is 3%|| || “lºs 3.133 a liń
The dimensions on Pl XI are common to all the spans,
those which are not common are given above, and can
be referred to by letter.
The cubic yards above the found avions, can be com-
puted from the following:
—r-——I-—r----—T----------T-
Span: Ends Trunk | span Enus T Trunk
6 35.45 1. 32 14 163. 32 5.62
8, 56.56 .2. 29 17 245. 10 7. 65
10 83. 12 3. 24 2O > |350. 78 9.93
12 1119, 18 14:40 l. l. . . .
-
- ---- -- - Iº
To which should be added the cu. yūS. in the É."
The span is , in feet; the ends include the parapet,
or spandrel walls, the arch ring under it, and the
wings, for both ends in cu. yus.;


C. IV, 555 (15) F. 4) ARCH CULVERTS 65
and the trunk, the bench walls or abutments, the
spanurel filling over the arch, and the arch ring,
in cu. yus. per lineal foot.
The depth of the foundations will depend on
local conditions; it should be seldom less than 3’.
unless ~ on rock. -
The capacity of the culvert aan be increased and
the danger from choking with ice or drift wood
diminished , by moving the wing walls at the ends
towards each other, as in Pl. XIII, so as Go cut off the
sharp corners at the entrance of the arch proper.
With a bauuered wing, the intersection of wing and
spandrel can be moved up to the soffit at the
Springing line, and the projecting toe rounded off so
as not to project beyond the face of the abutment.
TABLE VII. TRAUTWINE'S GUANTITIES FOR SERIC. ARCHES
ToºlT –– | | T.
*—ſº-Hºº-ºº-ºº-ºº:
| A 6 - 18 10 ſ. 12 15.2), 25 |35 #0
ºf H.Rai ſãº-Tº-º-º: §
3 1.99 || 2:12, 2.26 2.88. | i
10 2.6% 2.7% 2.37 2.33 3.34
14 4.77 4.67 4.57 4.4% 4.73.37 & 12
13 7.69 7.48, 7.27 7.91 7.04 7.03 7.81.
*323 10.8 10.3 10.2 9.57 9.72; 11.6
26 ; 14:2:::::::::3 ||3:3|...,
30 | " "... i. 3 ||.3|20.
35 24.0 23.6 21.7|23.9
|40. ! 31.7 31. 2 #28.7|23.2
ºf | | | j40.0 |36.9|34.6
; :- | | | | 46.4|43.6
(, 2 | i : º:
| Spandrel Walls. r’
| F.3 |7-9 3.8 12 13 23 42 [85. 195



J. # 56 (15) F. 4) BRIDGE ABOTENTS 66
Wing Walls
Toval Length Cubic Total. Length Cubic
Ht. of wing yd S. Ht. of wing yds.
7 1.73 4.04 3O 43.3 818
8 5.20 14.6 35 50. 3 1192
13) 8.66 30.2 - 40 60. 7 1928
14 15.6 85. 2 45 67. 6 2552
18 22.5 183 50 78. O 3741
22 29. 5 329 55 86.7 4942
26 36.4 541 6O 95.3 6404
The above table is for preliminary estimates only.
The total height is from boutom of foundation to
top of keystone; the quantities under span are cu.
yus per foot length of arch, they include ample al-
lowance for projecting footings; the quantities, under
spandrel walls are cu. yas. in the two spandrel walls
above the section of the trunk produced to the face,
the length of the trunk being taken from face to face
of the spandrels. -
- The thickness of the arch ring in feet = 0.2 +
1/4 the square root of the span. The thickness of
abutment at springing line in feet = 2 + 0.15 span,
with a batter on the back of 1/12. The spandrel
filling for the trunk is carried up at the outer
edge of the abutment One-half way from the springing
line to the top of the keystone and the tangent to
- the arch drawn. The end spandrel walls extend 2’.
above the key, where they are 2 1/2 ... thick: at the low-
est point the whichness is 4/10 the height.
" . The wing walls deflect 30° from axis of arch with a
thickness of 4/10 the height, when not inconsistent
with a minimum of 2 1/2". The cubic yards in-
clude the 4 wings. .. 5 ºr cºusc, Bºxer's NAc-ecº-A. Cººp. KNº.
56. BRIDGE ABUTMENTS. Abutments, with wing walls
in the same line, or with wing walls making angles of
30° with the abutments, are perhaps the most common.
Those with wing walls running back at right angles
lft. A B. kº **-
C. .356,45) F.4 ERA C & E AEUT MENTS 5'7
forming a U, and those with the two sides of the U.
brought together forming a T, are quite common. Their
economy should be most marked where high ground can
be reached for the wings by going directly back
from the face, while the low ground lies along the
line of the abutment face. The end of the fill is
not so well protected from wash for a stream cross
ing as with wings which hold the dirt behing them.
West Shore double track standards. The abutment
is thick enough at the top for the bridge seat,
which should be about 2'. for small spans and more
for larger ones, anti for a uirt wall some 2', thick
behind the seat to extend up to about the boutom of
the ties, giving a minimum thickness of about 4’;
the face is battered and the back is vertical un-
less additional thickness is required to make the
footings = 0.4 the height to sub-grade, when the
ack is stepped to make the required amount.
The length of the seat should be some 3’ more than
the width of the bridge out to out, giving some 12'
for short span deck bridges anu 18’, for through
ones and lengthening with span on account of the
gradual widening of the bridge.
Double track will add about 13 feet to the length.
TABLE VIII. WEST SHORE STANDARD BRIDGE ABUTMENTS
r-
ſº Doub. Track sine. Trackjin Đoab. Track
- - -". ... - -
_B iſ fit. A E.
ſº.------
| Sing-wrack
- A _B
-
à Tâ 2e 23 #6 jaž ºf £51 ºš 536
8 33 || 36|| ? £4 34 759 743 #: 3
8 . 57 55 49 38 36 858, 837 | 735 | 706
10 79 77 57 55 || 38 965 919 818 780
13 106 || 103,73 76 "40%|1983 1931 .9% 373
14 137 133 192 99 || 42 'Pº. 1145 |; 980
16 173 169||132 129 44 |1341|1272 1154 1095
18 214 209 |135 | 161 46 |1334|1394 | 1281 T204S
20 250 255 zos 199 || 48 |1336||1556 1420 1850?
22 312 306.247 243
24 370 362.296 290 52 |1971, 1875 1775 1649
2é 334 {4; 351 |344 54 z153|2042 1890 1795
28 504 493 411 402 57 2448 2330 2162 2055
59 1798|1711 1567 . . .”
---
- * - | - - . - ---- -------- --- -------
30 582 569 480 .469 iè0 i2767. 2332 £450 2332



~! -
C. § 57. (15). F. 4) ERIDGE PIERS 68
Plan. A has wings in line with the face. Plan.
B has wings at an angle of 30° with the face. The
-
*
+
with the same or greater bacter
*
*
-
:
quantities are in cu. yds. for one abutment, anti
include 3 ft. for foundations, with footings. -
The quantities, for single track were obtained by:
multiplying those for double track by s/d, and not
from the plans, where s = area of cross section for
a 16-ft. roadbed and 1.5/1 slopes for the height
(including foundations) and d = area for a 30-ft.
road bed.
Baker (Masonry Const., Chap. XV) gives the yardage
for U.T., and wing abutments, that for the latter
ºrunning higher than for the West Shore Standards.
57. BRIDGE PIERS. The standard masonry pier ex-.
tends from the bridge shoes to the foundation sup-
port, with top area at least sufficient to support
the ends of the two adjacent spans, and a base suf-
ficient for stability against overturning or undue
settlement of the foundation area. This gives
a minimum top width of about 5 feet under the
coping and a side batter of from 1/2 to 1 inch per
fog...is and a length about 2 ft. more than the outside
of the bridge (pier I to bridge). The ends may be
rounded, pointed, or square, down to high water line,
- * the sides.
Below, high water it is customary to increase the
bauter on the up-stream enu and to make the pier
jimore or less pointed, often protecting the point of
Cut-water with an angle or other iron to aid in
lifting up and breaking through the ice.
- The area of any section for stability against
overturning is controlled by the top area and by
the batter, or in the case of a large pier sometimes
by offsets or abrupt changes in batter in connec-
tion with a string course. If much increase ºt, ".
the bottom is required on account of unit pressure
on the foundation it can be obtained by projecting
footings with timber, large stones, concrete or con-
Crete and metal, as the case may be.
For high, piers, the masonry between the bridge seat


\
N
c. *.* 58 (15). F. 4) PILE AND FEAL-D THER ART. 89
and a point, at a safe distance above high water
is often replaced by metal or wood with a saving
in the first cost.
Concrete using the same general forms as for stone
masonry is in use. -
Metal cylinders or shells, filled more or less, with
concrete, wooden piles and concrete, etc., are used.
On account of the severe exposure of a pier and
the large area of face per cu. yd. of material as
compared with an abutment the cost per yard will
be greater as already inuicated in Table IV. The
foundations, also may be much more expensive on ac-
count of being in mid-stream.
58. PILE AND FRAMED TIMBER ABUTMENTS. If these are
puu in for temporary structures, they should usually
be placed so that the masonry abutments can be
built, with as little disturbance of the track and
its supports as possible. Usually litule or no fill
will be placed against the abutment, the track being .
carried back on trestling if necessary to prevent, it;
a low, fill can, however, be retained by placing plank
behind the piles -
Pl. XVII shows a pile pier and abutment.
The caps are usually drift-bolted to the piles, as
shown on the plates of trestles. The quantities in
addition to the piles, will be the 2 or 3, caps each
with 84 or 7 ) drift bolus, each, say 1” La by 24" long,
and waighing 6.67%. If the cap is more than 6 or
8 ft. above the ground, sway bracing , as shown
on Bl. XVIII should be added to each row of piles.
The framed bents of Pl. XVIII can rest on piles; on
masonry if stone can be had, or on mud sills as a
last resort.
It should be noted that the frame bents have no
longitudinal stability. If this is not supplied
by braces from the cap to the sill of the adjoining
trestle bent, or if the height is considerable, by
braging between the twp bents, separating them far
***** a distrivia tº-esº-, ºr ºr ºre s\Pi\\ tº


º
**
C. W.; 59. (15) F. 4) NOOLEN TRESTLES 70
enough for the purpose. The bolsters should be
fastened to the caps.
In Pl. XIX, the planking extenus above high water
and ice. An 8"× 10" timber should be placed around
the inside near ºne top of the piles and fastened to
each pile with a 3/4" bolt. If the structure is
high, additional ones should be placed about 10
fu apart vertically. The cut-water should be braced
at high water and at the ice flow line with 12" x 12"
pieces between the piles, and notched into them 1 1/2”
as shown. The vervical stringer is 'Julted at,
points 4 ft. apart with 3/4-inch bolts, anu the rail
is splked at points 12" apart on each side with
spikes driven into 1/2” holes. The interior is
usually filled with stories. -
CHAPTER W.
TRESTLES AND BRIDGES: tº P
l, 59. WOODEN TRESTLES. These are distinctly
ºnericºn, being but livtle used in other countries.
!Cooper (American H. R. Bridges) estimated in 1889.
that there were 3030 miles of trestles anti bridges
on the 16Q000 miles of railroads then in the United
States; 2407 of which were woouén or combination
trestles with spans & 20’; 243 miles wooden or com-
bination bridges; leaving only 380 miles of iron
bridges. He further estimated that 600 of the
2400 miles ofºgouen wrestles would be filled as
embankment, amºould be maintained in a pod, leaving
1000 uo be gradually reflaced by iron. This re-
placement has gone on rapidly since that time.
The reasons for uhe existence of so much wootien
vrésvling is summed up by the ºngr. News (Aug. 13, 1887)
in sudstance as follows:
1. A well built timber trestle, while it lasts, is
a very solid and safe suructure, and it lasts usually
in good conuition for from five to ten years; while ſuch
hºstily built masonry gives out in one year or two.
2. There is more time to determine accurately the



