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C C C & tº ſº gº a * Hºº sº gº º ºs zº gº ºs tº p. º. º. . º. º. º. º º tº Tº Q as a e º ºs & º ºs * * * * * * * * * * © & º º sº * * º, º ºx-rº ...tº ºr º ANIHRopology LIBRARY Museumit T) 2 O E4-7 * Abs --- DEFEAT OF XERXES AT SALAMIS I THE STORY OF THE GREATEST NATIONS FROM THE DAWN OF HISTORY TO THE TWENTIETH CENTURY A COMPREHENSIVE HISTORY, FOUNDED UPON THE LEADING AUTHORITIES, INCLUDING A COMPLETE CHRONOLOGY OF THE WORLD, AND A PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF EACH NATION BY EDWARD S. ELLIS, A.M. AUTHOR OF “STANDARD HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES,” “HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY,” “A POPULAR HISTORY OF THE WORLD,” “A SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES,” ETC. Editor of “A DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY,” “PLUTARCH'S LIVES,” ETC. A N D CHARLES F. HORNE, M.S. Editor of “GREAT MEN AND FAMOUS WOMEN,” ETC. (IDagníficently, IIIIustrateo P U B L IS H E D B Y F R A N C I S. R. N I G L UT S CH N E W Y O R K CopyRIGHT, 1901, BY F. R. NIGLUTSCH CoPYRIGHT, 1903, BY F. R NIGLUTSCH COPYRIGHT, 1905, BY . F. R. 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Pºzº - - -- - - - -- - L - º - Eº - - Ž & - º ſº º: ºf: º ----- INTRODUCTION , EVER has the importance of a knowledge of history NA been more generally felt than at the present time, and never perhaps has the need of a work that will meet that want been more regretted. A history of this nature must group its facts in true historical proportion, avoid unim- * portant and confusing details, omit dry, uninteresting statistics, and tell in simple, straightforward language a story that will interest and instruct the young and old alike. Universal history, with its vast scope, embracing a narra- tive of events based partly upon written records and monu- ments with their hieroglyphics, partly on tradition, and partly on the authentic contemporary testimony of man, is often encum- bered with a mass of bewildering details, of value only to the student. The common method has been to divide the work into epochs, flitting from one na- tion to another, and then back again; or, fixing upon some arbitrary date, to relate all the events and incidents of that period or epoch. While this system may have some merits, it is certain to confuse and shut out from the younger reader, whom it is our wish specially to enlighten, a clear conception of the knowledge he is seeking. We have followed the simpler plan of telling the full story of every nation from the beginning to the present. The great peoples of antiquity have van- ished or sunk into insignificance, and the new ones of the present are the civ- ilizing and Christianizing forces in the progress of mankind. 2 - - - . Introduction At the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, the inscription over the booth of the Egyptian exhibit was, “From the oldest nation to the young- est,” and it is the custom of all histories to give to Egypt the credit which she thus claimed. Yet it is by no means certain that such credit is her due. There are researches going on at this hour which cannot fail to throw a flood of light on the problem. Indeed, it is safe to say that the glory that has long been accorded to the Land of the Pharaohs has already been taken from it. In I897, the remarkable discoveries made by the Pennsylvania University expedi- tion at Nippur, in Asia Minor, moved back the history of Babylonian civilization to a period of more than 7,000 years before the birth of Christ. Nippur has been proven to be Calneh, one of the four cities mentioned in Genesis x. Io as the beginning of the kingdom of Nimrod. Professor Hilprecht, scientific director of the expedition, returned to Constantinople in the summer of 1900 and described some of the results of that year's work in the ancient city. Un- doubtedly the most important discovery is the library of the great temple of Nippur. As far back as 1889, when Dr. Peters, of New York, was at the head of the expedition, Professor Hilprecht pointed out that the remains of this library would be found at the very place where they were discovered eleven years later. In the space of three months, fully 17,200 tablets, covered with cuneiform or wedge-shaped writing, were brought to light. The writing was found to be of a different character from that on previous tablets, which were mainly private busi- ness contracts, conveyances, letters, etc. The latest discoveries are historical, philological and literary, and treat of mythology, of grammar and lexicography, of Science, and of mathematics. It will require a considerable time to complete the investigations and translation, but it is believed that they will enable the world for the first time to form a truthful idea of life in Babylonia, which ex- tends far back into the remote ages of antiquity. No document has thus far been found of a later date than 228O B.C. Now, since that date marks the invasion of the Elamites, it affords conclusive proof that the library was destroyed during that invasion. At this writing, Professor Hilprecht estimates that four or five years will be necessary to excavate and examine the contents of the library, and it is prob- able that the unexplored parts will yield 150,000 tablets. Since this library was the chief glory of the temple of early Babylonia, the college for instruction in law and religion, it is clear that the examination cannot be too thorough and careful. The American expedition was obliged to stop work on the library for a time, so as to continue its systematic work at the temple and to complete the exami- nation of the southern and eastern lines of the walls of fortification of ancient Nippur. These walls show the different epochs when they were built. First Introduction 3 are portions whose builders were the pre-Sargonic rulers, which are followed by the works of Sargon (3800 B.C.) and of Naram-Sin, his son. A thousand years later appear the fortifications of Ur-Gur, followed by the later Kassite kings, from 1700 to I IOO B.C. The many weapons found along the whole line of forti- fication, particularly in the lower strata, throw great light on the methods em- ployed by besieging armies in the earliest periods of Babylonian history. While making the excavations, a palace belonging to the pre-Sargonic period was uncovered under seventy feet of rubbish, on the southwestern side of the Shatt-en-Nil, the river which divides Nippur in two parts. It has 6OO feet frontage and is believed to have been the palace of the early priest-kings of Nippur. The few rooms excavated gave pre-Sargonic tablets, some seal cylin- ders of the earliest type, and clay figures of a most remote age. This extensive structure was two stories in height and at a later period furnished material for other buildings in Nippur. What an interesting story will be given us when these discoveries and examinations are completed Among other notable excavations, those at Bosco Reale, near Pompeii, deserve passing mention. The objects in silverware, known under the name of the “Treasures of Bosco Reale,” in the Louvre, were found in a locality called Pisancelli, where M. de Prisco, the originator of the excavation and owner of the ground, has a villa which takes its name from the same place. It was in 1894 that M. de Prisco obtained from the Minister of Public Instruction a regular permit to make excavations upon his property, and his labor was crowned with remarkable success. Over and above the silverware sold to Baron de Roths- child for $80,000, and given by him to the National Museum, there were frescoes, utensils of various sorts, and money brought to light. A curious fact is that the treasures were found in a well, almost on a level with the earth, in the villa itself. Near the opening they discovered and raised the body of a man, bent almost double, preserved in a mould of cinder like those seen at the museum at Naples. It is supposed that the man had gone to the well to hide the silverware, or to withdraw it, and had not time to fly from the terrific eruption of Vesuvius. - In 1900, M. de Prisco caused other excavations to be made and obtained striking results. Beautiful and impressive frescoes and paintings were brought into the sunlight from the places where they had slumbered for nearly twenty centuries, and since the excavations are still going on, other interesting dis- coveries are certain to be made. Still other important discoveries are those recently made by M. Jacques de Morgan, the French archaeologist, who claims to have discovered at Susa, in Persia (of which frequent mention will be found in the succeeding pages), the ancestors of the Aryan race, who rule the world to-day. They were the 4. Introduction Anzanites, the original inhabitants of Susa, who seem to have attained a high civilization fully ten thousand years ago, handing it over to the Assyrians, who presented it to the Egyptians, who in turn passed it on to the Greeks. How wonderful to read in the Susan records of Tiglath-Pileser, Sennacherib, Nebu- chadnezzar, Belshazzar, and others as having reigned in neighboring countries thousands of years after Susa had become a famous city. M. de Morgan has dug down forty feet of ruins and brought palace after palace to light. One of his starting-points was the palace of King Arta- xerxes, and he passed through cities of the Greek, Persian, and Babylonian pe- riods, finding at the bottom of all the Anzanite city. At one time Susa belonged to the empire of Elam, founded by the eldest son of Shem, the son of Noah, as related in Gen. x. 22. Father Scheil, the noted Assyriologist, has deci- phered the inscriptions on the monuments and other relics, which carry events back to three thousand years before Christ. A column is believed by Father Scheil to have been erected by King Naram-Sin, son of the famous Sargon, some five thousand six hundred and fifty years ago. It must be remembered that, although the archaeologists are deciphering the inscriptions of the period named, the relics date back to a vastly older time, and that even then Susa was a civilized city. Such researches suggest a question of the profoundest interest to all man- kind; that is, the age of the world itself. The answer to this question, if it is ever made, must come from the geolo- gists, who have been working for a long time and are still wrestling with the problem. The sum of what has been learned was given in 1900 by Prof. W. J. Sollas, in an exhaustive address read before the Section of Geology of the British Association, of which he is president. Professor Sollas commences the history of the world with a rapidly revolv- ing molten planet, probably solidified about the centre, and surrounded by a deep atmosphere, most of which was due to the water of our present oceans, existing then in the form of gas. The sun produced disturbing currents and tides. At that time the earth was rotating with a period of from two to four hours, about an axis inclined at some eleven or twelve degrees to the ecliptic. This prodigious speed may have caused one of the great tidal waves to rise to such a height that it flew off from the earth and formed the moon. The earth probably solidified soon after the birth of the moon, that being the second critical period in its history. Professor Sollas thinks the moon has caused in different ways the distribution and character of the inequalities of the earth's surface, the various theories being set forth with great scientific skill. The molten crust gradually cooled and solidified, the aqueous vapors were con- densed and fell upon the crust, only to rise as vapor once more, to be recon- Introduction 5 densed, followed by the further cooling of the hot surface, until at last the water remained in the hollows, and these inequalities made the land and the sea. Then began the action of the tides upon the solid mass, by which the rocks were gradually crumbled and the minute particles deposited at the bottom of the sea, where the sediment formed the first of the strata of the earth. It is pre- sumed that as the earth cooled still further, the lowest form of life became pos- sible. This first form of life was undoubtedly shell-fish, at whose death the shells dropped to the bottom of the sea, where they are found in the earlier strata turned into stone. These processes of denudation, or stripping off of the Outer covering, and deposition, or sinking to the bottom, became more active, after a time, and have continued ever since without interruption. So far as Professor Sollas can determine, the greatest depth of the sedimentary deposit was fully fifty miles. In these layers are preserved the various types of ani- mal and plant life, which characterize each age of the earth's development. In the later deposits the relics of man are numerous, but as we go deeper they are no longer found. In their place are the remains of many enormous and extinct mammals, which in turn give way to reptiles and amphibians, while in the next stratum fish only are met. Reaching the lowest stratum, we dis- cover the remains of only the invertebrates, or lowest forms of animal life, in which the semblance of a spine or backbone is lacking. - Thus the orderly procession of organic forms follows in true sequence: in- vertebrates first, then vertebrates; at first fish, then amphibia (animals living equally well on land and in, water), next reptiles, soon after mammals or those that suckle their young, of the lower kind first, of the higher later, and these in increasing complexity until man himself is reached. Some forms of mam- malia attained stupendous size, one of the greatest being the mammoth, the progenitor of our elephant. In Europe it was coeval with prehistoric man, and, strange as it may seem, within the past century remains of one of them have been found so well preserved in the ice of Siberia that the meat was fed to dogs. It was during the time of the amphibians that the earth was clothed with rich vegetation, which ultimately formed vast beds of coal, thus giving to the period the name of the carboniferous or coal age. Carefully considering the various theories, it is clear that the different strata of the earth's crust are the leaves in the genealogical history of nature written by the Creator Himself; but they give no knowledge of the period when men began to understand one another in articulate speech, though the strata have presented the earliest products of human industry. These specimens, com- mencing with the most remote date of the stone period, gradually reveal an im- proved form and workmanship, and furnish an insight into the combined results of all geological and archaeological investigation, showing beyond a doubt the 6 Introduction gradual development of man, and his progress from a lower to a higher civili- zation. In the course of time men came to differ in so marked a degree in their mental characteristics, power, and capacity for civilization, as well as in their bodily structure, that it becomes necessary, in order to study intelligently their history, to divide them into five stocks or races. I. The Caucasians—which we subdivide into three branches: (a) The Aryan, or Indo-European branch. (b) The Semitic branch. (c) The Hamitic branch. This classification is based upon the nature of the languages spoken by the three families of nations, but it represents, nevertheless, three distinct civiliza- tions. tº The Aryan branch includes almost all the present and past nations of Eu- rope, as well as two ancient Asiatic peoples, the Hindoos and Persians. It is agreed that the forefathers of these were the same people, who lived somewhere in Western Asia long before the beginning of recorded history. The Semitic branch includes the ancient inhabitants of Syria, Arabia, and the Tigris and Euphrates regions. Its principal historical representatives were the Hebrews, Phoenicians, Assyrians, and Arabs. While the Hamitic branch probably included the early Chaldaeans, it had but one prominent people—the Egyptians. The history of the civilized world, therefore, is the history of these three branches of the Caucasian race. The remaining four races are: 2. The African or negro, characterized by a black skin, woolly hair, and generally flat nose and prominent lips. 3. The Mongolian, with straight, black hair, flat nose, widely separated eyes, and skin varying from yellow to a light-brown color. The principal members of this race are the Mongolians, Chinese, Japanese, Huns, Calmucks, Finns, Lapps, and Esquimaux. 4. The Malay (Australian), with smooth and slightly curly hair and a dark brown and more or less dusky skin. This race includes the natives of New Holland and the islands of the Pacific Ocean. - 5. The American race, with long, coarse, black hair, prominent cheek bones, and copper-colored skin. It includes our Indians, the Mexicans, Peru- vians, etc. - As men made their homes in different parts of the earth, they adopted various means of living. Those who dwelt where fertile pastures were found in widely separated parts chose a shepherd's life. Often compelled to wander long distances, they were called nomads, and their principal occupation was the Introduction 7 breeding of cattle. The people dwelling on sea-coasts developed to a higher degree, and in time, through Commerce and navigation, became prosperous and wealthy, built finer dwellings and laid out towns and cities. Those who lived on desolate shores subsisted by fishing, while those on the plains became agri- culturists and acquired the arts of peace. Commerce, through the means of freer communication thus established, has done a vast deal to improve and elevate the human race. For many cen- turies the principal form of commerce betwen Asia and Africa was the national caravan trade. The perils and difficulties of these extensive travels through districts infested by wild beasts and fierce bands of marauders compelled men to combine in the different undertakings. The camel, or “ship of the desert,” seemed specially constructed by nature for these long and toilsome journeys. As the caravans often halted at some famous temple, whose site was considered holy and around which peace was always maintained, this kind of trade in early times was placed under the protection of religion. At first goods were ex- changed, but this practice gave way to the use of precious metals and stamped coins as a means of exchange. Dwellers in thinly populated districts learned to tame wild animals for domestic uses, while the inhabitants in towns turned their attention to trades, inventions, and arts. As time passed, the different populations of the world divided into civilized and uncivilized communities. The patriarchal form of government was the earliest, but the nomadic and wild tribes which followed this form have won no place in history. States crystallized into monarchical and republican governments, each with modifications. In most of the ancient civilized com- munities, the system of caste (fully explained in the following pages) prevailed. One of the most impressive proofs of a future existence is that every peo- ple, no matter how degraded, had from the beginning some form of religion or acknowledgment of man's dependence upon a Supreme Being. The rude tribes in Africa and Central Asia established the worship of the stars (Sabaeism); they also recognized the idea of a divine Being, whose presence they saw in all visible things, and whom they represented as being the life in nature (Pantheism), or they endeavored to deify all nature, representing the gods as a higher kind of men, more richly endowed and more perfect than human beings (Polytheism). Some of these so-called religions have been accompanied by frightful atrocities in the form of human sacrifices. - During the reign of the Roman emperor Augustus, Christ was born at the little village of Bethlehem, in Judea. This was the most momentous event in the spiritual history of the world and marks an epoch in human annals.” * It will aid the student of history to bear in mind the different systems of chronology. We reckon from the Christian era or birth of Christ, which took place in the year known as 4 B. c. Our 8 Introduction Nations have their birth, their youth, their manhood, their old age, their death; and history is the account of all these stages. In the first period, war- like deeds form the chief historical record; in the second, government and legislation, and mental activity in art and literature; in the third, party strife, followed by decay and political death. Until the art of writing became known, the information concerning ancient peoples was often drawn from ballads and oral traditions, which contained a great deal more fable than truth. Again, it was founded on monuments, obelisks, boundary stones, funeral mounds, tombs, ruins of ancient buildings, inscriptions, coins, implements, weapons, etc. From these records is constructed the legendary or mythical period. As civilization grew, the knowledge of historical events became clearer until the fulness of written records brings us to what may be considered the reliable ground of history. We have already glanced in this introduction at the latest views of the geologists concerning the origin of the world itself; we have shown how the different races of men divided into civilized and uncivilized communities; how they naturally adopted various occupations and forms of government; how the peoples emerged from the cloudland of the mythical age and came upon the stage of authentic history; and, having reached that period, we now take up the record in this and the succeeding volumes, and will endeavor to tell the story of the Greatest Nations of the Ancient and Modern World. method of computing time was introduced in 532 A.D. Ten centuries afterward, the calculation was found to be erroneous, being deficient four years of the true period. Since the correction would have caused great confusion, the error by common consent was allowed to remain, and we continue to reckon from this era, which lacks four years and six days of the true Christian epoch. The year 1900 corresponded to the year 7408–09 of the Byzantine era; to 5660–61 of the Jewish era, the year 5661 beginning at sunset on September 23 ; to 2653 since the foundation of Rome according to Varro; to 2647 of the era of Nabonassar; to 2676 of the Olympiads; to 2560 of the Japanese era, and to the 33d year of the Meiji; to 1317–18 of the Mohammedan era or the era of the Hegira, the year 1318 having begun on May 1, 1900. T | . º º º - - - - - - - - - * - . - - - - - - - - º - & º ºsºtº ºsºs º ºsºtº ºr ºt RUINS AT THEBEs. º- THE STORY OF T H E G REATEST NATIONS ANCIENT NATIONS-EGYPT Chapter I FROM THE FIRST DYNASTY TO RAMESES I [Authorities. Rawlinson, “History of Ancient Egypt”; Berkeley, “Pharaohs and their Peo- ple"; Birch, “Egypt from the Earliest Times to B. c. 3oo”; Lanoye, “Rameses the Great ; or Egypt 3300 Years Ago"; Wilson, “Egypt of the Past"; Baker, “Syria and Egypt under the Last Five Sultans of Turkey"; Bowen, “Conflict of East and West in Egypt”; Brimmer, “Egypt”; Brugsch, “History of Egypt under the Pharaohs”; De Leon, “Egypt under its Khedives”; Erman, “Life in Ancient Egypt”; Mahaffy, “Empire of the Ptolemies”; Mariette, “Outlines of Ancient Egyptian History”; Maspero, “Dawn of Civilization,” “Egypt and Chaldaea,” and “ The Passing of the Empires, 850 B. c. to 330 B. c.”; Massey, “Book of the Beginnings”; Muir, “Mameluke or Slave Dynasty of Egypt, 1260–1517 A.D.”: Petrie, “History of Egypt”; Sayce, “Egypt of the Hebrews and Herodotus”; Vogt, “Egyptian War of 1882.”; Wendel, “History of Egypt”; Poole, Egypt"; Sharpe, “History of Egypt”; Wilkinson, “Manners and Customs of the Egyptians”; Lane, “ Modern Egyptians”; M'Coan, “Egypt as It Is..."] sº GYPT has always been a land of wonder and of mystery. º & We look on it with reverence for its age, amazement for % its giant statues and pyramids, awe for its strange civil º lization and secret priesthoods. And these same feelings invº- º toward the ancient land were in the heart of man before - Yºº Greece and Rome were dreamed of, before Abraham … walked with the angels on the plains of Mamre. The earliest of Greek historians, the “Father of history,” Herodotus, wrote of Egypt with the same reverence, the same awe. Four thousand years before even his time, the Egyptians had been a mighty and civilized nation, possessing wonderful mechanical knowledge which I O The Story of the Greatest Nations we have lost, and beautiful decorative arts whose secrets we may never know. Many ages, still farther back, must have passed while they were discovering and perfecting what they had learned. Yet behind them we are beginning to catch glimpses of a different and older people who must have lived along the Nile before even these Egyptians were known there. It may well be that races after races of mankind have grown to power and old age, and have perished in this same silent, secret, and mysterious land. To-day the Egyptians would be almost as forgotten as earlier peoples, had they not erected those remarkable monuments, which time has been unable to destroy. Little by little the story of this extraordinary race, the battles of their mighty kings, the arts of their patient workmen, the secrets of their subtle priests, are being unfolded to us by the researches of science. And each new marvel that we learn suggests other and greater ones behind. Ancient history has to be rewritten every dozen years or so nowadays, and each new writing is more impressive than the last. Egypt has been well called the “Gift of the Nile.” What the land is, the Nile has made it. In the geographies, Egypt is an oblong tract, filling the whole corner of Africa, five hundred miles broad and over a thousand long. But nine-tenths of this is mere waste space, uninhabitable, burning desert. The Egypt of history is simply the Nile valley, one long narrow strip through the middle of this desert. A strange river, the Nile ! It has its mysteries as striking as the country's own. During all these ages, the delta at the mouth has been a centre of civi- lization, yet the other end of the stream, its source, remains unknown. “It rises in heaven,” the old Egyptian priests told Herodotus; and though we have discarded that explanation, yet even in this twentieth century we can only say a little less vaguely that it rises somewhere in the unexplored wilderness of Central Africa. The river, which perhaps in all the world has been longest known, is still unknown. You can best picture the Nile to yourself by imagining it as a palm-tree. The many streams which join far back in Africa to form it are the roots, tre- mendously big, old roots, which gradually divide and subdivide into the tiniest thread-like filaments, each coaxing its single drop of moisture from the ground. Then there is the great trunk of the river itself, flowing northward sixteen hundred miles without a tributary. Then, less than a hundred miles from the Mediterranean it suddenly spreads out like a fan into a beautiful green delta, a network of branches and canals, amid a land famous for its enormous produce and its luxuriant vegetation. This delta in the old days was “Lower Egypt”; and just where the branches spread from the trunk stood its capital city, the famous Memphis. Egypt—The Nile Valley I I “Upper Egypt” was the narrow valley of the Nile, reaching from Memphis six hundred miles as the river flowed, to where a low ledge of rock stretching from bank to bank formed the first cataract, the boundary of Egypt proper. Beyond lay Nubia and the Soudan. Through all this distance, Egypt is but a cleft in the desert; the Nile flows through a deep valley, which it has been tunnelling for ages from the surrounding cliffs. These red sandstone cliffs rise abruptly at an average distance of about three miles from the stream's bank; and all along, under them, or carved from them, or reared on their summit, stand thou- sands of tombs, and statues, and pyramids. The ancient Egyptian was very anxious to preserve his memory after death; and nature here supplied him a site which has kept his graveyard visible to all the world. Beyond these cliffs on each side lies the high plateau of the desert; be- tween them, the greenest, richest, most productive land the world can boast. That narrow valley has supported a population of uncounted millions. Herodo- tus tells us there were twenty thousand cities in Egypt in his day. The wonderful fertility of this soil is, like everything good in Egypt, the gift of the Nile. Every July, without excitement, without visible cause, the river slowly begins to rise. There are marks in many places along the banks, and anxious natives watch these, hour by hour, calling to each other in joy, “It rises ' " or in fear and prayer, “It does not rise !” for this means life and death to them. Once or twice of late, the river has not risen, and then there was a famine in the land. But usually it rises, day by day, week by week, until by September it has flooded all the valley. At the first cataract it is about forty feet above its ordinary level; at Thebes, the capital of Upper Egypt, it is thirty- six, at Memphis twenty-five, and there, spreading out over the lowlands of the Delta, it drops to only four feet at the Mediterranean. The country is a sea; the villages little mounds peeping above the waters. Then the waters retreat as silently and mysteriously as they have risen. By November, the river is back within its old banks, leaving the land covered inches deep with a film of mud, from which all plant life springs as if by magic. No wonder the old Egyptians said their god made the river rise, and wor- shipped him. What better can we say to-day 2 We discuss learnedly the superficial means by which it is done; we call it the result of storms in Cen- tral Africa, of melting snows on Abyssinian mountains; but the central fact remains unchanged. God makes the river rise, that His people may be fed. In this marvellous valley there lived, in days so remote that we cannot even guess when, a people of whose history we know nothing, except that they were conquered by another race, who came from the East—that is, from Asia. The latter were the Egyptians of whom we know, a Hamitic race, perhaps I 2 The Story of the Greatest Nations fairly civilized before they entered Egypt. They tell us they were children of the god Osiris, and that they had gods for their kings in Egypt during a period of 449,000 years. This is, of course, the mere babble of romance. Kings they had, of whose tombs we are beginning to find traces; but we know nothing historically until we come to Menes, the king who, as Herodotus was told, brought all the little kingdoms of the land into a single great one, and built his capital at Memphis. For a long time, Menes was considered as imaginary as the god-kings who preceded him. Learned men called him an eponym, an ugly name which means that the people of Memphis, having forgotten who built their city, invented a builder from the city's name, and declared it the work of a king named “Mem- phes” or “Menes.” But in this case, at least, the learned men were wrong, for lately, in that stupendous graveyard along the Nile of which I told you, the tomb of Menes has been found, with many interesting relics, both of him and of his descendants. So Menes was as real flesh-and-blood a person as you and I, even if there is some seven thousand years between us. He is the most ancient man whose name has come down to us from his own time. The name of the first created man seems, as you know, to have been long forgotten; and then God told it again as a special revelation to Moses, about the year I 500 B.C. It was prob- ably earlier than 5000 B.C. that this man Menes lived; and he himself has handed his name down to us. There it stands to-day carved in the rock as he ordered it, as he must have looked at it when finished, and pronounced it good. Before telling you further of Menes and the kings that follow him, let me explain how we come to know Egyptian history, and how learned men are beset with difficulties in its study. Herodotus, the Greek, went to Egypt about the year 418 B.C.; and the Egyptian priests laughed at him, as belonging to a na- tion that “had no history,” that is to say, whose history only extended back in a rather hazy fashion some seven centuries. So Herodotus, like an abashed child, sat himself down at the feet of these men to learn something; and they obligingly filled him full of their own history; and he wrote it all down as they told it. What was true and what false probably the priests themselves did not know; but it was certainly impressive to a stranger. Only one writer added much to Herodotus. This was Manetho, an Egyp- tian priest of the third century B. C. He wrote a history of his country, but only a few fragments of this have been preserved to us. So at the beginning of this century we knew little of ancient Egypt beyond the uncertain tale of Herod- otus. The land itself was covered with stone carvings, hieroglyphics meant to tell its story; but no man could read them. When a little more than a hundred years ago Napoleon Bonaparte led his Egypt—The Early Kings I 3 expedition into Egypt, one of his engineers, while digging the foundations of a fort near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile, came upon a stone tablet Some three feet in length, on which was an inscription in three different characters. The lowest of the inscriptions was in Greek, and of course there was no difficulty in translating it. It was found to be an ordinance of the priests ordering certain honors to an Egyptian sovereign on the occasion of his coronation, 196 B.C. It commanded that the three decrees should be inscribed in the sacred letters or hieroglyphics, in the letters of the country or demotic, and in Greek letters. This was for the convenience of the mixed population. Now, you will see how valuable a find this was to scholars, who after a time succeeded in unravelling the alphabet of the hieroglyphics, and since then have read with ease the carvings, which throw a flood of light on the ancient history of Egypt. One unfortunate difficulty remained. The Egyptians seem to have had no regular system of chronology. That is to say, they did not date all their history from one great event, as we do from the birth of Christ. Under each new king, apparently in compliment to him, they began Counting again, and dated events only as happening in such and such a year of his reign. We have a fairly complete list of their kings, and it looks, of course, as though it would be an easy matter just to average all the reigns together, and so get at the dates of the earlier ones. But Herodotus, trying some such plan, placed Menes in the year I 2,OOO B.C., and another writer carried the enormous total back to 16,- 492 B.C. The fragments of Manetho, and later the hieroglyphics themselves, showed us that these dates were absurd. But even very lately scientists have disagreed to the extent of over three thousand years, one authority placing Menes' date at 5702 B.C., while another brought it down to 2691. The diffi- culty is that many of these kings, and even whole families of them, appear to have been contemporaneous. A father would associate his son with him on the throne, or one family might rule in Memphis while another was ruling at Thebes. We are gradually approaching the truth, getting light in the dark places. Within the last decade, 2700 has been abandoned as obviously far too late a date; and now, with the tomb of the old king open before us, we are in- clined to place him not far from 5700. We can say with reasonable security that at any rate 5000 B.C. is not too ancient a date for the establishment of his empire. Menes seems to have been hereditary king of the district around Abydos in Upper Egypt. He is the only one of his race not buried at this their mother city, his tomb being on the edge of the desert twenty miles beyond Thebes, perhaps at the southern boundary of his dominions. It is not at all like the stone sepulchres of the later kings. Wall after wall of brick was built I 4 The Story of the Greatest Nations around and above his body, and then a great wood fire was set burning over the whole structure, perhaps to harden it. Menes was a great builder; but even be- fore his time the science of engineering must have been far advanced, for to get the place that pleased him for his capital he first erected a monster dam, and changed the entire course of the lower Nile. Its old channel can still be traced close under the western cliffs of the valley, some miles from where it now flows: Menes reigned, we are told, for sixty-two years, and then fell, in combat with a hippopotamus. Whether the hippopotamus is to be taken liter- ally we hardly know. One would like to think that, in the extreme age this fine old king had reached, he had more sense than to risk himself in such youthful sports. The hippopotamus was the Egyptian symbol for a foreign foe. Per- haps Menes died defending the empire he had created. The second king of his dynasty was Athothis, who is believed to have built the citadel and palace of Memphis. Discoveries lately made warrant the belief that Athothis was a physician, for fragments of a work on anatomy by him have been brought to light. Nothing of account is known of the third king, Kenkenes, but the first famine in Egyptian history visited the country during the reign of Uenestes, the fourth king, to whom belongs the glory of building, at Kochome, the oldest of all the pyramids. Undoubtedly the most brilliant era in the history of Egypt was that of the building of the pyramids. The government was consolidated and powerful. The population had so increased that thousands of workmen during the Nile overflow were subject to the whim of the ruler, who, with that vanity which is a part of human nature, devoted an army of his subjects to building those colossal structures, which will probably stand throughout the coming ages. On the plateau west of Memphis nearly seventy of these stupendous monuments were erected. The three most prominent, because of their prodigious size, are known as the Pyramids of Ghizeh, near which city they stand. The greatest of all is the pyramid of Khufu, founder of the Fourth Dynasty. It was four hundred and eighty feet high, but the breaking away of its apex has reduced it some thirty feet. Each side of the base is 764 feet in length, and the vast pile contains about 90,000,000 cubic feet of masonry, covering thirteen acres, twice the extent of any building in the world. This pyramid is notable for several things besides its unprecedented size. It