-
-*.
-
. C.W. ºf 59 (15). F. 4) WOODEN TRESTLES 71 °
| size of the opening needed, and thus aváid needless
ºwashouts; besides, well built timber structures are
ºless likely to wash out suddenly.
!. 3. The time of construction is shortened mater-
ially, often an important consideration.
4. The masonry , when at last built, is almost cer-
tain to be better built, and of better stone.
Haul then is of less importance, anu there will be
more time to secure good material. The roads are
few. on which any large proportion of the original
, masonry is in good condition after ten years.
This is especially true of the smaller structures,
such as cattle guards and open culverts, which are
often so poor as to shake to pieces in a few months.
The lesson that , the smaller the structure, the
larger and the better dressed must be the stones
composing it, if it is to be durable, is one which
engineers are slow to learn.
5. It is easier to introduce long and high fills,
to be afterwards filled by train or replaced by
masonry or iron; and thus to secure a better align-
ment and avoid rock cutting or other objectionable
work.
6. A very large part of the total cost of the
line, in its permanent form is postponed for 6 or
8 years past the trying years of early operation;
thus not only saving whe interest on the cost of the
permanent work, but going far to protect the company
from the danger of early insolvenmy, which has proved
so deadly to many overconfident companies.
The only necessary disadvantages, are the liabil-
ity to decay and fire. To guard against the
former danger is a mere question of inspection.
The C. M. & St. Paul, with 110 miles of bridges, 100
of which is probably wooden trestle, inspect their
structures twice a year, and have never had an ac-
cident of any kind from such defects, which shous
that there is no necessity for them . The danger
from fire is a real one and every year has its
records of accidents, resulting there from, but if the
*:
---
C. V. § 60 (15). F. 4) PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 72
danger is real it is small. There are few, such, 335-
cidents, and those mostly from carelesness. Inºrbº
to their number, accidents from iron structures have
been vastly more numerous, and more fatal, and the
same is true in substance of small masonry structure
where great liability to washouts is a serious matte
60. PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION. The span for strinº
ers, or distance between bents, is usually from 12'.
for low, bents to 16" , 18", and even 30’, for higher
ones with simple stringers. Suringers trussed or
otherwise supported at intermediate points are some-
tiſhes used, when the span is still further increased.
Pile bents are used up to heights of about 25", and
even to 30', or 40'. in 2xceptional cases. From 4.
to 6 piles are used in a bent, with a diameter of
from 10" to 18" at the large end, and from 6" to
12" at the simall or low ºr *nd. After driving, the
tops are sawed off, and a 13" x12", or larger, cap put in.
its place #}} secured by a mortise and venon, or by
about a 1 1/** **f, boit at each pile. Longitud-
inal stability is given by the stiffness of the
piles, and by the anchorage of the floor system at
the ends of the tresules; lateral stability inainly
by the diagonal lateral bracing , of about 3" x 12"
plank spiked, or bolted with 7/8", or 1" bolts, to
cap and piles, one each side of the bent.
Framed bents for heights up to 30'. Lo 40’. are
usually composed of about 12" x 12" timbers; 2 ver-
vical posts, under the track stringers and 2 in-
clined ºr patter posts, with a batter of 3" per 1’,
placed outside; framed with mortise and tenon, or
pinned with two dowel pins per ºf post (each about 3"
if of wood, or from 1" to 2" if of iron) or drift-
bolted to the cap anu to the sill. The tenon should
be from 1/4 to 1/3 the width of the timber, and the
pin hole should be bored so as to draw, the cap or
sill about 1/8". A drainage hole should be bored
in the mortise in the sill; while the dowel pins if
used, should be driven with paint to prevent the en-
-



º
;
C. W. & 30. (15); F. 1 4) P-INCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION73
trance of water. Drift bolts are cheap and rapid
in construction, but troublesome in partial renewals,
on account of the difficulty, of withdrawing them.
The bent plates of Pl. , Čtičugh not in common use,
would seem to be cheap in construction, and conven-
iant in renewals, while not venuing to hasten de-
cay at the joints as much as the previous methods.
of framing. The mortise and Uenon is still in most
common use, despite the greater first cost anu ten-
dency to decay; it usually gives a stiffer bent
forêrection but no stiffer when once in place.
The sills rest on masonry; on piles, on mud sills from
4' to 6’ long, bedded crosswise in earth, or frequent-
ly on the earth, in a trench a foot or so deep.
The methods are placed in order of extellence .
Split sills and caps of the same total section notch-
ed into the posts about 2" and bolted, are thought
by many to give equal bearing surface, strength and .
durability, while they allow any decayed piece to
be taken out and replaced with much less difficulty.
Solid sills may be better if resting directly on
the ground, or on mud sills. More or less longitud-
inal bracing with pieces about 6" x12" is usually added,
unless there are but few bents. Lateral bracing
is supplied by 3" plank spiked or bolted to the posts,
uhe inclined posts (batter posts) also furnish later-
al stability. Corcels are frequently used between the
cap or stringer; the claim being that they shortea -
the span of the stringer by about their full length
and give more end bearing which prevents the stringer
from crushing.
The counter claim is that they merely act as levers
to tilt up the adjacent stringer, and thus disturb
the stringer system, while they retain moisture at
the Suringer ends and thus, hasteg decay.
The stringers are from 12" co 18" deep, With 1, 2,
or 3, grouped unuer each rail, and with or without
ouver or jack stringers. When several are placed
- * -- - - - - - * -->
side by side, they should be separated by packing
blocks or cast washers, from 1" to 3" to prev egt


the accumulation of moisture, four about 3/4" bolus
at each joint are placed horizontally through Strin
ers, and washers to hold the pieces together.
When possible, each stringer should have a length
equal to twice the distance between bents, so that
they can be arranged in 2's to break joints, r
one being continuous and the other breaking at
each cap. Sometimes. 2 stringer - bolts are placed
at the centers of the spans. t
The methods of fastening the stringers to the
Caps vary considerably. On some roads, the ºpoden’
packing blocks between the stringers are notched
onto the caps without other direct fastening,
for convenience of alignment of the floor, in case
the foundations settle unequally. On thers the
cap is notched for the stringer or packing block, or
angle irons or heavy blocks of wood are spiked
to the cap on each side of the stringer. Drift
bolts are also used, and bolts with nuis; the latter
being more convenient than the former for repairs
and renawals. .
Jack stringers are usually necessary with long
ties , to support the floor in case of derailment.
They are in the way in renewing the track string-
ers, anu are not always, in favor with the road de-
partment.
The floor system is usually the poorest
part of the structure. The hard wood ties should...no
be over 5" apart in the clear; and they should
be held in place by notching the guard timber about
1" for each tie. to F;"?. #nºść"; ; ; by
ă, derājj ed whéâ1. e length should now be less
than 11’, to 12'. The guard timber should be bolted-
rº 60 (15). F. 4) PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRULTION 74.

s
r



-
- - -- * ~ - A --, -
C. V. 560 (15). F. 4) PºſNCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 75
UC about every third tie; an angle iron spiked to
wheinner =dge will reduce the danger of mounting by
a derailed wheel. A floor system can thus be made
which will carry os derailed wheels over safely, if
they can be brought outo the floor inside uha
guard rail.
Some form of rerailing device at each end of every
trestle and bridge floor is considered essential by
many engineers, although it is very often omitted, see
the Latimer device&nd the Jordan guard, described
in the paragraph on bridge floors.
61. TRESTLE PLANS. E. A. Hill, (Engrg. News, Oct. 22,
’87) gives the following dimensions for a one-story
pile trestle, suitable for a western road of ordi-
nary traffic.
Bents of 4 piles each. Piles = or >8" at small
end; driven to 2" penetration under a 2000; hammer
falling 29', or an equivalent; tops sawed off square,
14" × 14" × 14’ caps; fastened by 1 1/4” drift bolts
driven 8" into the pile, one to each pile.
2 sway braces 3" x 12" bolved § the cap and to each
pile. Bents spaced 15'. c. to cºstringers, 3 u
each rail, 6" x 16" × 80′, spaced by iron spools or tº 4
blocks.
Each set of stringers secured to cap by 1 1/4"
drift bolt or by wooden blocks. Stringer bolts
3/4" with cast washers 3” in diameter Ties 7" x
8" x9', 12" centers, boxed 1" on stringers (C. J.
Jameson, R. R. & ENgrg. Journal, Jan., '90, recominenus:
8" x 12" x 12', ties spaced 6” clear) Guard timber
7" + x8", boxed 1" on ties, and bolted uo every third
tie with lag screws at intermediate ties. Tron:
guard rail and Latimer rerailing device(see
Bridge Floors,
Pl. XX needs no special explanation.
The pile posts are probably as large as 12" x 12".
Pl. XXI shows a cluster bent trestle, built in the

C.W #61(15). F. 4) TRESTLE PLANS 76
winter of 1879–80. Northern pine was used for all
except, cross ties and bottom sills which were of
white oak. Examination after 8 years servite show-
ed them to be in good condition, with no signs of
decay except with the oak members. The piles of
white oak, were cut off about 20", above ground.
The sills were urift bolted to the piles with 21”
by 3/4" tº holes. The spieges resting on the sills
were drift bolved to thºº "New “so 3/4" o
The posts were in 2-story lengths (20', for the
vertical ones) except half at the top and at the
bottom which ware in 1-story lengths, so as to -
break joints. When the height was not a multiple ... "
of 10, the odd length was placed in the bottom story.
The batter was 3" per 1’. 3/4" bolts with cast
washers were used throughout. 3,8"×16" x16' string-
ers would now be preferred and cast spools in place
of the 2 1/2" x 16" x 2'. packing blocks at the cen–.
ter of the stringer. This would reduce the fiber
stress to K1200; per E.", for a consolidation engine,
allowing for impact. The ties ware 7" x 9’ x :
16" , oak, spaced 9” clear, with substantial guard rail,
and two outside guards 4" × 8".
Each bent was erected, piece by piece, with a
bCom projecting out from the lºst one already in ,
place; as it was believed that better workmanship
could thus be secured than by the ordinary Method
of puu Ling the bent together on the ground, and then
hoisting to position. .
The main advantages claimed are; the use of
smaller timbers, thereby as a rule getting better
Seasonad material and of be uter sizes for inspection;
the renewal of parts without interfering with the
running of trains; and the absence of mortices. The
framing consists, principally in cutting the pieces
to exact length by pattern. J. A. Hanlon, Res. Engr.
Engrg. News, Dec. 31, 1887.
Diagonal longitudinal bracing should be added,

-

>
W. §61(15. F. 4) TRESTLE PLANS, 77
unless the trestle is so short anu so well
anchored at the ends that the floor stringers and
others' longitudinal members can be depended upon
to take care of the longitudinal forces.
* | * Pl. XXII. This trestle was designed by Andrew
Eryson, and was built at McNairs on the Erie Ry. in
1882. The chief advantages are a saving of labor
in the field in framing, and the avdiidance of
all cuts, in the timbers to hold water and hasten
decay.
Pls XXIII and XXIV. The loads used in computing
the stresses were; the Erie Consolidation with
88000; on a wheel base of 14/9", and the C. B. &
N, Class B, engine with 84590% on three pairs of wheels
15’ 6”. base; giving 1458 anu 1194 *per tº respective-
ly on stringers. The Erie Engine is not used regularly.
All vimber, except ties, should be of soft pine, free
from shakes, wanes, black or unsound knots, and decay.
. Ties of white oak, 8"×8” x 10' surfaced on one side
to exactly 7 3/4". Piles of good, sound white oak,
“ree from bark, diam # 10" at small end and # 14" .
large enti. Pilºs to be driven, if required, until
ºuey will not settle more than 1", under a 2000;
hammer falling 29' .
The floor was designed on the supposition that .
3. Latimer, or other rºrailing device, would be used.
Derailments usually occur before reaching the bridge.
For this reason no inside guard rails were used,
the other guard rail being sufficient to guard
3 dérailed truck across the bridge. In this way
long vies and side stringers were done away with.
Single length pieces were used for stringers, as shown
on Pl. XXIII, and continuity was established by the
packing blocks. The “chuck blocks” on top of the
caps prevent, lateral motion, yet allow of jacking the
floor system over for alignment.
Regular mill sizęs and lengths were used and

7

=yerything over a car length, avoided, when possible.
"ſhe" bank slope longitudinals” will generally be
C.V.5 61 (15). F. 4) TRESTLE PLANS: 78
covered with earth; they are only needed for a year
or so until the banks stop settling.
Fig. 1 shows the fastening to the middle sill of the
lower and middle longitudinals, when the latter do
not extend across the bridge. Fig.2 shows the con-
nections of diagonal braces and middle longitudinals
at foot of plumb posts on tº middle sill. Fig. 3
shows same as Fig. 2 without longitudinals. Fig. 4
shows the last panel of lower longitudinals.
These have 4 pieces. Fig. 5 shows method when 1 pile
bent is used.
The attachment of diagonal braces to caps is shown
in Fig. 6. For this there is required; 1 brace block
2" ×4” x 18’ ; 6 40-d spikes; 2 boat spikes 1/2" x10”.
Before the block is put in place, 2- : *
40-d spikes must be driven through the block into
the brace from the back. In spans > 16’ ties must be
spaced 14" centers. Whey must be so spaced that
the guard rail bolts will miss the caps; otherwise,
bolu through 2nd. instead of 3rd. tie. At each
splice 2 , 3/8" x 10" boat spikes are used.
First guard rail bolt to be within 18” of end of span,
and all nuts of guard rail uo bi: flush on top, Ly
boring 2" hole 5/8" desp, Guard rail bolts 3/4" ×
29 3/4”, with 4” of threati; 2" × 1/16" washer
under nut, and ogee washer untier each head.
The diagonal bracing bºgins at first bºnt and
extentis across bridge in Uriangular system as shown.
Generally there are 4 lines of middle longitudinal
braces, and of low ºr longitudinal braces, 3xtending
1 span beyond foot of slope. The remaining spans
have 2 lines.
For pile bents (4 piles per bent spaced 3',5', 3%.
c to c) with banks 12’, or more high, no diagonal
braces need to be used if there are less than 10 spans
unless, there is danger of the bank slipping, when
they will be used in 2nu. and 3rd. spans from endſ
With 10 or more spans, uiagonals will be put in the
2nti. and 3rd. from each end. In no case shall there

--

G.W. 361 (15): F.4) TRESTLE PLANS 79
ba, more than 10 intermediate spans without diagonals.
Biagonal systems must always start, at caps, never
*Iower ends of piles. The threads of all bolts
must be checked close to the nuts. Drift, bolts
"t X 24"; head large enough to draw bolts.
Sway brace bolts 1" or with 4” of thread; allow 1"
extra length in making bill. Guard rail boits
as before. If top of the tie is > 16’. and 4.18'.
above ground, use 12” x14" ×16’ caps and place cuter
piles 3' 6", centers. Bents 8’ high or over to be
sway braced.
Trestles 1000’, or more long are to have hand
car turnouts, not over 500’. apart. A sill 6° x15" ×
10’, projects out from the track stringer on top of
, the cap at each of two adjacent bents; it is held at
one end by a 3/4" ×34", bolt through the cap and
at the other by an 8"×10" x14" brace froſſ, outside
: post. On these, 8" floor joists are placed, a 2"
: floor and an outside 6" ×8” guard timber.
- With pile bents a sheet metal (probably galvan-
ized iron) plate is put over the top ºthe pile,
and the sides bent down to shed water before the
cap is put on. Condensed from description by A. F.
Robinsºon : in the Engr. News, April 7th, June 9, ‘88.
Pl XXV, shows details somewhat different frcm

those in common use. They are giving good
service. Iron is now usually preferred for such
heights. -
. The lateral bracing is good; the longitudinal is
Well arranged, but the 3" x12" and 4” x12" braces seem
rather light for such great lengths: they act mainly
£y tension. It is believed that split sills would
* as strong as the solid ones, while they would allow
ºf renewals more readily.
: The advisability of using 25’ panels with the
straining beam style of support for the stringers

º:"
it. " .. - - !
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*". - ". -
r. - -
-- ". .
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º
-
º
C.W. § 62 (15). F. 4) WOODEN CULVERTS, CATTLE PASS
instead of shorter panels witncut it, will be que
vioned. Less material is used ; but, the floor s
unduly light, and the ties are shorter and spaced
farther apart than is considered good practice.
Without guard rails and rerailing guards at each end
the floor should not be regarded as safe.
The solid masonry footings are an excellent feature.
This is believed to be simpler and cheaper than the
cluster bent of Pl. XXI, but there are many reasons
ems .
why either might be preferred.
Plate XXVI shows a pile trestle with sway bracing
under the floor.
Plate XXVII shows the dimensions used on an east-
ern road of heavy traffic. -
The stringers and possibly the bents also, will
probably be found too light for the present heavy
train loads of the trunk lines. In the case of
an actual design the stresses, including those from
lateral and longitudinal forces, should be computed,
so that the unit stresses can be kept within proper
limits“..g., those recommended by the Com. of the
Assn. of Ry. Supts. of Bridges and Buildings.
For date on painting, framing, protection from fire

and decay, maintenance, ballast, floors, etc., for wooden
trestles; see Official Reports, Assn. Ry. Supts. Br.
and Bldgs, Chicago, 1898 -
- For a treatise, see Foster’s Wooden Trestle
Bridges, 3rd. Ed.
62. WOODEN CULWERTS AND CATTLE PASSES. The intro-
duction of wooden box culverts, and of pipe culverts,
has very much diminished the use of the pile or
frame bent open culvert. There is less, danger
from fire with the box culvert, and the continuity of
the , roadbed is unbroken, an advantage in track
maintenance, or in case of derailment. When used the
bents correspond to trestle bents; plank behind then
retain the bank; while the stringers are notched into
the caps to prevent the earth throst, from forcing
C.W. S. 63. (15). F.4) PILING 81
the bents togethe, Framed bents not supported on
piles may also require oracing apart at the bottom.
If the structure is to be replaced by a permanent
one, room should be left when possible, so that the
permanent structure can be constructed without dis-
turbing the bents.
If head room will allow, it is usually well to
maka the cattle pass wide enough for a farm crossing.
if a grade crossing can thereby be avoided. . . . -
ºr 12', clear is about a minimum height antf
width: 14' being preferable.
Pl. XXVIII shows two pile culverts and a timber
culvert all on different roads.
63. PILING. When only a few piles are to be
driven at a given point, the ordinary machine in
which the hammer, monkey or rain, weighing some
2000%, is drawn up by team and allowed to drop some
15’ to 40'. onto the pile is host convenient. --
As the amount of work in proportion to the cost
of transportation increases, the team can be re-
placed by a steam engine having a winding urum with
which to draw, up the weighu. The greater the rapidit
with which blows can be given (6 to 14 per minute
with nipper, 20 to 30 with friction clutch) allows of
reducing the fall, thus lessening the dangºr of
bruising the head of the pile. The steam-hammer
pile driver in which the weight is lifted by direct
steam pressure is also economical where transportat
tion is not a large percentage of the cost. The
drop is about 3’; weight of hammer 3500; blows per
minute 60 to 80. The greater rapidity & the blows
make up in part for the diminished fall; a pile driv -
ing easier if kept in motion than after an interval
of rest.
The water jet is also used for sanuy and other
fine soils, in some of which it is the only method
available. A stream of water is forced out near
the point of the pile and it then rises along the
sides removing most of the side and end resistance if
the soil is suitable, and allowing the pile to settle
---

|--
|
C.W. § 62 (16). F. 4) PILING 82
by its own weight, with or without an extra load.
Direct pressure is also sometimes used for muddy or
silvy soils saturated with water. The gunpowder
pile driver has been used, although not very success-
fully. Its results are similar to those with the
Sweam-hammer.
Cost of drop hamlker driver about $80.00 as com-
pared with $800. OO for the steam-hammer driver, the
amount in each case only including the driver proper.
Piles not continuously under water, should be of
, white oak, southern pine, or other durable wood, which
is hard enough to to stand the required amount
of driving.
Those in foundations where they will always be
untier water, can be of hemlock, spruce, elm or other
cheap wood. They should usually be driven without
Sharpening. -
For a comparison of the various formulas in use for
Computing the supporting power of a pile. See Piles_
and Pile Driving, Engrg. News Pub.Co.
The Engineering News formula is as general and
as reliable as any.
Safe load = < * h ( A b )
S + 1
where W = weight of hammer in same unit as safe load;
h = free fall in feet; s = averace ºnetration in
inches per blow for last few blows.
With vertical guides in good conui vion, h will bº.
within 2% of the total fall unless the hammer re-
bounds, the effect of which is uo divide the . Uhe
blow into two, anu reduce the effective h of the
first by the height of the rebound for perfect,
elasticity, or by about twice the height with the
inelastic bodies used. -
When the hajimer in fºlling sets the hoisting rope
and drum in motion, the loss in h can be computed
from the weight of the drum and its radius of gy-
ration, or from the time required for the fall.




|--
i.
--
C.W. § 63-(.. ) ) F-4) , PILING - 8.
ºf ºğ Šº #Fºº,
creasing for quite a number of blows. For reliable
results s should be checked by test blows after
various, intervals of rest; the difference - us -
ually will be mosu Hark+ d for soft, wet soil, and
lºast for coarse gravel and sand.
Water jet piles are usually driven where hammer
driven piles would not penetrate, giving about thax-
imum bearing values. In important cases, test
blows can be given and s measured.
Piles sunk by dead load cannot be depended
upon for much ſtore than the original load, except in
soft mud when by stanuing, the bearing power may -
increase many fold. Fet sººn-Yves-ºn a pºles whº
Safe load = 2 * h \e sºlosiºns:
s +0. 1 Q 7) (t )
The above safe loads must never exceed the safe
crushing resistance of the piles. -
The above is , for piles resisting by fric-
tion at the sides and point. If the pile passes
through soft, maverial and is supported by the point
resting on hard material, or if the top projects above
the surface, the free portion should be examined
&s a column.
Usually as the earuh sevtles around a newly driven
pile, the friction against the sides and the support-
ing power increase, a pile which has been allowed
to rest driving harder therefor.
This is especially true for fine, silty soils.
Occasionally, howev ºr, with clay, the vibrations due
to live loaus will loosen the earth at the surface
sufficienuly to allow water to work down uhe pile,
softening the earth and reducing the friction to
possibly enough less than the value at driving to
allow of settlement, with heavy loaus.
E. A. Hill, Railway Trestles, Engrg. News_Oct. 8, '87.
ºtes his practice to be uo" drive Jo a 2" penetra
- in with a 2300% hammer falling 20 fººt, Robinson,
Pls. XXIII, XXIV, ; 61, gives 1" penetration under
|
fºr
C.W. S. 64 (IT) F. 4) COST OF PILING 84
the same blow, as the limit, which may be required.
A 1" penetration was required on pile trestle,
and drawbridge foundation work, at St. Louis river
#1884 by the Northern Pacific. This would give b.
- - - _ 2 × 2000 × 20
Safe load IT = 40000; = 20 tons.
& distance between piles is usually limited to
/2’ centers, on account of the danger of forcing
whose already driven; the ordinary distance is 3'
e for light work it may be 4" to 5’.
Ex. 1 Find the height of masonry at 2 tons per
cu. ya. which could be carried on piles 3' centers
driven as above.
-height = 32.2° 37
2 x 9 = 30 ft.
For description of pile drivers for railroad work,
comparisons of different kinds, costs, driving,
batter piles, etc., See Engrg News index. Also
Engrg. Index. - ----------
64. COST OF PILING. Baker, Masonry Construction.
gives for the cost of piles: at Chicago and on the
Mississippi above St. Louis, 10¢ to 15¢ per lineal
foot, according to length and location, for pine piles;
84 to 10¢ for soft wood piles and rock oak, in al-
most any locality; 10¢ to 12¢ for oak 20' to 30'.
long; 12¢ to 144 for 30’. Uo. 40' lengths, 20¢ to
30¢, for 40 to 60’, lengths.
The contract price on the Mio. Pac. R. R. (data fur-
nished by W. Beahan, Locating Engr.) about 1888, for
handling and driving piles on new work was 30¢ per
lineal foot. * The piles cost 7t, f.o.b. cars,
and the freight was estimated at 6¢, making a total
of 43%. .*
At Nebraska City in 1888 (daua furnished by E.
Duryea, C. E., and A. J. Himes, C. E. ) the cost of re-
ceiving and driving the cottonwood piles for 1000".
of framed bent trestle, 4 piles for bent, bents 20’.