stands exactly on the thirtieth parallel of latitude, and the four sides face with geometric accuracy the cardinal points of the compass. On the north side, in the very middle, fifty- two feet above the original ground level, a door is cut leading into a passage three feet wide and four feet high. This passes downward to a chamber hewn in the rock of the foundation, a hundred feet below the ground level of the base. This chamber is directly under the apex of the pyramid and precisely six hun- Egypt—The Pyramid Builders - I 5 dred feet below. Two other chambers lie exactly above. Within these sombre graves were placed the stone coffins of the kings, who, despite their greatness and power, were compelled to lie down and share the common fate of mortality. There the royal mummies were put to sleep for centuries and above them on the walls was graven the story of their deeds when in the flesh. The door of the passage was sealed with a stone and the name of the dead monarch was added to the list of gods in the temple. The pyramids form one of the Seven Wonders of the World, and their build- ing is a problem which even in these later days it is hard to solve. There is no machine or apparatus in existence to-day powerful enough to raise those colossal stones to their places in the stupendous pile. It has been suggested that they were moulded in their position by chemical means from the sands of the desert, but the marks of the machinery employed are still distinctly visible, so that the construction of the engines is another of the lost arts. It is said that 360,000 men were employed for twenty years in building the Great Pyramid. The second pyramid resembles in form and interior the largest. It was originally 457 feet in height, while the third, but 233 feet high, was built by a fourth or fifth king of the Fourth Dynasty. With this dynasty authentic Egyptian history begins. Its kings were distinguished for military achieve- ments and architectural grandeur. Khufu, the first of them, conquered Ethiopia, while Khafra built the Sphinx, which stands north of the second pyramid of Gizeh. It is hewn out of the solid rock, has the body of a crouching lion and the head of a man, capped and bearded. It is 190 feet in length, and between the paws, extended forward for fifty feet, is a monumental stone with the name of Khafra. The width of the shoulders is thirty-six feet and the head from top to chin is twenty-eight feet and a half. - * The closing years of the Fourth Dynasty showed a decline in the political power of Egypt, and the Fifth Dynasty, composed of nine reigns, gave little to the world that is worthy of record. The kings of the Sixth Dynasty belonged to a family from a small island in the Nile known as Elephantis, in Upper Egypt. This epoch saw the beginning of foreign wars of conquest and the decline of art. The Egyptian dominion was carried far into the Syrian and Arabian deserts and Nubia was conquered. The most wonderful and almost incredible statement regarding the Sixth Dynasty is that King Pepy II, ascending the throne at the age of six, held it for ninety-five years / During that marvellous reign the Egyptian conquests referred to were made and Egyptian dominion was extended to the Red Sea and the cataracts of the Nile. The king founded in Middle Egypt the “City of Pepy,” whose site has been lost, and built one of the great pyramids of Sakkara for his tomb. * I 6 The Story of the Greatest Nations Under his successor, his son Merenra, Ethiopia became a tributary prov- ince, and the copper mines of Arabia and of the peninsula of Sinai were opened and developed. Then followed several rulers of whom little is known, but Manetho states that Dynasties Seven and Eight belonged to the Memphian line while the following two were in a Heracleopolite family, some of whom were probably contemporaneous in Upper and Middle Egypt. The Twelfth Dynasty, extending from 2778 to 2565 B.C., was introduced by Amenemhat I., during whose reign Egyptian dominion extended from the Red Sea to the western desert. This was a memorable period in the history of the country. Many canals were constructed for the irrigation of the country, and the civil administration of the various governors improved, while sculpture, architecture, and the building of monumental tombs were extensively revived. Under Usertesen I., the next king, Egypt attained a glory and magnificence unequalled since the downfall of the Fourth Dynasty. His two successors fol- lowed his policy, and the next king, Usertesen III., had the most glorious reign of all. The boundary was fixed beyond the second cataract, where forts and outposts were built and stone tablets set up defining the limits of the king- dom. The engineering works were extraordinary. Through the hills the engineers constructed a canal which led the waters of the Nile into the valley of Fayoum, where the supply from the annual inundation formed an artificial lake. Thus by the distribution of the water, which was well stocked with fish, a large area of country was turned into a luxuriant garden. But more amazing than all was the national temple known as the Labyrinth, erected near the entrance of the canal into the lake. Herodotus, who examined it, was astounded and declared that all the temples of the Greeks put together did not equal it in cost and splendor. It contained twelve roofed courts, join- ing one another, with opposite entrances, six facing the north and six the South, the whole being inclosed by an immense wall. One-half the temple was above and one-half below ground, and each division contained fifteen hundred apart- ments. Those below ground were the sepulchres of the kings and the halls of the sacred crocodiles. No wonder it was called the Labyrinth, for any one who attempted to pass through its winding and almost innumerable divisions was certain to lose his way, unless he was in charge of an experienced guide. Herodotus was allowed to visit the apartments above ground but not the subterranean ones. Regarding the former he said: “I pronounce them among the grandest efforts of human industry and art. The almost infinite number of winding passages through the different courts excited my highest admiration: from spacious halls I passed through smaller chambers, and from them again to large and magnificent saloons, almost without end. The walls and ceilings are Egypt—The Shepherd Kings 17 of marble, the latter embellished with the most exquisite sculpture; around each court, pillars of the richest and most polished marble are arranged; and at the termination of the Labyrinth stands a pyramid one hundred and sixty cubits high, approached by a subterranean passage, and with its exterior enriched by huge figures of animals.” The Thirteenth Dynasty included sixty Diospolite kings who are said to have reigned 453 years. The Fourteenth numbered seventy-six Xoite kings with reigns extending over one hundred and eighty-four years; but of these Xoites many appear to be mere puppets, ruling under the Hyksos, or Shepherd kings, who now invaded the land. They form the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Dynasties, which lasted from 2098 to 1587 B.C. The Hyksos are supposed to have been a no- madic race from either Arabia or Syria, who invaded Lower Egypt, where they destroyed the native monarchy of Memphis and then conquered the Theban Kingdom of Upper Egypt. Their dominion was completely established about 1900 B.C., and was followed by the darkest period in Egyptian history. It was during the reign of the Shepherd kings that Abraham visited Egypt, and they were still reigning when Jacob and his sons settled in the country more than two hundred years later. It is indeed this fact that somewhat accounts for Joseph’s rise to power. The king who so welcomed and honored him was, like himself, a stranger and a Semite. There were many rebellions during the reign of the Shepherd kings, but all were put down until finally a revolt broke out in the district of Thebes, where, through the skill of the native leaders and the bravery of the insurgents, the Shepherds were decisively beaten and compelled to concentrate at Avaris. Being besieged there, they finally agreed to withdraw with their flocks and herds and leave the country forever. The Shepherds being expelled, the Theban house became the dominant power in Egypt, and the Eighteenth Dynasty opened about I 59 I B.C. Here an impressive Biblical truth must be remembered: the head of this Eighteenth Dynasty is believed to have been that Pharaoh “who knew not Joseph,” and the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt is supposed to have taken place about 1491 B.C., perhaps during the reign of Amenhotep II., the Pharaoh whose heart was hardened, and who, pursuing the Israelites into the Red Sea, was drowned with all his horsemen. Under the Eighteenth Dynasty and those immediately following Upper and Lower Egypt were once more united under one crown; the ruined temples were restored, the military spirit kindled anew, and the surrounding nations brought under Egyptian dominion. Egypt became a single great centralized power. Her art reached its highest perfection, and the splendid temple-palaces 2 18 The Story of the Greatest Nations of Thebes were built. Ethiopia, Arabia, and Syria were invaded, the Euphrates was crossed, and a part of Mesopotamia added to the empire. Thothmes III., the greatest of the rulers of the Eighteenth Dynasty, has been called “the Alexander of Egypt.” He overran the whole of the civilized world, as he knew it. The kings of Babylon and Assyria were his vassals. But conquered Asia revenged itself on his race. His great-grandson Amen- hotep IV., fascinated by Babylonian culture and art, sought to introduce it into Egypt. He aimed to overthrow the old religion and break the enormous power of the priests. With this object he introduced sun-worship, changed his own name to one meaning “Glory of the Solar Disk”; and, deserting his old capital Thebes, built a new city, in which he started a completely new civilization, differing widely from the Egyptian. What followed is very obscure. It may have been purposely made so by the priests. There was a revolution; the new city was destroyed; Amenhotep's mummy was torn to pieces; and the stones of the new god's temple were carried to Thebes to be used in the service of the old god Amon. The Eighteenth Dynasty disappeared, and the Nineteenth reigned in its stead. - Before entering upon this the second great period in Egyptian history, it will be interesting to consider the civilization of that remarkable people. The government was a hereditary monarchy, but it was greatly modified by the influence of the priestly class, who really formed the “power behind the throne.” The public duties and daily habits of the monarch were rigidly pre- scribed by religious rule. There was another important difference between an Egyptian king and other despots: while he had the right to enact new laws, he had no power over the lives and property of his subjects, beyond that which was prescribed by law. He might be the possessor of as many whims and mental freaks as nature chose to give him, but he could not make his subjects Suffer therefrom. Society consisted of three castes or ranks—the priests, the soldiers, and the lower orders. Every man, instead of being free to choose his place and vocation in life, had it fixed for him, and it was always what his father's was or had been. Of these three castes the priests were the richest and most influential, but you must not give the present meaning to the word “priest,” for their order included many professions and occupations. About all the knowledge of the country was concentrated in them. They were everywhere, were the only ones who knew how to read and write, and the medical and scientific men belonged to their rank. They fixed the religious ritual to which every man, including the king himself, was obliged to conform. Thus you will see the power of the priests was almost unlimited. Egypt—Art and Social Life I 9 Second to the priestly class was that of the military. To each member of this caste was assigned about six and a half acres of land, which was free from tax, but the owner was forbidden to engage in any art or trade. The king rented all the land except that belonging to the priests and soldiers, receiving in the way of rent about one-fifth of the produce. Below the priests and soldiers came the great unprivileged castes, among which were the husbandmen, the artificers, and the herdsmen. In each of these were included many occupations. The lowest caste was that of the herdsmen and the lowest members of that caste were the swineherds, who, therefore, were at the bottom of the social scale. All below the castes of the priests and soldiers had no political rights and could not hold land. This system was a baneful one, for it killed personal ambition and enter- prise, and held the nation motionless, when otherwise it might have made great progress and become highly prosperous. The population of ancient Egypt was five millions and probably more. You have learned of the land's amazing fertility, where the ground was covered by the rich film from the annual overflow of the Nile. Since food was cheap and abundant, the population increased fast. Think of the statement of a Greek visitor to Egypt a short time before the birth of the Saviour, to the effect that to bring up a child to manhood cost hardly four dollars of our money, or at the rate, say, of less than a cent a week! This almost incredible condition of affairs caused thousands of the popula- tion to become idlers, or rather placed their services at the command of the rulers, who set them to work building pyramids and other structures which sufficed to keep armies of them busy. The Egyptians acquired great skill in architecture. Their instinct seemed to lead them in that direction. While they never equalled the Greeks, they displayed marked ability. The principal feature of Egyptian architecture is its largeness and grandeur. The colossal sphinxes and obelisks formed avenues leading to immense palaces and temples, with a vastness of space that would inclose any one of our most famous cathedrals. You have already learned about the pyramids, some of whose blocks weigh I,6OO tons. It is stated that 2,000 men were employed for three years in moving one of those gigantic blocks to the base of the pyramid. It would be still more interesting to learn how they managed to raise it to its position at the end of their journey. In sculpture the artists also aimed at bigness, and therefore missed the beautiful, nor did painting attain any special excellence. While many of the frescoes in the sepulchres display brilliancy of coloring and considerable spirit, the drawing is poor, with no apparent employment of the laws of perspective. No doubt the sculptors and artists were hampered by the strict religious rules 2O The Story of the Greatest Nations to which they were forced to submit. Thus in representing the gods no colors could be used except those prescribed by their religion. A much larger percentage of the Egyptian population could read and write than of any other ancient nation. The most ancient monuments and pyramids show inscriptions, and nearly every article for use or adornment was marked. The best of writing-material was made from the leaves of the papyrus plant, of which we have manuscripts two thousand years old. It is from the word papy- rus that we derive “paper.” The religion of the Egyptians embodied a conception of the immortality of the soul and the existence of a Supreme Being, but his attributes and manifes- tations were shown in various forms. While the learned accepted these as merely symbols, the ignorant looked upon them as divinities and objects of wor- ship. Thus it came about that the Egyptians had gods almost without number —sufficient for every day in the year. The most general worship was of the great god Osiris and the beautiful goddess Isis. The lovely Nile island of Philae, at the extreme limit of the kingdom, was one of the centres of her worship, and the ruins of her temple there still survive. A striking feature of the Egyptian religion was the adoration paid to brutes. The ibis, the dog, and the cat were held in special honor everywhere, while others were worshipped only in certain districts. The bull Apis, at Mem- phis, and the calf Mnevis, at Heliopolis, received the highest of all honors. The animals thus worshipped were kept with the utmost care in the temples and were embalmed at death. If any one killed an ibis or hawk, even by accident, he was immediately put to death. Such mental debasement is certain to bring woful results to a people, as was proven in the subsequent history of Egypt. It was only certain animals that the Egyptians protected. Dangerous beasts had no immunity. Indeed one of the recognized duties of the kings was to kill off the savage lions of the desert. Regular hunting parties were organ- ized, and one king records on his monuments that he has slain one hundred and twelve lions for the good of his people. The princesses, too, had elaborately arranged parties for crocodile hunts on the Nile, and were proud of their success in killing these eaters of their people. The universal belief was that at the resurrection the soul and body would reunite. To this belief was due the practice of embalming the dead bodies, the art reaching a remarkable degree of skill. It causes a strange feeling to look upon one of those mummies, which shows the color of the hair about the base of the head, the cast of the features, while you know that twenty centuries or more have swept over the world since the immortal spirit fled from the body. There were many excellent mechanics among the Egyptians. Linen was their usual article of dress, and they made it from a fine kind of flax which they Egypt–Progress in Mechanical Arts 2 I cultivated; they could polish and engrave precious stones to perfection, while in glass manufacture, porcelain-making, and dyeing none could surpass them. They possessed many secrets that have been lost. One was the manufacture of elastic glass, or, rather, glass that could be compressed without danger of frac- ture. It is said that one of their cups made of glass could be held in the hand and pressed until the two sides touched, and then, upon being released, it would immediately fly back to its former shape. As far back as records exist the Egyptians worked in metals, and their walls and ceilings afford exquisite patterns for us in these days. While they had a knowledge of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and medicine, yet it was crude, and the Chaldeans were their superiors. In the words of Professor Swin- ton: “The greatest characteristic of Egyptian institutions was their ºc/ange- abſeness. This stationary character is seen in Egyptian government, society, religion, art, learning. Egypt herself was a mummy.” HHHHHHHH H-- - i --------- - Chapter II FROM THE FIRST RAMESES TO THE CONQUEST BY THE GREEKS º § HE first Rameses was an insignificant ruler, of whom little º' is known. He appointed his son co-regent, or joint ruler with him, and after several raids into Nubia died, having reigned only two years. Among the mummies found at º Der-el-Bahari, some time ago, was one that was identified º as that of Rameses I. His only importance lies in that he began the Nineteenth Dynasty, during which Egypt became so prosperous and powerful. With Seti I. opened the reign of one of the most illus- trious and warlike monarchs of Egypt. He speedily became involved in a series of important wars, one of which was notable because it resulted in the capture of Saluma, or Salem, which afterward became the city of Jerusalem. He was a man of great military ability, and was so successful that he compelled Syria to sue for peace and strengthened his hold on the prov- ince by marrying a princess of that nation. He gave much attention to mari- time affairs, and it is said that a powerful fleet of his swept up and down the Mediterranean. There has been too much praise, however, given to this ruler, for it is impossible that all of the triumphs placed to his credit could have been gained by any man in a single lifetime. This unquestionably great ruler, who was vain to the last degree, resorted to a trick by which to add to his glory. Many famous buildings, built by his predecessors, had the names of the builders inscribed upon them. Seti caused these to be obliterated and his own placed in their stead. But it remains true that his empire was extended northward to the - Egypt—Rameses II 23 shores of the Caspian Sea; southward beyond the second cataract; westward to the interior of the desert; and it included Arabia to the eastward. This ruler devoted most of his architectural activity to the city of Thebes, where he built upon the temple of Amon-Ra at Karnak, and began the splendid hypostyle which was completed by his son and successor. He restored two funereal temples and left his kingdom to his son who is known in history as Rameses II. This king was perhaps the most illustrious of all the rulers of Egypt, and was surnamed the Great. When only ten years old he accompanied his father in many of his campaigns, and upon succeeding to the throne was fired with the ambition to become the conqueror of the world. The Greeks named him Se- sostris and saw in him the representative of the highest possible Egyptian great- ness. Their accounts of his marvellous exploits, however, have greatly over- estimated them. His principal campaigns were in Ethiopia, Syria, and Arabia, and it is probable that he pushed his conquests as far as Mesopotamia and ruled the larger part of Western Asia. His greatest battle was here at Kaddish, the capital city of the Hittites. On his monuments he is very fond of referring to his personal prowess in this great battle. Charging at the head of his forces, he with his chariot and lions alone succeeded in breaking through the Hittite line. The rest of the Egyptians were driven back, and the king remained alone in a position of great peril. You may be interested to step back through the centuries and read Rameses' own boastful account of the matter, as scholars have translated it. “I became like the god Mentu. I hurled the dart with my right hand; I fought with my left hand. . . . I had come upon two thousand teams of horses; I was in the midst of them, but they were dashed in pieces before my steeds. Not one of them raised his hand to fight; their courage was sunken in their breasts; their limbs gave way. . . . I made them fall into the water like crocodiles; they tumbled down on their faces one after another. I killed them at my pleasure.” The inscription runs on as far again in the same strain. It is the tone of all the monuments. These old Egyptian kings were in no way bashful about telling their exploits. That is one thing which makes it so difficult to get at the facts of ancient history. The Hittites certainly were defeated in this battle, but the act of Rameses in building an immense wall from Pelusium to Heliopolis to protect his eastern frontier does not look like the work of a resistless conqueror, and the cutting of a system of canals from Memphis downward was probably meant to obstruct the advance of his enemies. His works in architecture were sufficient to make the name of Rameses immortal. He completed the famous Hall of Columns, begun by his father at 24 The Story of the Greatest Nations Karnak, and the temple of Amenhotep III. at Luxor. He played, however, what seems a rather mean trick on this latter king. Amenhotep had set up together in one great court several hundred enormous black granite statues of his favorite goddess Mañt. Rameses helped himself freely to this regiment, and made royal presents of black granite goddesses to almost every city in his kingdom. His successors freely followed his thievish example, until to-day only a fraction of the statues remain, battered, overturned, or leaning toward a fall. Amenhotep’s most remarkable work gives scarcely a suggestion of what it must have looked when those hundreds of giant figures towered row after row, fresh from the carver's hands. The two colossi of Rameses, and one of the two obelisks of red granite which he placed in front of Amenhotep's grand temple, are still standing with the inscription as sharp and distinct as on the day it was graven in the flinty stone. The other obelisk is in the Place de la Concorde, at Paris. Rameses died in the sixty-eighth year of his reign, and was succeeded by his fourteenth son Mer-en-Ptah, who made Memphis his capital. It is worth noting that the word “Pharaoh’’ did not refer to a single person, but was ap- plied to each ruler, no matter what his name. As an evidence of the uncertainty of historical records, it may be stated that a good many writers claim that this ruler was the Pharaoh of the Exodus, who was drowned with his hosts in the Red Sea. t When Mer-en-Ptah came to the throne, Egypt was at peace with the world, and, unless we accept the Exodus as taking place during his reign, it was un- eventful. Under his son Seti II. there was disorder and rebellion. Seti was credited with numerous victories, but it was probably done by flatterers, for no authentic records of such triumphs have been preserved. After his death came a period of anarchy, during which several usurpers reigned for a brief while, until at last Set-necht succeeded in restoring order and founded the Twentieth Dynasty. All the kings of this dynasty, after Set-necht, are known as Rameses, the first one being III., while the last was XII. Rameses III, subdued a rebellion in Ethiopia and gained a number of naval battles on the Mediterranean. He, like so many of his predecessors, was a great builder, and his name is found in all parts of Egypt connected with temples and other monuments, his chief at- tention having been given to the Delta, and to the district about Thebes where he built his famous temple of Amon. With this dynasty ended the period known as the “New Empire,” and the years of decline began. It had seen Egypt the first power of the then known world, but the dry rot was gnawing at the root, and was not to cease until the passing centuries saw the once mighty kingdom among the weakest and most insignificant of nations. THE DEATH OF SARDANAPALUs HS100 wx. Lº SNOIT 3，1._L._Lwa SIH O Nºv - || Spasº wvae ， THE TEMPLE OF ISIS AT PHILAE º - - º º |- ： *№.№| -\\ （~~~~№ae， − MASSACRE OF THE MAMELUKES THE LEAP OF EMIM BEY saev （1nº nºvao， a H_1 -10 noissa Ooaee ! EGYPTIAN TYPES 5, Nile Pilot. 4. Nubian Officer. 3, Woman of Alexandria. 2, The Khedive Tewfik. l, Cairene Girl, 7. A Donkey-boy. 6, The Khedive Ismail º sº º “BABYLoN is FALLEN " ExPLORING THE MOUNDS OF NINEVEH |-ſae |× ！ - §ff= №. … BIRTH-cHAMBER OF THE KHEDIVES º | | - - .…, L. º | " RIOTING IN ALExANDRIA DURING THE BOMBARDMENT Nºwºłandwo Lw S3. HSIA 830 a H1 ao sabaev Ho - ---- = = |- Egypt—The Decline from Power 25 The priests had been steadily gaining power, and they now secured the throne, under the name of the Tanite kings, and held it ſor one hundred and thirty years, or, according to some writers, for one hundred and fifty years. Then followed the Bubastite or Twenty-second Dynasty, believed to have de- scended from the foreign settlers in Bubastis, now known as Tel-Bustak, on the Peludiac Nile, about seventy miles from the mouth. We now reach secure ground, for it is covered by Hebrew history. She- shonk, founder of the Bubastite dynasty, was the Shishak of the Old Testament, who captured Jerusalem about 972 B.C. If you will read the first ten verses of the twelfth chapter of II. Chronicles, you will find the account of this event, which is also related by Josephus, while the name of the king with a record of his achievements is inscribed on the propylon of the great temple of Kar- nak. It is believed that his successor was 2.eza/, of the Bible (Osorthern or Osorcho), who suffered defeat at Mareshah, from Asa, king of Judah, as related in II. Kings xviii. 4 and II. Chron. xvi. 8, 9. The Twenty-third Dynasty was also Tanite, and Egypt declined more rapidly than ever. At the close of the next dynasty it was conquered by Ethi- opia, its last monarch, Bocchoris, being taken prisoner and burned alive. Sa- baco, founder of the Twenty-fifth or Ethiopian Dynasty, was the So of the Hebrew records, with whom Hosea, king of Israel, formed an alliance. His successor, Tarkus, was Tirhaka/, king of Ethiopia, the enemy of Assyria and Sennacherib, an account of whom is given in the book of Isaiah (xxvii. 9). How our interest deepens and intensifies when we find ourselves reading history which is also given in the Bible ! There was much trouble and warring after the death of Tarkus, a sure indication of the rapid decay of the empire. Twelve kings probably reigned at the same time in different parts of the country. Each had his own province, and they united only to repel foreign invasion. This was about seven centuries before the birth of the Saviour. Where there were so many pulling different ways, they were easily overthrown by one of their own number, Psammetichus I., aided by Greek and Phoenician mercenaries, and he formed the Twenty- sixth Dynasty. During his reign of more than fifty years, he united Egypt into a compact kingdom and introduced a number of important reforms. One of his changes, however, was scarcely for the better. He built new and more gorgeous temples for the successive bulls in which the god Apis was supposed to be living. He made the worship of these bulls the main part of the religious ceremony of the nation, having grand processions and feasts in their honor. His successor Nechao, Nekas, or Neco, was the Pharaoh Mecho of the Bible (II. Kings xxiii. 29–34). He was a ruler of ability, and during his reign of six- teen years he carried on a war against the Babylonian Empire, defeated its ally, 26 The Story of the Greatest Nations Josiah, king of Judah, entered Jerusalem in triumph and placed Eliakim, younger brother of Jehoahaz, on the throne. He invaded Assyria and for four years had a series of continued victories. Then he was defeated on the banks of the Eu- phrates by Nebuchadnezzar and driven back into Egypt. It is said that by his command a Phoenician fleet attempted the circumnavigation of Africa, and he began the cutting of a canal between the Red Sea and the Nile. During the reign of his successor, Psammetichus II., Egyptian supremacy was restored over Ethiopia. Disasters overtook the kingdom under Apries, the Pharaoh Hophra of Scripture. Nebuchadnezzar invaded Lower Egypt and the Greeks swarmed into Western Egypt, where the king was defeated. We now reach another momentous era in the history of Egypt. It was 525. B. C. and Cambyses was king over Persia, which had grown into a powerful and mighty nation. Previous to this time, Amasis, King of Egypt, had formed an alliance with King Croesus of Lydia and King Nabunaid of Babylon, who were: bitter enemies of Persia. The alliance was for protection against the growing: power of Persia, but it gave Cambyses the excuse he needed to march against. Egypt. This campaign promised to be of the most trying nature. Along the east- ern frontier extended the Syrian desert, which was so difficult to cross that Amasis did not believe there was any danger to him in such an attempt. He therefore brought his forces together at Pelusium, confident that he would gain an easy victory over the invaders, who after crossing the desert would be so. worn out that they must fall easy victims to his warriors. Cambyses understood the difficulties before him, and collected an immense fleet to attack Pelusium by sea while his army assailed it by land. But on the eve of starting an astound- ing piece of good fortune befell him. Phanes, one of the best officers in the Egyptian army, was aggrieved over his treatment by Amasis, and so angered that he set out to join the Persian monarch. Suspecting his purpose, Amasis sent his favorite eunuch in pursuit, and he overtook Phanes on the road; but the latter eluded him and reached the Persian camp, where it need not be said he received a warm welcome from Cambyses. It was a woful day for Amasis when he offended his young officer, for he not only revealed all the secrets of his former master, but showed his enemies the means of crossing the desert with little difficulty or loss. As a first step, envoys were sent to the Bedouin sheiks or chiefs, who were given bounteous. presents, and in return they made treaties by which they promised to furnish the expedition with camels and water, and to guide them by the shortest and best route to Pelusium. In the interval Amasis died, so that it was his son Psammeticus III., a young. Egypt—Under Persian Dominion 27 and inexperienced leader, who met the Persians at Pelusium. After a prolonged and furious battle the Egyptians were totally defeated. Psammeticus fled to Memphis and a ship was sent thither to demand the submission of the city. This ship contained only two hundred men, and its errand being known, it should have been safe against attack; but when it entered the harbor it was boarded by an overwhelming number of men, who killed every one on board and burned the vessel. - Cambyses punished this perfidy ten-fold. He laid siege to Memphis, took it, and executed two thousand of the sons of the most respected citizens, among them the son of the king, whose daughter and a number of leading young wo- men were sold into slavery. Cambyses intended, however, to make Psam- metichus governor of Egypt, but he was detected in a conspiracy against the Persian, who permitted him to take poison as the best way out of his trouble. He may be considered the last of the Pharaohs, for the Persian hosts now tramped unopposed over Egypt, the New Empire, once the pride of the world, was blotted out in darkness, and the land of the Pharaohs became a Persian province. The Twenty-seventh Dynasty thus founded by Cambyses consisted of six kings whose joint reigns lasted from 525 to 424 B.C. Having been so success- ful, Cambyses determined to conquer the rest of Africa. He planned three ex- peditions. The first was against Carthage, but it had to be abandoned because the Phoenicians, who composed most of the fleet, refused to make war against Carthage, and being volunteers, Cambyses did not dare to use severe measures against them. The second expedition was directed against the Oasis of Amon, and a force of fifty thousand men left Thebes and started across the desert of Sahara, but were never heard of again. It is probable that all perished in one of those ter- rific sand-storms which sweep over that flaming desert. The third expedition was against Ethiopia, and, in the main, was successful, but on the return of the army, which numbered I 50, OOO men, nearly all per- ished in a sand-storm. Nevertheless, Egypt was thoroughly subdued and held with a firm hand. Cambyses was subject to epileptic fits, and he now became insane and committed many sacrileges which grievously offended the Egyptians, his own country suffering almost as much from his wild doings. He killed his brother, and has been accused of many unnatural crimes. He wounded himself, it is thought accidentally, and died therefrom in the year 522 B.C. Darius became king of Persia and was confronted by many revolts, but Egypt remained loyal. He visited the country in 517, and by his course won the good will of the people. He founded a city named for himself near the route of the canal which he completed from the Nile to the Red Sea, and 28 The Story of the Greatest Nations then, for some unknown reason, caused half of it to be destroyed. The most important act of his reign was the erection of Egypt, including Libya, Barca, and Cyrene, into the sixth satrapy, which was required to pay an annual tax amounting to $826,OOO. Xerxes became king of Persia in 485 B.C., and found the Egyptians in revolt. He reconquered them and appointed his own brother satrap of the country. As we shall learn in the history of Persia, Xerxes was assassinated in 472 and was succeeded, after a few years of anarchy, by Artaxerxes in 464, who found a formidable rebellion confronting him in Egypt, where the Greeks gave assistance to his enemies. He suffered a number of defeats, but was successful in the end, and induced the Athenians to withdraw their support of the Egyp- tians. After a time, tranquillity was established, but in the latter part of the reign of Darius II. (4I4 B.C.) the Egyptians succeeded in gaining their inde- pendence under the leadership of Amyrtaeus, the Greek, whose reign from 414 to 408 B.C. constituted the Twenty-eighth Dynasty. He was deposed, and the Twenty-ninth Dynasty, that of Nepherites, lasted from 408 to 386 B.C., when Nepherites II, succeeded his father, but was deserted by his soldiers, who slew his son. The Thirtieth Dynasty began in 386 B.C., with Nectanebus I. on the throne. He was the greatest king of the period, and under him, Egypt once more assumed an important rank among nations, defying Persia and making her influence felt in Asia. Many extensive and costly campaigns were set on foot against Egypt, but when Artaxerxes died all had resulted in dismal failure. Nectanebus II. ascended the Egyptian throne in 361 and held it for twelve years, being the last native Pharaoh. He abandoned the attempts to conquer Phoenicia and Syria and confined himself within the boundaries of Egypt, probably because of the internal troubles. Persia pushed her conquests in different directions and finally attacked Egypt. Her forces suffered severe losses in the desert, but, with their Greek allies, laid siege to Pelusium. The Thebans made the first attack, but the battle, which lasted far into the night, ended without advantage to either side. The Egyptians, however, lacked a good general, and, after more severe fighting, retreated to Memphis. The invaders now marched through the Delta, promising pardon to all who would submit, and threatening with the sword those who continued resistance. It may be said that the Egyptian and Greek garrisons (for there were Greeks on both sides) fell over each other in their haste to make submission. So it came about that Egypt, after an independence of sixty-five years, became again a Persian province. Egypt—Conquest by Alexander 29 She remained passive and tranquil throughout the terrific war between Alexander and Persia, even though hardly a Persian garrison was left in the country. When the power of Persia was shattered Egypt did not strike a blow for her freedom, though she did strike hard at the robber bands which terrorized many parts of the country. Having captured Tyre and Gaza, Alexander determined to make sure