C. W. § 66 (in ) F. 4) ORE. PAC. HONE TRUSS BRIDGES 85
apart, was 8.7% per lineal foot in leads, or about
9. 74 under the caps; while that of receiving and
driving the oak piles for 2000' . of the same kind
of trestle in fins sand with friction clutch engin”
was 12.5¢ in lºads, or about 13.1% under caps. -
The contract, price for the N. P. R. R. St. Louis Bridg:
in 1884, piles delivered and driven complete, was 20%
per lineal font for the part left in the work, and
13; for tha angs sawed off after driving.
Baker, among other values, gives the cost -
to the contractor for driving on the A.T. & S. F. R. R-
in 1887, ahead of the track with urop hammer and hors
power, at 10.4% per foot, or $2.53 per pile of
24.8% ; average length driven 13’. Cost of labor;
foreman at $4.00, 6 men at $2.00, 2 teams at $3.50;
votal $23.00 per day; about 10% higher uhan in
1886 or '88.
65. WOOLEN RAILROAD BRIDGES. On the Mio. Pac. R. R.
in 1889 Howe Truss bridges for 3000; per foot train
load, and 80 won engines, cost exclusive of false " '
works, erected,
$12.00 per lin. ft for spans of 60’. out to out
13.00 75
With bridge lumber 3%, 11.90 per ki, f. 9. b. .on cars;
£3igº assumed at $2.00 ; contract price for hauling.
&nd "erecting on new, work ahead of urack, . £17.50;
total $30.50 per is "rought iron in finished pieces
cost about 32 (W.BEAhan, C. §.) Sºre ºcessº ºvov
For plans of Howe truss and combination bridges, see
Vose’s Manual for R. R. Engrs., also the College blue
prinus of the Northern Pacific standards. For plan:
of the older types, Sea Haupt's Bridge Construction.
46. OREGON PACIFIC HONE TRUCS BRIDGES.
The following quantities were given in Engrg. News,
April 26th. '90, together with the strain sheets.


C. V. 66 (in ) F. 4) ORe. Pac. HOWE TRUSS BRIDGES 36
T TABLE IX
- Tºrtºn - - -
Sº, tº º º 'º,
9 8 30t, 360 5060 592Q 10163 217O 970
9 × 393 360 5060 5220 6750 1939 & 1210
11 x 40t 400 4600 5500 13358. 298 O 1070
9 x 40:1 400 4800 5500 9362 328J 1550
11 x 50t. 450 42OO 5150 19025 5610 2880
11 × 50d 450 4200 5 150 12861 4710 2830
12× 60t, 540 3860 4900 22785 6790 3660
12 x 600 540 3860 4900 29702 fºo() 3830
13 x 70t, 600 3640 4740 2.99.31 9260 8260 8210
13 × 70% 600 3640 474O 276 17 842O 7980 7610
1f "x 80t, 620 3600 4720 35.388 11860 9790 10260
14 × 80g 620 3600 4720 32764 10190. 9730 912O
15 x 90t, 720 3560 4780 42709 1517O 1253O 13440
25×89 + 720 3560 4780 41383, 17880,18269 15150
ſ #5 x 90-720 3560 4780 40690 13220 iè710 11820
25 x1OOt 800 3500 4800 43892 22580 14290 18950
18 x 100d 800 3500 4800 +6454 18040 13990 16040
§ - #3: 32 3:33 #3 º ; ; ;
zº x 1ſt 940 33 4749 & 2035 368; SO 15290 x 60 to
18 × 110d 880 3400 4780 50295 19400 14950 1632)
19 × 1214 940 3300 474O 592.54 23080 18520 19580
23 × 130t, 1000 3200 4700 70.128 37050 20830 3018O
39 × .1301 1992 3392 4799 3877& £7332 824%. 23539
21 ×1393 a 1059 3159 4799 7633 32640 23260 27860
25 x 160%, t 1100U 3100 4700 85632 48030 27O60 39140
22 x 150%a1100 3100 4700 86053 °sº £140 33390
The dead floor 1933, is 500; per foot. The spans -
àre c to c of enu’óints. The assumed loads are in
pounus per foot of span for bridge. The through
bridge is marked t, the deck, d.
• The timber is in feet B. M.; the iron in pounds;
-** the first column of “w bought iron” is for threads
*" cut on vension members of constant cross section;
the second is for tension members with ends upset


C.W. 368. (An) F. 4) COST OF TIMBER WORK 87
* for threads, it is an alternate and should not be ad-
ded to the first. The assumed live loads are in-
tenuatl i to give as great stresses as the wheel
loads below: ("Sº Fig. S
Tre's sks”:3"10 S S Sé's sº n'é" + stre+?"toº & sº . ~~
g"g #3 "º"gºº" "3.3°3*.*.*.*.*.
C o & C 3 2 5 # 3. 3 # 3 2 © C, C Cº-
2 : 5 § 3 § 3 ; 9 2 3 & # 3 3 g 3 33
# *śā, # 3 # 3 ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; #
- ~ a r > 2. -> → ~ +/ >! ſt
& CCCC 55 & 5.6 OOOC) O Gº O O ſ
- - 1
The load on a panel length of chord as a beam is
assumed = 14000%. Wrought iron in tension 10000;
per E.". of net section ; wood in compression 1/6 to
1/8 of breaking by the formula f = ′00 ''
5000/(1+ .004 is /ü); wood in tension usually 800%
to 1000% (500; to ,800%) in shortest spans).
In deck spans the upper and lower laterals are com-
puted for a dead load of 150; per foot, one-half the
former anu all the latter being given over at the
leewaru panel points, the sway bracing at each panel
Carrying: hºlf thº, live loag to, the lower system. In
through #############. the lower sys-
tem 300%. The allowed stresses being 13000% to
1500 ºf or iron, and 1/4 to 1/5 the breaking for wood.
| " . 67. OVERHEAL WOODEN HIGHWAY BRIDGES. Pls.
ÅÅIX and XXX show the standards used by the A.T. & S. F."
R. R.. The mud sills should be replaced by masonry
whenstene are plenty and the foundation good. The
7" x 16" ×32', floor joists would seem to be rather
| voo flexible for a good bridge. The double floor,
thoughſ often used increases decay, unless preserved . .
vimber is used.
68. COST OF TIMEER WORK. The cost of timber will
Wºry with market quotations usually, although in
- _ " some localities it may be only the.
direct cost of cutting and sawing. The cost of
transportation is readily determined. In estimating
_y Cartage, 20 miles is about a maximum average day’s
" work for a team, the distance lessening with bad roads
ºr with an increase of the percentage vime required
for loading and unloading.
-
*
*.
* Nº.
\ .

C. v. $ 68 (in) F. COST OF TIMEER WORK 88
A rough rule sometimes used by carpenters, is to
estimate what the cost of handling, framing and
erecting , will be the same as that of the timber
delivered. -
The cost of frºming, etc. for tha 186583’. B. M.
of contonwood (benus of round gimber) used in the
1000' . Urestle of § 64 was: f forward 871. 24
Receiving timber $91.94 Capping piles 61. 73
Hauling timber 163.59 Erecting trastle 174.82
Framing 415.71 Watchman, etc. 174. 17
671. 24 2031.96
$2081.96/186583 = $11. 16 per k. The average haul
was 600ft. The cost for the 2000’, pine and Oregon
fir trestle, for the same items as above; sawed tim-
ber average haul 1000’, was 638187° E. M. at
$4938.42, or $7.74 per M. -
. The contract price on the Mo. Pac. in 1889, for
bridge timber is given in § 64. For trestle decks,
the price for framing and erecting, on new
work ahead of track, was $15.00.
E. A. Hill, paper before Ill. Soc. Engrs., Engrg. News, .
Oct. 22, '87, states in substance as follows;
‘when estimates of cost are made for the trestles
of an entire line, they are often averaged at $30.
per k. B. M. of timber, but above certain sizes vimbe.
increases so rapidly in price that in individual
structures detailed plans anu estimates are necess an
Ordinary low pile trestles will cost not far from
$4.00 per lineal foot, the price varying with the
plan and with the price of material. An average
of 3 ...'... 1-story sill trestles of moderate heights.
*gives 78’ of timber, 3% of bolts, and 2 1/4} of
cast, washers, per lineal foot of trestle; or about
39% of bolts, and nuts, and 28% of washers per M.
foot of timber. Again a couple of 2-story sill
- C. v. 9.69. (An) Fº) COMP. WOODEN TREST. & EHBKT. 89
trestles of entirely different design, 32', and 34’.
high, and 20', and 26’. span, respectively, at $30.00
per M, cost about $6.00 per lineal foot; with about
40% of bolts and 30% of cast washers per li foot of
timber. The labor on trestles will probably range
from $7.00 to $14.00 per M. Piling on heavy con
tracts may be ordinarily estimated at 25¢ per ft.
for piles driven, allowing about 12'. ft. for the por-
tion in the ground in clayey soil in Indiana and -
about 18 ft. on prairie. Bolts cost about 34 per lb.
and cast washers 24.
Yellow and white pine are the rule for stringers,
oak being considered treacherous as subject. ºo in-
ternal decay.
69. COMPARISON OF WOODEN TRESTLE AND EMBANKliºn T.
The following Tables are given by Foster , Wooden
Trestles, pp. 4-5.
- TABLE X
COST OF EN.BANKMENT TO SUBGRADE PER STATION,
EXCLUDING RAILS, TIES, AND BALLAST.
- Embankment per cu, yūs. in cents. Roadbed
Height 14'. Slopes 1 1/2 to 1
16¢ 184: 2O3: 22¢
5 $64 $72 $80 $38
1O 113 127 141 155
15 325 366 4O6 447
2O 521 587 652 718
25 764 859 955 1050
30 1049 1180 1312 1443
35 1380 1552 1725 1897
40 1754, 1974 2193 2412
45 2174. 2446 2717 2.989


* C.W. & 70. (In). F. ) c_STEEL BRIDGES 90
- - TABLE XI
COST OF TRESTLE EXCLUDING RAILS, GUARD RAILS AND
TIES, HEIGHT TO SUBGRADE
Timber erected (including iron. ‘pººr NA E, NA
Pile trestle , piling 33¢ per Framed
ft. in place, penatration 10 trestle
Ht. $30 $35. $40 $30 $35 340
5 $376 $407 $439 $283 $330 $378
1O 441 476 512 385 449 514
15 508 544 589 ºr 464 541 618
2O 576 613 6, 1 541 631 721
25. 7.43 803 858 796 928. 1060
30 816 872 92.8 872 1017 1163.
35 990 1085 1140 1058 1234 1410
4O 105.7 1132 1218 1133 1322 1510
-- 45 1202 1404 1606
TABLE X II
COST OF TRESTLE COMPLETE INCLUDING FLOOR
HT Pile Frameſ
$30. $35. $40. $30 $35 $40
5 $5.46 $605. $665. $453 $528 $604
10 6-11 674 733 555 647 74O
15 6-78 742 806 634 739 84.4
2O 746 811 877 711 829 94.7
25 918 1001 1084 966 1126 1286
30 986 1O7O 1154 1042 1215 1389
35 1160 1263 1366 1229 1432 1636
40 1227 1332 1444 1303 1520 1736
45 1372 1602 1832
The cost of embankment will usually be increased
by the cost of the masonry required for drainage.
73. STEEL BRIDGES These are usually designed and
built by bridge companies under general specifiea-
tions furnished by the railroad engineer. He is thus
chiefly concerned with the cost, strength, safety and
durability, and with the required masonry.
Many of the larger railroad companies have a bridge
department, and design their own bridges, even to the
working drawings, before inviting bids.

C.W. & 70ſ 17) F. 5) STEEL BRIDGES 91
Bridge steel, as it leaves the shop ready for erec-
tion, will cost from 3/4¢ to 2 1/24 per lb. more
than the same material at the rolling mill, dependin
on the kind of work and the state of the market.
To this must be added the freight, and cartage to
the bridge site and the cost of erecting and
painting. The cost of erecting will average from
1/24 to 14 per lb. for plate girders and pin con-
nected bridges, and painting about 1/10 as much. Th
makes a total of 3 1/24 to 74 per pound.
The weight of iron or steel per foot for light
bridges can be found from Pl XXXI. The ties, guard
rails, etc., of the floor system, and the masonry,
must be added for total cost.
Pl. XXXII, based on North, Pac. H. R. practice in .
1902, will give weights of steel for heavier
traffic.
The following tables will aid in finding
the change in waight due to a change of span or
of live load, having given the actual weight for a
given span and live load.
Comparative Weights, Steel Ry. Bridges. H. Breen,
Con. Engr., Denver, Col.
TABLE X III. DECK PLATE GIRDERS.
*
Span I II III IV, W. WI.
2O 116 122 130 140 150 16O
25 169: 181 193 2O7 220 335
30 231 243 266 - .285 305 327
35 307 332 357 380 4O6 435
40 398 430 460 490 52O 550
45 5O2 536 573 6O7 640 675
50 617 655 693 730 772 812
55 74O 780 824 - 865 913 95.3
6O 87O 914 964 1010 1058 1103
65 1010 1063 1116 117O 1223 1277
7O 116O 1223. 1234 1345 1408 1470
75 1308 1384. 1452 1525 1598 1670
80 1457 1543 1620 1705 1787 1870
85 1808 1703 1788 1885 1975 2O68


c. v. § 70 (17) ºf ) STEEL BRIDGES #2
TABLF xIV, TFUSS SPANS: ;
+ & ſºn I II III IV, V. WI
100 1OO 105 110 115 120 125
110 116 12.3 12i; 135 141 147
120 134 142 150 157 . 165 173
30 154 18:3 173 181 1:1 201
140 176 137 198 2O 2:18: 230
150 200 212 225 238 250 262
160 226 240 255 269 283 296
170 355 272 288 302 317 333
18O 288 305 322 339 355 373
190 d20 339 358 377 3-5 416
200 355 J75 396 416 º “º 462
210 392 41: 3 437 460 484 510
22O 431 454 482 507 532, 561
230 471 44-8 52.4 557 583 - 616
240 513 545 578 810 638 674 ;
250 556 54:4 628 663 697 733 .
* Col. I for 33.5 Lon Con. engines + 3000; * *
II 102 3200
III 110.5 3400
IV 119 3600
W, 127.5 3800
W.I 13°) 4OOO
Waudell, Le Pontibus, gives the following for the
change in dead load with change in span for a
constant live load per foot.
: A ſ 1’, l’ ‘,” ( tº)
W-e ----- --- + \- ; -
* . [. l º / /
where W and W’, are the weights of trusses per foot,
He also gives for the sºme span
Tº = # (1 + 4 p" Y (1 ºn
- -
th
where T’. and T are tha truss w8ights per foot, and
p and p’. the live loads per foot.
º ---
- X --->- -
º Tº cºw \o tº ºf ºr kos- sº ****\,\, \\\\\a ºncºves


*..., 71 (19) Fº ) IRON TRESTLES 93
He claims these to be accurate for ordinary spans.
and to give too great differences for very long spans,
The waight of iron in highway briuges can be taken
from Pl XXXIII. The timber can be roughly convected
into ft. B. l. by dividing the weight by 3 1/2, the oak
| plank weighing about ’ſ, 4 1–/4; pºr fu. B. i., and the
pine joists about 2 1/2, if white or , 3, , if yellow.
Timber wall plates are quite common unuer small
Span iron R. P. bridges ; they serve as a cushion reliev-
ing the masonry and bridge.
71. IRON TRESTLES. For trastles, Pegram (from whose
formulas Pi. XXXI is constructed) gives for Mogul en-
gines followed by a train load of 1820; per lineal ft.
Wt per ft. = 330 + 7 1/3 x average ht. (20)
, Wellington adds for 3 coupled consolidation engines
* , 375 + 8 1/3 × average height
"t. per foot = } (1,1)
390 + 3 2/3 × average height
the two values expressing an uncer vainty within
those limits. The waight is in pounds for the iron.
only, and the heights from top of masonry (piers).
These are both too light for modern trunk line
traffic.
The ordinary spans are alternately 30’ and 60’.
Without much regard to the height of the trestle;
longitudinal bracing is placed under the 30'. spans
Joining the bents in pairs forming towers capable of
Fesisting the longitudinal forces due to starting
*nd stopping trains on the track.
The trusses (plate girders) are placed from 6’ 6”
to 8', or 9 apart; the posts are in vertical planes
*nd batter about 2" per foot, as seen in cross section.
* masonry pier is usually placed under each post
at being some 4"...or 5’ U at the top, and large enough
the base to reduce the pressure to some 2 tons
Per C.'on firm earth; while an abutment is placed
*t each end.
The piers for the Brookton trestite on the E.C. & N.
y, built in 1888, were 9’ x 9’. on the foundations;

C.W. & 72 ( ; ) Fº.) BRIDGE Fºot's 94
resting on 2'. of concrete where the earth was firm,
and on 9 piles covered with 10”. of timber, where
the bottom was soft, and under rater. 2, 1 1/4” anchor
bolus were built in from the botton, and extended
up through the shoe plates of the posts; ºuts screwed
on from above rendering the whole waight of the mason:
ry available for anchorage against overturring.
The cap or coping stone was about 4' × 4' ×13’ -
The contract price was $7.75 per cu. yu. which prob-
ably included uhe excavation; the acuual cost gas
$10.00 on account of the trouble from water.
73. Divludº FLOORS. Some of the requireiſen us for
a tood wrestle floor ware given an $60. In a utivotagu
oridge, or oſie with uſe side vrusses above une urack,
vie safety of the structure now only uépérigins upon
keeping the train from Eoing utirough the iloor; Luv
also wºod keeping it from swinging to une sièe lar
enough to sufi Ke Lhe vruss. Its Laviſºr ºr u of
Fºl. AAXIV, is cominentled by , haſly railroad engineers.
as being one of the best saleguarus in use. The re-
railing device proper consists merely or 4 inclined .
planes of cast iron, 2, inside anti 2 outside the z
main rails and firmly bolted woºther as shown.
The outside planes are flush with the top of the
rail for the rºar half or third of their 15uzuh,
and the whº el rides up to them on its Ilºng-; thus
Imaking the outside a hººl of larger diaine tºr for thº.
Inoment, so that, it will tend of its ºlf to roll back
upon Ghº track, the inside plane positively in-
Sures, this. It begins just before the crotch of the
rails, becomes so nºt row that there is not rooia iri
it for the entire thickness of the derailed a heel.
It then has a very quick rise, so as to lift the
wheel at once to a position where the tread can work :
over onto the rail, but after this has been once in-
Sured the wheel is left to roll on its tread, so
that the inside plane is at no point within about
1 1/4” of the top of the rail. In this way the wheels:
are put back on the tracKvery gently and cervainly.
The flaring guard rails are to catch the wheels and

}. W. 47%. (...).") RIL34 . . LOORS 95
bring them within the range of the central guard
rails; while the heavy posts are us signeu, in case th
car is uncontrollable, to break the coupling and de-
flect the car from the bridge, thus insuring the
safety of the oridge aſlu of utie from u &uu of the
train. The cost is estimateu by the News of Feb. 12
’87, as follows: -
500; cºst iron, rºrailin-2 blocks at 1, 5¢, 57.50
1173/. B. M. in posts and guard rails beyonii bridge,
315'. B. M. in extra lengths of
cles – 1437’, or 1500'. B. M. a.c. 530.00 £45. GO
30’. of olti ralls, worth Go Co. sºy 1:8 per #4 d. OO
23 &lari rail jolts say: 4.00
lº, Dor, & UC., say 7, 50
$ 70, OO
or, from $120.00 to t160.00 ºar bridge.
The Jordan guard, in use on the Mich. Cent, Ky., has
also many ºxcellent, features. It consists of
three equidis want parallel rails between the main
cºils, their ends being bent down and passed through
boles in a plate at the end , of the bridge so as
not to catch &ny broken or drº-ging parts. Thus,
however badly broken the car, the guard forms skid-
ways, and guides upon whiêh the car or engine slidès,
if it will not roll; so in any rails, close uogether,
tending to prevent any part from dropping down
3nd catching on the ties • - -
All the rails, except the center one are fºstened
down with Bush interlocking bolts on alternave ties.
The central one is bolted to each tie by a bolt
passing through the base of the rail.
The plate over the 2nds of the ºuard is of wrought
icon about 4’. > 5’ x 3/8"; it is, spiked to 4 ties
with 4 spikes per ties -
The ordinary outside Łużgdi vimbers are also used.
No attempt is made to re. Tº the wheels, but simply
to hold them in place with reference to the center
line and allow, the derailed parts to slide over
the bridge without catching into the ties. See
Engrg. News Aug. 16, '90.
-"
3. W4 573. (*, *) F.F.) CATTLE GUARLS 96
With skew bridges (abutments oblique to rack)
whº floor stringers' supportinº; + track should enti
with the same vie, so that as the ballasted roadbed
waries in height, relatively to the floor, there will
be no side lurch to the train.
0n soine roads, 3ravel ballast is coining inuo use
on the short span floors. It is sup-
ported by a solid covering over the floor beams anti
anu stringers, of plates and aneles, wrough-shaped
sections, euca, having a depth of 4 to 6 inches for
3 diffness. L333 noise and vibration result from the
treater dead floor load, and 4 more nearly continuous.
roadbed is secured. See Enfºrge NºS., March 23, '89,
March 1, '90; Nov. 15, Oct. 11, ’94, atc.
'Træstles are often placed on curvºsº. With timber
there sºams to be no fixed methou of elevatin: the
outer rail; sometimes, the Uop of the bent is cut
off at an angle so that title cap a lil be inclin-d.
for the propºr elevavion; *.*, other times the cap is
horizontº.1, &nd the insid- stringer notch-d, or the
inner &nus of this viès nouched down onto the suring-
ers. It would seem as though the best method is
to incline the caps, unless corbels are used untier
the stringers, when if preferred, whº elevation can'
be provided for in their thickness . For Howe
truss oritises, it can be allowei for in the thick-
2ss of the longitulinºl strinºrs between the
ties, and floor be ºns. For iron work, &hº tops of
the stringars can be at differs nº heights to allow
for the *lsvation', or shins or an ºuxl notching
of the ties can be used. eq
CHAPPER VI.
- - º - "-- -

ROAU83D, TRACK, etc.
73, GATTL*, 33ARDS. Pl. XXXV, is amont; the best of
the pit forms of ºuachi. i2.sonry ºus rus, unless inade
of heavy blocks of £ius cut stone, and protected
abova by a cushion of wood, shake a part in a short,
time, . Parely slat, ºuards are open wo the objeo-
tion of filling with snow, unless kept oleºnāā, and