of Egypt. Pelusium surrendered without resistance. Alexander garrisoned the city and sent his fleet up the Nile to Memphis. He entered the city not as a conqueror, but as a Pharaoh, reverently observing all the ancient religious cere- monies. Sacrifices were offered to the gods, athletic games and prize contests in arts were instituted in which many of the Greek masters took part. This conduct was in such contrast to that of previous Persian rulers that the Egyptians were captivated and hailed him as their best friend. Passing down the Nile from Memphis, Alexander went to sea from Cano- pus, and landing at the outlet of Lake Mareotis, near the site of Rakote, he was impressed by the splendid harbor facilities offered by the place. He deter- mined to found a city there which should bear his name. Thus the important metropolis Alexandria came into existence. It soon became the intellectual exchange between the nations of the Occident and the Orient, and the mother of a new civilization. Leaving a portion of his army in Egypt, Alexander left the country in 332 and never returned. When he died his body was brought to Alexandria for interment. CAMEo with Portrait of PtoleMY PHILADELPHUS, AND ARSINOE, DAUGHTER OF LYSIMACHUS. -- - º - a ºr ººzºº - - - - zzl-2.2.2.2 2.2.2.2.2.2.2.2.2.2.2.2 <<<<<< <<<<<<<<<< RUINS OF THE RAMESSEUM. Chapter III EGYPT UNIDER GREEK AND ROMAN RULE º *ANY historians close their history of the Land of the - Pharaohs, with its conquest by Alexander, since its ancient glory vanished, and it lost that individual- ity which had made it pre-eminent among the nations of antiquity; but there still remains much of interest to tell about the remarkable country. You have learned of the wisdom shown by Alexander in governing Egypt and shaping its policy, but in order to understand the mission and lesson of his- tory, you must remember that, during the years about which I have been telling you, other nations had acquired greatness and power, and the events of Egypt became interwoven with them; but we shall follow our plan of giving in consecutive space the complete account of every country from beginning to end, no matter how vast the stretch of years embraced. The principal neighbors of Egypt were Persia, Greece, and Rome, each and all of whom deeply impressed themselves upon her progress and civilization. There had been an extended commercial and military intercourse with Greece, and the reciprocal effect was deep and lasting, though the greater civilization of the Hellenes produced the stronger impres- sion. Greek ideas permeated Egypt from one end to the other, and were felt by all classes. There were Hellenic colonies along the shore of the Red Sea, and their historians and philosophers traversed the land, with eyes and ears l Egypt—The Grecian Rule 3 I open. There were Greek settlements in the Delta and Greek soldiers were at the Egyptian court. In short, it may be said that, during the fifth and fourth centuries before the Christian era, Egypt became Hellenized, just as a bit of leaven “leavens the whole lump.” Alexander died in 323 B.C., and almost immediately the vast empire created by his genius crumbled to pieces, as a house does when the foundations are swept away. His chief captains divided his vast possessions among themselves, and it came about that Egypt fell to the share of Ptolemy Lagos, or Soter, the first of the Greek sovereigns. He was an able ruler and added more “leaven’’ to the Egyptian lump, until, had you been unfamiliar with its history, you would have suspected that the country had always been a part of Greece. He changed the names of many of the leading cities, dethroned the abstract religion and supplanted it with a singular compound of the two systems, while science and learning found a congenial home in the court of the Ptolemies. Alexandria drew within its walls the learning of the age; the unapproachable Alexandrian Library was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, who encouraged the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Bible and patronized the labors of the historians and learned men. The Delta became a scene of bustling activity like an American city, for commerce was rapidly developed and nearly all Europe eagerly sought the corn, linen and papyrus of Egypt, the products of Libya and the apparently exhaustless treasures of the East. The third Ptolemy was Euergetes, who, through a Syrian war, extended his conquests to Babylon and Susa and swept the shores of the Mediterranean with his fleets. He added to the volumes in the Alexandrian Library, and did his utmost to aid in the material and intellectual prosperity of his people. The fatal defect of every monarchical system is that, while some rulers may be of the highest virtue and ability, there are sure to be others whose reigns are a deadly blight to their subjects. Untold evil is done and the hands on the dial of progress are turned back for generations. The turn of Egypt came when Epiphanes, the fifth Ptolemy, became king. He was a bloated wretch, incapable of giving his country a pretence of good government. After inflict- ing disaster and evil, he was poisoned when preparing to set out on a military expedition. During his reign, Rome began to show her hand in Egyptian affairs, and Philometor, the seventh Ptolemy, was a nominee of the Roman Senate. He was a good and wise ruler, but his successor, Euergetes II., was one of the most loath- some miscreants that ever lived. You cannot think of any vice of which he was not guilty, while he was avaricious and brutal to the last degree. He had a sister, Cleopatra, who had also been the sister of her dead husband. Euer- getes married her, and, on the day he did so, murdered her infant son. He 32 The Story of the Greatest Nations afterward divorced Cleopatra and married her daughter by her first husband, she therefore being his niece. This was too much for his subjects, who rebelled and placed Cleopatra on the throne. In revenge he murdered a son who had been born to them, and sent the youth's head to her as a present. You must not confound this Cleopatra with the one famous in history, for that individual did not come upon the stage until a hundred years afterward. Moreover, it has been stated by some that the term “sister,” as used among the Egyptians, did not always imply the close relationship which we understand by the term. Several successors are not worth noting, but coming down to the time of Ptolemy XIV., who became king in 5 I B.C., we reach the period of the dazzling Egyptian Cleopatra, whose luminous beauty and marvellous fascination com- pletely turned the heads of men whose ambition and mental genius, it would be supposed, would have lifted them above any temptation in that direction. Ptolemy XIII. placed the guardianship of Egypt in the Roman Senate. His daughter Cleopatra and his son Ptolemy XIV. were nominated as succes- sors to the throne. She was seventeen and he ten years old, and their joint authority was cemented by the marriage of the brother and sister. The particulars of the romantic tragedy that follows will be found in our history of Rome. The ministers of Ptolemy excluded Cleopatra from her share in the sovereignty, when fortunately for the deposed queen a new actor came upon the stage in the person of the great Julius Caesar (B.C. 48). Probably having unbounded faith in her power of fascination, Cleopatra sought and obtained entrance to the presence of the illustrious Roman leader. Her confidence was warranted, for she completely bewitched Caesar, who, as might have been supposed, made a fool of himself. Won by her smiles he became her champion; he captured Pelusium, the key of the Nile, and, crossing that river at the head of the Delta, routed the army of Ptolemy, who, while fleeing, was drowned. Caesar's success being complete, the Alexandrians submitted, and, with a Roman garrison in the capi- tal, they acknowledged Cleopatra as the queen of Egypt. The strange story as told elsewhere will show how after the death of Caesar she threw a spell over Mark Antony, who lavished princely fortunes upon her and their children; and, forgetting honor and everything in his infatuation, he met his death through her treachery, she having with her fleet deserted him in the critical hour, when the prize for which he was about to contend was the dominion of the world. Then she exerted her subtle fascinations upon Augus- tus, the conqueror of Antony, but in vain. Finally, when told she must take her place in the procession that was to celebrate a Roman triumph, she com- mitted suicide, in the year 30 B.C. Egypt—Cleopatra and the Romans 33 It is uncertain what manner of death Cleopatra died, for there were no marks of violence on her person, and her face and body showed none of the effects produced by poison that has been swallowed. The general belief is that she obtained a venomous asp, that was brought to her in a basket of figs. This may or may not be true, and it is of little moment either way. Doubtless she was the possessor of a certain style of barbarian beauty which would have awakened no admiration in modern days, but she was one of the most vicious and abandoned of her sex, of whom it could be truthfully said that the world was well rid of her. Egypt no longer bore the semblance of independence. It became a part of the Roman Empire, governed by a prefect appointed by Caesar and responsible directly to him. It was divided into Upper Egypt, with Thebes the capital; Middle Egypt, with Heptanomis the capital; and Lower Egypt, with Alexan- dria the capital. Each of these divisions was subdivided into what were termed nomes, and these again into toparchies. Strong military forces were stationed in different parts, and Egypt formed one of the numerous members of the mighty empire of the Romans, who developed the resources of the country until it became the granary of the Empire. But the natives had not given up the hope of freedom. The first formida- ble revolt was by the soldiery, who, after a resistance lasting from A.D. 171 to I75, were brought under submission, and imperial authority was fully re-estab- lished. Eight years later, Pescennius Niger declared himself emperor, but in I96 was defeated and killed. Some time later the Egyptians were allowed representatives in the Roman Senate, and the worship of Isis, which had long existed in the Roman cities, was publicly sanctioned. Zenobia, the famous empress of Palmyra, conquered the land in A.D. 269, but she had hardly occupied it when she herself was conquered by Aurelian (A.D. 273), the Roman emperor. Immediately afterward her friend Firmus, a leading merchant of Egypt, raised the standard of revolt, and went so far as to don the imperial purple at Alexandria, issue edicts, coin money, and equip an army which Aurelian scattered like so much chaff. Firmus was made prisoner and tortured to death. - Now came troublous times to the Land of the Pharaohs, and the Roman legions were kept busy in putting down rebellions. Then the religious fac- tions harried one another with a fierceness always seen in such wars. But Christianity had taken root and was aggressive against paganism. Christian monks made their homes in Upper Egypt, and their bishops held sway in Alex- andria, where the battle royal was fought between the two faiths. Finally, in A.D. 389, Theodosius I. forbade by decree the worship of idols and ordered the temples to be closed. Such of the magnificent buildings as were not changed to 3 34 The Story of the Greatest Nations Christian churches were stripped of their decorations or suffered to fall into decay. The pagans defended their property with fanatical desperation, but were assailed with equal fury, and in the struggle the great Alexandrian library was pillaged, perhaps destroyed. Its mines of treasures could never be replaced. TABLE MADE FROM RosetTA Stone. Chapter IV LATER HISTORY OF EGYPT GYPT had now been brought under the banner of Chris- tianity and the influences of Western civilization. Its later history, while interesting, may be sketched rapidly. It was conquered in A. D. 616 by the Persians and subju- gated so completely in A.D. 640 by the army of Khalif Omar that Mohammedanism has ever since remained the dominant religion, with the country itself distinctly Mohammedan in character. The graves of many of the greatest Khalifs are still to be seen in the great cemetery at Cairo. The Khalifs cared little for the country, and it fell rapidly to de- cay. All the wealth and commerce that remained were confined to Lower Egypt. The decline steadily continued under the rule of the Arabs, and then of the Turks. A passage to India around the Cape of Good Hope was discovered at the close of the fif- & teenth century, with the result that Indian commerce was so di- º verted that the blow was almost a fatalone to the fortunes of Egypt. Meanwhile a new people had arisen in Egypt and esatblished her independ- ence of every one but themselves. These were the Mamelukes, originally a band of slaves trained as warriors by the great Sultan Saladin. The Christian crusaders attacked Egypt, but were defeated by the Mamelukes under Sultan Turan, and their leader, Louis IX., or St. Louis of France, was captured. Turan offended the Mamelukes by too great generosity to Louis, and they re- volted, murdered the Sultan, and placed one of their own number on the throne. 36 The Story of the Greatest Nations This was in 1250, and their sway continued undisputed until 1517, when the great Turkish Sultan Selim overthrew them in two great battles, and then by treachery massacred most of the survivors. Reorganized, they were the real rulers of Egypt for six centuries and rode rough-shod over the people. They were the furious warriors who were routed by Napoleon when he invaded the country in 1798, at the Battle of the Pyramids, and were finally crushed in I81 I by Mehemet Ali through a strategem that was as clever as it was perfidious. You know there are no more merciless wretches in the wide world than among the Turks, who revel in massacre and cruelty. The Sultan of Turkey finding in Mehemet Ali not only a man of ability and vigor, but one after his own heart, made him governor, or Pasha of Egypt, with liberty to do about as he chose. He determined to get rid of the turbulent Mamelukes, and sum- moned their leaders to come to Cairo to consult with him about a campaign into Arabia. Donning their gayest uniforms and mounting their best horses, this body of the finest cavalry in the world rode to the city, where they were warmly welcomed by the Pasha, who invited them to parade in the courts of the citadel. With no thought of treachery, they rode within the lofty walls and the portcullis dropped behind them. Then they saw that they had been caught in a trap and turned to retreat. But there was no way by which to retreat. Barred walls and windows and blank, gloomy walls frowned on every side, with thousands of muskets levelled from all directions. At a signal these flamed out with a thunderous crash, and men and horses tumbled writhing to the earth. Seeing there was no escape, some folded their arms and calmly awaited death with turbaned heads bowed and their dusky lips murmuring in prayer. Others dashed here and there, madly waving their swords, vainly seeking a foe, and cursing those who had thus basely betrayed them. But the rattling of musketry continued and the horses and riders continued to fall until only one man—Emim Bey—was left alive. And then took place what looked like a miracle. He drove his spurs. into the bleeding flanks of his steed, which leaped over a pile of his dead and dying comrades, and with a tremendous bound landed upon the battlements, amid a shower of bullets; then the frenzied animal sprang outward and went down crushed and dying; the bullets whistled around him, but Emim tore him- self free and ran with the speed of a deer until he reached the sanctuary of a mosque, from which he finally escaped into the desert. Can the mind picture a more wonderful escape? Mehemet Ali saw in the declining power of Turkey a chance of making Egypt independent and of adding Syria to his dominions. He carried out this scheme with the help of his son Ibrahim Pasha, and all went well until 1840, when Great Britain interfered. Her fleet captured the fortresses planted on the Egypt—Mehemet and his Successors 37 Syrian coast, and, after a long negotiation, the viceroyalty of Egypt was secured to the family of Mehemet Ali, with only the nominal suzerainty of the Porte. As his years increased, the mind of the remarkable ruler gave way, and in June, I848, his adopted son Ibrahim was made Pasha, but he died unexpect- edly a few months later, and was succeeded by Mehemet's son Abbas, who checked till his death the development and progress of Egypt. Said Pasha, another son, succeeded to the pashalik in 1854, and followed Mehemet's ener- getic policy, but all this time the common people, or the fellaheen, as they are called, were ground to the dust by intolerable taxation and the cruelty of their Turkish taskmasters. Their condition was like that of the Cubans under Spanish rule, and, if possible, worse, for when the fainting wretches sank un- der the frightful tasks, they were whipped mercilessly or cast into prison, where thousands died miserably. Said Pasha died in January, 1863, and his nephew Ismail, then in his forty-eighth year, succeeded to the pashalik. He was the eldest surviving son of Ibrahim Pasha, and a man of great strength of character. He visited Eng- land and France and made a study of Western civilization. By his shrewdness, and through the lavish use of money at Constantinople, he obtained permission in 1867 to adopt the royal title of “ Khidiv-el-Misr,” or king of Egypt, or, as the term now is, the Khedive. By this name, the rulers of the Land of the Pharaohs have since been known. The same firman, or decree, which gave this honor to Said, bound him to raise the annual tribute to the Sultan from $1,880, OOO to $3,600,ooo. The European principle of succession was adopted, that is from father to son, instead of to the oldest heir, as had formerly been the rule in Egypt. In 1873 another firman gave to the Khedive the right of making treaties with foreign powers and of maintaining an army. This was virtual independence for Egypt. The successful construction of the Suez Canal was largely due to the lib- eral policy and encouragement of Ismail, but his extravagance was like that of the pampered Roman emperors in the most luxurious days of the Empire. His court cost incredible sums, and his profuse hospitality would have bankrupted a Croesus. Moreover, his ambition involved him in some of the most remarkable events in the history of his country. We have learned of the construction in ancient times of a canal connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean, but it disappeared centuries ago, and the project engaged the attention of leading European powers in modern days, its great advantage being the shortening of the distance between Europe and India. Various plans were proposed, and in 1856, Ferdinand de Lesseps, the distin- guished French engineer, obtained from the Pasha of Egypt the exclusive privi- lege of forming a ship canal from Tyneh, near the ruins of ancient Pelusium, to 38 The Story of the Greatest Nations Suez. A joint-stock company was formed with a subscribed capital of $40,- OOO,OOO (afterward increased), and the work was begun toward the close of 1860, the canal being formally opened November 17, 1869. In 1875 the Brit- ish government purchased for $20,000,000 the Khedive's shares in the canal, which amounted to I 76,602 out of 4OO,OOO. This important work was to have a minimum width at the surface of 262 feet and at the bottom of 144 feet, with a depth of 22% feet, and at each end there were to be sluice locks formed, 330 feet long by 70 wide. The canal is Ioo miles long, 25 miles of this length being through lakes. The opening ceremonies were striking. There was a procession of Eng- lish and foreign steamers, in presence of the Khedive, the empress of the French, the emperor of Austria, the crown prince of Prussia, and others. On November 27th, the Brazilian, a ship of I,809 tons, 380 feet long, 30 feet broad, and drawing from 17% to 20% feet, went through. Three-fourths of the traffic through the canal is British. The canal has since been improved and has become an important highway of the world's commerce. Wady Halfa marks the southern boundary of Egypt proper, and beyond that spreads out an immense region of sand and wilderness, with here and there stretches of arable land. From north to south its length is I,6OO miles, with a breadth of 1,2OO miles. This is the Soudan, which has no canals or navigable rivers except, during a part of the year, the Nile; and its only roads are the paths made by camels. It can hardly be reached by the sea, and its inhabitants are wild, fanatical Arab tribes, loving war, and among the fiercest warriors in the world. In the middle of the country, at the junction of the Blue and White Niles, stands Khartoum, the capital. The Soudan has been one of the most prolific sources of supply for slaves for many years. Egypt coveted the country because of this wealth of human products, which she continually needed since thousands died under the lash every year, and she could not afford to let the supply run out. The war among the numerous tribes gave Mehemet Ali the excuse, in 1819, to seize the Soudan in order that he might bestow the “blessings of civilization ” upon the benighted people. An army under Ismail, his son, penetrated to Khartoum, where he established a good government. Ismail and his followers were invited to a dinner by a native chief, who succeeded in making them intoxicated at his table. When they were helpless, he set fire to the house and the whole party were burned to death. Mehemet Ali visited a fearful vengeance upon the natives for this act, and pressed his purpose until his rule was extended over Sennaar and Kordofan. His firm hand maintained order in the Soudan until the close of his reign. Afterward several revolts broke out, and it took terrible work to put them down. Egypt—Gordon and the Soudan 39 So much of this costly and bloody work was required that Said Pasha vis- ited the region in 1856 and was prepared to abandon the country, but was dis- suaded by those whose fortunes depended upon the slave trade. He ordered a number of reforms, but not the slightest attention was paid to his commands after he left the country. In 1865 the negro troops, 8,000 in number, having received no pay for a year and a half, broke into revolt. They were crushed with bloody vigor, the negro troops sent to Egypt, and the Soudan garrisons placed in the hands of Egyptian troops. Ismail in 1870 engaged the services of Sir Samuel Baker, the explorer, and the German traveller Munzinger, and through their aid suc- ceeded in extending his rule over the equatorial provinces. In 1874 Colonel Charles Gordon, who had distinguished himself in sup- pressing the Taiping rebellion in China, was appointed governor-general of the equatorial provinces and four years later was made supreme ruler in the Sou- dan. Gordon was an earnest Christian, of pure and exalted character, brave, patriotic, and wise. He organized an admirable system of government and raised the moral condition of the people to a degree never before known. He improved the finances, and in fact every branch of the government, and would not allow any interference from the court at Cairo. The dearest object to this great and good man was the rooting out of the hideous slave trade, and he bent all his energies toward the impossible task, regarding which one of his biographers says, “It demanded a tact, an energy, and a force of will almost superhuman. He had to deal not only with worthless and often mutinous governors of provinces, but with wild and desperate tribes- men as well; he had to disband 6, OOO Bashi-Bazouks, who were used as fron- tier guards, but who winked at slave hunting and robbed the tribes, on their own account; he had to subdue and bring to order and rule the vast province of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, then beneath the sway of the great slaver Zebehr (known as the ‘king of slave dealers'). It was a stupendous task: to give peace to a country quick with war; to suppress slavery among a people to whom the trade in human flesh was life and honor and fortune; to make an army out of perhaps. the worst material ever seen; to grow a flourishing trade and a fair revenue in the wildest anarchy in the world. The immensity of the undertaking; the infinity of details involved in a single step toward the end; the countless odds. to be faced; the many pests—the deadly climate, the horrible vermin, the ghastly itch, the nightly and daily alternation of overpowering heat and bitter cold—to be endured and overcome; the environment of bestial savagery and ruthless fanaticism—all these combine to make the achievement unique in hu- man history.” Nothing speaks more eloquently of the personality of this remarkable 4.O The Story of the Greatest Nations man than his own words, written in the midst of his campaign against the hor- rible slave trade, and in the face of difficulties such as it is almost impossible to conceive : “No man ever had a harder task than I, unaided, have before me; but it sits as a feather on me. As Solomon asked, I ask wisdom to govern this great people; and not only will He give it to me, but all else besides. And why? Because I value not the ‘all besides.’ I am quite as averse to slavery, and even more so than most people. I show it by sacrificing myself in these lands, which are no paradise. I have naught to gain in name or riches. I do not care what man may say. I do what I think is pleasing to my God; and, as far as man goes, I need nothing from any one. The Khedive never had directly gained any revenue from slaves. I now hold his place here; and I, who am on the spot with unlimited power, am able to judge how impotent he at Cairo is to stop the slave trade. I can do it with God's help, and I have the conviction that He has destined me to do it; for it was much against my will that I came here. What I have to do is so to settle matters that I do not cause a revolu- tion or my own death. Not that I value life. I have done with its comforts in coming here. My work is great but does not weigh me down. I go on as straight as I can. I feel my own weakness, and look to Him who is almighty; and I leave the issue without inordinate care with Him. I expect to ride 5,000 miles this year if I am spared. I am quite alone and I like it. I have become what people call a great fatalist—namely, I trust God to pull me through. This carries me through my troubles and makes me look on death as a coming relief, when it is His will. . . . It is only my firm conviction that I am only an instrument put in use for a time that enables me to bear up; and in my pres- ent state, during my long, hot, weary rides, I think my thoughts better and clearer than I should with a companion.” Gordon found himself so hampered by the action of the Egyptian govern- ment that he resigned in 1879. England and France had numerous causes for complaint against the Khedive Ismail, and in June of the year named, they procured from the Porte a firman authorizing his deposition. This took place, and his son, Mohammed Tewfik, twenty-seven years old, was made Khedive. The finances and domestic condition of Egypt had fallen into such a deplorable state that England and France agreed to supervise them and to support the Khedive so long as he governed properly. This arrangement constituted the Dual Control, or Anglo-French condominion. The policy, however, did not work well, as was inevitable when those two old rivals entered into such a partnership. England wished to secure the hon- est and efficient management of the finances and the free navigation of the Suez Canal, while France was anxious about the interests of the bondholders sad Egypt—Bombardment of Alexandria 4. I aimed to secure dominance in Egyptian councils. The inevitable end of the Dual Control was hastened in the summer of 1882 by the action of Arabi Pasha, a colonel in the Egyptian service, who set out to drive all foreigners from the important positions they held in the country. He was the most influential member of the Egyptian ministry. He placed a strong body of troops in Alex- andria so as to resist foreign intervention, and kept the Khedive under close watch. Since England had pledged herself to uphold the authority of the Khe- dive and since she claimed that the control of the Suez Canal was in danger, she decided to interfere. France was asked to co-operate but refused, and the Mediterranean fleet, under command of Admiral Sir Beauchamp Seymour, entered the harbor of Alexandria. Arabi Pasha was ordered to surrender within forty-eight hours, and declining, the bombardment of Alexandria was opened on the morning of July 3d. It was terrific and soon silenced the batteries and shattered the fortifications. But there was terror in the city, where hundreds of convicts, who had been released from prison, were robbing, plundering, and murdering the wealthy Arabs and Europeans. At one time, it is said, two miles of fire were raging; and pan- demonium reigned. On the 7th, Admiral Seymour landed a force of marines and seamen, who with much difficulty arrested the ringleaders and restored order; but fully 2,OOO persons had been massacred and an immense amount of property destroyed. Arabi Pasha retreated to Cairo, but General Sir Garnet Wolseley, hurrying through the Suez Canal with a powerful force, by a rapid night march came upon the rebels at Tel-el-Kebir and disastrously routed them. A body of British horsemen dashed to Cairo and took possession. Arabi was captured and the rebellion crumbled to pieces. On his trial, Arabi pleaded guilty and was sen- tenced to death, but the sentence was commuted to banishment for life from Egypt, and he took up his residence in Ceylon. Still officially disavowing all purpose of annexing Egypt or establishing a protectorate over it, England assumed the responsibility of administering the government with the aid of the Khedive and his advisers. British garrisons were placed in Alexandria and Cairo, and in January, 1883, the Dual Control was abolished. The Khedive, on the request of England, appointed a single European financial adviser, without power to interfere in matters of internal administration. Egypt proper is now divided into eight governorships of prin- cipal towns and fourteen provinces. The towns are Cairo, Alexandria, Dami- etta, Rosetta, Port Said, Suez, El-Arish, and Kosseir. - One fact brought to light by the disturbances had been the utter worth- lessness of the Egyptian army. Accordingly, it was disbanded in September, 42 The Story of the Greatest Nations 1882, and soon after General Sir Evelyn Wood, to whom was given the title of Sirdar, with the aid of twenty officers, supplied by the English War Office, undertook the reorganization of a new army. They had the poorest of material to work with, but succeeded better than was expected. Now let us return to the Soudan. England acted upon the policy that she was bound to defend Egypt proper, but declined to consider the Soudan within her sphere of operation and advised the Egyptian ministry to abandon a country that had always been a burden and a pest to her. But the Khedive and his cabi- net were not willing, and determined to crush the rebellion that had broken out in the Soudan as early as I 88 I. After the departure of Gordon, the Turks, Circassians, and Bashi-Bazouks. played such havoc among the miserable inhabitants, that they rose against them. In the midst of the turmoil and terror, a leader appeared among them, who has become known by his title of the Mahdi or Prophet. He was Moham- med Ahmed and was a native of Dongola. Possessing a fair education, and great native shrewdness, he soon acquired almost boundless influence. Thou- sands believed him when he declared he was the Mahdi foretold by Mohammed, with a divine mission to reform Islam and establish a universal religion to which all Mussulmans, Christians, and Pagans must submit or be destroyed. Thus the rebellion assumed a religious character and the Mahdi gathered a fanati- cal rabble, among whom were some of the most desperately brave men, ready to face any danger and to suffer wounds and death for the sake of the new faith. At first the Mahdi was defeated, but his followers increased, and retreating up the Blue Nile, he prepared for new campaigns. He crossed the White Nile, and in July, 1882, surrounded and captured 6,000 Egyptian soldiers under Yus- suf Pasha and massacred every one. In the following month, he advanced against the city of Obeid. Several attempts to capture it were defeated with great loss, but he would not give up the siege, and by cutting off all communi- cations forced an unconditional surrender in January, 1883. This success convinced the Egyptian government that the most vigorous measures were necessary to crush the rebellion. All the available forces were collected and placed under the command of the veteran Colonel Hicks, who in the latter part of April defeated a horde of rebels near Sennaar with great loss. Early in October, Colonel Hicks advanced upon Obeid with the purpose of recapturing it. He met the wild rabble of the Mahdi and fought them for three days (November 2, 3, and 4), when the Egyptian army suffered annihila- tion. This disaster compelled the Egyptian ministry to follow the advice of England and abandon its attempt to recover the Soudan. Under the pledge to protect Egypt proper, English posts were placed at Assouan and Wady Halfa. The uprising in the Eastern Soudan was as formidable as in the Western. Egypt—El Mahdi and Khartoum 43 ‘Osman Digna, possessing considerable military ability, acknowledged the Mahdi, and was appointed his lieutenant. He rallied nearly all of the Arab tribes, and, Surrounding the Egyptian garrisons at Sinkat and Tokar, cut the communications between Berber and Suakim, and would have captured Suakim itself, but for the British gunboats in the harbor. In November, a force of Egyptian soldiers was sent to the relief of Tokar, but a few days later it was surrounded and every man slain. The soldiers of the Mahdi fought as fiercely as so many wild beasts and gave no quarter. Colonel Valentine Baker, one of the finest cavalry officers in the British army, was now placed in command of a large Egyptian force which was sent to Suakim. On the road, in February, 1884, the Egyptians met the army of Osman Digna, when the miserable rabble, offering hardly any resistance, threw down their arms, only to suffer a frightful massacre, while Colonel Baker and a few of his officers managed with the greatest difficulty to escape. The British Government could not permit the occupation of Suakim, and sent troops under General Graham to expel Osman Digna. A furious battle took place at Tamai, in which the British narrowly escaped defeat, but finally routed the Arabs. The repulse did not frighten Osman Digna, but rather spurred him to greater exertions. An army of I2,OOO men of all arms, under General Graham, was landed at Suakim in March, 1885, intending to crush Osman Digna and advance upon Berber. Numerous engagements followed, and finally Osman Digna was compelled to retreat to the hills. The British forces, having accomplished nothing decisive, were mostly withdrawn in the fol- lowing May. While advising the abandonment of the Soudan, England was anxious to do all that was possible for the relief of the Egyptian garrisons scattered through that extensive region. Special attention was directed to Khartoum, and the offer of General Gordon to use his great influence to bring about its peaceful evacuation was gladly accepted. He sailed from London on January 18, 1884, and, arriving at Cairo, decided, after consultation with the authorities, to make his way to Khartoum by way of the Nile. He started with no companion ex- cept Colonel Stewart, and received a warm welcome upon reaching Khartoum, where he set to work with his usual energy and wisdom to establish a firm gov- ernment, and at the same time prepared for defence against the Mahdi, who he knew would soon attack the place. Before long the hordes of fanatics sur- rounded the town, and then began that memorable siege which lasted for ten months and attracted the attention of the civilized world. By the 16th of April the investment was so rigid that no man could either center or leave the place. More than five months passed before the first word was received from Gordon. This came through the diary of the English consul 44 The Story of the Greatest Nations at Khartoum, and closed its record of events on the last day of July. It showed that Gordon was doing everything possible for mortal man to do, but it was ap- parent to every one that his situation was hopeless unless relief was speedily sent to him. England has won deserved praise for her way of aiding the humblest sub- ject placed in peril, and she has a habit of defending him by a military display whose meaning is unmistakable. Nevertheless, she is sometimes fearfully slow in moving, and it was not until the summer of 1884, and then only when forced thereto by public opinion, that she pulled herself together and decided to go to the aid of her imperilled son and his comrades. In the month of October, Lord Wolseley began the ascent of the Nile with an army of 8,000 men, and in the face of enormous difficulties; but all were surmounted, and he arrived at Korti on the I6th of December. There news was received from Gordon which showed he could hold out only a few days longer. Lord Wolseley threw forward a column across the desert toward Metam- meh, twenty miles below Khartoum on the Nile. It was a desperate undertak- ing, but no other course promised relief to the beleaguered garrison. Securing a strong position on the road, a column of 1,2OO men under Sir Herbert Stew- art pressed in the direction of Metammeh. They had a furious fight with Io,000 of the Mahdi's hordes, but finally drove them back. Another fierce bat- tle soon took place, in which Stewart was badly wounded and the command de- volved upon Sir Charles Wilson, of inferior military ability. He decided, after a reconnoissance, that it was too dangerous with the small force under him to. attack Metammeh, and therefore fortified Gubat, his position. Some days later, five steamers arrived from Khartoum, with several hundred soldiers and a num- ber of guns. They had been sent by General Gordon and were a welcome rein- forcement. Instead of pushing on, however, Sir Charles Wilson wasted valua- ble time in bombarding Shendy. Finally, with a couple of steamers, he ascend- ed the Nile to Khartoum, receiving a heavy fire at Halfiyeh and Omdurman, both of which places were occupied by the Mahdi's soldiers. Sir Charles was. able to approach only within a mile of the city, where he learned that four days. before, through the treachery of Faraz Pasha, a lieutenant of Gordon, the Mah- dists had been admitted into the city, and in the fighting Gordon was killed. This melancholy event took place January 27, 1885. Wilson returned to Gubat, narrowly escaping capture on the way. The news compelled Lord Wolseley to change his plans. The hot season was at hand, when military movements are well-nigh impossible by European troops, and his force was too small to attempt to recapture Khartoum. He therefore recalled Wilson's forces and also a detachment that had been sent up the Nile. to attack Berber. - Egypt—Conquest of the Soudan 4.5 The result of the rebellion in the south was that Egypt lost the whole of the Soudan, except the equatorial province, which Emin Pasha held until 1888, when he was rescued from his perilous position by the American explorer Henry M. Stanley. In 1892 Tewfik died and was succeeded as Khedive by Abbas his eldest son, the British control continuing. An expedition for the conquest of the Soudan set out in 1896, under British leadership. Dongola was taken in September, and the Dervish forces were defeated with severe loss in a number of engagements. Their only gunboat was captured and trade was opened with Dongola. There was more fighting, and the Dervishes were finally routed and dispersed in 1898. The last battle was at Omdurman, where the Dervish troops made a splendid, mad charge into the face of certain death from the English guns. Their leaders were killed and they were almost exterminated. The English under General Kitchener remained the only power in Egypt. France, which had been holding Fashoda, evacuated it at the close of the year. The foundation stone of the Gordon College was laid at Khartoum in 1899, and a convention settled the details of the administration of the Soudan. The Khedive published a decree appointing Lord Kitchener governor-general, but he resigned later because of his appointment as chief of staff to Lord Roberts in South Africa. The Soudan was opened to all comers, a railway being completed to Khartoum. In 1900, Sir Reginald Wingate became gover- nor-general. Egypt and the Egyptian Soudan are nominally under the suzerainty of Turkey, but, as has been shown, they are really controlled by Great Britain, and there can be no doubt that sooner or later they will be incorporated into the British Empire. It should be added that British-Egyptian and French ter- ritory in the Soudan, according to British claims, touched along the line of the 27th degree of latitude. Previous to the revolt in 1882, Egypt claimed Darfur, Kordofan, Sennaar, Taka, the Equatorial Province and the Bahr-el-Ghazal Prov- ince, and although authority was lost by the victories of the Mahdi, Egypt maintained these claims, and her full authority was established by the victories of General Kitchener in 1898. The French were disposed to assert a right to territory as far eastward as the banks of the Nile, thus embracing the Bahr-el- Ghazal Province. To this fact was due the appearance of Major Marchand at Fashoda on the Nile, a long distance south of Khartoum, but it has already been stated that this position was abandoned at the close of the year 1898. England has done everything possible to develop the natural resources of her new possession. One of the greatest engineering feats of recent years has been the building of an enormous dam, intended to regulate the overflow of the Nile. The dam was finished in December, 1902, and opened with appropriate ceremonies. - Rock ToMBS—TWELFTH DYNASTY. º CHRONOLOGY OF EGYPT the hopelessness of an attempt to give a correct chronol- ogy of that country, for the best modern critics differ and conflict to the extent of centuries. Thus Böckh names B. c. 5702, as the year of the accession of Menes, sup- posed, until quite recently, to have been the first Egyptian king; Unger, 56.13; Mariette-Bey and Le- normant, 5004; Brugsch-Bey, 4405; Lauth, 41.57; Lipsius, 3852; Bunsen, 3623 or 3os9; Reginald Stuart Poole, 27.17; Sir Gard- ner Wilkinson, 2691. The monuments deciphered in recent years are very defective. The Egyptians had no era, no chrono- logical schemes. They recorded the length of the reign of each king, but did not distinguish the sole reign of a monarch from his joint reign with others. Thus contemporary and consecutive reigns are much confused, though careful study is gradually sep- arating them. As far as available the chronology recently estab- lished by Petrie has been here followed for the earlier dates. It probably approaches within a century or so of the truth. B. C. (5500) 2–Menes founded the empire. 