C.W. 974. (*) )**) Faack Laytnº, 97
of presentinº an appearance of solidity which may
not warn off cattle; hence the reason for the pit.
If a piº, is use i, the safety of grains requires that
the ties be used above it, ºnii if ties are used, .
longitudinal slats are considered uscessary to Keep
cattle off (although omitted often) giving the
form shown. -
Pl. XXXVI shows uno' forms of surface guards, one
of wood and Gh- outler of iron. With ºne ordinary
type of surface or slat, guard, it has been found
difficult, in some localities to prevent people from
tearing up the slats in order to make a conveniant
path for walking. In both the above, each section
is fas vened together by bolts and can be Illoved as a
whole by taking out the heavy lagsscrews by which it,
is held on the ties. This is readly done by the
trackmen for track repairs. The chamfering of the
slats at the ends is a detail which should new = c
be omitted, as it avoids the possibility of catching
a hanging brak+ chain. The iron guard was adopted
as the stanuaru by the New England Roadmaster's
Association in 1889. It is wholly of iron and is
simple in construction. About 3000 are now in use.
Price at works $25.00; width over all 10’, lºngth
with rail 3’ > weight 575% uo 600i.
In placing the iron guard, 3, 10'. Lies are
placed 9". 2' ou u go out, and doxei 1" unuer whé rail,
or the intermediate viss are shimmed down. 1" so
that the guard will only have enu bearings. It will
thus vibrate should stock autempu to cross. It -
will not prove thoroughly efficient, with intermed-
iate supports. The ballast is only allowed to come
up one-third the height of the tie, so as to turn
sheep and hogs. The end posts of the wing fences
are of angle iron set in the long ties. .
The Bush Cattie Guard Co. of Kalamazoo, Mich, make a
steel surface guard similar to the National, 9', long,
weight 475%, at $20.00 f.o. b. (Aug. '91).
74. TRACK LAYING. This is usually begun at points
of a line accessible by rail or water, and carried on
consegutively from them so that the material can
be transported to the distant portions by rail over


f
C. W., & 74ff (2.1.) F. 5) TRACK LAYING 98
over the line itself. In order to prevent the
“iron” or rails from being kinked by the supply trai
which passes over the track before it is haliasted,
a gang of graders should keep ahead, and under the
direction of an engineer, bring the roadbed careful-
ly to grade, from grade stakes set 100', apart, allow-
ing for elevation of outer rail of curves. The ties,
if, uniform thickness, when evenly spaced, about 16
per rail, will then form an even support for the rail,
until the track can be ballasted.
Latimer (Road Master’s Assistant) estimates that

to lay an average of 1/2 mile per day, the ties being
distributed ahead, and the iron and other materials
delivered by a construction train up to the end of
the track, will require a gang of 30 men with a fore-
man, an iron-car with rollers and a horse. The num-
ber of men and teams required to distribute the
ties will vary so much with the way they are dé-
livered that, no fixed rule can be given.
On a branch of the Pan Handle R. R. , some 150
miles long, built in 1888, F. S. Bissell, Ch. Engr. *
track laying was contracted at $300.00 per mile for
skeleton track; no surfacing and but enough back fill.
ing to keep the ties from bunching. The ties were
probably brought up with the rails by the supply train
by the company.
The method of track laying on the Western Division
of the Canadian Pacific Ry. is thus described
( J.C. James, Engrg. News, Nov. 15, '84); The construction
train brought up materials from the nearest, side
track; the trains were usually of flat cars, Che ties
came in loads of 300 to a car, the rails ware laid
on the cars, 30 pairs uo a car, on which ware 5 boxes
of spikes, weighing 112* = ach, 60 pairs of fish
plates and one box of bolts.
The ties were loaded into carts and carved ahead
on the dump, distributed, spaced anti lined for a Con-
siderable distance ahead of the Crºck layers.
When uhe rails were unloaded the train was back=d
up to uhe furthest point anu the rails thrown off


i
*
C. Vi. # 74. (0.1). F.9) TRACK LAYING 99
the cars in equal lots on each side; the engine
then went ahead, and a trolley drawn by horses was
tºun up, on which 15 pairs of rails, with the necessary
fish plates, bolts and spikes were put. When the
trolley reached the last laid rail, a pair of rails
was dropped, gaged, and then the trolley run forward.
The gang followed, linking on the fish plates and
was in turn succe:ded by the spikers; the first gang
spiked the ends and cºnter and the rest followed,
spiking each third tie, till tha. whole rail was
Secured. While this was being done the remaining
bolts were put in and the fish plates fastened
Securely. By the time the last rail was thrown off,
the length was completed, a second trolley brought
up another loºd, the first, being thrown off the rails
to let it pass. By unis arranzº illent, the ſilen were

-
never idle, ºriu whº work progressºu ragiuly. The
track gant, consistºtt of 250 ſtºn; th: ºverage lionthly
progress was from 3 1/, vo 3 1/4 miles per uay; on
each of 4 different tºys 4 miles w = tº laid,
A gang of 150 surfactºrs follow =d; th: track was
lifted and line 1; whº shoulu-rs of the oxaks
were taken off anti the material uszti Uo talap under
the ties, filling tº twº ºn the railsº" above whº to ps
of the Uj..s. 'l'hº surfaczºrs, kºpu up with whº
track tºng; ºne matériºl stººd water a gil; and uti:
rails kept a good surface with vrains ºf 35 to 30
miles per hour; no ballas & Deing us - d. Mºuhous of
track lºying by Iſlachin: ry, forc - ſº quired, with cost
*nd speed, ar- ziven in ºngre N=ws, 33, p. 3.
The material is all brought up by the train, engine
in the rear, anu run forward to the front by some sort
of track, or set of rollers, along whº flat cars,
uhe ties being delivered ºudu (, 30'. &head of the vraiſ,
and placed for une second rºll lenzut, naile uſe
rails are lºid ...for ºne firs w; the train is
when advanced 30', and ºne process repeateu.

T
---
C - - & - - - - r - --- ----- ------
C. W. J & 75 ( 7 }*. 4) 230Bu S.T.TION 103
The cosº of the rails, spikes, joint fastenings, and
Lies, can be found from market quovations, with freigh
added. The wºight of rails will depend upon whº
expected wraffic, varying from 50% to 100 # ºr yard;
uhău of the spikes ºn 1 joint fasu-nings can be found
in Trautwinº. This ties should be about 7" x 8" x
8 1/2", and will cost, if of oak, chestnut, or yellow
pine, from 30¢ to 750 apiece; the actual cost
for getting ou v and hewing caatiy for hauling, Le-
ing, according to Trauuwine aroul 39 to cºw. . -
The amount of Dallast can be colºuved from $ 75.
allowing for whe vies. Its cost, tielivered can be
compuu.eu from une cosu of earthwork. The cost
of ballasving whº wrack will pro dº oly be some
twice as ſuch as wo load and spread the flavºrial,
tie pentting on vil: d=pûh fill&i. Ci-zan &ravºl ſtakes
sood ball as v, Croken stone is also tood Luv extensive,
Trautwine as tiimates what 3 ſilan can break 3 to 4
cubic yarus fºr 43 y of hard quarried stone vo cubes.
ºvarasińe 3" on the side.
Trap rock, broken with a crusher vo pass through
a 2 1/2” ring, cosus f.o.b. at Loºt ... or car zuoul,
il.00 per cu, yu. … whº guarcies it, New Jersey adu
along the Hudson.
75. POEL ºu SºCſ ION. Pi. XXAVII shows some of the
standard sections for gravel, ſlui, anti broken
stone. Greau cºre should be u akari to hºv * Ch: £arth
under whe bºl lºst sinooth Lo grºw £nt water from
suantling and soaking in, 41.4 Lo havº &ooti sid:
ditches in all cuts to prºv ºut wavºr 1 coin tº aching
whº roadbºu from whº sidºs. joo, drain 4tº, is assau-
vial for good vrack. Fºro Kºu is von do - 3 not hol.
tiºs later ally as well 4's rºw ºl; hºwſ.c Ché tº ison'
for 'illing at whº end of the viº: surf-cº. ºlope
is not essenviºl, as a 3 ver flows throu. ..., not over.
"hº ballast, nºr Chº Lop ai. 1 ºro and ºt, vi-S should
bº broken fin enough uo pºss throus 1 1/2" rint,
and oº is unifori, is lossiblº.


s, uosaac - 3.11" nºt sod ºu" rºut ‘pivod put º so:
Guº Jº ºsti Iga-tiº º so; uſ ºotic J & H. "SEQ, ſº "Alz,
- “ºuſtºdº go
nsoo try sºlouſ etºdºſ suoo “Kaº unco te As I up KT
-Tºgoºds: 'us') Jo tº ‘go’, Jº tº 14 AC Jo Jºut ºft'ſ dº tº
Jo a suédx+ eu', 's-a ſni wa sanco . o żups sodo I* Ad Jo
Jepnin ſix 'A Jonoºg stººs Kaº A acti G.1% Agua and esn
up ost", a 1% sentſ of azucar.” •ºg ºf "COOCL4. Jo
3 huetºº seatſ tº ºn Yºuzseada.1 “Jºe & Jed CO'CCº.
snogº nº pantuitºsº ºuted eouzuan upºu put e^u%puenav,
Joj aunourt stºº tuoſº eledo up ºutpueº uº Joj Art
-ano huvºº stico v. nº 'uotº onaºsuco dog & Tºno ITtºurs
ºnq ºut 11 nt -d ºut; tı Ko pen gaedo ÁIIºns n euº Asun
:A.1% unoo spuº try sºutssojo quº, Jojuſt ºt, esn uomºtoo
** {nt up eat sº "seº Aq tºo sº cad usu w ºdourſ:
udeº sº; up pºst £ tuo put “put tºur up tº e^{qpuo-Id
*II*opºlov. 13 s.1% Kºtº : sticagºuº eat sºups coio gº.it)
•r etiopºueſi
used Apºgatº, 2 agú spaw; nº e Innºo eqn :3tugssolo gua
uo.1, & v qote cIIIſ */T anon* xocan suº aven a sod
a tº stus do nºuya, º ostº, ‘red ºrt ea et tºps ºrigtiaº, º ż
“ºutssc.io zun jo º soo aun on ment
trº attºpp's 'seuozoad,” eToºndogmoo aat" ch =ouzºsºp
nucyof J.Jns º dog ºno ac [It] e ºut 11n'ſ 2.1 "At wººtu sun
Moteq do saoqº neej 'Maj tº ec III w xoe Jº eu: ATTºnsſ,
ord wous do sºlo Tºd ºut?ue ex 1.11 s on a scaj Ko dr. Rut
–3tty Jös Muttd euº moug a sºut; p sº saeun denuſ M ul
• Jewsuº II, “ºut [It] tº at-of unyi, "Tº a zuº ºpts
uoga xut Td v. Fºssoao Kazutpac dog • Tººd euº, Jo
doº, eu, u', tº Tºntº ºr ITT M ×uº tº ºut ºu" os in
2.11ng ºd tºo sº tº tº *****I*t'ſ Tzºu's Joj stººd gun
sitsut 2/1 2 Jo dº e ºut ag-T ºut td ,” on 22 unt w
‘satº Jo any sºno on ºpt sº no pooj pºxtie Id -q pinous
£3trºsso.1o nurº, Jodtºry mºon! -uj, "SFNIS CHO nº CH 94.
• STIſ J up u-un ejo'ſ ,g on ,tº tºo.1ſ Jo's euonºp
apps - tº Joy MoTT4 on sº no up dangº.1% uºnoue sq
plnous epºx?qns ºv, unn tº hºtº º ox'ſ ºu" and Fuyaq
ÁI.182 to not of euopºlogs euº go attoº “setº eun.
MoTag 29 atmos utonºco unfº "setº own tree wheq peogld
xod pedeus tº no.1" tº Kn szoº an enº Jo euo ssodoº
nautºn St Lontrº Tº.1" tiao ºut “woº.1% aſqmop untº
TOI Sºº ( : ( t ) 445 1A-0 -
-


C.V l ; 78 (21) F.5. ESTIMATE FOR TRACK 102
(Track) prefers full round posts, rather than split
ones, not less than 4 1/2" in liameter, of cedar or
chestnut, 8’ long, placed 8’. apart, with 3’ in the
ground, either set in dug holes, or sharpened anti
driven in holes dug 1 1/2", teap. The boards are
usually of pine, hemlock, or lumber cheap for the
localiuy, 16' long, 1" which, anu from 6" to 12"
wide. . On the ou usiae of une boarus, a 1" × 6" ×4".
Lauven snoull ue a-lied to secure the joluv. 126
nails should de used 121 vue boxcls an a 12d for
whebau vēns,
Barbed wire is in exceasiv 2 use, as geolºlly in was “asu
Fºr souts &iwas 16'. *s, * ſa’aziliata ulsuºſic- tor posva-
5 surands are pré tº cred with 4 tor 4 + . . . . ... "
uiniuluia. A wo: oo ºr 1 or 91aak is soluttlines added to
renuer uhe ience ſhort visible for is vock.
*ow ºn wire tºucº is rºluxy Colling invo use iſ,
glace of barbed wire. Parsons, givās, whº followius'
guan vivies for 1 ºil: 2: 9su and board isnce: 4
boarus high with ºvems, 235 vs 3". Agar v, 350 gosus;
1320 ooºcis, 6" x 1" x 13”. = 10530'. B. M.; 330 0+ wºens
3" x 1" x 4'. - 1340' E. M. 250 s nails; 35 days' lºor.
For 1 sile barbed wire féuce, 5 wires hiº, gos us
12’. ºr v, 440 gosus; 2,3400'. wice, about 440 + get
Surani - «00+; 75+ stagles; 37 iºys" i-, Jon,
73. 35's IAAirS FOR ONE, MILE OF TRACK. the follow-
in 3 approximave average is given by Trauta lúa,
4 xixor 51.75 per lay.

3rºbbiu: Anii cla ºr in 3 3 Acrºsº a v 550 $150.
Grading. 20000 cu. y is, of earwhaw 35? 7000
- - - , , , 2000 rock at $1.00 2000
Masonry.culzaros, ºr ins, Auvinenus or swall
bridges, raw.iminº walls, etc. -
400 Cul- y lºs - **, $3.00 3200
Ballast,3000 ca. 9 is. broken stone $1.00 3000
__ 15:59
H.
--
C.V. 5.79ſ 1) Fä) COS'ſ P3R L. FI.
Cross ties, 2640 & 60¢ delivered
RAils
Spikes
Rail joints
Lºying track
, 60% vo. a yaru, 96 tons 3330 delivered
| SHO delivery ºldng the linæ
Fencing, only one-half length fenced
Small wooden bridges, trestles, siuings, road º
crossings, cautile guards, etc.
Lanu damages
Engineering, superintenuance, officers of
Co., stationary, instruments, rents, law.
expenses, eub.
Y
Aud for outfit for op
Total
. 103
Over . D IS3S0
1584
2880
150
3OO
300
6OO
450
10OO
1000
.2386
26300
eration, also for vunnels, etc.
79 COST PER LINEAL FOOT ANL PER ...IL3 OF SINGLE
TRACK, RAILROAL SUPERSTRUCTURE, PENNA. R. R. STANLARL-
| Nº cº-ex cºu
| Tecſº- • 3.
Based on contract prices was .
No. 1 Quality New St, *el Rails
353 per Ya. , 70; per Yū.
| 133.5% per
rº-º-º-º: … ----- "T
| Cost ſpºr -
Cost per
110T. per k. £4.25 per
| 60¢ per Yg
-
*AL -
Cost pºr T
-
º
-1
. . . . . .ile foot ºile; foot hile foov.
| Fails £4074, 77° 3355' 64; 3376 i34:
|Joints 578; 11 550 10 if 50 10
Ties 1848' 35 1848, 35 2112 40
#Spikes 150 3 150, 3 150 33
|Lºor LayingTr. 525, 15, 52% 15 525 13 |
Tóvai I Zizā 1.35 6431, 1.23 6213 $117.
sºlº sº tº | 3500. 66.
£otal, with st. - -
10678. 3.92 1.83
H-----------—t 3.9%. 39931 1.83 ºš 1.83 |
Gravel ballast ... 28 1500. .. 3-1 1500 .38
Total with Gravi. " . -
8673 1.64 7931, 1.50
i 1533.
wiel 1.45
t
----------------------

ſ c. v. § 79 (+1)**) cost SINGLE II. TRCK. SUBERST 104
Note: for track laid with nºw No. 2 rails deduct 10
percent from cost of rails in above. –
F------------- - ------ -------- - - - - - - -------------------
second nanºsºgºń Szel rig for Trek
tº Fº; ...?º.
* Lººtº ºfºº r
| Cºsy per | cost per cost per
required | **** ikile foot kiile i foot
Rails. $2947. 56° 32750. 52¢ ºf 45.
Joints 123 2 | 2 | 123
Ties : 1602; 30 1602
Spikes : 150 3
|Lab.lay. Trek 538; 10
Total 5350 | 1.01 5153
3
10 53
974 jº4760 H 90
1
5
O
s
:
------- - ----
------------
- ---Yº...!
---
-5
-- -282.
3
5
O
O
6
6
|-------------
Toual with stone
--- - - - ----- _j .3500 . . 88–
| :
----------------------
-
-
º º Suone ballast 3500 ..e6
. 885 | £. 67
t——- --------- -- - - --- |- - -
Gravel Bal J 15991.
§ºal with 6555 (1.
592 i. 3 #1599. i. 3
#3 1.25 Făză îi ſãT
on, Joints, 35¢ ºach.
alſ.” as for No. 1
Note: Smooth stee
Ties (14 to 307) & 6:
... iguality. . . . . . …
a T--~~~~ ...MORANDA " 'T' " "TT"T
... No. 1 Nºw Steel Rails $3050 per ton incl. " -
Inspºrt. Joints,
º
§: Splice 34’ le. 6 holes useu on 30/70* rails
No. 6 -- ». m. ". -- ”, -- 85 # --
§4. -- 28 1/2} +ach 57% per jnu =2006.4% =3.95'ſ.i.
Wo 6 °. 30 1/4 # " &O 1/2; " =21298–g. 51 " "
* : * 6 boºts & nuws 96/1004-ach 5. 76 ". =2038–09 " ".
1 mile No. 1 Track requires:
133.57 Tons 85 # stael rails 14 ties to 30'. rail =
2464 ties per hile.

º
C. VII # 80 (Al) F.”) LOCATION 5STIMATES 10:5
110 Tons. 70% rails (steel) 14 ties to 30’ rail =2464
fºLies per mile.
:94. 28 Tons 60% steel rails 16 ties to 30'. rail =2316
3 ties per mile.
'6000% = 2.7 Tons (30 kegs) per mile = R. R. Spikes.
; 704 splices (for 352 joints).2112 bolts, 2112 nut locks
(6 holes) -
2800 cu. yus. stone ballast (6"under vie) & 521.25 in t
| 2500 * * gravel ” (6" under tie) & . 70 in "
Prices. Splice bars = 2. 34 lb. No. 4 joints costs $1.56
f
f
|
Bolts and nuts 3.34 lb. No. 6 joints costs' 51.64
Nut, locks 12 eath.
Ties No. 1 & 75¢. No. 2 J 65 p. 5 spikes 2 1/24 lb.
Turnouts, Cross-Overs & Cost of laterial
laterial 60} | n^* | #5 riº. ºš
, ºces lºof zºolºº
F.T. Switch 12' £3.99 | 24.00 |26. 50 No. 6 487 885
ſº 13 33.50 35.5326.66 Nº. 1033: " | 1.432
| Mo 3 || 643 1182
Guard rails 6. 30 7. OO 8.00 No. 12; 995 1781
gºa'i ºr 3.3%. 4.3% ºf ºiálºg | #.
Timber = 12¢ perlin ft. Labor, Turnout, $50; Cross-over
*90–––––––––.-----------------
CHAPTER W, I I
ESTIK, ATES AND FECORDS.
80. LOCATION ESTIMATES. Approximate stimates, tabu
lated or plotted as curves, are a great aid in lo- "
cation, also in choosing the bºst structures for a
road, or in properly designing them, When the dif-
ference in cost for different details of alignment
, or for different forms of construction, is known, .
a long step has been taken toward a wise selection,
Readiness of reference for this work is more important
*śhºgº: - -
* . . Chap. 1 . ºith Searles's Table XXX , will serve for the
cost of excavation per station , for the assumed roadbed
and side slopes for average earth; and for rock;
for depths from 1 to say 40’. by single fººt with
the cost for 1000' . of haul. If there are many trans'
verse slopes > 10°, columns headed 15°, 25°, 35° can be
-





º
ſ
r
-
C. VII & 80 (*):.” ) LOCATION EST.I.ATES 106
added, giving the centers for those transverse slope:
which would cost the same as Uhe lºw &l cºnters
already given. They can be computed, or found from
Lyon’s Taples sold by . W. &L, Gurley of Troy, N.Y.
Similarly, from the cost of Hºsonry, pipe and
timber, the cost for the different culvert standards
can be tabulated for different depths of center fill
These costs will be increased by staep transverse
slopes; but usually it is not good practice to fol-
low the steep slopes with the culvert, as higher sup-
porting ground can often be found for the lower end
by moving a short distance along the line, thus di-
minishing the center fill; so that the cºnter height
will usually be , safe for est, inz.tes. This will
of course require ample protection froß rºsh at,
the low ºr &nd, by paving or ouharwise.
Similarly for bridge abuuinents. In using these
an allowance will be necessary in the case of deep
fountiations. -
For wooden trestles the cost does not seem to be a
very simple function of the height. Wellington’s
II.ethod is to estimate the floor system for one
panel, a 10’ bent and the foundations (nasonry, piles
or mud sills) with the longitudinal bracing if any,
and divide by the panºl length, for the cost per foot
for a trestle 10' high. Next take a trestle 20’. hig
the floor system and upper 10' of the bent will be
the same as before; estinate the increased cost of
the cent, the foundations anu longitudinal bracing,
and divide by the panel length for the cost, per foot
of 10’ extra height. Estimate similarly for Uhe
increase from 20' to 30', etc. To use these quanti-
vies; draw a linº on the profile 10° below grad-
&nd multiply the length by whº first cost per foot,
draw, a line 29". Cºlow grºdº and multiply its lºngth
by the second pricº per foot, etc. , then form total
sum for total cost. In Laking the length of ººch
10'. strip, whº vapºring or triangular ºnus ºrº
mºntally converted into *quivalent rectangles
9:WII. $ 81 PRELIMINARY ESTIMATES 107
10, high and the reduced lengths added.
To the cost of iron work for iron trestles found
from (26) and (2?) should be audºu that of the ties
and guard systems, and th: masonry, expressed as so
much per foot of length. The shipping weight of
iron can thus usually be found within 5% to 10%,
the greavest error occurring for large structures,
which will over-run. While the ordinary spans are
30’. to 60’. alternatºly. Wºllington claims that
the weight will be affected cut slightly by using
all spans of 30, , all of 60’, or all of 100", what
is gained in the piers bºing lost in the trusses, or
vice versa. E. g., the total iron in the Kentucky
E. g. the total, iron in the Kentucky River Bridge is
* ºrac - -
nearly the 3 as would have been required for .
spºns of 30' the actual spºns being 3 of 375’ each,
with 2 iron piers soma 250' high. In #king up
estimates for iron bridg:5 from platºº the floor
system must be added. The prices and quantities :
for wooden bridges includ: the floor.
81. PRELIMINARY ESTIMATES, Thesz are made after the
preliminary survey; Jo devirmine the relative yºu?s
- - - - A -- - - - *****Acal
of alternº.uº lines; cr to nºt ermine the . -
&S$ 2.É.ggaśgºionºs Tº... ºthºgºk...is usuall
§ jºi § # F#S㺠º**śsº taken #, mA
(Searles's Tablº XXX) or Lyon's Tables which
allow for vrºnsvers: slop's, estimating equalizing
lines so as usually to wake heights 100'. Apart, 59’.
being about a minimum. Classification and haul
require consideration in grouping quantities.
When many ſiles arº to be ºstimated, graphic methods
are sometimes used uo r. ducº, the labor. One of
th: Iſost common is to plou the vable of level cut-
Lings as a curve on tracing cloth, with center -
height for ordinavi and cu. y is. per station as a b-
Scissa. The cu. yus. per suation for any cºnter heigh
can then bº read directly by sliding the tracing
until the height, cºcoiºs an ordinate and noting the
correspontiing abscissa. These quantities can bº
Sºt down anti addęd as usual, or an opisometer cºn



-**
C. VII. 82 (*): ; ) CAP. COST MAINT. STRUCTURE108
be run from the origin to the ordinate each time
until the whº el is full, when by running it back-
wards to zero over a scale having the same units as
the abscissa, the total length covered will give the
sum without the fatigue of numerical addition.
lost of the other estimates , can be made up from
the location estimates, allowingºhe local conditions
anu local prices, when known, if the result, would be
sensibly modified thereby.
Esuimates which are sufficiently large to cover
the special difficulties and contingencies which
will arise in executing any large piecº of work,
yet are not so large as to be extravagant or ran-
dom guesses, can only be made after considerable
observation anu & xpºriences. The natural tentiency
to underestimate the cost and difficulties in de-
signing work ; yet, some engineers always err in the
other direction. Either is objectionablº, the latte
if carried to extravagance, being nearly as much as
former.
In comparing alvārnatºs, quantities colºmon to both
need not be considered. -
82. CAPITALIZED COST OF JAINTAINING A STFTCTURE;
In comparing the cost of a temporary structur: wit
that of a more pºriſianant one, the best method is
to compute the principal, which if placed at intere
would build and J perpetually traintain
aach structure, substantially as proposed by the
late A. Welch . The one which requires the lºast
principal will, if all considerations can be put on
money basis, be uhº most economical.
Thus, if for the first; C = first cost, M. = cost
of maintenance every nth year; R = cost of renawal
including all damage from 42 lays to traffiºetc.,
every mth. year; r = rate of interest; p = princi
required for pºrpºu al maintenance assuming the
ditions to remain constant w = will hºv =