3998–With this date a roughly approximate chronology begins. It marks the accession of Sneferu, last of the third or founder of the fourth dynasty. 3969–Cheops or Khufu built the great pyramid. 3443-3348–Long reign of Pepy II. 3322–Egypt partly conquered by invaders, probably Libyans. 2644–Usertesen III., the great king of the twelfth dynasty, conquered Nubia. 2098–Invasion of the Shepherd kings. 1728–Joseph was sold into Egypt. 1718–Joseph interpreted the dream of Egypt—Chronology 47 Pharaoh's butler and baker. I715—Joseph interpreted Pharaoh's dreams, and prepared for the Seven-years' famine. I706–Jacob and his family settled in Goshen. I702—The seven-years' famine ended. I582—Aahmes, after long wars, drives out the Hyksos, and the persecution of the Israelites becomes severe. I503—Reign of Thothmes III., the great king of the Eighteenth Dyn- asty who made Egypt master of the known world. He received tribute from the Babylonians, Assyrians, and Hittites. I49I—Earliest date sometimes set for the Exodus of the Israelites. I480–Thothmes III. wins the great battle of Armageddon, subduing Syria. I398–Amenhotep IV. breaks from the old god Amon, and tries to introduce Sun worship. I38I—He dies, and sun wor- ship and the dynasty fall with him. I348–Reign of Rameses II., the great warrior king. 1343–Rameses' great victory at Kaddish. I281—Reign of Mer-en-ptah II., under whom the Exodus may have occurred. I276—Latest suggested date of Exodus. II83—Menelaus fabled to have arrived in Egypt after the Trojan war, and received Helen. IOO4—Alliance between Shishak, king of Egypt, and Solomon. 972—Shishak invaded Judaea and took Jerusalem. 825–Accession of Peterbastes, founder of the Tanite dynasty. 786—Egypt es- tablished her supremacy over the Mediterranean. 781—Beginning of the Saite dynasty. 737—An Ethiopian, So, deposed Bocchoris, and ascended the throne. 722—Alliance with Hosea, king of Israel. 720—Battle of Rapikh. 719—So abdicated and returned to Ethiopia. 711–Egypt was invaded by Sennacherib, king of Assyria. 702—Sudden destruction of Sennacherib's army, perhaps by a plague. 672—Sarchedon of Assyria conquers Egypt. 660—Psammetichus. becomes the sole king and wins independence. He employs Greek mer- cenaries. The warrior Egyptians, the Mashanasha, deserted the country in con- sequence. 630—Siege of Azotus, or Ashdod, by Psammetichus lasting nine- teen years, the longest siege in history. 610—Pharaoh Necho II. attempted to connect the Mediterranean and Red Seas by a canal; lost I2O,OOO men, and was. compelled to relinquish the undertaking. 605—Pharaoh Necho II. defeated by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. 570—Amasis becomes king after a civil war; in his reign Egypt contained 20,000 cities. 567—Nebuchadnezzar Con- quers Egypt but leaves Amasis as king. 554–Solon visited Egypt. 536— Pythagoras visited Egypt. 535–Cyrus, king of Persia, rendered Egypt tribu- tary to him. 525—Cambyses, king of Persia, invaded Egypt, and abolished the empire of the Pharaohs. 484—Xerxes suppressed an insurrection of the Egyp- tians. 460–Inarus rebelled against the Persians. 418–Herodotus visited Egypt. 414—Amyrtaeus restored Egypt to independence. 349–Egypt again made subject to Persia by Artaxerxes III. 332–Egypt conquered, and Alex- andria founded, by Alexander the Great. 322–Ptolemy I. restored the inde- pendence of Egypt and transferred the seat of government to Alexandria. 320. 48 The Story of the Greatest Nations –Ptolemy seizes Phoenicia, and IOO,OOc Jews settle in Egypt. 31.4—Phoenicia taken from Egypt by Antigonus, king of Phrygia. 30I—Battle of Ipsus. 273 —An Egyptian embassy arrived at Rome. I'71—Antiochus Epiphanes, of Syria, defeated Eulaeus, regent for Ptolemy VII., and was crowned king of Egypt. I70—Ptolemy's brother Euergetes declared king by the Alexandrians. I68–The Romans ordered Antiochus to yield Egypt to the Ptolemies. I63– Civil war between the brothers. I46–Ptolemy VII. died in war and Euergetes usurped the throne as Ptolemy IX. ; he married his brother's widow and mur- dered her son, the rightful king. I42—Ptolemy IX. put away his wife Cleo- patra, and married her daughter by his brother. I29—Ptolemy IX. was com- pelled to flee to Cyprus. He murdered his two sons and was restored to power. I28–A pestilence destroyed 800,000 of the population. 82–Capture and destruction of Thebes, which had revolted. 81–Reign and death of Ptolemy XII., who made a will giving Egypt to the Romans. 59–Ptolemy XIII. bribes the Romans to acknowledge him king. 51—Death of Ptolemy XIII., who left his kingdom to Ptolemy XIV. and Cleopatra. 49–Ptolemy ex- pelled Cleopatra, and civil war followed. 48—Julius Caesar, assisting Cleo- patra, besieged and burned Alexandria. 47–Ptolemy XIV. was defeated by Caesar and drowned while crossing the Nile; the Egyptian throne shared by Cleopatra and her younger brother Ptolemy XV. 44—Cleopatra poisoned her brother. 41—Mark Antony summoned Cleopatra to trial for her brother's murder; he was so overcome by her beauty that he followed her into Egypt. 36—Antony conferred Phoenicia, Cyrene, and Cyprus, on Cleopatra. 35– Antony conferred all Asia, from the Mediterranean to the Indus, on Cleopatra. 3I—The battle of Actium. 30—Invasion and subjugation of Egypt by Octa- vius, and suicide of Antony and Cleopatra; Egypt became a Roman province. A. D. 24—The country was invaded by 30,000 Ethiopian subjects of Queen Candace, who were repulsed by the Romans. I71—The Egyptians re- volted against the Roman government. 215—Caracalla visited Egypt and massacred all the youth of Alexandria for having ridiculed him. 269–Egypt was invaded by Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. 272—Firmus made Upper Egypt independent of Rome. 273—Aurelian regained possession. 278–Probus repelled a dangerous invasion of the Blemmyes. 288–Upper Egypt rebelled under Achilleus. 292—Diocletian besieged and took Coptos and Busiris. 297–Siege and capture of Alexandria by Diocletian, who suppressed the re- bellion of Achilleus; the Egyptian coinage ceased. 365—An inundation and earthquake destroyed many of the inhabitants. 389–Theodosius prohibited pagan worship, in consequence of which a number of famous Egyptian tem- ples were destroyed. 389–Alexandrian Library destroyed. 618–Egypt was ..conquered by Chosroes II., king of Persia. 640—Amru placed all Egypt under Copyright, 1905, by F. R. Niglutsch. 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War XYZ, xyz XYZ, x0, xNºz XYZ, x\,. &&&&&&&&&&º DYNASTIES OF EGYPT [The following list is taken from various sources, and the reader will bear in mind the wide divergence among the best authorities. The names of the dynasties and most important kings are given, and approximate dates.] B. C. B.C. I. 5500. Thinite. X. 3249. Heracleopolite. Menes; first known XI. 2985. Theban. king and lawgiver, - Sankhkara. founder of Mem- XII. 2778. Theban. phis. Amenemhat I. Teta or Athothis — Usertesen I. Uenephes I. Usertesen II. II. 475 I. Memphite. Usertesen III. Kakau. XIII. 2565. Theban. III. 4449. Memphite. Sebekhotep, name Sneferu. * of several kings. IV. 3969. Memphite. XIV. 2 II 2. Xoite. e Khufu. XV. 2098. Hyksos or Shepherd Khafra. * - kings. V. 372 I. Elephantine. XVI. Hyksos. VI. 3503. Elephantine. (History XVII. I738. Thebans at first de- nearly a blank to pendents of the the eleventh dyn- Hyksos. asty). XVIII. I 587. Theban. Pepy II. Aahmes I. conquers VII. 33.22. Memphite. . the Hyksos. Petty kings. Amenhotep I. VIII. Memphite. - Thothmes III. IX. 3 Iob. Heracleopolite. Amenhotep II. 52 The Story of the Greatest Nations B.C. Thothmes IV. Amenhotep III. Amenhotep IV. XIX. I378. Theban. Rameses I. Seti or Sethos. Rameses II., the legendary Sesos- tris. Mer-en-ptah, prob- ably the Pharaoh of the Exodus. Seti II. XX. I22O. Theban. Rameses III. Inglorious line of kings named Rameses. XXI. I IOO. Tanite. * History obscure. Hir-Hor, high priest of Amon, probably first of priest kings — A S syrian governors. XXII. Ioo.4. Bubastite. Shishak I. XXIII. 8 IO. Tanite. Probably only three petty kings XXIV. 781. Saite. Bocchoris, taken prisoner by the Ethiopians and burnt alive. During the last XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. B.C. 716. 665. 525. 4 I5. 4O8. 386. XXXI. 349. three dynas- ties, the Ethi- opians appear to have ruled in the south. Karnak, Ethiopian. Shabat or Sabaco. Tarkus or Tir- hakah. Egypt subdued by Assyrians. Saite. Psammetichus I. Necho II. Psammetichus II. Uahbra or Ho- phra. Amasis. Persian. Cambyses, con- quer or of Egypt. Darius I. Xerxes I. Artaxerxes I. Darius II. Saite. Amyrtaeus. Mendesian. Sebennyte. Nectanebus I. Nectanebus II. Persian. Darius III. Alex a n der the Gre a t c on - quered Egypt, and the empire was divided. Egypt—List of Dynasties 53 B.C. 305. Ptolemy (I.), Soter I. 285. 247. 222. 2O5. I 82. I82. I46. I46. Ptolemy II., Philadelphus. Ptolemy (III.), Euergetes I. Ptolemy IV., Philopator. Ptolemy V., Epiphanes. Ptolemy VI. (Eupator). Ptolemy VII. Philometor. Ptolemy VIII. (Neos). Ptolemy (IX.), Euer- getes II. B.C. II 7. IO6. 8I. 8 I. 8I. 5 I. DYNASTY OF THE LAGIDAE, OR PTOLEMIES Cleopatra Cocce and Ptol- emy (X.), Soter II. Cleopatra Cocce and Ptol- emy (XI.), Alexander I. Cleopatra Berenike. Ptolemy (XII.), Alexan- der II. Ptolemy XIII., Auletes. Cleopatra, and Ptolemies XIV., XV., XVI., her brothers. DYNASTY OF MEHEMET ALI A.D. I 81 I. Mehemet Ali. 1848. Ibrahim Pasha. I848. Abbas Pasha I. A.D. I 854. Ismail I. 1879. Tewfik. 1892. Abbas Pasha II. PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF NAMES FOR EGYPT Aahmes (āh'mes) Abydos (a-by'dos) Abyssinia (āb'és-Sin'í-a) Achmet (āh'met) Amenemhat (a-méén'êh-mât) Amenhotep (a-men'ho-tep) Amenmes (ä-men'méz) Apis (ā'pis) Artaxerxes (ar'tax-zerx'éz) Assiout (äs-séé'ut) Assouan (as-Söö'an) Assyria (äs-Sir’i-a) Athothis (a-thoth'is) Avaris (a-vā'ris) Bahr-el-Ghazal (bar-ell-ga'zal) Bashi-Bazouks (bāsh'í-ba-zöökz') Bedouin (běd'oo-ên or bâd'oo-in) Bocchoris (böc-kö'ris) Bubastite (bü'bas-tite) Cairo (ki'rö) Cambyses (kam-bi'séz) Canopus (cã-nó'pus) Charkieh (châr-ké'yeh) Cleopatra (kle-O-pâ'tra) Croesus (kré'sús) Cyrene (cy-re'ne) Dakahlieh (dā-kā-lè'ye) Darius (da-ri'us) Diodorus (di-o-do'rus) Diospolite (di-ös'pó-li-té) 54 The Story of the Greatest Nations Eliakim (e-li'a-kim) Enseh (en'seh) Epiphanes (ep'i-pha'nez) Euergetes (u-ehr-ghe'tez) Fayoum (fi-ööm') Gaza (gå'zā) Gharbieh (går-bê'ye) Gizeh (gee'zeh) Guerga (gwér'ga) Halfiyeh (hâl-fi'yeh) Herodotus (hē-rod'o-tus) Heptanomis (hēp"tā-nó'mis) Hyksos (hik'sos) Isis (i'sis) Ismail (is-mâ-eel') Jehoahaz (je-hôa'-hāz) Kalionbreh (kā'lé-Ön'breh) Karnak (kär'nak) Kena (kā'nā) Kenkenes (ken'ke-nēz) Khafra (käf'rā) Khalif Omar (kā'lif Ö'mar) Khartoum (kār-toom') Khedive (kā-dév') Khufu (köö'föö). Kochome (kö-chö'mē) Kordofan (kör-dò-fān') Kosseir (kös-Sir') Lesseps (lä'sép, Eng, les'éps) Libya (lib'e-a) Luxor (lūks'or) Mahdi (mā'de) Mamelukes (mâm'e-lukez) Mamre (mam're) Maroetis (mā'ro-é'tis) Menoufieh (měn'öö-fé'ye) Menes (me'nes) Mer-en-ptah (měr-en'tah) Merenra (mē-rén'rā) Mesopotamia (měs'o-pó-ta'mi-a) Metamneh (mà-tam'něh) Minieh (mēnē-ye) Mnevis (néévis) Nebuchadnezzar (neb-u-kad-nez'ar) Nectanebus (néc-tá-né'bus) Nepherites (né-pher'í-téz) Obeid (5-bād') Papyrus (pa-pi'rūs) Pasha (pa-Shā') Pepy (pép') Pescennius (pes-cén'ni-us) Phanes (phā'nééz) Pharaoh (fā'ro or fa'ra-o) Philometor (phil'o-metor) Psammetichus (sam-met'i-kus) Ptolemacus (ptol'e-ma'cus) Ptolemy (tól'e-mi) Rakote (ra-köt'êh) Rameses (rāme'séz). Sabaco (sā-bä'co) Saste (sās'té) Sennaar (sên-nār) Sennacherib (sen-nāch'e-rib or sen'na. chérſib) Sesostris (se-sås'tris) Seti (sê'ti) Set-necht (set'nekt') Sheiks (sheks; Arabic, shāk) Sheshonk (shësh-onk') Sipthah (sip'thah) Sirdar (ser-dār) Soter (so'ter) Soudan (Söö-dān') Souef (sôd'ef) Suez (sô6-éz') Syria (Sir’i-a) Suakim (swä'kīm) Tanite (tāy-nit) Tausri (taus'rſ) Tewfik (tü'fik) Pronouncing Vocabulary of Names for Egypt Thebais (the ba-is) 55 Usertesen (u-sert'e-sen) Thebes (thebz) - Wolseley (wóölzli) Thothmes (thoth'mès) Xerxes (zerks'és) Tirhakah (tir'ha-kah) Xoite (zöitéh) Tyre (tir') Zenobia (ze-nó'bi-a) Uenephes (u-en'e-feez) - º - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - º -" º º - º º $º-ºººººººººººººººººººº. --- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ºcºcºcºes - - - - -- º § 3. - : ----- | º º R - -º- º º . *Cº. --- Fº - - -$g - - Fºº" *Cº. - - - - * º- ºf ººº- - - --~~~ -- - º cº --~~~~ º - |- sº º Fºss - - - £º [3- --> - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---------- Q º - ---- - - *: -- zºº. Sººsº Wºº-º-º-º-º-º-º-º: ANCIENT NATIONS WESTERN ASIA Chapter V THE HEBREWS AND PHOENICIANS [Authorities : Cooper, “Resurrection of Assyria”; Harkness, “Assyrian Life and History”; Maspero, “The Dawn of Civilization,” “The Passing of the Empires, 850 to 330 B.C.,” and “The Struggle of the Nations, Egypt, Syria, and Assyria"; Rawlinson, “Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World"; Rogers, “History of Babylonia and Assyria"; Sayce, “Assyria, its Priests, Princes, and People"; Smith, “Assyria from the Earliest Times to the Fall of Nineveh "; Budge, “Babylonian Life and History”; Ragozin, “The Story of Chaldea,” “The Story of As- syria,” “The Story of Media, Babylon, and Persia’’; Rawlinson, “Egypt and Babylon from Sacred and Profane Sources’’; Sayce, “Early Israel”; Thorwaldsen, “ The Entry of Alexander the Great into Babylon.”] M ſº - - (3-ºn Western Asia the dominating race were the Semites. | - ** º It is to this family that the Hebrews and the Phoeni- cians belong; and though not politically the strongest natiºns of the family, they are the ones of whom Euro- peak writers knew most, for their lands bordered the Mediterranean Sea. The fullest account of the Hebrews is contained in the Scriptures, for they were the “chosen people,” and naturally had much to do with the events recorded in Holy Writ. The father of the Hebrews was Abraham, who, in about the twentieth century B.C., as we have learned, went with his family, his herds and flocks, from the plains of Mesopotamia to Canaan, the prom- ised land. The story of Abraham is a striking one, but the national history of his people does not begin until the flight of the chil- dren of Israel to escape the intolerable oppression of the Pharaohs. When the tenth plague had fallen upon the land, and the first-born were slain, “the Egyptians were urgent upon the people, that they might send them out Western Asia—The Hebrew Power 57 of the land in haste; for they said, We be all dead men.” As nearly as can be told, Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt in 1491 B.C. The history that follows is divided into three periods—first, a quiet time of slow growth and progress, then a brief outburst of political power and splendor, then a long decline. Throughout the first period the Hebrews were governed by God himself, who made known his will through the high priest. Affairs were managed by a succession of “judges’ and rulers, who were selected by revelation. All obeyed these rulers, but they governed without any of the honors of royalty, seeking only to do the will of Jehovah. The prophet Samuel was the last of this line. The second period, lasting one hundred and twenty years (1095–975), included three reigns, the first being the turbulent one of Saul, which covered one-third of the period named. He was succeeded by the greatest monarch who ever ruled the Jewish nation, in the person of David, his son-in-law. At first David held only the throne of Judah, with the city of Hebron as his capital. The other tribes elected Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, king, after whose murder David first acquired possession of the entire kingdom, over which he ruled from B. c. IO 55 until his death, in IOI 5. David was one of the greatest of his people. His first war was against the Jebusites, and he took their chief city, Jerusalem, from them and made it his residence, as well as the centre of the religious worship of the Hebrews. Afterward he subjugated the Philistines, Amalekites, Edomites, Moabites, Ammonites, and finally the Syrians. His kingdom then extended from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean, and from Syria to the Red Sea, with a popu- lation of five millions. He encouraged navigation and trade, especially with Tyre, and he was no less careful of the religion of his countrymen. One of the most precious inheritances left to mankind are his Psalms. Solomon, “the wisest man that ever lived,” and son of David, succeeded to the throne in IoI 5 B.C. He made the Hebrews the dominant race in Syria. Its commercial relations embraced Egypt and Phoenicia, and one of old Solo- mon's innumerable wives was the daughter of a Pharaoh. After his death a period of decline set in. The Jews wrangled among themselves, and the subject states rose in rebellion and gained their independ- ence. The imperial power broke into two parts, both weak: one, that of Israel, included ten of the twelve tribes, with Samaria as its capital; the other con- sisted of two tribes, known as Judah, with Jerusalem as its capital. The kingdom of Israel held together for about two centuries and a half, when it was crushed by Sargon, the Assyrian king, who, in 72 I B.C., carried the ten tribes into captivity. Judah was also in peril from Sargon, and again from his son 58 The Story of the Greatest Nations and successor, Sennacherib, whose army, according to the Biblical account, was smitten by an unseen hand. Still a third time, according to the apocryphal book of Judith, did the Assyrians threaten Judah, this time under the general Holofernes. Judith was a beautiful Jewess of Bethulia, who at the peril of her life visited the tent of Holofernes, in the hope of Saving her native town, by the assassination of the Assyrian commander. She succeeded, and made her escape with the head of Holofernes to Bethulia. Her triumph inspired her townsmen with ardent heroism, and, rushing out upon the enemy, they completely defeated them. Josephus makes no mention of the story, and it has generally been held to be an allegory; but, like most legends, it probably had its foundation in some actual occurrence. The kingdom of Judah lasted in a much weakened state until Nebuchad- nezzar, King of Babylon, captured Jerusalem, in 586 B.C., and carried off the captives to Babylon. Then, in 536 B.C., Cyrus fell upon Babylon, crushed it, and by edict restored the Jews to their homes. Now follows a series of misfortunes and changes. Judea remained a province of the Persian empire, and for a century after the death of Alexander the Great it was ruled by the Ptolemies of Egypt, one of whom, Ptolemy Phila- delphus, caused the preparation of the Septuagint Version of the Pentateuch in the Greek language, which had become prevalent in Judea. The Jews fretted under their rulers, and in the year B.C. I66 succeeded in gaining their inde- pendence; but the Roman general, Pompey, in B.C. 63, captured Jerusalem, and made Judea a part of the Roman province of Syria. Because of their rebellious disposition, the Jews were frequently punished, until at last, in the year A.D. 70, Titus captured the city, and, after an appalling massacre of the inhabitants, who wrangled among themselves, it was burned, and the people scattered to the four winds of heaven. Thus they have remained ever since. The Jews are found to-day in every part of the world, suffering cruel persecution in some countries, like Russia, treated generously in others, as in the United States, but, wherever they may be, impressing their keen peculiarities and methods upon all with whom they come in contact. Another great branch of the Semitic race were the Phoenicians. We do not as yet know their origin, but there is ground for believing they emigrated from Chaldea, and that this region, or Arabia, was the native seat of the Semites. The states which made up Phoenicia were independent, with each its own king, but they united in times of danger under the leadership of the most capable general. Their noted cities were Sidon and Tyre, the former being the most ancient, but its prosperity gradually passed to Tyre. The Phoenician territory was small, consisting of only a strip of land between Mount Lebanon Western Asia—The Phoenician Alphabet 59 and the Mediterranean Sea, but its inhabitants were prominent in the early history of civilization. It has been accepted as a fact for centuries that the first perfect alphabet was invented by the Phoenicians. The germ of an alphabet was created by the Egyptians, but their writing was, so far as known, only partly phonetic. The hieroglyphic alphabet, of which you have heard, consisted of several hundred Characters, without a fixed and invariable character representing a sound. The Babylonians and Assyrians used the cuneiform, which generally stood for sylla- bles instead of sounds. Precisely when the Phoenicians made their valuable invention is not known, but its most wonderful feature is its simplicity. They first learned the few elementary sounds of a language, and then formed a fixed character to represent each sound. It was from the Phoenicians that the Greeks obtained the alphabet, which in turn was adopted with some changes by the Romans. The Roman alphabet, as you doubtless know, is the basis of our present alphabets. Of the manner in which the Greeks secured their alphabet Pliny says: “Cadmus brought sixteen letters from Phoenicia into Greece, to which Palamedes, in the time of the Trojan war, added four more, and Simon- ides afterward added four.” Such, I say, has been the universally accepted theory regarding the inven- tion of the alphabet, but Professor Flinders-Petrie has lately announced a new revelation from his Egyptian excavations, which moves back the earliest use of letters by nearly two thousand years. He has laid before the Society of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain an account of the steps which led up to this amazing discovery. Several years ago, while excavating in Egypt, in the period of 1400 to 2000 B. C., Professor Petrie noticed signs upon some pottery which bore a close resemblance to the Greek alphabet. He suggested, with some hesitation, that they were an early stage of the alphabet, but the scientific world had so long accepted the date of the earliest historical writing as 800 B.C., that the signs were looked upon as having been derived from Egyptian hieroglyphics. The excavations made in 1900, however, prove that Professor Petrie's original theory was correct. When he uncovered some of the royal tombs, dating back to the XII. dynasty (3000 to 2600 B.C.), he again came across a large number of signs and letters upon the pottery and other utensils in the tomb-chambers. The fact that the hieroglyphic system was not in Egypt at that period showed that these signs did not belong to it. - Now, it so happened that Arthur Evans, the distinguished British archae- ologist, was carrying on at the same time a series of excavations on the island of Crete, in the Mediterranean. He found on tablets, rock-pillars, coins, and other objects, unearthed in a large palace, a number of letters and signs of a 6o - The Story of the Greatest Nations period about 2000 B.C., which corresponded with those dug up in Egypt by Professor Petrie, who collected his and compared them with the Cretan forms. unearthed by Evans. This comparison established the striking fact that the letters of the two were identical, and that the alphabet existed for a long time previous to the date hitherto accepted. Professor Petrie believes, therefore, that we are in the presence of a wide- spread system of signs that was common to the Mediterranean from Spain to Egypt, and that the imports of Egypt prove that some trade existed around the Mediterranean as early as 5000 B.C. The signs of the alphabet were probably beginning to assume form at that time and were carried from point to point. They expanded and grew, but naturally with much variation. In 26OO B.C. the alphabet contained more than one hundred signs in Egyptian form. Professor Petrie says the force which gave it system and unity was the use of signs as numerals by the Phoenicians. This system was wholly Oriental, and was rarely used in Europe, but having been adopted by the leading commercial nations, it prevailed in all the Mediterranean ports. Professor Petrie thinks that the signs. and letters on the pottery of 2600 B.C., which he uncovered, were used as an alphabet for written communications of spelled-out words in the early stages. This makes a body of signs with more or less generally understood meanings, and the change of giving a single letter value to each, and only using signs for sounds to be built into words, was no doubt a later development, due to Phoeni- cian commerce. The illustration on page 61 shows five periods of the Egyptian signary col- lected by Professor Petrie. Accompanying them, he has arranged the Cretan signary, gathered by Arthur Evans from his excavations in the island of Crete, dating 2000 B.C. The Karian was collected by Professor Sayce, and the Spanish is the familiar alphabet of inscription. The table shows the various. identical letters, as they appeared in the different periods, and their comparison with those which he has recently excavated. * The Phoenicians were the first people on the shores of the Mediterranean to engage in commerce. They were the sailors of the ancient world, and with great enterprise they pushed their commercial interests to remote countries. Their ships sailed to “Tarshish,” on the southern coast of Spain, and hunted along the shore of Africa for the gold of Ophir. A dye obtained from two shellfish and known as “Tyrian purple" has never been equalled anywhere, while the Tyrian looms produced the most exquisite embroidery, enriched by that famous tint. The glassware of Sidon, the bronzes, the vessels in gold and silver, and other metals, were greatly prized by other nations. The colonizing as well as commercial instinct of the Phoenicians was extraordinary. They pushed their way through the Strait of Gibraltar, or the Western Asia—Early Alphabets 6 I E. C. Y P T I A N kRETANIKARAN SPANISH PREMIs | EARLY | X | | | XV 11 || ROMAN 2000 BC 600 BC 3OO BC P A A P. f. JA A A 6 a |A A & -3 B. G B | e. 3 § 2 || 5 || R. R Q a 7 ++. H £3 H IB++ H B H H | E e H H H |d v a n | D n | D In r, v 3. Ll J Ulu lall T T | | O O O O O O || O || O YY V | N yy v ||YYY| * | Y v ||YYv|u. Y HN q, Un q (p ºr

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They had settlements on the shores of the Arabian and Persian gulfs, which traded with the coasts of Africa, with Ceylon, and with India, and all this was hundreds of years before other nations accomplished anything of importance of that nature. Greece in time became their rival, but when the Greeks began planting their settlements on the islands of the AEgean Sea and the shores of Asia Minor, about B. c. IOOO, they found the Phoenicians had been there for a long while. It is believed to have been in the ninth century B.C. that the Phoenicians founded the colony of Carthage, on the northern coast of Africa, destined to become the most famous of all the numerous settlements made by them. - Legend credits Dido with being the foundress of Carthage. She was the daughter of a king of Tyre, whose successor was Pygmalion, the brother of Dido. He murdered her husband, and sought to gain his wealth; but Dido, taking the treasure, which had been hidden, and accompanied by a large num- ber of Tyrians, escaped to sea. She landed in Africa, not far from the Phoeni- cian colony of Utica, and bought a piece of ground from the Numidian king, Hiarbas, on the condition that she should receive all that could be compassed with a bullock's hide. Then Dido cut the hide into small thongs, and thus enclosed a large piece of territory. To escape marriage to Hiarbas, she stabbed herself on a funeral pile, and after death was honored as a deity by her subjects. Carthage became the seat of a great nation, which fought against Rome three of the most tremendous wars the world has ever known. These will be told fully in the story of Rome. Carthage was finally defeated, and destroyed by the Romans, 146 B.C. For centuries Phoenicia itself swung like a pendulum among different conquerors. It passed from Assyria to Babylonia, then to the Persians, then to the Greeks, to be absorbed and swallowed up in the end by Rome, 63 B.C. The people cared more for trade than conquest, and, strange as it may seem, man's instinctive love of liberty appeared lacking with them. As the Book of Judges says: “Careless they dwelt, after the manner of the Sidonians, quiet and secure.” Under the Romans, Phoenicia became a part of Syria, and has since shared the fortunes of that country. --º-º-Tº- º - º º: i. ºr-º-º: cººl- º: - # º Fº º - -º-º-º: HANGING GARDENs of BABYLoN from it. The Hebrew prophets return again and again to speak of the greatness of the city, its wealth, its size, its influence upon all the peoples of the earth. Some of them had seen Babylon with their own eyes, and were astounded and almost overwhelmed by its grandeur and magnificence. Only |º their boundless faith in the word of their God leads them to as- º, sert that such greatness can be destroyed. - -- It was the most populous city the world has ever known. - Twenty million inhabitants, reckon some authorities. Modern º London would be a village beside it; Rome, “Imperial Rome,” Q would have been lost in one of its quarters. It stood astride the great river Euphrates, as modern cities span some little stream. Huge canals stretched through it in all directions. And its walls! They were classed by the ancients among the seven wonders of the world. Herodotus, who had seen them, set their width at eighty-four feet and their height at over three hundred. This seemed so amazing that his people and the succeeding ages doubted his figures. Yet now we learn that in part at least he - Chapter VI THE FIRST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE -- º -- º #ABYLON is fallen, is fallen, that great city.” “Baby- º - Nº. lon hath been a golden cup in the Lord's hand, that 2\ §2. | made all the earth drunken. . . . O thou that dwellest * || § upon many waters, abundant in treasures, thine end is Sº))|| come.” These are the words of the Bible. We could y . almost tell the whole story of Babylon in quotations R. jº º -: - ; | * |; §|º *I. --- i. --- -. §: - 64 The Story of the Greatest Nations understated. The ruined walls have at last been found, and by actual measure- ment their width is one hundred and thirty-six and a half feet. Their height has crumbled forever; that, too, may have been greater than we think. Fifteen miles square was the space enclosed by these cliffs, this tremendous artificial mountain; the suburbs of the city spread to unmeasured distances beyond. The prophets never cease wondering about those walls. How shall foe ever surmount them, or time destroy them? Jeremiah's climax to a long list of threatened desolations is: “Yes, the wall of Babylon shall fall.” He expresses his amazement constantly in such exclamations as: “The broad walls of Babylon | " “Though Babylon should mount up to heaven l’” “O, destroy- ing mountain ” Yet so complete has been the devastation of the city that sixty years ago men could not even say where it had stood. Travellers passing down the Euphrates saw at intervals abrupt, grassy hillocks rising from the flat plain. “They are the abode of evil spirits,” said the ignorant natives. Euro- pean science suspected they were the remains of ancient cities. Nothing more was known of them. Of late years they have been slowly yielding us their secrets. Patient explorers have dug into mound after mound and found them to contain the ruins of palaces, temples, and even whole cities. We know now where Babylon and Nineveh stood, for we have seen their monuments, their arts, the figures of their gods, and even the remains of their buried dead. The greatest find of all was the whole royal library of the Assyrian king Assur-bani-pal, containing many thousand volumes. Here, you will say, was the whole history of Assyria ready for us—and of Babylon as well. So doubtless it was, if the books had been whole, and if any man could have read them. They were not of paper, like our books. Each was a clay tablet, like a flat stone, both of its sides stamped full of letters. These we now know were put in with a stick, something like our pen, while the clay was soft; and then it was baked in order to harden and preserve it. Assur-bani-pal's books had met with rough usage. His palace had evidently been burned; and though the tablets, unlike our paper books, had safely with- stood the fire, they met misfortune from another source, which paper might nave defied. Apparently they were kept in a second story, and the floor burn- ing beneath them precipitated them to the ground. That was fatal to clay tablets. Scarcely one of all the thousands remains whole, and many are shat- tered beyond all possibility of restoration. Then there was the further difficulty that no one knew the language of these primitive volumes. And though much patient work has been expended upon them, no one even yet fully comprehends the mysterious tongue. It is called the wedge or cuneiform language, because its letters are made up of Western Asia—The Euphrates Valley - 65 little wedges. These represent syllables or words rather than letters; indeed, each one is a substitute for a picture which took too long to draw. Many of them are found to stand for three or four different things; others remain wholly unknown to us. Thus our reading of the language is very imperfect; but the writings in it, gathered from this library and others since discovered, and from inscriptions on the ruined