+, - -
1 - 1
_*.
nº years. This will earn in excess of (**), (1+r, ),
C.VII; 82 (33):) CAP-cost. AINTENANCE 109
W.
*– F – (23)
(1+r)*- 1 (1+r)" - 1
Since $1.00 will amount to $(1+r) “in a years
at Compound interest, or will earn $(1+r )" - $1.00
in nº years.
Similarly, if the corresponding quantities for the
Second structure are denoted by the same letters
primed, -
* = 2^* '4- l,’ +- R'
P’ = (C (1+r’)n-1 (1+r’) m'- 1
A comparison of P and P’ will show, which is the
more economital structure, if, as above stated, all
the considerations can be given money value; if they
cannot it will still afford a valuable basis for
judº: - - - -
high rate of interest reduces P for the tem-
poraray structure much more than for the permanent of:
Thus for a structure which will last 10 years, the
capitalized renewal per 1000 at 5% = -
$1000/.629 = $1590; at 10% = $1000/1.593 = $628;
giving a difference of $962.
For a structure which will last 100 years, the
capitalized renewal per $1000, at 5% = $1000/130.5=
$8.00; at 10% = $1000/13779 = $0.07; giving a dif-
ference of only $8.00. Thus, the temporary structure
which has the same capitalized cost as a permanent
one with interest at (5% a fact already familiar
in a general way. §§§§§§º
If a greater rate of `interest Yºsº paid for
the first 4 or 5 years, as is uhe case with most
new, enterprises, it can be allowed for as below:
Lev r, be the excess, in rate for n, years (nº n),
There will be (P - C) dollars to be placed at
interest, or on which interest will be saved for
P = C +
(3-3)
Yºu.
(P -ſ (P - C), in n, years; the present worth of
w - * ~ * -, *

| \ i J.
C.VII $830s) Fä) DURABILITY of STRUCTURES 110
~ lººr-Yº - ...P.- 0. .
(P-C) (...) nº P of (x2)
will be lessened by this almount.
If n > m, the above present worth will be a little
too great, on account of computing interest on M
after it has been expended on maintenance. The
correction is easily made if important.
83. DURABILITY OF STRUCTURES. The life of a pine
railroad bridge is estimated if unpovered by the
Ohio Railroad Commissioners uo be 10 years if un-,
covered and unpºinted. Painting aids but little to
durability if not done until the bridge has been
in use uv, p or thrºº years. E. A. Hill, in the article
on Wooden tresules alreauy referred to estimates
the cost (yearly) of maintenance of a pine or oak
trestle at 1/7 the first cost of construction
(Engrg. News, Oct.8 '87). 3. L. Hill (Engrg. News, June
8, '89) astimates that 1/10 of the original cost
is a minimum yearly maintenance for wooden trestles.
In comparing the economy of a double track iron
trestle about 22' high with that of a masonry struc-
ture, for elevated tracks in liontreal (Engrg-News,
March 3rd, '88), no allowance was made Tfor the
maintenance of the masonry arches; but 15¢ per foot
per year was allowed for track maintenance and
renewal of 2, 12” x 12" guard timbers; while the
trestle was charged with a renewal of floor, once
in 8 years at $8.00 per foot, painting every 5 years
at 80% per foot, and inspection and adjustment 4t
per foot yearly; giving k = 15¢; M' , = $8.00; l., -
30¢; 42 = 42; n = 1; nº. = 5 ; nº = 1; and neglecting
the renewal terms.
The contract with the railroads' crossing the
Chicago Drainage Canal provides for the payment of
a sum of money to the owners of the bridges the -
interest on which will maintain the structures.


C. VII. § 35 (…) F33) RAILAY MAPs 111
Jour . Wes. Soc. Engrs. Aug. '99. In the Santa Fe
contract, the annual cost of painting is estimated at
982.É. 19:...ºf jºgg, ຠSºkºğlºsiº, 91...gºrd.`
The “ºital ºbsº" Sºthºlºof"3ºs ties and
guard rails is estimated at $5.00 per M feet B. li.
The annual cost of inspection and minor repairs,
such as tightening rivets, adjusting truss rods and
minor repairs uo floor systems, including general
inspection and care is estimated at 20% per lineal
foot of track crossing said bridges. (double track).
The annual depreciation and liability to accident
of the iron and sueal in the bridges is estimated
av 1.5% of the cost in place. The above is for
Uhe bridges as fixed structures. Additional amounts .
are stipulated for the cost as movable structures.
In the 1899 convention of the Assoc. Ry. Supts. Bridge:
and Buildings, a commiutee report upon the life of
bridge timber gives the following: Piles tiriven in
dry ground; white oak, 8 to 12 years; Chestnut, apout
12; Cedar 16 to 20; Tamarack 8; Spruce 4 to 8.
Bridges and Urestles, exposed to the weather; Long f
Leaf Southern Pine, 8 to 16 years; White Pine 10 to 12,
White Oak 8 to 16. When protected from the weather
and well ventilated, 40 to 50 years.
The most satisfactory methods of provection are
by housing. This is simple for through bridges, for
the sides of deck bridges, and for the separate trusses
of pony bridges. The floor roof for the deck and
pony is more difficult: It should be covered with
metal for protection from live coals.
Noa. 12 black it on had been used and abandoned
for stringers by one company on account of lack of
durability; galvanized should be more durable.
84. FAIL"AY MAPS. These are made on a continuous
toll of paper , breaking the line and swinging ºver.
Nvº • *ss tº SA to Sūtrºl ºvs’svºº, or ovu, sº escº, s\vºes.
The latter offers magy advantages, especially ºn the
line is crooked. The sheets are about 18" ×36", or if
the line is very crooked, 19" × 24%
They are numbered consecutively, on the upper right,


º
*
G.VII 84 (2.35%) RAILWAY MAPs 112
corners, each new shºet being slipped under the
edge of the preceeding, in such a position as to be
most convenient. Thumb tacks hold them in place,
and 2 or 3 X-marks along the lap serve to re-
place them in the same relative positions.
This method allows of keeping the sheets flat;
of keeping them compactly in drawers, or portfolios;
mistakes in plotting are more readily corrected as:
only affecting the sheet on which they occur;
while the sheets are readily pinned together and
a tracing made in a continuous roll if desired.
The meridian should be transferred from sheet to
sheet by a straight edge. All the bearings coming
on a sheet should then be laid off with a paper
or other large protractor from this meridian, once for
for all, and ºach line transferred out go position,
parallel to itself, as required. Cumulative angle
errors are thus avoided in plotting. A still more
accurate method is vo plot, by total latitudes
and dº partures working from a given point of
a fixed meridian.
With a sheet of cross secuion paper arranged to
give traverses graphically, the increased labor is
not excessive while the increased accuracy is
considerable.
After the transit, line is plotted, the stations are
picked out, every 5th. one - should be
numbered, and the elevations of the stations and
plusses marked. The sheets are then ready for the
topographers to put in the topography and convours.
The contours are usually 5’ or 10’ apart; every 5th.
one (multiple of 25 or 50’ above the datum) should
be inked heavier, or of a different color, and the
elevation placed upon it. Blºck or brown for the
5th. line, and brown or orange for the intermediaves,
is better than all black. The property lines and
the names of the owners are usually added.
400' . to the inch is the most common scale; 200" or less
is used in difficult country and 1000’, or more in
smooth prairie country. The line cis thus mapped
|



c.VII. , 85 (23): ) consººction RECORDS 113
forms the basis of the location. With some, except
in vary difficult location, it is used mainly as a
check in estimating the grades, curves
and vangents which will best fit the ground; and
the locº.uion is made with instruments in uhe field.
With others, a location is made on the maps, the
grades and cuts and fills oeing estimated from
the contours; the transit, notes are then made up
from it, and the linº is run in the '' fiºld from
these - notes. The reduction in scale af-
for ded by the map allows more of a bird’s eye view
to be taken of the ground, and increases the eas:
2nu rapidity with which the line can be fitted to
the ground; the work can bº made much more ſtºchan-
ical. On the other hand this reduction of scale
renders it difficult to represent all the minor de-
tails, some of which have appreciable effects on
the alignment, and on the cost, while many of the more
important details are not appreciated as fully
as when seen in full size in the field.
There are few paper locations ºf hich cannou bº
iſ proved upon when actually run; still this possi-
bility should always ba kºpu in minti and acted upon.
The greatest aanger lies in the locating engineers
keeping too close to the map, and thus overlooking
possibilities which in the field inay iie outside
the narrow belt, convoured on the map. In making a
finished map of the located line, the topography is
usually retaken, especially where the final line
differs much from the preliminary; the located
line is put in in red, as also the data referring
to the alignment; the topography in black, except
whecontours, as already indicated. Blue is some-
times used for the streams. Some use black entire •
ly since the introduction of blue prints, but the
colors avowe intlicatºd will print well, if care
has been taken to have them thick when applied.
3°CONSTRUCTION RECORDS. The profile as finished
for use, contains the grade line, usually the align-
ment near the bouvom of the sheet, or at least


C.VII585. (AS) Fă) CONSTRUCTION RECORDS 114
the P. C.’s and the P.T's and the degrees of curves ,
a continuous line distinguishing them from the tan-
gents; the streams, highway and fargº crossings; the kind
and size of structures unuer and over, the line, ; the
yardage and classification for each cut, and the names
of the owners are often added. The map is about as 1.
indicated in §34. A map and profile of the line
through each county has to be filled in the County
Clerk’s Office before right of way can be forced
by legal proceedings. A map and profile with a
horizontal scale of 1/5000, of the whole portion .
within the state has to be filled in the State -
Engineer’s Office. The above are for New York
Svav- the progress profile is made up from an ordinary
profile by draying in a line to represent the actual
surface along the center line at the time of each
monthly estimate. The area between the original sur-
face line and the first raw one is colored to show
the first month’s work, the area between the first and
second ones, a different color for the second month’s
work, etc.; , the yardage taken from each cut, or added
to each fill can be entered if desired. Such a profile
is usually kept up in the Chief Enginºer’s Office from
monthly profiles sent by the resident angineer, or
from other data.
The computation of the earthwork made by the resi-
"dēnt engineer is checked in the general Office.
The monthl y estimates are checked as far as possible
from the cross section quantities and other data in the
office, and the total monthly estimate made up
from them.
The standard plans are made up in the general
office; usually also the modifications, if important, and
the designs of ºll the special structures, from topo-
graph: maps of the sites, sent in by the resident
engineers. Usually all important field books are dupli-
Saved in ink, for use and the originals are filed away.

-* PLATE I, Cost of ordinary Earthwork in conts per cubic yard with Labor at $100
per Day; from Trautwine's Tables To use, multiply by actual cost of Labor in
Dollars and add Contractor's Profit
Lead =
- –E
5
Q
per yard. If plowed, subtract 1% c.
3o
2O
1o
Common Loam. If spread add 1 c If plowed, subtract 1.7 c.
- ft
40
30
20
-
---
- -
-
5 trong Heavy Soils. If spread, add 1% c If plowed, subtract 2.4 c



PLATE Il. Cost of Ordinary Earthwork in cents per cubic yard with Labor at $1.00
per day; from Traut wine's Tables. To use, multiply by actual cost of Labor in
Dollars and add Contractor's Profit.
ft.
50
30
20
Pure stiff clay or cºnc mt ad gravel, picked and wasted. If spread, add 1% cents, if plowed
subtract 4"/2 cents. - -
Hard rock; hand drilled, blasted with black powder Loose rock will cost about 30 c. less;
even solid rock will average about 1o c. less
Lead-
2.
with cars and locomotive on level track Earth picked and wasted. If spread or flows.a.aad
or subtract as in previous cases, Rock as above



Fro. 60.-Transverse Section of Busk Tunnel Colorado
Midland R. R., Colorado.
Sº ºr-
Nu º
Flo. 66.-sketch showing Method of
underpining Roof Arch with the
Side wall Masonry.
Fr. 66, -tºngitudinal section allowing
construction by the Belgian *ſ-thwd.
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