buildings, are the main source of our knowledge of Assyrian and Babylonian history. Some information we gain from the Hebrew scriptures, and some from the Egyptian hieroglyphics, which occasionally mention an Asian king, or even refer to him at considerable length. Ancient Greek writers like Herodotus help us a little, the most important of them being Berosus, a Baby- lonian priest of Alexander's time, who wrote a history of his country for the Greeks. Unfortunately, however, only a few fragments of his work survive. We are, therefore, thrown back mainly on the cuneiform language; and every year this is becoming clearer to us, and new inscriptions are discovered. Some day we may hope to write the story of Babylon as fully and plainly as we do that of Rome; but this time has not yet come. What we do know of it is profoundly interesting; but first let me give you an idea of the land itself, for the land has largely made the story what it is. In Western Asia, to the south of the Black Sea, rise two rivers, the Euphrates and the Tigris, which flow in a generally parallel and southeasterly direction till at last they join some eighty miles from their mouth, and empty together into the Persian Gulf. The Euphrates is one of the great rivers of the world. In some respects it resembles the Nile. All its waters are gathered in the mountains near its source; and for hundreds of miles along its lower course not a single tributary adds to its volume. It has also a heavy summer over- flow; so that with the help of the Tigris it has made the valley between them second only to Egypt itself in its rich fertility. On the south bank of the Euphrates, however, its influence extends only for a few leagues before we reach the higher ground of the great Syrian desert, which stretches southward into Arabia. To the north of the rivers and roughly parallel with them extend the Zagros mountains. Thus here, as in Egypt, civilization sprang up in a long and singularly fertile river valley, though the Babylonian, unlike the Egyptian, measures one hundred and fifty miles, and often more, from the mountains to the desert. The Euphrates River has apparently imposed on itself the gigantic task of filling up with mud the entire Persian Gulf. Moreover, if the ages give it time, it will undoubtedly complete its work. It carries down such enormous masses of earth that the shoals around its mouth are built out at an average of over ninety feet every year. We can see back clearly to a time when the gulf 5 66 The Story of the Greatest Nations must have penetrated beyond the junction of the two rivers, and they emptied into it by separate mouths. We can look even farther back. Nearly one hundred and fifty miles from the present mouth of the Euphrates there stand on its bank the ruins of the ancient city of Eridu, which must have once been a seaport town. Figure out for yourself the time the river took to build one hundred and fifty miles, and you will reach, as scientists have, the impressive conclusion that Eridu was, built more than seventy-five hundred years ago, or 5500 B.C. a' The earliest civilized settlements probably lined this old seacoast, and we are beginning to catch vague glimmerings of their history, especially of one Lugal-zaggi-si, who created for himself an empire. Not only did he rule the entire valley, but he extended his dominion across all Syria westward to the Mediterranean. At least he makes this claim, on some delicately carved stone vases of his which have been found. He built the walls of the city of Ur “high as heaven.” He enlarged (so it must have already existed) the temple of the Sun-god. Somewhere among those vague shadows must belong the Biblical story of the building of the Tower of Babel and the confusion of tongues. Perhaps it was connected with this very temple of the Sun-god; for we conceive the Tower of Babel to have been such a temple as in later times we find the Babylonians. building to the Sun-god. They were enormous structures, rising one mass. above another, to the height of seven immense stories. The people of this period were of unknown race, probably Hamitic. Their land, the southern part of the great valley, was Shumir, the “Shinar’ of the Bible, from which we call them Shumerians. The valley had probably other occupants before their coming, a black or yellow race whom they partly sub- jected and partly expelled. Then they devoted themselves to engineering works, whose value they had already learned. They drained the marshes. between the rivers; they erected cities on the plains thus won; they built canals; they wrote in the picture-writing from which the cuneiform developed. Then came their turn to be conquered, or at least absorbed by a more. energetic race who came among them. Semites, perhaps from the south, grad- ually established dominion over Shumir, and also over the land of Accad, the region immediately north of Shumir, in the central part of the great river valley. Here, some two hundred miles above Eridu, lay the as yet sparsely settled site. of Babylon; and still another fifty miles beyond stood the important city of Agadé, or Accad, which became the first centre of Semitic power in the valley. Its great king, “Sargon of Accad,” is the first imposing figure that enters. Babylonian story. Later the Babylonians adopted him as their own, and con- sidered him their ancestor, the first Semitic hero of the land. Their kings. Western Asia–Early Babylonian Kings 67 traced descent from him; legends centred round him. According to one of these, his queen-mother had set him adrift as a baby on the Euphrates in an ark of bulrushes. A peasant found the child and brought him up as a gar- dener. The goddess of love, Ishtar, met him in his garden, loved him, and restored him to a kingly rank. The circumstances of his real life are not all clear. He lived about 38oo B.C. He must have been to some extent the maker of his own fortunes, for his father was not a king. After establishing himself in Accad, he gradually ex- tended his sway over Babylon and all the cities of Shumir. His power reached to the Mediterranean, and he even crossed to the island of Cyprus. His warlike expeditions, which must have been more like explorations in a new land, kept him away for years from Accad and Shumir; and when he returned he found a general rebellion awaiting him. This he overcame, legend says, by the aid of the still faithful goddess, Ishtar; and his reign ended in years of peace and glory. His son, Naram-Sin, who succeeded him, is a still clearer historical per- sonage. He built a temple to the sun, and in its foundation sank a cylinder recording his name and deeds. This was found over three thousand years later by a Babylonian king while repairing the temple. Naram-Sin ruled Asia even to the borders of Egypt, where he quarrelled with the Pharaohs over the rich mines of Sinai. How his reign ended we do not know ; but the sudden ceasing of all records in the early part of it suggests trouble and battle and little time for the arts of peace. With his successor and a rather hazy and doubtful queen, the little glim- mering of light that we have found disappears. Darkness again settles over this ancient world. One city after another apparently rose to Supremacy, now in Shumir, now in Accad. Ur, near the southern coast, the Ur from which Abraham wandered, was the ruling power for centuries. So firmly did its position as the capital city become established, that each new ambitious ruler strove for its possession. He was not King of Shumir until he had been Crowned in Ur. Frequent battles and sieges weakened all the southern cities; and gradu- ally to the northward Babylon rose in grandeur and strength. Then there seems to have come, about the twenty-fifth century B.C., a sudden, new irrup- tion of Arabian tribes, who conquered the whole valley, and made Babylon their capital. This was the beginning of Babylonian supremacy over the other cities. She took the place of Ur, and, as centuries passed, became more and more renowned, until the name Babylonia spread over the whole land, and the older names of Shumir and Accad fell into disuse. Sumu-abi was the first of the Arab kings of Babylon. His name, which 68 The Story of the Greatest Nations means “son of Shem,” is in itself strong evidence of his Semitic race. His descendants had much trouble in holding their power. The kings of Ur fought against them in the south; and the Elamites, a fierce nation dwelling in the mountains to the east, repeatedly swept over the land in Savage raids, burning and destroying. We shall find these same Elamites fighting the people of the valley for thousands of years. The Assyrians at last annihilated them; but even in their fall they dragged down their conquerors after them in one final, grim tragedy. At this early date they seem to have reduced the whole valley to a state of dependence and submission, till there rose among the kings of Babylon one Khammurabi, who was a statesman and a warrior. His Hebrew name, as given in the Bible, is Amraphel; and his story, as pieced together from Genesis and the inscriptions, is about as follows: The kings of Sodom and Gomorrah and all the land of Canaan rebelled against the Elamites and refused to pay them further tribute. Then the angry Elamite king, Chedor-laomer, Summoned his vassal kings, Amraphel and others, to march with him into Canaan. They smote the Canaanites, and slew their kings. in flight, by the slime pits in the vale of Siddim; but as the victorious army marched homeward, laden with prisoners and spoils, it was suddenly attacked - by a small force, led by the patriarch Abraham. The prisoners were recaptured and the army scattered. Khammurabi seized this occasion, or one of nearly the same date, to throw off the Elamite yoke. For years the issue of the struggle was uncertain. At one time Babylon itself was captured and partly destroyed; but the tide turned, the invaders were defeated in a great battle, and the land was cleared of them. Khammurabi followed up his success by attacking them in their own home of Elam and wresting their richest province from them. He succeeded to their power; the whole valley accepted his sway, and Babylon became an empire. Khammurabi proved himself better than a warrior; for he was one of the benefactors of mankind. Instead of oppressing and terrifying his subject cities, he tried to win their friendship. He built great canals, and united the earlier scattered ones into a single vast general system, which insured rich harvests. to the entire country. A period of comparative peace and abundance followed. The cities grew wealthy. He repaired their walls and their temples, and paid honor to their gods. Each of the greater places was encouraged to become a religious centre; and as their priestly power grew, their military strength. declined. - This period forms an important epoch in our story. Hitherto we have had to deal with many cities, each a nation by itself. Henceforward all Shumir and Accad are one nation, under one king. Western Asia—Babylon under Khammurabi 69 The sudden and complete subjection of the other cities to Babylon would seem strange if we did not realize that her intellectual and commercial supremacy had long been preparing the road for her political sway. The Babylonians have been called the Greeks of the East, because their culture, their arts, their busi- ness abilities spread their influence earlier and farther than their arms. We have seen how Amenhotep sought to introduce their ways even into Egypt. Babylon was “a golden cup,” from which all the earth had drunk. She became a centre of religion as well. She was at once the Rome, the Paris, and the London of her time. And when her political empire was wrested from her by a younger and more military race, her real power remained for centuries, even until the sceptre was restored to her in a second period of empire. It was the power of mind and civilization. Khammurabi had to rebuild Babylon almost entirely; and it gradually grew into the marvellous city of legend and history. Architecture is everywhere the product of the land itself. The Egyptian saw always before him those solemn stone cliffs, so he quarried from them the immense stone blocks for his obelisks and his pyramids. There was no stone in Babylonia. There were scarcely any trees either, in that flat valley of river mud; it was a land of grassy marshes. So man, with his ever-ready ingenuity, learned to build with the earth itself. He moulded and baked, and made it into bricks. Those ancient Babylonian bricks are said to be as good as the best of modern manufacture; and to-day in that country a regular industry is the digging them out, not for scientific research, but for the building of modern houses. This has been going on for centuries; and in many a modern Asian town there are bricks still showing the stamp and name of kings who perished and were forgotten ages ago. All the cities of the valley were brick-built. The raising of the walls of Babylon must have strangely resembled the work of a colony of ants, each toil- ing by himself, and adding his mite to the mass that slowly grew around him. Rhammurabi, Nebuchadnezzar, any of the great builders, could have told the Hebrew prophets how those walls must eventually fall. They were obliged to be always repairing the older temples and fortifications. The soft, yielding soil, the terrific rains which saturated the bricks and widened every fissure, the stupendous weight of the towering structures themselves, –all these combined to destroy the foundations, which, despite every art of man, would gradually bulge outward, and threaten to give way. Only the walls of the richest palaces could have so much as an outer facing of stone, brought in Small slabs from great distances. It was to obtain this stone that Naram-Sin had coveted those distant mines of Sinai. The successors of Khammurabi seem to have degenerated gradually in ability, until the sceptre was wrenched from them by another family. Then, in 7o The Story of the Greatest Nations the eighteenth century B.C., a half-savage swarm of invaders from the northeast, the Kassites, overran Babylonia, and their chief, Gandis, seized the throne. His successors maintained their place for over five hundred years; but the old empire had crumbled to pieces, and they never held more than a nominal sway over most of its provinces. THE FIRST BABYLoni AN INSCRIPTION BROUGHT To EUROPE º º -- c. jº º --~. - - T- -º-, --- –4. º º- --- - ----- - - - - El-Flº º Hi-Hº-Hº-ji=ſ=# MARBLE CARwing of Assur-BANI-PAL AND HIS QUEEN Chapter VII ASSYRIA AND THE SECOND BABYLONIAN EMPIRE of her was acquiring vigor and a sturdy life. When Thothmes III of Egypt set up his inscription, which told of his triumphs over the Asian kings, he related with pride that the great King of Babylon gave him tribute, and then, amid a long list of lesser lords, appears a “Chief of Assur.” It is the earliest reference we find to Assyria. You will remember that Babylon itself and the surrounding land of Accad occupied the centre of the Euphrates valley. The more rugged and sparsely settled land to the north belonged a so to the empire. Gradually it was settled by colonists from Babylon, and be: came the home of a race more purely Semitic than the mixed peoples to the south. From its chief city, Assur, it was called Assyria. Assur was ruled at first by high-priests; and the first of these to throw off Babylonian authority and call himself king was probably one Belkapkapu, who did so at some period in the seventeenth century B.C. There were wars between the two nations; and in 1450 B.C. we find an Assyrian king making a treaty with his foe on equal terms. A little later, however, a soured Babylonian ruler complained bitterly to the Egyptians because they failed to recognize his ancient authority over his neighbor. About 14oo B.C. the ever-turbulent Kassite soldiery of Babylon, in a sudden revolt, slew their king, and placed on the throne “a man of low parent- 72 The Story of the Greatest Nations y age,” as the later monarchs'scornfully call him. Now the murdered man was connected by marriage with the Assyrian king; and the latter promptly marched into the country and restored the rightful heir, his own grandson, by force. From this time Assyria seems rather the stronger power of the two. With the exception of an occasional Elamite raid on Babylonia, or an expedition by the Assyrians among the half-civilized nations to the north,” the history of the two countries becomes, for centuries, merely a tedious chronicle of wars between them. They drained each other's life-blood. Again and again they fought until they sank exhausted, unable longer to supply soldiers for their armies. Then for a generation or so the lesser neighboring states would flourish and grow insolent, till the two lions again roused themselves. Slowly Assyria's predominance increased. One king advanced her frontier to the suburbs of Babylon. Another captured the city itself, looted the palaces and temples, and appointed governors to rule there. Seven years later the Baby- lonians successfully revolted, and Assyria became in its turn the centre of a civil war. - One Babylonian king towers for a time above the rest. He was Nebu- chadnezzar I., a worthy predecessor of the famous Nebuchadnezzar of later date. He defeated the Assyrians repeatedly, and threatened Assur itself. He repulsed the Elamites under the walls of their capital, and recovered the great statue of the god Bel, which they had carried from Babylon on some previous raid. This was considered a great occasion, and was celebrated with imposing religious ceremonies; for no Babylonian sovereign was legally king until he had placed his hands in those of the god, and thus acknowledged himself the latter's vicegerent. The other principal god of the Babylonians, Bel-Merodach, seems at this time to have been in the possession of the Assyrians, so that the country was in a peculiarly godless state. Merodach was the sun-god, a bright being, originating with the Babylonians themselves, and most appropriate to that brilliant, fiery race. But the other Bel, or Baal, seems the survival of an older and darker Shumerian faith, an evil deity who had to be propitiated by * One of the mightiest, as well as most mysterious, nations that ruled in Syria and Mesopotamia, somewhere about this time, was the Hittite. All the learning of modern scholarship has failed to throw any light upon the strange language of those people, or to gather from their enduring records in stone a single definite historical fact. Renewed interest was excited in 1901, by the discovery among the ruins of Babylon, by the German scholars and explorers excavating there, of a stone monument of Hittite art and literature, in perfect condition, and inscribed with a long legend in untranslatable lan- guage. The monument was found in the ruins of a Babylonian temple to the goddess Nin-Mach, and is forty-nine inches high, twenty-one inches wide, and fourteen inches thick. All the scholars in the world cannot translate the legend, or even evolve an alphabetical system from the characters. The only hope lies in finding a monument with a double inscription, in both the Hittite character and the Assyrian, for then the key would be furnished. The monument shows that at some time the Hittite power was great even in the city of Babylon itself. |- JUDITH lwawoo ni Snoliael OHIWO Lº Sºl-Twº HX BH_L + o S3Aw 89 === №= | | | | º º | | ||| | | | º | |||| |º º |º ||| |º | s º | | | º º | IIIº | | \\ - |||||||| | | | | | | | - 1. | it º!| º ºt. - ºliſ. - | - º | | | - |- 2% º º THF EGYPTIANS URGE MOSES TO DEPART º - --- º - - ºu. - - - º º - THE TOMB OF DAR.LUs H1N18 Agvin BHL lº Sn3S±Hu. º i. | º - milliſ ſ º - |º º - * s - - - §§- THE WRITING ON THE WALL All^\ldº O OLNI SAW3^ BHL ĐNIA 88vo gºzzº Now Hongs N � ſae Bowmwd Nw18ASS w Nºw? :-） O TT w H NO11d3038 T（ §§§§§§ 3：2，：Ezzzzzzzz： 3010A：n 3. O Nv Snº. Haeaeo Western Asia—The Rise of Assyria 73 human sacrifices. Thousands of prisoners were slain in his honor; and it may be questioned whether Nebuchadnezzar did his countrymen real service by thus bringing Baal once more among them. Assyrian power revived about I 120 B.C. under Tiglath-pileser I. He was one of the great conquerors of history. The business of his life was war. Year after year he regularly marshalled his armies, and led them on raids farther and farther afield. No foe could stand before him. His troops penetrated to the sources of the Euphrates in the north, where he pursued the mountaineers, according to his inscriptions, “across cloud-capped mountains whose peaks were as the point of a dagger.” To the south he conquered Babylon; and in the west he pierced to the Mediterranean, the first Euphrates sovereign since the almost forgotten Kham- murabi, over a thousand years before, to reach the sea. Even the King of Egypt sent him presents, which he naturally regarded as tribute. He was a great hunter, too. We find his claim to have slain something like a thousand lions quite early in his reign. He organized huge elephant hunts. And when he reached the Mediterranean, he proudly boasts that he sailed out on it in a Phoenician ship and slew a sea-monster, a porpoise per- haps, with his own hand. At the close of his reign he seems to have met a sudden and disastrous defeat from the Babylonians; and it is certain that his empire disappeared at his death. It was during the following period that the Jews rose to power under David and Solomon; and then in the ninth century Assyria again stands at the front. One of its kings, Assur-dain-pal, is the Sardanapalus of the Greeks. He rebelled against his father, and ruled as king in the city of Nineveh for seven years. He was besieged by his brother; and two years after the old king had died the city was finally forced to surrender. According to legend, Sar- danapalus massed his treasures, his wives, and his soldiers in one terrible funeral pyre, seated himself at the top and, having set fire to the whole, perished. Nineveh, from its favorable situation, had gradually become the greatest of the four capitals of Assyria, wholly supplanting the older Assur. Later ages attributed its origin to a mythical king, Ninus, and his warrior wife, Semiramis, who, they said, made herself queen of all Asia. But the story is probably a mere romantic fancy. In 763 B.C., an eclipse of the sun seems to have started a superstitious rebellion throughout Assyria. There was confusion for nearly twenty years; and then Pul, one of the generals, dethroned the old king, and founded, for himself, what is known as the Second Assyrian Empire. This was the period of Assyria's greatest power and splendor. Former conquests had been little more than raids, from which the devastated lands 74 The Story of the Greatest Nations recovered sooner or later, to resume their old manner of life. Pul and his suc- cessors began a permanent occupation of territory, settling Assyrian colonies in the conquered cities, and carrying off many of the old inhabitants as slaves. The slave markets both in Nineveh and Babylon became a regular and famous institution, which Herodotus describes for us with enthusiasm because of the beauty of the women. More important is the fact that the kings of this period, having thousands of these slaves at their disposal, became great builders. On Pul's death, a second and then a third Assyrian general seized the throne. The last of them called himself Sargon II., after the famous King of Accad. He was a rough but shrewd old warrior, who established himself and his empire so firmly that his family retained the throne for the one last and most gorgeous century that remained to Assyria, before its final downfall. Sargon was murdered suddenly, we do not know why, by a foreign soldier; and his son Sennacherib succeeded him. Of Sennacherib you have heard in the Bible. He seems to have been weak and cruel, false and boastful. His father's splendid army enabled him to defeat the Egyptians, and to overrun. Judea. Two hundred thousand Jews were sent captive to Assyria. But the Jewish king, Hezekiah, shut up in Jerusalem, defied the tyrant; and then occurred that strange destruction of the foe of which the Bible tells us. Sudden. death, perhaps in the form of a pestilence, swept through the camp, and Sen- nacherib fled. Contrary to all Assyrian precedent, he failed to return to the: attack. Hezekiah remained independent and defiant. Meanwhile, Babylon had been in constant turmoil with her mighty foe, yielding, rebelling, intriguing, struggling, Surrendering. Pul, Sargon, and, Sennacherib had each in succession seized the city by force. But her bitterest. opposition seems to have been reserved for Sennacherib. Of all her con- querors, he is the only one whom the priests persistently refused to acknowledge. as their king; and now Babylon rebelled against him a second time. In 689 B.C., he captured the famous old city by storm, and wreaked savage. vengeance on it. For days his soldiers were turned loose in its streets with orders to kill every one they found. The walls and buildings were torn down; the canals were choked with ruins; and for eight years “there were no kings.” We cannot but be impressed and awed by the tremendous power which we now find centred in one man. Sennacherib by a word made a desolation of the largest city in the world; but a greater than he did a greater thing. Within eight years the next king rebuilt Babylon on a scale grander even than before. This king was Esar-haddon, whom the Greeks called Sarchedon, the last great warrior king of Assyria. Sennacherib was murdered by two of his sons; but Esar-haddon, who was another and favorite son, defeated and punished them both, and succeeded to: Western Asia—Assyrian Power and Fall 75 the kingdom. He is the one Assyrian king to whom we can turn with any real liking; the others seem to us huge, Snarling tigers, devouring the nations. Esarhaddon's policy throughout his empire was one of kindness and con- ciliation. He set about the rebuilding of Babylon, the holy city, with real religious fervor; and the priests gladly hailed him as their rightful ruler. He brought Manasseh, King of Jerusalem, in chains to his feet, and then forgave him. Before the end of his reign he did the same to the great King of Egypt. He repelled from his borders the Kimmerians, the first of those successive waves of ferocious barbarians who, through the ages, have burst upon the world from the wilds of Central Asia. He penetrated the very heart of the Arabian desert, and reduced its tribes to obedience. And, last and proudest triumph of the Assyrian power, he conquered Egypt. It was while quelling a revolt there that he died, and was succeeded by his son, Assur-bani-pal. The new king had nothing of a warrior's tastes. He sent his generals to the field, while he himself remained in ease and comfort in his palace. He was a patron of literature, and before his death he gathered at Nineveh the great library from which we have learned so much of his country. At first his generals were successful. The Egyptian revolt was crushed; the old Egyptian capital, Thebes, was destroyed. Assyrian arms were then turned against the one independent nation remaining in their world, the Elamites. Stubborn and bitter was the resistance of these mountaineers; and when their last city, the capital, Susa, was taken and destroyed, the captured land was a profitless desert, and Assyria herself was drained of soldiers almost to exhaustion. Outwardly she was at the zenith of her power. No foe was left to face her. Embassies came even from the borders of Europe to honor her and entreat her favor. But the Babylonians and the Arabians and the Egyptians knew her real weakness. Presently all three rebelled; and though the first two were painfully reconquered after years of feeble effort, Egypt had escaped forever. There was not even an attempt to hold her, for a new and appalling danger threatened. A second horde had burst like a cyclone into the land, from Cen- tral Asia; and there was no Esar-haddon now to check them. When Assur- bani-pal's long reign of over forty years ended, the doom of Assyria had already sounded. - There are no writings, no carefully carved inscriptions to guide us through the few hurried years that remained. There was no time for such arts of peace; the people were struggling for life against the barbarians. Among the ruins of the great royal enclosure in one of the Assyrian capitals there has been un- covered in a corner one little, poorly built, crumbling shanty of a palace, looking queer enough in the company of the majestic ruins around it. It is the work 76 The Story of the Greatest Nations of a shadowy king, otherwise almost unknown, who must have ruled during those last years of terror. It typifies well the falling nation. Her provinces deserted her. One of her generals, Nabopolassar, being sent to govern Babylonia, usurped supreme power. He strengthened the city, ingratiated himself with the people, and then led them back in an assault against his old masters. It was the death-struggle, and the Assyrians knew it. They rose grandly to the might of despair. Again and again they beat back their ancient foes. Nabopolassar began to look anxiously around for assistance. Egypt, which had seized on Palestine and Syria in the confusion, promised help; but it was slow in coming. A nearer and more eager ally was found in the Scythian king who had seized the mountainous region of Media. He gave his daughter to be the wife of Nabopolassar's son; and his wild Scyths joined the Babylonians in the final siege of Nineveh. Civilization and barbarism were arrayed together against the royal city; and even the elements joined in the assault; for, according to legend, after a two years' siege the river rose in the night and carried away a portion of the walls. The assailants entered at the breach, and the city fell. Babylon was triumphant at last; and her people took full revenge on their ancient foe. Nineveh was destroyed so completely that men forgot even where it had stood. The very completeness of its desolation left the apparently worthless ruins untouched through all the centuries; and it is at Nineveh that modern investigation has reaped its richest harvest. Of Assyria's architecture, of its palaces, its libraries, we have spoken. Art appeals most directly to the eye, so we give here a picture showing some relics of Assyrian handiwork.” A second Babylonian Empire rose on the ruins of its rival. Nabopolassar maintained his friendship with the Scyths. He quarrelled with the dilatory Egyptians, and wrested from them their newly seized Asian possessions. From Media to the sea, Babylon was again the queen of Western Asia. It is here that the name Chaldaea came into history. You remember the land which the Euphrates kept building at its mouth. Through all these thou- sands of years that we have passed over in an easy half-hour, this land had been growing to the south of Shumir. It was a land of mud and marsh, and * Nos. I and 2 in the illustration are doorway figures, representing gods in the form of winged bulls with crowned human heads; 3, King Sennacherib ; 4, a king hunting ; 5, assault on a triple- walled city; 6, 7, 8, vases of clay; 9, drinking vessel ; IO, lamp ; II, cloth, with Assyrian pattern imi- tated from a relief; I2, table, restored from fragments; I3, lion's head, from a doorway; I4, 15, 16, ancient swords; I 7, double-edged sword, or axe; I 8, spear; IQ, bow; 20, quiver, with arrows and tas- sels; 21, 22, 23, daggers and hunting-knives in a case; 24, helmet ; 25, shield of foot-soldier; 26, armor of artillerist ; 27, Sun umbrella ; 28, gold earrings; 29, 30, 31, 32, gold bracelets; 33, 34, sculp- tured diadems; 35, wall painting of lions; 36, ornamental frieze. Western Asia—Nebuchadnezzar Rebuilds Babylon 77 of great reeds fifteen feet high. In its depths, safe from attack, dwelt an Arabian tribe called Kaldees, or Chaldees, whose people gradually spread among the Babylonians. Nabopolassar is reputed to have been a Chaldee; one of the earlier sovereigns was certainly so. Members of the race became more and more prominent under the new empire; and the name Chaldaea, especially with the Greek and Latin writers, gradually came to mean the same as Babylonia. Nabopolassar was succeeded by that son who had married the Scythian princess, and who is known to us as the mighty Nebuchadnezzar of history and the Bible. He had already gained fame as a general in his father's lifetime; and that fame he increased by repeatedly defeating the Egyptians, by twice taking Jerusalem, and by capturing the hitherto invincible Phoenician city of Tyre, after a grim, unrelenting, thirteen-year siege. His chief fame, however, is as a builder. He made Babylon a marvel whose fame will never die. It was for this that he carried the Jews and thou- sands of other poor captives from their homes. It was this that so impressed the unhappy prophet Jeremiah, when he compared Babylon with his own ruined Jerusalem. In addition to the famous walls, which were only partly his, Nebu- chadnezzar built a mighty palace, and greatly enlarged and improved the canal system. He was able at will to turn the entire Euphrates from its bed into these canals; and he seems to have lined with brick the whole bed of the river where it flowed through the city. Then he built for his Scythian queen Amyitis, perhaps because she longed for her native mountains, the famous hanging gardens, placed on arches seventy feet high, with all manner of strange plants and great trees growing on the summit. The heart of the proud monarch was in his work; and when it was all fin- ished, he asked the prophet Daniel: “Is not this great Babylon that I have built . . . for the honor of my majesty.” Then a strange madness overtook him, “lycanthropy,” the physicians call it, in which a man imagines himself a beast, and for years the conqueror “was driven from men, and did eat grass as oxen.” Nebuchadnezzar was the last important King of Babylon. A few years after his death his line died out; and the priests raised a weak tool of their own, Nabonidos, to the throne. He caused all the idols to be brought from the lesser cities, and set up in Babylon, thinking, apparently, to make it the one great religious centre of the land. It was an unfortunate step for him. Its real result showed only in heart-burnings, jealousies, and the Secret treasons which Overthrew him. The Persians under Cyrus took the city in 538 B.C. Nabonidos had an army in the field against them under his son Belshazzar; but it was outgen- eraled and defeated. The impregnable city seems to have made no defence; its gates were opened, surely by treachery, to the conqueror. We have found 78 The Story of the Greatest Nations Cyrus' own record of his entry; and we must accept its declaration that “with- out combat or battle” did he enter Babylon. Nabonidos was made prisoner, and soon died. The Babylonian Empire was at an end; and Babylon sank again to the secondary position it had held under Assyrian rule. Several times the city rebelled, under leaders who claimed to be descend- ants of Nebuchadnezzar or sons of Nabonidos; but each time it was recaptured and the rebellion put down, with more or less injury to the city. Somewhere amid this confusion must be placed the Hebrew account of Belshazzar, though with our present uncertain knowledge it is difficult to say just where. He was the son of Nabonidos and general of all his armies; very probably he had been made king with his father, as well. He was by far the more vigorous man of the two. Whatever there had been of brave resistance against the Persians in that last campaign came from him. Later, while he feasted and revelled with his comrades in Babylon, there came that supernatural handwriting on the wall. You will find the account in the fifth chapter of the Book of Daniel. “In the same hour came forth fingers of a man's hand, and wrote over against the can- dlestick upon the plaster of the wall of the king's palace; and the king saw the part of the hand that wrote.” Belshazzar was terrified, and asked his soothsayers what this fiery writing meant: “MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN.” Merely as words, these were probably plain to all present. Their sense in English seems to be, “a mina, a mina, a shekel, to the Persians,” the mina being the most valuable gold coin of the times, and the shekel a comparatively worthless piece. But what did the words signify when thus placed together and flaming upon the wall? No man knew ; or, if any guessed, they dared not tell the fierce king. Then Daniel, the Lord's prophet, was brought into the hall. He saw clearly the true meaning and purport of the words; and bravely and unflinchingly he denounced the haughty monarch and revealed the approaching doom. “MENE: God hath numbered thy kingdom, and finished it. “TEKEL: Thou art weighed in the balances, and art found wanting. “PERES: Thy kingdom is divided, and given to the Medes and Persians.” “In that night was Belshazzar, the king of the Chaldaeans, slain.” Herodotus tells us that at one time the Persians seized the city by turning aside the Euphrates from its course, during the night, and entering along the bare bed of the river. The unsuspecting defenders were engaged in drunken revelry. Perhaps this was the occasion of Belshazzar's sudden death. The later history of Babylon is soon traced. Some of the Persian kings lived much in the city; it was a sort of second capital to them; but already its decline had begun. Xerxes punished it severely for a rebellion in 481 B. c. The great seven-story temple of Bel, and many other of the finest buildings, Western Asia–The Fall of Babylon 79 were overthrown; and a portion of the city was given up to pillage. Greek travellers, like Herodotus, saw many traces of decay within the walls, in some places whole quarters lying in ruins, or turned into fields. The city surrendered to Alexander the Great in 331 B.C.; and it so im- pressed him that he planned to make it his capital, but death prevented. The Greek princes who succeeded Alexander in Asia, the Seleucidae, finally accom- plished its ruin by building a new capital of their own, Seleucia, within a few miles of it. Gradually all the wealth transferred itself to the newer, gayer city; and poverty soon followed it, leaving fallen Babylon alone with its memories. The Parthians captured and burned it about 14o B. c. In the time of Christ there was only a little village in the midst of the ruins; and the Christian father, Jerome, writing in the fourth century A.D., tells us it had become an enclosed forest, wherein the Persian kings hunted. Fallen Babylon had indeed become what the Bible had predicted, “a burnt mountain.” “But wild beasts of the desert shall lie there; and their houses shall be full of doleful creatures; and owls shall dwell there " (Isaiah xiii. 21). s ; -= y- sº §ſº HE early dates are little more than guess-work. Pro- fessor Sayce has been followed as nearly as possible. B. C. 5500–Calculated date for the building of Eridu, once a seaport town, now I 50 miles inland, 5ooo. º –Lugal-zaggiºsi founds an empire, reaching from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean; he makes his capital at Erech. 4000–Lugal-kigub-nidudu, King of Ur, conquers Erech. 4000–Kings of Lagas establish their power over Babylonia. 3800–Sargon of Accad, or Agadé, the great legendary hero of Babylonia, rules all Western Asia. 3750– Naram-Sin, his son, extends his power; he owned the rich mines of Sinai, and battled with Egypt. 2720–Ur again be- comes the ruling power of Western Asia, under Ur-Bau, a Sumerian. 2700–Gudea, high-priest of Lagas, rules under Dungi, son of Ur-Bau, Gudea's library of 30,000 tablets has been recently found. 2600–A Semitic power established at Ur, perhaps under Gungunum. 2500–Ine-Sin and Gimil-Sin, descendants of Gungunum, carry their power to the Mediterranean. 2478–An Arabian race establishes itself at Babylon under Sumu-abi (“Shem is my father"). 2366–The Chedor-laomer of Scripture, a great Elamite conqueror, claims lordship over all Babylonia; he is defeated by Abraham. Khammurabi of Babylonia (the Amraphel of Scripture) breaks the Elamite power, and makes Babylon again the centre of a great empire. 1806–The Kassite tribes, under Gandis, conquer Babylon, and become its kings. 1650–Agum-kak-rime partly re-establishes its power. I400–Burna-buryas claims the friendship of Egypt to help him in maintaining the ancient authority of Babylon over Assyria. 1380–The Kassite soldiery murder their king, Kadasman-kharbe, and place Nazibugas on the throne. Assur-yuballidh, King - - 3.º º-L 3.l ºº: Western Asia—Chronology of Babylon 81 of Assyria, interferes, defeats the Kassites, and places Kuri-galzu III., the young Son of Kadasman-kharbe, on the Babylonian throne. I340–Kuri-galzu defeats the Elamites and captures their capital, Susa; he is defeated by Rim- mon-nirari of Assyria. (Here the dates become fairly accurate.) I290—The city of Babylon conquered by the Assyrians and held as a province. I283— Rimmon-sum-uzur, the Kassite king, leads a successful revolt, and Babylon regains at least partial independence. II2O—Tiglath-pileser temporarily reconquers Babylon. 812—Babylon again captured by Samsi-Rimmon of Assyria. 763— Babylon joins in a general revolt and escapes Assyrian power. 731—Pul of Assyria recaptures Babylon. Constant revolts. 680–Sen- nacherib, as a punishment, utterly destroys the city. 680–Esar-haddon rebuilds it. 626—Nabopolassar, sent to quell a Babylonian revolt, assumes the power there. 609—He unites Egypt and the Median Scyths in a league with him against Assyria. 606—He and the Medes capture Nineveh, and destroy it. 605—Nebuchadnezzar, his son, succeeds him. 604—Nebuchadnezzar defeats the Egyptians at Karchemish. 598—He captures Jerusalem and carries its king, Jehoiachin, and many others to Babylon. 588—Jerusalem, having rebelled, is destroyed and its people carried into captivity at Babylon. 573—Nebuchad- nezzar captures Tyre after a thirteen-year siege. 568–He builds the “hanging gardens’ of Babylon. 562–He dies. 556—Nabonidos, made king by the priests, tries to transfer all religious power to Babylon. 538—Army of Nabo- nidos defeated by Cyrus of Persia, who captures Babylon; Babylonia becomes a Persian province. 521—Babylon revolts under Nebuchadnezzar II.; is retaken by Darius. 514—Another revolt under Nebuchadnezzar III., claiming to be a son of Nabonidos. Again Darius takes the city. He destroys its walls. 487–Xerxes sacks the city. 331—Babylon taken by Alexander; he dies there, 323. 312—Seleucus Nicator becomes king of the empire of Syria, including Babylonia. He builds his capital, Seleucia, close to Babylon, and Babylon decays and falls to ruin. I40—Babylonia conquered by Parthians. 63—Becomes a Roman province under Pompey. A. D. 750–The Babylonian city of Baghdad made the seat of the Ma- hometan caliphs. I638—Babylonia becomes subject to Turkey. 82 The Story of the Greatest Nations RULERS OF BABYLONIA B. C. The Kings of Lagas. The Kings of Agadé. 38OO–Sargon. 375O—Naram-Sin, his son. Bingani-Sar-ali, his son. Ellat-Gula, a queen. The Kings of Ur. 272O—Ur-Bau. Dungi I. Gungunum. Dungi II. Pur-Sin II. Gimil-Sin. Iné-Sin. First Dynasty of Babylon (Arab). 2478—Sumu-abi. 2464—Sumu-la-ilu, his son. 2428–Zabium, his son. 24 I4—Abil-Sin, his son. 2396—Sin-muballidh, his son. 2366—Khammurabi. 23 II—Samsu-iluna, his son. 2273—Abesukh. 2248—Ammi-ditana, his son. 2223—Ammi-zadok, his son. 22O2—Samsu-ditana, his son. Dynasty of Sisku. 2 I 74— * + k + Dynasty of the Kassites. I806–Gandis. * * * * Agun-kak-rime. B. C. Kara-indas. I43O—Kadasman-Bel. Kuri-galzu I. I4OO–Burna-buryas, his son. Kuri-galzu II., his son. Kara-khardas. Kadasman-kharbe I., his son. I 380—Nazibugas, a usurper. I 380–Kuri-galzu III. * + k + Dynasty of Isin. 1229– # * * * I I4O—Nebuchadnezzar I. Bel-nadin-pal. I IO7—Merodach-nadin-akhi(defeated Tiglath-pileser I.). * * * * Dynasty of the Seacoast. Io96— # * * * Dynasty of Bit-Bazi. IO75— * * * * Dynasty of Elam. Second Dynasty of Babylon. IOA9— * * * * Dynasty of Sapé. 73O—Yukin-zera. 727—Pul (of Assyria). 725–Shalmaneser IV. (of Assyria). 72 I–Merodach-baladan (the Chal- daean from the Seacoast). 709–Sargon II. (of Assyria). 705–Sennacherib (of Assyria). 681–Esar-haddon (of Assyria). Western Asia—Rulers of Babylonia 83 B. C. B. C. 668—Samas-Sum-yukin, his son. 562—Evil-Merodach, his son. 648—Assur-bani-pal (of Assyria). 56O—Nergalsharezar. 556–Laboroso-Merodach. 556—Nabonidos. (?)—Belshazzar. Second Babylonian Empire. 626—Nabopolassar. 605—Nebuchadnezzar II., his son. É * P25 § É CººC AE MAź BABYLONIAN WARRIOR º Fº --~~ º -> - : º - --- -- - - - - … lºººººººººººººººººººº. º . º - º - | 2. º ºº º| º - - - - - º, sº º - --- - ºil tº º asſº E. C. 1850 (?)—Isme-Dagon, first known high-priest of the land of Assur, 1806 (?)—The high-priests of Assur become independent of Babylon, which is helpless in the grip of Kassite invaders. 1600 (?)—Bel-kapkapu, or perhaps Belbani, “the founder of the monarchy," assumes the title of King of Assyria. Wars with Baby- Ho lon. 1450 (?)—First known treaty made by Assyria, a boundary agreement with Babylon. I&40–Rimmon- nirari I. defeats Babylon and wrests territory from her. He extends Assyrian territory in all directions. I290–Tiglath- Bir I., his grandson, conquers Babylon and reigns over it seven years. 1283–Successful Babylonian revolt, and decay of Assyr- ian power. II.20–Second period of power under Tiglath-pileser I.; his power reaches to the Mediterranean, and as far as Egypt. Io90–Death of Tiglath-pileser and waning of his empire. 885 –Assur-nazir-pal II. again spreads Assyrian conquest over West- ern Asia. 860–Shalmaneser II., his son, solidifies Assyrian power. 840–The prophet Jonah appears in Nineveh and foretells its destruction. 830–Assur-dain-pal, son of Shalmaneser, revolts and holds Nineveh seven years. 823–After Shalmaneser's death, his other son, Samsi-Rimmon II., storms the city, and Assur-dain-pal is slain. (This is the Sardanapalus of Greek story.) 763–An eclipse of the sun starts a revolu- tion and establishes an exact date for Assyrian chronology. 745–Pul, one of the Assyrian generals, ends the revolution and becomes king under the title of Tiglath-pileser III. He begins the “Second Assyrian Empire,” making his country a great and permanent power. 738–Pul holds a great court and re- * Uſº|- El Western Asia—Rulers of Assyria 85 ceives homage from all the kings of Western Asia, Israel included. 729—He is declared king of the old Babylonian empire. 727—He dies. 722—Sargon becomes king. 722—Destroys the kingdom of Israel. 720—Defeats the Egyptians at Raphia. 717–Captures Karchemish, the last stronghold of the Hittites. 705–Sargon murdered, his son Sennacherib becomes king. 701— Defeats the Egyptians under Tirhakah. Ravages Judea. His army destroyed by a plague. Builds a navy and controls the Persian Gulf. 689–Utterly de- stroys Babylon after a revolt. 681—Sennacherib murdered, his favorite son, Esar-haddon (Sarchedon), seizes the throne. Rebuilds Babylon. Drives back the Kimmerian barbarians. Penetrates to the heart of Arabia. 674—He be- gins the conquest of Egypt. 670—Capture of Memphis. Egypt conquered. 668–Assur-bani-pal, his son, succeeds to the throne. Egypt revolts; he recon- quers it, and, 661, destroys Thebes. Overthrows the Elamites, the last inde- pendent nation around him, and destroys their capital, Shushan (Susa). 655– Sudden and general revolt, centring in Babylonia. Egypt regains her freedom. 648–Babylonian revolt suppressed. 626–Death of Assur-bani-pal. He had gathered a great library. 625 (?)—Scythian barbarians overrun Asia; they attack Nineveh again and again. 608—Final siege of Nineveh by the Scyths established in Media, and the Babylonians. 606—Capture and utter destruction of Nineveh. The city has never been built on since. Assyria becomes a Median and then a Persian province. 332—Assyria conquered by Alexander the Great. Its sovereignty passes with that of the other Asian provinces from empire to empire. A. D. I637—Assyria conquered by the Turks. I835–37—Explored by Colonel Chesney and the Euphrates exploring expedition. I848–53—Layard's discoveries published. 1866–Mr. George Smith, of British Museum, began to study inscriptions; explored Assyrian remains; published “Assyrian Discov- eries,” 1875. RULERS OF ASSYRIA (The earlier dates are only approxi- B.C. Kings. mate.) I6OO–Bel-kapkapu. B. C. High-priests. * * * * I85O—Isme-Dagon. Assur-Suma-esir. I82O—Samsi-Rimmon I., his son. Bir-tuklat-Assur, his son. Khallu. I45O—Assur-bil-nisi-Su. Irisum, his son. I44O—Buzur-Assur. >k >< >k >k I42O—Assur-nadin-akhe II. 86 The Story of the Greatest Nations B.C. I4OO–Assur-yuballidh, his son. I 380–Bel-nirari, his son. I 36O—Pudilu, his son. First Empire. I340—Rimmon-nirari I., his son. I 32O—Shalmaneser I., his son. I 3OO—Tiglath-Bir I., his son. I 280–Assur-nazir-pal I., his son. I275—Tiglath-Assur-Bel. I 26O—Assur-narara. I25O—Nebo-dan, his son. I225—Bel-kudurri-uzur. I2 I 5–Bir-pileser. II 85—Assur-dan I., his son. I I6O—Mutaggil-Nebo, his son. I I4O—Assur-ris-isi, his son. I I2O-Tiglath-pileser I., his son. IO90—Assur-bil-kala, his son. IO7O—Samsi-Rimmon I., his brother. IO5O—Assur-nazir-pal II., his son. * }{: X & 95O—Tiglath-pileser II. - 825–Assur-dain-pal B.C. 93O—Assur-dan II., his son. 9 II—Rimmon-nirari II., his son. 889—Tiglath-Bir II., his son. 883–Assur-nazir-pal III., his son. 858—Shalmaneser II., his son. (Sardanapa- lus), his son. 823—Sam si - Rim m on II., his brother. 8 IO-Rimmon-nirari II., his son. 781—Shalmaneser III. 77 I —Assur-dan III. 753—Assur-nirari. Second Empire. 745—Tiglath-pileser III. (Pul). 727–Shalmaneser IV. 722—Sargon II. 705—Sennacherib, his son. 681–Esar-haddon, his son. 668—Assur-bani-pal, his son. 626–Assur-etil-ilani-yu, his son. (?)—Sin-Sarra-iskun (Saracos). PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY FOR WESTERN ASIA Accad (äc'căd) Amalekites (a-măl'e-kites) Amanus (a-ma'nus) Ammonites (äm'mün-ites) Amraphel (äm'ra-fél) Amyitis (a-mé'í-tis) Aramaians (ār'a-mă'-ans) Assur (äs'sur) Assyria (äs-sir'i-a) Baal (bāle) Babylon (bâb'í-lon) Bel (bél) Belshazzar (bel-shāz'zār) Berosus (bé-rö'sus) Bethulia (be-thillyā) Cadmus (cãd'müs) Canaan (cã'nān) Chaldaea (kāl-dé'ā) Chedor-laomer (kéd'or-lā'o-mer) Cyrus (si'rüs) * Edomites (é'döm-ites) Elamites (é'lām-ites) Erech (e'rék) Esar-haddon (é'sar-hăd'dön) Western Asia–Pronouncing Vocabulary 87 Buphrates (yu-frå'těz) Gandis (gån'dis) Herodotus (he-réd'o-tus) Hezekiah (hēz-è-ki'ah) Hiarbas (hē-ăr"bas) Hittite (hittite) Holofernes (höl-ć-fernéz) Ishbosheth (ish-bo'sheth) Ishtar (ishtār) Jebusites (jéb'u-sites) Jeremiah (jér-ē-mi'ah) Kassite (käs'site) Khammurabi (kām-mur-ah'bé) Kimmerians (kim-méri-ans) Mammites (mâm'ites) Media (mě'di-a) Merodach (mē-rö'dak) Mesopotamia (měs'o-po-tä'mi-a) Moabites (mū'ab-ites) Nabonidos (na'bó-né'dós) Nabopolassar (na'-bö-pô-lás'sār) Naram-sin (nár'âm-sin') Nebuchadnezzar (néb'u-kād-nēz'zār) Nineveh (nin'é-vé) Nin-mach (nin'mák) Ninus (ni'nās) Ophir (Ö'fér) Palamedes (pāl'a-mê'déz) Philistines (fi-listines) Phoenicia (fé-nish'i-a) Pul (pāl) Pygmalion (pyg-mā'li-on) Sarchedon (sar-kéd'dón) Sardanapalus (sar'da-na-pâlus, Sargon (sar'gón) Scythia (sith'i-a) Seleucidae (sê-leu'sſ-dà) Semiramis (sê-mira-mis) Semites (sêm'ites) Sennacherib (sen-nāk'-er-ib) Shalmaneser (shāl'ma-né'ser) Shinar (shi'nar) Shumir (shu'mir) Sidon (sildon) Simonides (si-món'i-déz) Sinai (sini) Sumu-abi (su'mu-ah'be) Tarshish (tar'shish) Tetrapolis (te-trip'o-lis) Thothmes (thàth'més) Tiglath-pileser (tiglath-pî-lès'er Tigris (tigris) Tyre (tire) Ur (ěr) Xenophon (zén'o-fun) Xerxes (zèrk'zéz) TABLET From ASSUR-Bani-Pal's LIBRARY º º º º |||}|º ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ, ToMB or CY RUS - - ANCIENT NATIONS PERSIA Chapter VIII THE FIRST PERSIAN EMPIRE [Authorities: Benjamin, “The Story of Persia”; “Persia and the Persians”; Curzon, “Persia and the Persian Question"; Wills, ‘‘Persia as It Is” Lady Shiel, “Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia”; Arnold, “Through Asia”; Watson, “History of Persia from 1800 to 1858" ; Markham, “History of Persia"; Vambery, “Central Asia and the Anglo-Russian Frontier Question"; Gold- smid, “ Persia”; Maspero, “Passing of the Empires"; Rawlinson, “History of the Ancient Mon- archies of the East"; “Sixth Oriental Monarchy”; “Seventh Oriental Monarchy."] º º º % *. E have seen how the Semitic nations brought ruin succes- Žºlº ſº. sively upon themselves, mainly in desperate struggles A with one another. The empire of the world dropped † from their exhausted hands and was seized by a newer | race, the Aryans. It is to this race that all the modern º European nations belong; but the first members of the º º ** family to become famous in history were not European. - º: They were the Persians. †. Although Persia to-day is an insignificant nation, yet centuries . ago it was one of the mightiest dominions on the globe. It was as broad jº. as the United States, and fifteen hundred miles from the north to the i. º : south, with an area exceeding one-half of modern Europe. Its extent º 3. was surpassed by only one empire of the ancient world–Imperial º Rome. You have only to examine your map to understand its vastness, º for the boundaries on the east were the river Indus and Thibet; on the south, the Persian Gulf and the Arabian and Nubian deserts; on the west, the Great Desert, the Mediterranean, the AEgean, and the river Strymon, and on the north, the Danube, the Euxine, the Caucasus, the Caspian, and the Jaxartes. Persia—The Median Monarchy 89 The Medes and Persians belonged to the pure Aryan stock, both being Immigrants from the native seat in the northeast. They lived on the plateau east of the chain of Zegros, but by successive movements, that were not com- pleted till the eighth century B. C., they established themselves in the highlands of Media and Persia. f It was about 7 IO B.C. that the Assyrian monarch Sargon conquered a por- tion of the Median country and planted colonies there, including the Israelites from the cities of Samaria, who had been the captives of the Assyrians. The restless, courageous Medes grew in numbers and power, and, about the year 633 B.C., established a formidable monarchy with Cyaxares as their king. He was ambitious, and a great conqueror. He did not hesitate to invade Assyria, and it was he who in 625 B.C. assailed the city of Nineveh, as you have learned in the preceding chapter, penetrating with his hosts westward into Asia Minor. This king was the founder of the Median monarchy, and was succeeded by his son Astyages. At that time, Persia was tributary to Media, and the two countries were on friendly terms. Cambyses was on the throne of Persia, and his wife was the daughter of Astyages. To them a son was born, named Cyrus, who, in accord- ance with the custom of the time, was obliged to live at the court of his grand- father, where he might be considered as a hostage, since he could not leave it without permission of the king. Cyrus was wise and observing, and, as he grew in years, he saw with a clearness of vision not given to many others the true condition and prospects of Media, of which it may almost be said he was a native, since all his time from infancy had been spent there. He noted the decline of Media, while his own country was steadily growing in power. Indeed, he fretted and grew impatient that Persia should remain subject to a state already weaker and growing more so every year and month, through its vice and excesses. The soul of Cyrus was filled with burning disgust, and he longed to betake himself to his father's court and set on foot a war for independence. He was so closely watched, however, that it was impossible to escape; so he asked permission of his grandfather to visit his father, of whom he spoke as old and feeble and in need of his care. Astyages, the sly old scamp, replied that he so admired and loved the youth that he could not bear to have him absent from the palace. Then Cyrus secured the intercession of one of the king's favorite courtiers, who secured permission for him to make his father a visit. With a few attendants, the young prince left the Median capital. Hardly was Cyrus well on his way when the king became alarmed. It is said that a minstrel sang a song before him, in which she pictured the successful revolt that the prince was about to lead. Be that as it may, the king was so 90 The Story of the Greatest Nations scared, that he sent a company of armed men after the prince, who speedily made him prisoner. That night Cyrus gave his captors a great feast, and suc- ceeded in so filling them with wine that it was an easy thing for him to remount his horse and gallop to the Persian outposts. He lost no time in placing him- self at the head of a body of soldiers, just in time to confront and rout the guards, who, having recovered from their debauch, made haste to pursue him again. Then Cyrus took refuge at his father's court, where he was assured of the protection of the whole Persian army. Astyages was thrown into a transport of rage when the news was brought to him. He had wit enough to understand the peril that threatened him and his kingdom, and he swore a big Oath that the audacious prince should be brought back in spite of his father and all the force he could muster to protect the stripling. He called his generals together and gave orders for the invasion of Persia and the capture of his grandson. Tradition says that the army which the Median king gathered together numbered three thousand war-chariots, two hundred thousand horse, and a million of infantry. It is probable that if these figures were divided by five or ten, they would be nearer the truth; but there is no doubt that the army which invaded Persia was the largest that the Medes were able to bring together. Cyrus and his father Cambyses made the best preparation possible for resistance, but could not muster a force anywhere near so powerful as that of the invaders. Nevertheless, they marched boldly to the frontier and awaited the attack. When the two armies joined battle, it raged a whole day without decisive result, but the overwhelming numbers of Astyages enabled him to detach a hundred thousand soldiers, and send them to the rear of the Persians, where they assaulted and captured a stronghold. Cambyses was mortally wounded, and the Persians were able to save themselves only by headlong flight. The Median king pressed on to the capital, determined to destroy the town and the army of his enemies. The crisis brought out the most brilliant qualities of Cyrus, who, on the death of his father, was recognized as king. He inspired his followers with his own ardent enthusiasm, and, instead of waiting for Astyages, he rallied the fugitives and led them back to meet the advancing Medes. He chose admirable ground for defence, in a narrow defile with steep hills on either side. In this passage, he stationed ten thousand of his best troops, against whom the Medes hurled themselves again and again, but in vain. Astyages, however, succeeded in gaining the heights above the defile, and once more the Persians were com- pelled to retreat. But, as before, a good position was secured, where they confronted the invaders, who charged up the steep slope. The battle raged furiously for two days. Astyages, made desperate by the stubborn defence, Persia—Cyrus Conquers the Medes 9 I placed one division of his army behind the forces about to make the charge and ordered them to kill every Mede who shrank from the fearful work. So it was as perilous to retreat as to advance. Under the terrific attack the Persians began to give way and took refuge on the crest of the hills. Then it was that their women and children, seeing the danger, began to cry out and to reproach their countrymen for their weakness. Stung by these reproofs, the Persians threw themselves upon the advancing foes. The charge was resistless, and it is said that sixty thousand of the Medes were borne down by the tremendous onset. Had the armies been anywhere equal in numbers, that of the Medes would have been annihilated, but, despite his repulse, Astyages was able to gain a posi- tion nearer the capital, and he was making ready to strike a final blow, when the Persians in their desperation assailed the Median camp like a cyclone. The in- vaders were thrown into a panic, and scattered right and left like so much chaff. Cyrus himself was in the front dealing blows which no one could withstand. No victory could have been more overwhelmingly decisive. When all the foes had vanished, the generals of Cyrus closed around him on the battlefield and hailed him King of Media and Persia. Astyages, who had fled with a few of his friends, was overtaken and made prisoner. He was so infuriated by his failures, that he had put to death a number of his leading generals whom he blamed for his disaster. There was so much dissatisfaction with him because of this, as well as on account of his imbecility, that thousands of the Medes gladly welcomed Cyrus as ruler of their country. Thus, in the year 550 B.C., fell the monarchy established by Cyaxares. Such is the romantic story the Greeks told of Cyrus and his rise to empire. We can accept it as probably bearing some general resemblance to the truth. The Persian records, however, establish the fact that Cyrus had been king of Persia for over five years before he revolted against Astyages, and that it was only after two or three years of fighting against his mighty foe that he entered the Median capital. Cyrus understood that to make Persia all-powerful he must do so by force of arms, and compel the surrounding countries to accept his rule. In looking around, he saw but one quarter from which danger promised to threaten : that was in the northwest, where Croesus ruled as King of Lydia in Asia Minor. Croesus welcomed the war, and, without waiting to receive aid from Baby- lonia, he plunged into hostilities with Cyrus. It must be borne in mind that Lydia was a powerful kingdom, and in addition to her immense resources, the king had formed an alliance with Pharaoh Amasis of Egypt, and also with Sparta. Besides, he was confident of aid from Babylonia; so that, according ito human reasoning, the advantage was greatly on his side. Undismayed, Cyrus marched rapidly to the west at the head of his army, 92 The Story of the Greatest Nations while Croesus advanced to meet him. A severe battle was fought, but darkness. closed in without advantage to either side. To the surprise of Croesus, when the morrow came, Cyrus made no move toward renewing the battle, despite his superior numbers. It looked as if the Persian had been handled so roughly that he was glad to leave his enemy alone, and more glad to be let alone by him. Such was the conclusion of Croesus, who, since winter was at hand, felt assured that nothing was to be feared from the Persians before the coming spring. So he fell back, and at his capital disbanded most of his forces, con- fident that a few months later he could assemble them again in time to foil any designs of Cyrus. This was the precise result that the Persian king had planned for. He pressed forward with the utmost rapidity, but was not able completely to sur- prise Croesus, who hastily collected all the troops he could, and went out to give his adversary battle. The Lydians fought with the utmost heroism, but were finally driven back into their capital, Sardis, to which Cyrus laid siege. The city was provided with massive walls, and Croesus did not believe it possible for any army to capture it. He sent messengers to his provinces and to Egypt and Babylonia assuring them of the certain opportunity to overwhelm and destroy the Persian army, and urging them to hasten to Sardis with their contingents. Meanwhile, an assault by Cyrus had been repulsed; and he sat down to prosecute the tedious siege, whose issue would have been doubtful, but for the occurrence of a singular accident that proved the deciding factor. The citadel of Sardis, forming a part of the defences, was built on steep, native rock, which seemed almost impossible to climb. One day a Lydian soldier, having dropped his helmet over the battlement at a certain place, descended, picked it up, and climbed back to his post without any difficulty. “Now,” reasoned an interested Persian who observed it, “if ſhe can do that, what is to hinder us from doing the same 2 ” Calling around him a number of his companions, they went up the slope like a whirlwind, cut down the guards, and in a twinkling, as may be said, placed the citadel at the mercy of Cyrus. The fall of Sardis followed, and it was pillaged. Croesus mounted a funeral pyre he had prepared for himself, but before fire could be set to it he was seized and taken into the presence of Cyrus, who gave him a province to govern. Croesus, whose name is synonymous with great wealth, lived thirty years after- ward as a friend of his conqueror, as well as of the next Persian emperor. All Asia Minor west of the Halys was added to the dominion of Persia, the date. being 548 B.C. Cyrus continued his career of conquest. Nearly all of the Greek colonies. on the coast of Asia Minor and the neighboring lands were brought under sub- jection. His immediate borders having been pacified, the great Persian next Persia—Cambyses in Egypt 93 turned his attention to the far East. Beginning in 545 B.C., he spent seven years in conquering the numerous tribes in the country between Persia and the Indus. When this was accomplished, there remained the great city of Babylon to be gathered as captive of his bow and spear. How this was done in 538 B.c. has been told in the preceding pages. Cyrus completed one of the greatest works ever performed by the genius of man. During his reign of twenty-nine years, he extended his dominions from the Indus to the Hellespont, and from the Jaxartes to the Syrian coast. As we have shown, Persia had grown into one of the mightiest empires of the globe, and become the overshadowing imperial power of Asia. Undoubtedly Cyrus was the most illustrious of the line of Persian rulers, for none who came after him was able to stand on the same plane as he. Although a great con- queror, he was magnanimous, and possessed many traits that compelled the respect of enemies as well as of friends. He planned to rule his subject peoples through their good-will rather than their fear. Especially he sought to please them in religious matters. You remember how, in the story of Babylonia, its last king brought all the gods of the other states to Babylon. One of the first acts of Cyrus on mastering the city was to permit all the outraged people to take their idols home again. Each insulted god was returned in state to his own city. The Jews were released from their seventy years of captivity and restored to Judea. They alone of all the captive nations had no gods of wood or stone to carry back with them. So Cyrus restored to them all the golden vessels they had used for worship in the Temple. Cyrus wisely settled the question of succession by ordering that the crown should descend to his eldest son, Cambyses. To Smerdis, his other son, he gave the independent government of several provinces. This arrangement was not wise, for it held the germ of subsequent broils, which finally ended in the loss of the throne to the family. Hardly had Cyrus died, when Cambyses, a frightfully vicious man, through jealousy of his brother issued secret orders that he should be put to death. The foul crime was committed, but only those con- cerned knew of it. Then Cambyses undertook the conquest of Egypt in 525 B.C. His preparations were made with care and skill. Treaties with the leading Arab chiefs secured safe passage across the Syrian deserts; and, since a fleet was indispensable on the Mediterranean, he obtained one, through bribes and threats, from the Phoenicians. When all was ready, he advanced to Pelusium, where the Egyptians were waiting for him. A tremendous battle was fought, in which, it is said, the losses on both sides numbered fifty thousand, but the Persians gained a decisive victory, and the Egyptians fled precipitately to Memphis, where, after a desperate resistance, they were overcome, and the capital became the prize of Cambyses. 94 The Story of the Greatest Nations Thus Egypt was conquered, learning which, the petty states of the Nile valley sent in their submission. There was no pretext for Cambyses to con- tinue warring, but his restless ambition would not allow him to remain idle. Scanning the horizon, he fixed upon Carthage in the west, the Oasis of Amon in the far-away desert, and Ethiopia to the South, as necessary to subdue in order to secure the conquest of Africa. Three separate campaigns, aiming at such conquest, were planned; but at the opening, the Phoenicians declared Carthage to be a colony of their own, and absolutely refused to fight against it. Without such aid, the expedition was doomed to failure, and Cambyses, with furious chagrin, was compelled to abandon it. No such obstacle, however, prevented an advance against Amon, and the expedition was immediately set on foot. An army of fifty thousand men marched confidently into the desert, and was overwhelmed—by a sand-storm— in which every soldier perished. Cambyses, soured, indignant, and sullenly stubborn, now led what was left of his forces against Ethiopia. But this journey took him across the desert, and soon the men began to suffer for sup- plies. The further he went, the more distressing became their condition, until at last the leader and army escaped the fate of the Amon expedition by turning about and going back to Egypt. Had the Egyptian priests understood the savage nature of Cambyses, they would not have made the mistake of thinking that he and his remnant of an army were to be held in no further fear. They declared a new incarnation of Apis, the sacred bull, and broke forth into fanatical rejoicing. Psammetichus, the Egyptian ruler under the conqueror, engaged in fomenting an insurrection, was detected and compelled to drink poison. The nobles involved in the intrigue were also slain, and the priests were lashed on their bare backs until the blood coursed down their bodies. Then the new Apis, not yet fully grown, was brought before Cambyses, who ran his sword through him. He abolished the festival of the incarnation and insulted in every way the most revered tradi- tions of the people. The cat was sacred to the Egyptians; knowing which, this Savage conqueror galloped in front of Pelusium, shouting his taunts, and flinging the cats from a cage on his saddle, high in air and to the right and left. He even tore open the sacred sarcophagi and tumbled the royal mummies about like so many blocks of wood. Placing himself in front of the holy image of Ptah in the temples of Memphis, he made contemptuous grimaces at it, like a spiteful schoolboy. His vehemence and fierce hatred effectually cowed the Egyptians for a long time. Once Cambyses demanded of a courtier that he should tell him what the people said about him. The Courtier replied that he had heard some of them complain because he drank to excess. “I will prove I do not,” was the grim Persia—The False Smerdis 95 reply of the monarch, who, to show his steadiness of eye and nerve, sighted an arrow at the son of the courtier and drove the missile through the lad's heart. Having stamped poor Egypt into the dust, Cambyses decided to return to Persia. This was in the year 522 B. C. When he reached Syria, he was met with the startling news that Smerdis, his brother, had headed an uprising. Since this young man had been assassinated, Cambyses knew, of course, that an impostor was personating him. But this did not change the alarming situ- ation, and the more he reflected upon matters, the more panic-stricken and terrified he became. In this state of mind he died. Some accounts say he plunged his sword into his side, while others say he was accidentally wounded by his own dagger. Indeed, it is difficult to sift much of the truth about Cambyses from the whirl of black stories and charges that surround him. Many recent authorities incline to ascribe most of these charges to the malice of his enemies, and think Cambyses was on the whole a well-meaning and able ruler. Be that as it may, one' thing is certain: he was dead, and the world was well rid of him. It can be understood that the news of his taking off was welcome to all, but especially so to Gomates, a Magian, who claimed to be Smerdis, the assassin- ated brother. Most of the people believed him to be what he professed, and it was necessary to keep up the imposition in order to sustain himself on his throne. This he was able to do for a while, but detection was certain to come sooner or later. The extreme care the king took to prevent such discovery confirmed the suspicions of many, until after a few months the Persian leaders resolved upon measures that would end the career of the impostor. The head of this daring move was Darius, Son of Hystaspes, a Persian nobleman, who himself possessed some title to the crown in case of the failure of the line of Cyrus. That he did not lack in personal courage was shown by his course in leading a select band to the capital and attacking the palace. But Gomates did not wait for their coming. He hid in one of the mountain fortresses, was assailed by the conspirators there, and was killed. Then, with proofs of his imposture, the victors returned, and were welcomed by all. So it came about that Darius ascended the throne without opposition in the year 52 I B.C. Darius ranks next to Cyrus in greatness. It has been shown that Cyrus gained an immense kingdom by conquest, but it was Darius who organized it and built up a political system that held the monarchy together for two cen- turies. The task was a gigantic one and attended with many difficulties and perils. Seemingly the rebellions would never end, for as soon as one was crushed, another reared its head. The most formidable were in Susiana, Baby lonia, Media, Assyria, Armenia, Parthia, Hyrcania, and Sacia. It may be said that those in Susiana and Babylonia were twins as to point of time, the latter 96 The Story of the Greatest Nations under the lead of one claiming to be Nebuchadnezzar, son of the former king. His aim was to throw off the Persian yoke and secure independence. At the head of a powerful army, he marched to the Babylonian frontier, where he was attacked by Darius and routed. Another stand was made on the Euphrates; but the alleged Nebuchadnezzar was again defeated, and took refuge in Babylon, where he was compelled to surrender, and was put to death. This revolt suppressed, Darius gave his attention to the one in Susiana, where one of his armies was making good headway. The leader of the rebel- lion was made prisoner and sent to Darius, who was marching toward Susiana, and who, without hesitation, put him to death. Hardly was this done, when a new insurgent appeared with still more lofty pretensions, but he was captured and slain by the Susianians before the king saw him. You would say that Darius had more than enough in the rebellions men- tioned, but in Media, Assyria, and Armenia the insurgents made common cause, under Xathrites, who, claiming royal descent, was declared king. This revolt assumed the most threatening proportions. Darius, being still detained at Babylon, sent out his generals to meet these antagonists, who proved themselves dangerous indeed. The armies of the king had numerous battles with the insurgents, and in more than one instance were defeated; but in the end the Persian forces were everywhere successful. Xathrites, being made prisoner, suffered at the hands of Darius a frightful death by crucifixion. The successes of the king in subduing the most important uprisings, and his severe measures against those engaged in them, frightened many of the lesser provinces, which otherwise would have joined forces against their imperial master. And yet, while Darius was engaged in Parthia, a second impostor appeared at home, claiming to be the long-since-dead Smerdis. His career may be summed up in the statement that he, too, underwent death by crucifixion at the hands of the loyal Persians before the return of the king. For six years Darius had little time for doing anything except putting down rebellions, but at the end of that period the herculean task was completed, and he turned his attention to the organization of the vast empire created by the genius of Cyrus. He first sought the establishment of unity throughout the country by forming a system of satrapies, or provinces, twenty in number. Each of these was governed by a Persian governor, or satrap, and a fixed rate of tribute was established. Each satrap was appointed by the king, and was removable at his pleasure. He was forbidden to interfere with the local cus- toms. He was, in short, the représentative of the king, and conducted a similar court, though in a minor way, the resemblance being much like that which each State in the American Union bears to the national government, º Bºğ | º LAocoon AND THE HORSE OF TROY PERSEUS SLAYING MEDUSA º/ º º - º | º Twº s - - … . FERDINAND COUNT DE LESSEPs - * - º º - - |-- º - CRCESUS ON THE FUNERAL PYRE ºni linnH SNOZvwv | | CY RUS RESTORING THE SACRED VESSELS MEDEA SLAYING HER CHILDREN THE HALL OF COLUMNS-KARNAK _Liaº-1-a HS.1 libº a Hl. Aº vlae cunvxºTv -- O LN3 w Caewº w Oſº Persia—Darius Organizes the Empire 97 With all the manifest advantages of a satrapy, it had one deplorable defect. The chief business of a satrap was to collect revenue for the king, and so long as this was abundant, the king was not likely to inquire too closely into methods or accounts. Inevitably there were many abuses, and more than one satrap acquired much wealth, at the price of ruin to his province. A good measure of Darius was the establishment of post-houses and post- roads, connecting different parts of the empire with the capital, and insuring the quick arrival of news from all quarters. Persepolis, a city built by Darius in Persia itself, was the official capital of the empire. Here still stand the ruins of his splendid palaces, and here is his tomb, hewn, as he ordered it, from the solid rock. The face of a cliff is carven in the shape of a cross, the door of the tomb being at the centre of the cross. The figure of Darius himself is carved at the top, and represents him receiving his crown from the Persian god. In winter, the centre of Persian power was at Babylon; in summer, at Ecbatana, and in Spring at Susa. Darius also created a system of coinage. The gold daric was worth about five dollars, and the silver sixty cents. - The most important event of his reign is the beginning of the Persian invasions of Greece; but this belongs to the history of that country, and will be told in its pages. A famous Greek vase found in recent years pictures Darius planning his invasion. He sits in the middle with his councillors around him; below, the subject nations bring in treasures to equip his army; above, the Greek gods are gathered, alarmed and anxious, to protect their people. The vase shows how impressed the Greeks were with the magnitude of the danger that threatened them. While Darius was engaged in the futile attempt to subjugate the Greeks and was suppressing a rebellion in Egypt, he fell ill and died in the sixty-third year of his age and the thirty-sixth of his reign. Xerxes, his son, succeeded to the throne. The record of his gigantic campaigns is told in our history of Greece. After a reign of twenty years, he was murdered in his chamber by parties instigated by a jealous and enraged queen. Xerxes is generally con- sidered to have been the King Ahasuerus, whose wavering between his favorite, Haman, and his queen, Esther, form the subject of the Book of Esther in the Bible. The story gives a striking picture of the splendor and Oriental caprice of the Persian monarchs. The eldest son of Xerxes was put to death on the false charge of having been concerned in the death of his father. The other son, Hystaspes, a satrap, was absent from court, and, therefore, could neither prevent the death of Xerxes nor the usurpation of the crown by Artaxerxes, who became king in 465 B.C. He made peace with Persia's most dangerous enemy, the Greeks; though at first he threatened them with invasion. He was anxious to secure the 7 98 The Story of the Greatest Nations services of the famous Greek physician, Hippocrates, to keep plague and dis- ease from his armies. Hippocrates refused to desert Greece for all the riches proffered him by the Persian ambassadors; so Artaxerxes tried force, and threat- ened to invade and destroy the physician's native land. The Greeks, however, were not to be frightened; and Artaxerxes had no real desire to risk a repetition, of the disasters suffered by his father and grandfather. - Xerxes II. Succeeded to the throne in 425 B.C. He was the only legiti- mate heir, but the late king left seventeen other sons by his various concubines, and most of them were ambitious. At a feast, less than two months after his succession, Xerxes, while intoxicated, was murdered by one of these precious. relatives. The assassin took the throne, but in a brief while he was murdered by a half-brother, who declared himself king under the title of Darius Nothus. Matters were certainly in an interesting shape. This ruler had been a satrap, who married his aunt, and he managed to hold the throne for nineteen years, during which his time was fully occupied in putting down revolts in the satra- pies and intrigues among the Greeks. One of these rebellions was led by a brother of the king, who made his submission under promise of terms, where- upon, as might have been expected, the king put him to death. The principal means employed by Nothus was that of bribing his enemies, and his successes. in this respect often included the Greek mercenaries. He died in 407 B.C., and was succeeded by Arsaces with the title of Artaxerxes II. On the day of his coronation, his life was attempted by a younger brother, Cyrus, whom his mother preferred to Artaxerxes. The young man was arrested and sentenced to death, but the prayers of his mother prevailed, and he was sent to his satrapy in Asia Minor. Cyrus was burning for revenge, and set to work to organize a force with the avowed purpose of making war on a neighboring tribe, but really to over- turn his brother. By and by he threw off the mask, and at the head of a large army boldly advanced to within about a hundred miles of Babylon, when Artaxerxes, understanding his danger, pushed out with a host, numbering nearly a million of men, to meet him. The battle which followed was fought on the famous field of Cunaxa, and was a tremendous one. Artaxerxes nar- rowly escaped defeat, but his vastly superior numbers enabled him to put his enemies to flight. In the midst of the confused struggle, Cyrus caught sight of his brother and made an impetuous rush to cut him down, but before he could reach him he was pierced with a javelin and slain. The rout of the army followed, but the Greeks, which composed a part of it, held together and fell back in good order under the leadership of Xenophon, who has immortalized the event in his history of the “Retreat of the Ten Thousand.” Artaxerxes reigned for forty-six years, and was succeeded by Ochus, who Persia–Conquest by Alexander 99 cleared his path by first murdering all his brothers and possible rivals. He showed such horrible cruelty in suppressing rebellions that his subjects were terrified into submission. In the height of his career as conqueror he was poisoned by a conspirator (338 B.C.), who set up Arses, one of the king's sons, and tried to make matters pleasant by killing all the rest; but when Arses showed a disposition to manage affairs for himself, the conspirator assassinated him and all his children, and elevated Codomanus, remotely connected with the royal house, to the throne, with the title of Darius. He had many good quali- ties, but it was his fate to meet the great Alexander of Macedon in battle and to suffer disastrous defeat at his hands on the field of Issus in 33 I B. c. There his army was annihilated by the mighty Alexander, and, seeing that all was lost, he fled to Arbela, whither he was pursued, and then again to the deserts of Parthia, where he was assassinated by the satrap of Bactria. Alexander dis- covered him lying by the roadside. He asked for a drink of water, which was given him, and then, closing his eyes, he breathed his last, and with him van- ished for centuries the Empire of the Persians. eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeºº.33333333333333 - \ º ſº º A. |- º Kº: -º Pom PELAN Mosaic or BATTLE OF Issus Chapter IX THE SECOND PERSIAN EMPIRE AND MODERN PERSIA LEXANDER had planned to unite the Persians with his own people in one great nation; and, perhaps, it is this more than anything else which accounts for their ready submission to his sway. With his death, however, his mighty schemes fell to pieces. among his generals, until finally one of them, Seleucus, succeeded to the strictly Persian part of the empire. He ruled the Persians as a conquered and inferior people to be domineered over by Greek troops and Greek satraps. The proud Persians must have welcomed gladly the change of domin- ion, when the Parthians overthrew the Greek rule about 25o B.c. The Parthians, though semibarbaric, were a strong and shrewd people. They recognized the superior civilization of their new subjects, and treated them with much liberality, and even distinc- tion, allowing them to be ruled by their own native kings. Thus There was civil war the two nations dwelt together very amicably. Through the whole period of the Parthian empire, extending over four centuries, there was no Persian revolt. During this time Greece fell from power, and Rome became mistress of the world. The Parthians alone, trusting in their deadly deserts and their peculiar mode of warfare, maintained the independence of their domain against Roman conquest. the new religion, spreading swiftly over the world, entered Persia also. The beginning of the Christian era came and passed; and Finally Persia—The Struggle with Parthia I O I the Parthian empire began to crumble to pieces. The race seems to have become weak and corrupt. Province after province asserted its freedom, and hardly an effort was made to put down the various rebellions. Persia began to dream of her ancient greatness: mere independence could not satisfy her rearoused ambition. There must be some deep and rare vitality in the Persian race. History knows no parallel to their case, when a nation was so stirred by the memory of its own famous history as to rise after hundreds of years of complete submission and take its place a second time among the great peoples of the world. Greece has made a similar attempt in our own times; but we all know how hopelessly she would have been crushed by the Turks had not the generous interference of Europe saved her, and given her the shadow of a place among the nations. Artaxerxes, a descendant of Sassan, from whom the family and empire are called Sassanian, was the Persian king who, in the year 226 A.D., declared his country independent of Parthia. Then, at the head of an army of eager and enthusiastic Persians chanting their ancient war-songs, he proceeded to seize and subdue the bordering provinces. The Parthians made no move to stop him, until his army actually threatened their own country. Then Artabanus, the last Parthian king, roused himself to resistance. Apparently there was no ill- feeling between the combatants. The Persians were merely proffering a courtly challenge to their old friends, to meet them and prove which had the better right to empire. - In two great battles the Persians were victorious. The Parthians, how- ever, refused to accept the result as decisive; so a third contest was officially appointed, to take place on the plain of Hormuz. It was the last trial of strength, and the Parthians were completely overthrown. One historian tells of a personal encounter between Artaxerxes and his rival. The daring Persian, spurring far in advance of his troops, coaxed his adversary from the shelter of his shield-bearers by a pretended flight, and then sent an arrow through his heart. The Parthian king was certainly slain in the battle, and his empire disappeared. The next step in Artaxerxes' career was even more spectacular. His actual dominion as yet extended only over the mountains and deserts of Persia and Parthia; but he calmly announced that the Persians resumed all the terri- tory of their ancient empire; and he sent notice of this in stately terms to Rome. Four hundred youths, selected from the handsomest in Persia, gor- geously dressed and mounted, presented to the Emperor Severus their master's “order” to withdraw the Roman troops from the different Asian provinces, since all Asia belonged to the Persians. The astonished Severus tried to argue the matter; but you can guess how much effect argument had on the proud and fiery Artaxerxes. He marched his I O2 The Story of the Greatest Nations army down from the mountains, and seized the whole Roman territory along the Euphrates. Severus gathered an immense force to punish this insolence. Roman dignity was not hurt when the Parthians escaped her by skurrying into the deserts; but here was a regular army established on Roman territory, and actually besieging and capturing Roman cities. Artaxerxes retreated before the advancing foe. Despite his boastful mes- sage, he was far too wise a general to risk his new empire on the chances of a decisive battle between his raw troops and these splendidly armed and trained legions. He withdrew into Persia, leading his adversary along as he had led the Parthian king; and when Severus followed with his great army in three widely separated divisions, Artaxerxes fell suddenly upon one section. It was overwhelmed and utterly destroyed by the deadly arrows of the Persian bowmen. Severus made haste to withdraw the remainder of his troops; but privation, disease, and the fierce attacks of the pursuing Persian cavalry, so reduced their numbers, that he reached the Mediterranean with scarcely a third of his orig- inal army. It was one of the most terrible disasters the Roman arms ever encountered. The terms of the peace that followed are not clear. Artaxerxes certainly did not get all the territory he had so extravagantly claimed. Probably he con- tented himself with some small concessions, fully aware that, despite his suc- cess, Roman power was greater than his own. Besides, he had an enemy nearer at hand, and one easier to subdue. The King of Armenia had joined forces with the Romans; he was now abandoned by them to his fate. His punish- ment and subjugation were to Artaxerxes a far more immediate and important matter than the Roman war. It was several years before Armenia was wholly conquered, and the ambitious Artaxerxes was growing old. Some further record we find of wars and conquests in the far East, in Scythia, and in India; and then, quite suddenly, Artaxerxes gave up his throne. He had always been a religious man; his first rebellion against Parthia was partly religious; and it seems probable that he spent his old age in religious retirement and meditation. His mission was accomplished: Persia was again at the head of a great empire. Sapor, the son of Artaxerxes, succeeded to the abandoned throne, and ruled Persia for over thirty years (240–272 A.D.). He was the worthy son of a great father. Fired with the same dream of Persian glory, he deliberately reopened the war with the Romans. At first he met reverses, but having taken several years to strengthen his forces, he renewed the attack. His cavalry spread over Mesopotamia and Syria with such rapidity that he had captured the great city of Antioch, the Roman capital in the East, before the inhabitants knew of his approach. An actor in the theatre was the first to inform the astonished audi- ence that the Persians held possession of the city. Persia—Sapor Defeats the Romans Iog The Roman emperor, Valerian, hurried in person to defend his kingdom against this formidable foe. He was a veteran commander; and the Persians, who had defied and defeated his lesser generals, retreated before him. He eagerly followed them toward the Euphrates. His provisions ran short; Roman treachery conspired against him; then suddenly the Persians turned and sur- rounded his troops. It was a trap. For a second time, an entire Roman army was annihilated by Persian generalship. Few or none of Valerian's soldiers :escaped, and he himself was made a prisoner. On the pages of Roman historians, Sapor's name looms large and terrible. Immediately on his great victory, his troops swept like a devouring flame over all Roman Asia. We are told that, recapturing Antioch, he killed or sold into slavery its entire population; that he filled the ravines of Cappadocia with dead bodies, so that his cavalry might ride across; that his prisoners were left to starve and were driven to the river to water once a day like horses. These stories may be exaggerated, but they betray the terror in which the Romans held him. Never before had their empire suffered such a frightful humiliation. It ended only when the conqueror's merciless fury was exhausted. Few even of the strongest cities resisted him, and only one successfully withstood his assault. At last, laden with plunder and sated with blood, he withdrew half-unwillingly to Persia. The Romans never made any serious attempt to punish him, or to rescue their captured emperor. Sapor is said to have used the aged and broken man as a block to mount his horse; and whenever poet or historian seeks a tremen- dous illustration of fallen fortunes, he quotes the tragic fate of the Emperor Valerian. There must have been a Savage taint in all the Persian monarchs. Irresponsible and unlimited power is always beset by strange temptations and grossly debasing influences. Nebuchadnezzar is not the only well-meaning despot who has sunk to the level of a beast of the field. The story of Valerian may be, and probably is, exaggerated; for we must remember how intensely the Romans hated Sapor. Still it seems established that, after Valerian's death, ſhis body was flayed, and his stuffed skin hung in a public temple, where it was left to dance in horrible mockery over the heads of Roman ambassadors of later days. It was this ferocious brutality that was one of the main causes of the destruction of the Persian state. The tyranny of the kings seems to grow more and more intolerable. Rebellions, palace-plots, and murders make up most of the story that follows. More than one king celebrated his accession to the throne by slaying all possible rivals. Occasionally there are heroic deeds to tell; the nation flashes out into sudden, splendid war against the hereditary enemy. A third Roman army was I O4. The Story of the Greatest Nations almost destroyed, and its leader, the Emperior Julian, slain during the reign of Sapor II., a monarch who, being born after his father's death, found a throne awaiting his birth, and ruled for seventy-two years, from infancy to beyond the allotted age of man. Chosroës II. in 615 wrested Egypt from the falling empire of Rome, and by 62o held all Asia, realizing for a few brief years the dream of Artaxerxes. Europe was again threatened by a Persian army, for the first time since the Greeks had defeated Xerxes, more than eleven centuries before. We moderns, with China and India in our thoughts, are apt to speak scornfully of the fighting ability of Asian races. So it is well to understand what these Persians did. No one has ever questioned the grand prowess of the Roman legions. Only one people ever met them on equal terms in open fight. They were the Persians. They first challenged Rome in the very height of her power; and throughout four centuries the greatest forces the mistress of the world could gather were repeatedly and vainly hurled against Persia. Not one of her armies was destroyed; not one Persian king was led captive in a Roman triumph. Battles were won as often by one nation as by the other; but Rome suffered the great disasters of which we have told; and Rome paid Persia large sums of money for peace so often that the Roman populace complained bitterly, declaring they were become mere tributaries of Persia. The defence of Petra, one of the most famous sieges in history, established Persian courage and endurance forever. Petra was a rock-hewn fortress on the shores of the Black Sea. The Persians had taken it from Rome, and she sent a powerful army to recapture it. The garrison repelled for months so persist- ent an attack that, when a rescuing army drove away the assailants, less than one-fourth of the heroic defenders were alive, and the fortress was tumbling to pieces around them. The garrison was increased to three thousand, the fort hastily repaired, and the Persian army withdrew, leaving the new defenders to meet a second siege, more savage and bloody than the first. The fort was at last carried by an assault from every side, the Persians having become too reduced to guard all their walls at once. Of the prisoners captured by the Romans, only eighteen were found unwounded, while the remaining Persians, five hundred in number, threw themselves into a central tower, and, refusing all proposals to surrender, fought until every one of them had perished by fire or the sword. Chosroës II., who spread the Sassanian empire to its widest extent, saw also the beginning of its decline. His plans of European conquest were checked by the genius of the Emperor Heraclius; and, in the year 628, he was deposed and killed by his son, Kobad II. To the crime of parricide, the infamous Kobad soon added that of fratri- Persia—The Mahometan Conquest I O 5 cide, thinking thus, perhaps, to be secure from retributive justice. All the possible heirs to the throne, his brothers and other male relatives, over thirty in number, were slain by his orders. His two sisters were allowed to survive; and, frantic with grief, the unhappy women rushed from the scene of the mur- der, and denounced the incredible wretch to his face. They cried out that he had swept away Persia's best defence, and all would perish now in a general ruin. They cursed him as the destroyer of his own royal line, and of his coun- try. Remorse seems to have stricken the monster; he hung his head without answer; he remained brooding in his seat, and grew ill. Four days later, he followed his victims to the realm of death and judgment. There was no one to succeed him. The land plunged headlong into anarchy. Rivals, eager to be king, sought to win by treachery or by brute force; and they struggled fiercely with one another. Kobad's two sisters sat in turn for a little while on the throne, the first queens to reign in Persia. But one died and one was slain. War was everywhere in the land. Famine and pestilence followed in its train. The population of Persia is said to have been reduced one-half during that period of horror. Think what it would mean to you, if just one-half of those nearest and dearest, and half of all you know, and half of all those you pass upon the street, were taken away forever. The people unearthed at last one surviving descendant of the old royal line, a boy of fifteen, whose very existence had been kept secret by his parents, lest he, too, should be slain. The exhausted factions gladly united in raising him to the throne, as Isdigerd III. ; but it was too late to save Persia. The Arabs had started on their remarkable career of conquest under Mahomet and his successors: and they now burst like a cyclone upon the help- less country. There were years of tremendous fighting. There was one great four-days' battle at Cadesia; but Mahometan fanaticism triumphed. The Persian capital was captured in 639; and so enormous was the wealth of the city that every private soldier in the Arab army had a sum equal almost to two thousand dollars allotted to him as his share of the spoils. Isdigerd established a new capital in the north, near the modern one of Teheran. He continued the war for years in the face of repeated reverses, proving himself a worthy scion of his fierce race. Finally he was able to main- tain only a mere guerilla warfare in the mountains; and then a servant stabbed him for his clothes and jewels. The Persian empire sank in blood and the black- ness of night. Persia has remained Mahometan ever since. During the centuries of Arab rule, the Persians gradually forgot their old fire-worshipping religion and became true believers in Mahomet; but they never forgot their old national glory and their unity as a nation. Persia's greatest poets belong to this period of her I oé The Story of the Greatest Nations depression. It was not until 1499, that Persia regained political independence under a native ruler. A religious quarrel between opposing Mahometan sects brought Ismail, a Persian lad of eighteen, to the front as leader of one faction. A couple of boldly planned campaigns and battles placed him on the throne as Shah or Emperor of Persia; and the Persians, seeing in him their nationality revived, rallied eagerly to his support. The country was seized by the Afghans in 1722; but a brigand chief, Nadir Kuli, a sort of Persian Robin Hood, gradually gathered strength in the northern mountains, fought the Afghans in many battles, and at last drove them from the country. He replaced the rightful monarch on the throne; but growing disgusted with the dull inactivity of the court, he deposed his sovereign again, and assumed the royal authority himself. The old Persian dream of empire got hold of him. He conquered all the adjoining independent districts, and then seized Afghanistan and marched into India. Its capital, Delhi, was taken amid immense slaughter. The spoils included the famous “peacock throne,” which is valued at thirteen million dollars, and is still preserved among the treasures of the Shah at Teheran. The great Mogul of India was compelled to purchase peace by a marriage between his daughter and the brigand's son. Personally, Nadir was a big, handsome, athletic man, and his youthful adventures form a most interesting story; though the Persians' great love of romance has probably thrown a good deal of glamour around his robber life. In his old age an attempt was apparently made to assassinate him. A shot from among his own soldiers struck him as he was leading them in a brilliant battle. He became gloomy, suspicious, cruel, and was finally murdered by his subjects. There was no strong man to take his place; and the country fell into a state of confusion and civil war, which lasted with little intermission until the establishment of the present Kazar or Turcoman dynasty by Aga- Mohammed, in I794. Aga-Mohammed had been a sub-king of the Turcomans in the north of Persia. In his youth he was maltreated and cruelly mutilated by Nadir Kuli; and throughout his long life he revenged himself on all mankind. He passed from one atrocity to another, until he degenerated into one of the most horrible monsters of crime and brutality that have ever polluted history. He had always been one of the contestants for the royal authority; but it was not until he was very aged, that, in 1794, he overthrew the last of his rivals, and was generally acknowledged as Shah of Persia. Two or three years later, he was murdered by some of his servants, made desperate by fear for their own lives. The date of Aga-Mohammed's accession, may be considered as the begin- ning of modern Persia. He made his own northern city of Teheran capital of the entire country; and he and his successors have done much in the way of Persia—Conflicts With Russia 1 o'7 decorating it and adding to its beauty. It was in his time, too, that Persia first came in direct contact with the modern European nations. - The province of Georgia, famous in Eastern romance for the beauty of its women and the courage of its men, lay at the northern extremity of Persia, between the Caspian and the Black Sea. In I783 its ruler, taking advantage of the general anarchy, declared himself independent of Persia, and appealed to Russia to protect him. There was no one to interfere at the moment, and he passed quietly under the Russian protectorate. As soon as Aga-Mohammed was firmly seated on the throne, he attempted to reclaim his rebellious vassal. War with Russia followed, and it was while on a campaign in this district that Mohammed was killed. The Persians fought with valor and resolution; but they were no match for Russian numbers, aided as they were by modern discipline and cannon. The war was hopeless from the first; yet, in spite of repeated defeats, the Per- sians refused to make peace. They would not give up what they felt to be their just claim to Georgia, and year after year made incursions into the unhappy province. They yielded at last in 1813, but made a desperate attempt to regain the province in 1825. This second war ended in 1827, with a further loss of territory to them, the northern boundary becoming practically what it is to-day. - Against Turkey the Persians have been more fortunate. There was a short war between the countries in 182 I, and the Persians won an important and bravely contested battle. They came in contact with England through their claims to Afghanistan, which was under a British protectorate. The Shahs could not forget that this wild district had been part of the domain of Nadir Kuli, and they made repeated efforts to reclaim it. In 1837 its capital, Herat, withstood their arms during a ten months' siege, its people being much helped by a few Englishmen within the walls. This siege was chiefly notable for the part European diplomacy played in it. A Russian envoy was constantly in the Shah's camp, urging him to con- tinue the assault; while a British envoy was equally active in persuading him to desist. Finally John Bull gained the best of the queer contest, and the siege was abandoned. In 1856 Herat was assailed again, and this time England actually declared war against Persia. A peace was patched up, however, before there was any serious fighting. Since then Persia has been the centre of a constant diplomatic strife be- tween English and Russian officials, each seeking to secure the ascendancy of his own nation. Whether the country will ultimately sink into a mere dependency on one of these richer and more progressive governments, or whether the inherent vitality of the race will again assert itself, and enable Persia to escape what seems to be the common fate of Eastern nations, are questions for the future. CHRONOLOGY OF PERSIA E. C. 558–Cyrus becomes king of Persia. 553–He revolts P against Media. 550–He captures the Median capital, Ecbatana. 548–He conquers Croesus. 545–He in- -II vades the East. 538–He conquers Babylon. 529– 5 He is killed in a war with the Massagetae. Cambyses, F his son, king. 525–Cambyses conquers Egypt. 521 º: —Darius Hystaspes, king; conquered Babylon, 5.17. º” 498–Conquest of Ionia; Miletus destroyed. 490– 34. Darius equipped a fleet of 600 sail, with an army of 3oo,ooo soldiers, to invade the Peloponnesus, and was defeated at Marathon. 486–Xerxes king; recovered Egypt. 480–He en- tered Greece at the head of an enormous army; battle of Ther- mopylae. Xerxes entered Athens, after having lost 200,000 of his troops, and was defeated in a naval engagement off Salamis. 479 –Persians were defeated at Mycale and Plataea. 470–Cimon takes several cities from the Persians and destroys their navy. 465–Xerxes was murdered by Artabanus; Artaxerxes I, king. 425–Xerxes I, king, was slain by Sogdianus; who was deposed by - Darius I. 405–Artaxerxes II. king. 401–Cyrus the Younger killed; retreat of the Io,000 Greeks under Xenophon. 399–War with Greece; invasion of Persia. 387–Peace of Antalcidas. 359–Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) ascended the throne. 338–He was killed by his minister, Bagoas, and his son, Arses, was made king, 336–Bagoas killed him and set up Darius III., by whom he himself was killed. 334–Alexander the Great entered Asia; defeated the Persians, 334 et seq. 331–Darius III. was treacherously killed by Bessus. 323–Alexander died at Babylon, when his empire was divided; Persia—Chronology I O 9 Persia with Syria was allotted to Seleucus Nicator, 312, whose successors ruled Persia till it was conquered by the Parthians, about 250 B.C. A.D. 226—Artaxerxes I. founded the Sassanian dynasty; restored the empire of Persia. 227—Religion of Zoroaster was restored and Christianity was persecuted. 232—The Emperor Severus defeated. 240—Artaxerxes suc- ceeded by Sapor I. 258–Sapor conquered Mesopotamia. 260—He defeated the Romans and captured the Emperor Valerian. , 273—Varahran I. persecuted the Manichees and the Christians. 277—Varahran II. was defeated by the Emperor Probus; and made peace. 298–The Emperor Galerius conquered Mesopotamia; peace with Diocletian. 309–Sapor II. king. 326—He pro- scribed Christianity. 337—He made war successfully with Rome for the lost provinces. 363—The Emperor Julian invaded Persia and was slain; his suc- cessor, Jovian, purchased his retreat by surrendering provinces. 365—Sapor annexed Armenia, Iberia, 366. 420–Varahran V. persecuted Christians; con- quered Arabia Felix 421; made peace with the Eastern Empire for IOO years, 422. 430–32—Wars with Huns, Turks, etc. 531–79–Chosroës I. king; long wars with Justinian and his successors. 541–42—Belisarius meets the first defeat of his career from the Persians; defeats them in turn. 550—Siege of Petra. 603—Chosroës II. renewed the war with success. 614–16–Egypt and Asia Minor subdued. 627–Chosroës defeated by the Emperor Heraclius; put to death by his own son. 628–Kobad II. king; murdered all his male relatives. 630—Purandokt, daughter of Chosroës, reigned; terrible pestilence. 632– Isdigerd III., the last of the Persian emperors. 633—The empire assailed by the Arabs. 636—Four days' battle at Kadisiyeh. 64I—Final destruction of Persian power in the battle of Nehavend, called by the Arabs the “Victory of Victories.” 651–Death of Isdigerd. 661–Persia became the seat of the Shiite or Fatimite Mahometans. Io98–Persia subdued by Togrul Beg and the Sel- jukian Turks, who were expelled, I 194; subdued by Genghis Khan and the Mongols, I 223. I345—Bagdad made the Capital. I399—Persia ravaged by Timour. I468—Persia conquered by the Turcomans. I499—Ismail, a native Persian, expels the Turcomans, and establishes the Sophi dynasty of Shiite Mahometans. I586–1628–Reign of Shah Abbass, the Great. I590—Ispahan made the capital. I638—The Turks take Bagdad; dreadful massacre. I722 —The Afghans seize Persia. I727—Nadir Kuli drives them out. I732–He assumes the throne, conquers Afghanistan and invades India. I747—Nadir assassinated. I783—Georgia revolted to Russia. I794—The present dyn- asty established by Aga-Mohammed. War with Russia. I'796––Teheran made the capital. I813—Georgia given up to Russia. I825–27—War with Russia. 1837–Siege of Herat. I856–Rupture with England through the Persians taking Herat; war declared; Persians yield. I857—Peace ratified at Teheran. I J O The Story of the Greatest Nations I858—The Shah reorganized the government; strong British influence in Persia. I867—Electric telegraph introduced. I880—Rebellious incursions of the Kurds suppressed 1888—First railway constructed in Persia, from Te- The river Karun decreed open to all I893—Revolt of the Barharloos sup- three-years' drought. after much bloodshed. heran to Shah-Abdul-Azim, opened. nations by the intervention of England. pressed; great earthquake at Kuchan, 12,000 deaths. and again destroyed by earthquake, I I,000 lives lost. I871—Great sufferings through I895–Kuchan rebuilt, 1896—The Shah shot by an assassin, died May I ; succeeded by Prince Muzaffer-ed-Din, his son, June 8. I900—The Shah left Teheran in April to visit the European capitals; an attempt to assassinate him was made, near Paris, August 2. SHAHS OF A.D. I499—Ismail, or Ishmael. I 523—Tamasp or Thamas I. I 576—Ismail II. Murza. I 577—Mahommed Murza. I 586—Abbass I., the Great. I628—Sophi I. I64 I–Abbas II. I666–Sophi II. I694–Hussein. I722—Mahmoud, an Afghan chief. 1725–Ashraff, the Usurper. I727—Tamasp or Thamas II. 1732—Abbas III. (a merely nominal shah). PERSIA A. D. I736—Nadir Kuli. I747–Shah Rokh. I75I-[Interregnum.] I759–Kureem Khan. I779—Many competitors for the throne, and assassinations, till I794—Aga-Mohammed obtained the power, and founded the reigning (Turcoman) dynasty. I797—Futteh Ali Shah. I834—Mahommed Shah. I848—Nasr-ul-Deen. I896—Muzaffer-ed-Din. PRON OUNCING VOCABULARY FOR PERSIA Afghan (āf'gan) Afghanistan (āf-gān'is-tán') Aga-Mohammed (ág'ga-mö-hām'méd) Ahasuerus (a-hăs'u-é'rus) Antioch (an'ti-ok) Arsaces (ar-să'séz) Artabanus (ar-tá-bă'nus) Artaxerxes (ar-tak-zèrk'zēs) Astyages (as-ty'a-jéz) Bactria (bäctré-a) Cadesia (kā-dé'zé-a) Cambyses (kām-bi'séz) Chosroes (kös'rö-àz) Codomanus (cód'o-mân'us) Croesus (kré'sus) Cunaxa (ku-nāx'a) Persia–Pronouncing Vocabulary I I I Cyaxares (Siâx'a-réz) Cyrus (Sirus) Darius (da-rius) Ecbatana (ek-bät'a-na) Herat (hēr-āt) Hippocrates (hip-pôc'ra-téz) Hyrcania (her-kā'né-a) Isdigerd (is'di-gerd) Ismail (is-mā-él') Kobad (kö'bad) Magian (mā'jè-an) Media (mēdé-a) Nadirkuli (nah'der-köö'lé) Nothus (nū'thus) Ochus (Öſkus) Persepolis (pêr-sép'o-lis) Petra (pétra) Sacia (Sã'she-a) Sapor (sā'por) Sardis (sār'dis). Sassanian (Säs-să'né-an) Seleucus (sê-leu'kūs) Severus (sé-vé'rūs) Smerdis (smér'dis) Strymon (stry'mon) Susiana (su-si-án'a) Teheran (té-hrán) Valerian (va-lè'ri-ān) Xathrites (za-thri'tez) Xerxes (zèrk'zéz) ROCK-CARWING OF DARIUS CONQUERING GOMATES AND OTHER REBELS ©º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º->~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Birth of MiNERVA ANCIENT NATIONS-GREECE Chapter X THE LAND AND ITS GODS [Authorities : Grote, “History of Greece"; Freeman, “History of Federal Government in Greece and Italy”; Harrison, “The Story of Greece"; Duruy, “Ancient History of the East (Greeks and Romans)”; “History of the Greek People”; Curtius, “History of Greece " : Cox, “A General History of Greece from the Earliest Period to the Death of Alexander the Great"; Church, “Pictures from Greek Life and Story”; Bury, “A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great"; Botsford, “A History of Greece for High Schools and Academies”; Cox, “Lives of Great Statesmen"; Bartlett, “ The Battlefields of Thessaly, with Personal Experiences in Turkey and Greece."] y REECE is the most eastern of the three peninsulas that project from Southern Europe into the Mediterranean Sea. The Greeks called themselves He//ezzes and their country He/ſas, but the Romans chose to use the words Greeks and Greece, thus adopting the name of the Graeci, an insignificant tribe, as applying to the whole people of the peninsula. This country, the most remarkable of ancient or modern times, is 250 miles long from Mount Olympus on the north to the south- ernmost cape, with a breadth between Attica and Acarnania of 18O miles. Not including the many Greek islands near or remote from the mainland, the area of the country is about 25,000 miles, or three times that of the State of Massachusetts. Since we have so much to learn about this country and people, it is important that its principal geographical features should be fixed in our minds. Its northern boundary, at the fortieth degree of latitude, consists of a chain of mountains which crosses the peninsula from east to west. The comparatively small area to the south was divided among a . Greece—Physical Characteristics II 3 number of independent states, of slight size. Midway between the Ionian and AEgean seas, the mountains on the north are crossed at right angles by the lofty range of the Pindus, which of course extends north and south. From Mount Pindus a side branch reaches toward the eastern sea, parallel to the northern boundary range. The space between them is 60 miles wide and forms the plain of Thessaly, the largest and most fertile in Greece. The southern of these two ranges was named Othrys; the northern is the Cambunian Mountains, which end on the coast with Mount Olympus, the loftiest peak in Greece. Its height is 9,700 feet above the sea level, and the crest is nearly always covered with snow. To the south is another range, bearing the successive names of Ossa and Pelion, which follows the coast parallel to Mount Pindus. Thus you will observe, Thessaly is inclosed by four natural ramparts, whose only break is at the northeastern extremity by the famous vale of Tempe, between Olympu and Ossa, through which the river Peneus flows to the sea. s Thessaly and Epirus are separated by the Pindus. There is no inclosed plain in Epirus, but it is broken by rugged mountains, running north and South, with the Achelous, the largest river of Greece, flowing toward the Corinthian gulf. The Ambracian gulf on the west and the Malian gulf on the east contract Greece into a kind of isthmus, which separates the peninsula of Central Greece from the mainland of Thessaly and Epirus. Central Greece may be divided again into two unequal portions, the eastern of which contained the countries of Doris, Phocis, Locris, Boeotia, Attica and Megaris, while the western included Ozolian Locris, AEtolia, and Acarnania. To the south of these little states the Corinthian gulf cuts so deeply into Greece as to make almost an island of its lower end, the Peloponnesus. The connecting isthmus of Corinth is in places less than five miles broad. The important countries of the Peloponnesus were Sparta in the south, Messenia in the southwest, Elis in the west, Achaia in the north, Argolis in the east, and Arcadia in the centre. The various divisions should be carefully studied in connection with the map in order to understand the history that follows. The numerous islands that line the Grecian shores were occupied in histori- cal times by the Grecian race. The most important of these islands was Euboea, 90 miles in length, with a chain of mountains extending through it. South of Euboea were the Cyclades, and east of them the Sporades, near the Asiatic coast. The large islands of Crete and Rhodes lie to the south of these groups. Between Attica and Argolis are the famous islands of Salamis and AEgina, while off the western coast of Greece, in the Ionian Sea, are Corcyra, Cephallenia, Ithaca, and Zacynthus. The physical features of a country always exert a great influence on the people. You must remember that Greece is one of the most mountainous I I 4. The Story of the Greatest Nations regions in Europe, and its surface consists of a number of small plains, either wholly surrounded by mountains or open only to the sea. This topographical feature tended to produce the large number of independent states which was a striking peculiarity of the country. A city being founded in one of the small plains mentioned, the lofty mountains formed a barrier between it and its neigh- bors, and caused it to grow up in Solitary independence with characteristics that were its own. The rough mountains also acted as a protection against foreign invasion and held back the Grecian states from subduing one another. As was proven in many instances, the narrow passes could be successfully defended by only a handful of men. Then, while the mountains rose like immense walls between the Greeks and their neighbors, the sea gave them easy intercourse among themselves and with the rest of the world. No other country in Europe was so favored in this respect. In ancient times Greece produced mainly wheat, barley, flax, wine, and oil. Its cattle found excellent pasturage on the hills and mountain-sides. In nearly every section were rich veins of marble which gave the finest material to the matchless sculptors and architects. The country was poor in precious met- als, though a considerable quantity of silver was found in Laurium near the Southern extremity of Attica, and iron was dug in the mountains of Laconia, with copper and iron in Euboea. Greece to-day is poisoned in many places during the summer months by malaria, but in ancient times, when the country was more populous and better cultivated, it was quite healthful. Its great variety of surface causes many inequalities of climate. The winter is often long and severe in the highlands of the interior, but soft and mild among the lowlands. The ancients attributed to this variety of climate the difference in the intellectual character of the natives of various districts. The earliest history of Greece, like that of all ancient people, is hidden in the mists of antiquity. The inhabitants were a branch of the great Aryan or Indo-European stock, which includes all the historic races of Europe and the Persians and Hindoos of Asia. It is probable that different tribes of the Ary- ans entered the Greek peninsula as early as B.C. 2000. They tilled the earth and built walled cities, of which certain monuments, known as Pelasgic or Cyclopean, still remain. The Pelasgi belonged to the prehistoric age, and, long before the beginning of recorded history, were overwhelmed and crushed by a hardy and more warlike race, the Hellenes, who, sweeping down from Thessaly, overspread the peninsula and occupied the whole country. The Hellenes or Greeks had four chief divisions: the Dorians, AEolians, Achaeans, and Ionians. The Dorians settled in the north on the southern slope Greece—Myths of the Creation II 5 of Mount CEta; the AEolians spread over northern Greece and the western coast of the Peloponnesus; the Achaeans the southern and eastern part of the Pelo- ponnesus; while the Ionians were confined to a narrow strip of country along the northern coast of the Peloponnesus. As I have said, there is no history of the Heroic Age, as this period was called. In place of history we have a mass of interesting myths or legends, which probably contain a grain of truth to a thousand grains of fable. Keeping this in mind, let us give our attention for a time to some of the most striking of these myths. In myths, as in everything else, there must be a beginning. The Greeks begin with an immense dark mass called chaos, in which were hidden all things that now exist, but so mingled that nothing had a distinct form. When chaos bad lasted a long time, it separated into the earth and heaven. The sun, the moon, and the stars chose to stay in the sky, but the water and trees and stones remained with the earth. - The sky contained a god called Uranus and the earth a goddess called Gaea, who married and had a large number of children, of whom twelve were beautiful and six ugly. The latter were monsters, for each of them had either a hundred arms and fifty heads, or else an enormous single eye in the middle of the fore- head. All of these children were of vast size. Six of the beautiful men were gods called Titans, and there were six goddesses called Titanesses. The gods made their home on the crest of Mount Olympus, and Uranus was king over them all. He so hated the sight of his hundred-armed and one-eyed children that he flung them into a dark pit in the earth called Tartarus, and made them stay there, but the mother loved those monstrosities and she was angry with Uranus because of his treatment of them. She told her son Cronus, the youngest of the beautiful children, that if he would bring up his hideous- looking brethren from the pit, she would help him to dethrone Uranus, so that Cronus himself might be king. Cronus eagerly agreed to the proposal, and his mother provided him with a keen sickle with which he was to slay Uranus when asleep. Cronus followed instructions, and thus it was that Uranus lost his kingdom and his life. Cronus was now ruler of the world. He made Rhea, one of the Titanesses, his wife and queen, but when he had brought up his frightful brothers from Tartarus, he was so scared at their appearance that he drove them back again. Naturally this angered his mother, who warned him that he should lose his life and power just as his father had been robbed of his. Cronus was so frightened that every time Rhea gave birth to a child he swallowed it, disposing of five in this manner, much to the grief of Rhea. She and Gaea formed a scheme for stopping the practice. Her sixth child was hidden, while a stone was wrapped I I 6 The Story of the Greatest Nations in swaddling-clothes and given to Cronus, who, not doubting that it was a genu- ine baby, bolted it at one gulp, and was serene in the belief that the fate of his father could never be his, since he had no children, as he believed, to play the part he had played. - Zeus was the name given to the boy, who was kept hidden on the island of Crete until he grew up into the most beautiful and powerful of all the gods. His mother visited him secretly when her husband was asleep, and naturally she was very proud of her handsome son, of whose existence the father never dreamed until Zeus was old enough to begin his war against him. Gaea opened matters by pretending she was no longer angry with Cronus, to whom she presented a bowl of delicious drink, which he swallowed to the last drop. Then he was seized with nausea and brought up the stone and his five children, the latter well and hearty and grown into two gods and three god- desses. The names of the gods were Poseidon and Pluto, and of the goddesses Here, Demeter, and Hestia. Then began a furious war between the young gods and the old ones, the Titans. The monsters were brought up out of Tartarus to help Zeus; and they were so grateful to him for freeing them that they forged him weapons of thun- der and lightning. The young gods took position on Mount Olympus and the old gods on Mount Othrys, and fought their decisive battle in the wide valley stretching between. It was a terrific contest indeed, and the earth quaked, as well it might, for the myriad-armed hurled hundreds of pieces of rock at once, while Zeus kept up his bombardment of thunderbolts until the rivers boiled and the forest broke into flames. The war lasted for ten years and ended in the triumph of the young gods, who flung their foes into Tartarus and set their hundred-armed and one-eyed relatives to guard them. Zeus, having become the king of gods, married his sister Here and made her his queen, while an empire was given to each of his brothers. The sea was made subject to Poseidon, and Pluto ruled the lower world, where the dead abode. These gods were the parents of many children who were also gods, and had their part to play in the government of the universe. But despite the way matters had turned out, you will notice that Mother Gaea had good grounds for dissatisfaction. She had planned the overthrow of Uranus because he kept their ugly offspring in Tartarus. They were now safely out, but the Titans had taken their places. Becoming the mother of another hideous brood called Giants, she urged them to war against the usur- pers. You will remember that the gods had made their homes on Mount Olym- pus, a mile and a half high. Because of this the rocks hurled up at them lost their force by the time they arrived, and the gods, looking down at their assail- ants, laughed at their efforts. Greece—War of the Giants I 17 The Giants stopped their useless assault, consulted together, and formed a new plan. They set to work to uproot Mount Ossa and to roll it to the top of Pelion, another mountain. When this was done, they would be as far up in the air as the gods, and could make their prodigious missiles effective. Before the task was finished, however, Zeus hurled an awful thunderbolt against Ossa and made it fall again, and the gods rushed down to earth to fight the Giants. After a battle lasting all day, the Giants were defeated, each of them being crushed beneath a great mountain, which, while it did not kill the Giant, pinned him fast so that he could never get up again. One of the Giants seemed to have a chance of escaping over the Mediterra- nean Sea, but the goddess Athene, daughter of Zeus, flung a triangular piece of land after him and he was hit by it when well out from shore. The land buried him from sight, and when in the course of time it was covered with trees and cities, it formed the island of Sicily. Even a Giant cannot rest comfortably with a mountain sitting on his chest, and occasionally they become restless and roll over, and then the startled people exclaim, “It is an earthquake l’’ The Giants being disposed of, Gaea created the most horrible being of all, and named him Typhoeus, not doubting that he would be able to overcome the young gods. Picture, if you can, this appalling monster, who could stand in the valley and peep over the tops of the highest mountains; who had a hundred heads, each with a different kind of voice, so that he could imitate any animal or serpent. No wonder the other gods were terrified at sight of him and hid themselves, but Zeus boldly advanced to fight him. Typhoeus filled the air with huge rocks, which he hurled at Zeus, and kept his hundred heads screech- ing, bellowing, roaring and hissing; but Zeus launched his thunderbolts with such effect that finally bright flames burst out from all parts of the body of Typhoeus, who rolled over and over in his effort to put them out, but that was impossible, because Zeus kept on hurling his thunderbolts and the surrounding trees broke into flames. Gaea became so frightened that she feared the whole earth would melt, and, catching up Typhoeus, flung him down into Tartarus, where he died. Gaea saw it was useless to fight against the young gods, and after a long time she made friends with them. It was when Cronus ruled over the gods that men were first created, in what was called the Golden Age. In process of time, the Golden Age came to an end, but it is said that those that lived during that period became guardian spirits, who wander over the earth performing for us their blessed offices. The number of Greek gods was so great that it would be confusing to attempt to remember them all; but we should become acquainted with the names of the principal ones and their chief attributes, Twelve of them were I I 8 The Story of the Greatest Nations known as the Olympian gods, because they were supposed to dwell on the heights of Mount Olympus, where they held the grand council of the gods. Each of them has a Greek and a Roman name, and while they were first known by the former, the Roman is so much more familiar that we shall use it. Six of these great gods were male and six female. Zeus, or Jupiter, was of course the first and most important. Then came Poseidon or Neptune, the brother to whom he had given sovereignty over the sea. His other brother Pluto does not seem to have been a member of the great council at all, prefer- ring to keep to himself in his chosen dominion of Hades. The remaining four gods were Mars, Vulcan, Apollo, and Mercury, all of whom were sons of Jupi- ter. The six goddesses were his three sisters, whose Roman names were Juno, Vesta, and Ceres, and his three daughters, Minerva, Diana, and Venus. Jupiter, the mighty and Supreme ruler, is generally depicted as a magnifi- cent man in the full grandeur and majesty of his strength. He sits upon a throne, with the eagle as his messenger bird on one side, and a bolt of the lightning with which he vanquished the other gods, grasped in his right hand. Juno or Here, his wife, represents the dignity of woman in the full bloom of her beauty as wife and mother, the queen and guardian of the home. She shielded its sanctity and watched over the birth of children, but she was shrew- ish and intensely jealous of Jupiter, who, it must be confessed, gave her good cause for dissatisfaction. When convinced that he was paying too much atten- tion to the nymph Callisto, she had her revenge by turning the girl into a bear. In her dreadful distress, Callisto wandered through the forest hunted by men and pursued by wild beasts. It so happened that her young son went hunting in the woods and was recognized by Callisto, who, in her transport of delight, forgot her own repulsive form and rushed to embrace him. Not dreaming that she was anything but the bear whose form she wore, the youth aimed his spear at her heart, but Jupiter was smitten with sympathy and prevented the impend- ing tragedy. He transported mother and son to the sky, where they became constellations, and you may see them in the northern heavens on any clear night, one being known as Ursa Major, or the Great Bear, and the other as Ursa Minor, or the Lesser Bear. Juno's wrath was not abated by this wondrous trans- formation, and she induced the different gods in the ocean to refuse to let the two bears go down into the sea as the other stars do. This explains why they always remain in the sky, never dropping below the horizon, but forever circling round the North Pole in a never-ending pursuit of each other. The mother still seeks her son, while he, never suspecting her identity, chases the bear, and thus the strange pursuit and flight will continue until the stars shall be no more. I have told enough to show you that the gods were not wholly good. In- deed, they had all the faults and follies of human nature and were simply men Greece—The Olympian Gods II 9 and women, magnified many times in stature and possessing inconceivable power. Thus Mars, or Ares, the eldest son of Jupiter and Juno, was the terri- ble god of war, prodigious, fierce, and revelling in the horrors of strife and slaughter. His favorite bird and beast were the vulture and wild dog, who feasted on the corpses of the battlefield. He preferred to fight on foot, and was followed by his sons, Terror, Trembling, Panic, and Fear. Vulcan or Hephæstus, the remaining son of Jupiter and Juno, was the god of fire, the blacksmith god. One day when his parents were in a furious quar- rel, Vulcan interfered to save his mother from the rage of Jupiter. In his hot wrath, the father seized Vulcan by the leg and hurled him out of heaven. The descent was so vast that when, after a long time, he landed on the earth, he was lamed. His appearance had always been repulsive, and now in addition he was deformed, but he could not lose his popularity among the other gods, for they would have fared badly without him to make their tools and weapons. His tremendous forges had their chimneys in the throats of the terrific volca- noes through which the flames roared. His skill enabled him to make many wonderful things in his underground workshop, among which were the thunder- bolts of Jove, the weapons of Mars, and the mirror of Venus. One of the myths makes Juno fling Vulcan from the heavens. He re- venged himself by building her a beautiful throne, upon which she had no sooner seated herself, than she was locked around with endless chains and fetters and held a helpless prisoner. The gods strove in vain to release her, but once, when Vulcan had taken too much wine, he good-humoredly set her free. Previous to this, Mars had tried to compel Vulcan to rescue her from her frightful situation, but was sent flying before the fearful fires which his brother hurled at him. Vulcan remains the typical Smith, slow, massive, and of herculean strength, but shrewd and persistent. His repulsive appearance and clumsy gait led the other gods continually to ridicule him, for which it is supposed he cared little, for, according to the legend, his wife was Venus or Aphrodite, the most beauti- ful of all the gods. - Venus was the goddess of love and physical beauty, and, like Mars, there was more evil than good in her composition. Indeed, Mars was in love with her, and poor Vulcan had an unhappy time of it, for it is true even to this day that most of her sex are more attracted by the gilt and tinsel and the physical comeliness of man than by honesty and worth. It is this cynical bit of worldly wisdom that the myth is intended to depict. The emblem of Venus is the dove, the bird of love. One story represents her as being not the child of Jupi- ter, but as springing from the foam of the sea, a fit type of the changeful and swift-passing character of beauty. I 2 O The Story of the Greatest Nations Of Minerva, or Athene, it is said that she leaped from Jupiter's head, full grown and armed with spear and shield. She was the goddess of wisdom, and her birth typified the manner in which wisdom is evolved from the brain of man. She was powerful, brave, sincere, always victorious, and the most ad- mirable of all the gods. She overcame Mars in battle, as wisdom always van- quishes mere brute force. Her wisdom surpassed that of Jupiter himself, for his judgment was often clouded by passion. Athens, called after the Greek form of her name, was her favorite city. She and Neptune contended as to which should be the special god and patron of the city. They agreed that the one who could give the best gift to man should be the victor. Neptune pro- duced the horse, but Minerva created the olive tree, which to this day, because of its products and varied uses, is the principal support of man in many tropical countries, and to her therefore was awarded the victory. Another famous contest of Minerva was with Arachne, a maiden who wove cloth or webs, as they were called, of such exquisite beauty that the gods gath- ered to watch and admire her when at work. Proud of her amazing skill, she boasted that she could surpass Minerva, who, because of her deftness and wit, was looked upon as the goddess of all such delicate arts. Minerva presented herself before Arachne in the guise of an old woman, and reproved her for her impious boasting, but the maid replied with a challenge to Minerva for a test of their skill. Assuming her own splendid form, Minerva wove a marvellous piece of embroidery, depicting the fearful fate of those who defied the gods. Arachne was dazzled, but summoning her energies, she began weaving a web which displayed, one after another, the evil deeds of the gods. She could not fail to note, however, that her work was far inferior to that of Minerva, and by and by she was so overwhelmed with remorse because of her wickedness, that she stopped work and hanged herself with her own thread. Half in pity and half in punishment, Minerva gave back life to the maiden, and turned her into a spider. So you see the spiders to-day ever spinning, spinning, spinning, from their own bodies, ever hanging in their own webs. Apollo and Diana were twins, born of Jupiter and Latona, the goddess of darkness. They were the rulers of the sun and moon, a fact which was in- tended to show that the union of light and darkness produced the sun and moon. Apollo, the sun-god, was glorious in the splendor and perfection of manly beauty, the giver of life, the god of music. But, since the sun not only vivifies and renews, but smites and destroys, so Apollo was the god of pesti- lence, the slayer and destroyer whose deadly arrows were the flaming rays of the sun. Diana or Artemis, sister of Apollo, is his feminine counterpart. She is as chaste and as calmly beautiful as the silvery moon whose crescent is her bow Sn Lwae. LS1slº + O Nan_Laº + H_1 sonlu vaeg-antao s Nw1N + H_lv = Hl. |- （%. |-|- |× ſae THE FATES --- º Tºivº on laev ne snaelº x， ±) Dionysius º - PERIANDER Alcibiades CELEBRATED GREEKS-I. º - - º - --- ºllez ſo ºoelea º ºuolulººooººº ºu l '， 'uelºuºl ſo ºſeb z urueuºl yo wala nuensig 'n Nº， HB1 irº º 2 º' Swae + l_v - o sının， → H+… |× 2， |- - - - - - ~~~~ |- - |- - - ºl --- 7| º º - - ſ º ſ | º | miſſ THE TOWER OF BABEL maewaevae saeto_1_O3 H+ ſae……………. |- stalnomo o s_11 d. 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She and her attendant nymphs are pledged to perpetual maidenhood, and, such is her modesty, that once when Actaeon, a hunter, accidentally came upon her and her nymphs bathing, she instantly turned him into a stag, which was torn to pieces by his own dogs. So Diana, like her brother, could be cruel at times. One legend of them is that Niobe, a queen of Thebes, boasted that her seven sons and seven daughters were more beautiful and numerous than the children of Latona, and that therefore she ought to be honored above the god- dess. To avenge this insult to their mother and themselves, Apollo and Diana slew with their arrows the whole fourteen children. Niobe strove frantically but in vain to save them, and, after their death, wept such endless tears that at last she turned to stone and could weep no longer. But still from the rock trickled two streams of water. It may be this was intended to show that after a certain amount of agony and suffering our senses become dulled, our hearts cease to throb with grief, and we are like stone within. Mercury or Hermes, the son of Jupiter and a nymph, was the messenger of the gods. He was in reality the god of the wind, with its swift, resistless power, or its soft whispering among the trees. Naturally, he was also the god of all wanderers and travellers, and hence of merchants and of trade. He wafted the ships from port to port, and became the god of traffic and of bar- gaining, and hence of oratory and eloquence. Thus you will see he was cour- ageous and useful, but he had his evil traits like the others. He was an in- veterate thief, who stole everything upon which he could lay hands. He often indulged in this wicked propensity through wantonness and the love of mischief. He carried off Jupiter's sceptre, Mars' sword, Neptune's trident, and Io, the cow belonging to Juno, who, to prevent her being taken away, set Argus, who had a hundred eyes, to watch her. The cunning Mercury tried to lull him to sleep, but Argus would close only two of his eyes at the same time—a forcible illustration of the adage about sleeping with “one eye open.” Foiled in this manner, Mercury lost patience and slew him, or, according to another legend, soothed all the eyes to slumber by relating a prosy, inter- minable story, when of course the cow disappeared. Juno was so angered that she took away all the eyes from Argus and placed them in the tail of her favorite bird, the peacock, where I am sure you have often admired them. The remaining leading gods, the brothers and sisters of Jupiter and Juno, were not so active and famous. Neptune did not often appear at the great council of I 2.2 The Story of the Greatest Nations the gods on Mount Olympus, for he resented the greater honors shown to his younger brother, and preferred to stay in the ocean, where he reigned supreme and had a host of lesser gods around him. Vesta, or Hestia, was the goddess of the hearth. Since she was the eldest of the children of Cronus and of the deities of Olympus, she received great honors from all. The fire, always kept burning on the hearth, was sacred to her, and it was she who protected from evil spirits and misfortune the homes where it glowed. If by neglect or accident the flame was allowed to die out, the home was instantly invaded by malignant demons. In every city there was an altar to Vesta, whose sacred fire was guarded by maidens known as Vestals. Ceres was the goddess of Sowing and reaping, or of agriculture. All the fruits and grains sprang from her beneficence and at her will. Her daughter Proserpine was stolen by Pluto, who carried her off to be his wife in the dismal regions of Hades. The grief-stricken Ceres wandered to and fro over the earth hunting for her daughter, and, not finding her, sank down in despair. A child seeing her grief tenderly called her “mother.” Soothed by the sweetness of the little one, Ceres remained in that home, around which all was in blossom and fruitage, while elsewhere nothing grew. Famine spread everywhere, but the goddess would not move until Jupiter interfered. Proserpine had con- sented to become Pluto's wife, and therefore could not be taken wholly from him, but Jupiter compelled him to release her for one-half of each year. So throughout the six summer months Proserpine is with her mother, and the heart of Ceres rejoices, and the earth brings forth abundantly; but when Proser- pine spends the six winter months with her husband in the lower world, Ceres is sullen and resentful, and the earth shares her feelings and withholds her vegetation and fruits and flowers. In addition to these twelve greater gods, there were many others, some of them of hardly less dignity, such as Cupid, the son of Venus; Bacchus, or Diony- Sus, god of milk and wine, that is, of the goatherds and vine-dressers. Elabo- rate celebrations and processions were held in his honor, at which drunkenness was regarded as part of the religious ceremony. Then there were the nine Muses, goddesses of the arts, among whom were Terpsichore, the muse of danc- ing, Melpomene, of tragedy, and Thalia, of comedy. You will see their pic- tures on the walls of almost every theatre in the land. You may know Mel- pomene and Thalia by the masks in their hands. Thalia's is merry, but Mel- pomene's is grim, and usually she holds a dagger as well. The muse for this present book, that is for history, was Clio. She is pictured with an open roll of paper, and sometimes with books beside her. Urania was the muse of astronomy, with a globe. The other four muses were for the different kinds of poetry. Euterpe, muse of lyric poetry and hence of music, is best known. Greece. The Lesser Gods I 23 She is generally painted playing upon a flute. There were three Fates; the poet Hesiod calls them the daughters of night. They were Clotho who spun the thread of human life, Lachesis who measured or interwove it, that is, made each man's lot what it is with all its varied chances, and Atropos, the inevi- table, who with her shears cut off the thread and ended the life. There were monsters also, such as the harpies, savage birds with human heads, and the centaurs, half-human, half-horse, and wholly wild and savage. Then there were the tritons, half-human, half-fish, who lived in the sea and fought as sea-monsters do. There were Cerberus, the three-headed watchdog of hell, and many other weird imaginings. Every fountain had its nymphs, fair female figures, part mortal and part spirit, supposed to live in the waters. A female spirit, a dryad, lived in every tree. Satyrs, half-man, half-goat, roamed in the mountains; fauns, all manlike but for their pointed ears, frolicked in the shady woods. Over all these fanciful creatures, Pan, the great god of nature, was king. NEPTUNE, A MOSAIC FROM PALERMo Rºjºſº, Menelaus Paris Diomedes Ulysses Nestor Achilles Agamemnon HEROES OF THE TRO, AN WAR Chapter XI HEROES OF THE MYTHICAL AGE *@HE Greeks believed that in those dim, far away days their ºf native land was ruled by a noble race of beings, super- human though not divine, and far superior to ordinary men in strength of body and in mental attributes. This mythical period of hero kings is made to cover about two hundred years, from the first appearance of the Greeks in Thessaly to the Trojan war. Among its earliest heroes was Perseus, a son of the god Jupiter and the princess Danae of Argos. His chief exploit was the slaying of Medusa, the most terrible of the three Gorgon sisters. Medusa had been a beautiful maiden, but, having quarrelled with Minerva, her hair was turned into living serpents and such a horror given to her face that one glance at it turned all beholders to stone. You can imagine what havoc she was causing in the world when the mere sight of her meant death; and you will see also how difficult it was to overcome an enemy at whom you could not even look. Perseus accomplished it by using his shield as a mirror. After many adventures he reached Medusa, and, looking at her reflection only, slew her and cut off her head. This head became a ter- rible weapon in his hands. He used it to turn to stone a dragon, from whom he rescued a beautiful girl, Andromeda, who became his wife. Then he turned the head against the former suitors of his bride, against the enemies of his mother; indeed, he seems to have caused far more destruction with it than ever poor Medusa had done. Greece—The Labors of Hercules I 25 The three heroes of later date who stand most prominently forth are Her- cules, the national hero, Theseus, the hero of Athens, and Minos, king of Crete, the principal founder of Grecian law and civilization. Hercules was the son of Jupiter and Alcmene, a granddaughter of Perseus. Juno, the queen of heaven, was very jealous of Jupiter's mortal loves, so she hated Hercules even before he was born, and was his enemy all his life. She deprived him of his birthright; for, Jupiter having declared that a descendant of Perseus born on a certain day should rule all the Greeks, Juno held back the birth of Hercules and hastened that of another descendant of Perseus, Eurys- theus. So Eurystheus ruled at Mycenae as king of all the Greeks. It is said that Hercules gave proof of his superhuman strength while an infant in the cradle, when he strangled two serpents that Juno sent to destroy him. He was instructed in all the arts by the first masters, and was then employed in tending flocks until he was eighteen years of age. The first exploit of this hero was the slaying of a lion which ravaged the dominions of King Thespios. Returning to his native city of Thebes, Hercules not only freed it from the humiliation of paying tribute to the Orchomenians, but compelled them to pay double the tribute they had received. To show his gratitude, Creon, king of Thebes, gave Hercules his daughter Megara in mar- riage. Meanwhile, Eurystheus summoned Hercules before him and ordered him to perform the labors which because of his priority of birth the older had the right to impose upon him. Hercules resented this order and went to Delphi to consult the oracle, who told him he must accomplish twelve exploits imposed by Eurystheus, after which he should attain to immortality. This reply so depressed Hercules that he lost his mind, and in his madness he killed his own children. When he regained his senses, he went before Eurystheus and told him he was ready to obey his commands. The first task put upon Hercules was that he should kill the lion which haunted the forests of Nemea and could not be hurt by the arrows of a mortal. Hercules boldly attacked the beast with a club, but his terrific blows produced no effect, whereupon he flung aside his weapon and with his naked hands stran- gled it to death. From that time Hercules wore the skin of the lion as his 2III].OT. The second labor was to destroy the Lernaean hydra, a monster whose many heads immediately grew again when they were cut off. Each head had a mouth which discharged a subtle and deadly venom. This monster was killed by Hercules with the help of his friend Iolaus, but because of such assistance Eurystheus refused to count it as one of the appointed tasks. The third labor was to catch the hind of Diana, famous for its fleetness, its golden horns and brazen feet; the fourth was to bring alive to Eurystheus a I 26 The Story of the Greatest Nations wild boar, which ravaged the neighborhood of Erymanthus; the fifth was to cleanse the stables of Augeas, king of Elis, where three thousand cattle had been confined for many years. This was accomplished by turning the rivers Alphetis and Penetis into the stables. Since, however, Hercules had gone to the king and offered to perform the task for one-tenth of the cattle, keeping secret the fact that the labor had been imposed upon him by Eurystheus, the latter refused to count it among his labors. The sixth labor was to destroy the carnivorous birds with brazen wings, beaks and claws, which ravaged a district in Arcadia; the seventh was to bring alive to Peloponnesus a bull famous for its beauty and strength, which Posei- don, at the prayer of Minos, king of Crete, had given to him in order that he might sacrifice it; but Minos refusing to do this, Poseidon made the bull mad and it ravaged the island. Hercules brought the bull on his shoulders to Eurystheus, who set it free. - The eighth labor was to obtain the mares of Diomedes, king of the Bistones in Thrace, which fed upon human flesh; the ninth was to bring the girdle of Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons. The Amazons were a nation of warlike women, very famous in Greek legend. They killed or sent to other lands almost all their male children, and the women had everything their own way. They were the laborers, the hunters, the soldiers of their country; and a very fierce and strong race they proved themselves. Their queen received Hercules kindly and promised him the girdle; but Juno roused the Amazons against him, and a desperate struggle followed, in which Hercules took the girdle, slew Hippolyta, and made sail homeward. The tenth labor was to kill the monster Geryon and bring his herds to Argos. The eleventh labor was to obtain the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides. They were sisters who, assisted by the dragon Ladon, guarded the golden apples which Juno had received on her marriage with Jupi- ter, from Gaea. Atlas was one of the giants, who, as their leader, attempted to storm the heavens, and in punishment for his supreme treason Jupiter con- demned him to bear the vault of heaven on his head and hands. Because of this legend, the name of Atlas was introduced into geography. Mercator in the sixteenth century gave the name atlas to a collection of maps, probably because the figure of Atlas supporting the heavens had been shown on the title- pages of many such works. Now Atlas knew where to find the golden apples and brought them to Hercules, who in the absence of Atlas took his place as supporter of the vault of heaven. Other accounts, however, say that Hercules slew the dragon and stole the apples, which were afterward restored to Juno. The twelfth labor was the most dangerous of all, being that of bringing the three-headed dog Cerberus from the infernal regions, where he kept guard Greece—Adventures of Theseus I 27 over the entrance. Pluto, ruler of that dismal place, told Hercules that he might have Cerberus, provided he used no arms but employed simply force.- Hercules made the monster captive and brought him to Eurystheus, who was so terrified by the sight that he ordered him removed, whereupon Cerberus sank out of sight into the earth. * Hercules had now freed himself from his servitude, but he added many exploits to his “Twelve Labors,” such as his battles with Centaurs and with the giants; his aid of the expedition of the Argonauts, and the liberation of Prometheus and Theseus. After many amazing adventures, Hercules, over- taken by misfortune, placed himself upon a funeral pile on Mount CEta and commanded that it should be set on fire. Suddenly the burning pile was sur- rounded by a dark cloud, in which, amid thunder and lightning, Hercules was carried up to heaven, where he became reconciled to Juno and married Hebe. His sons were exiled from Greece for a hundred years. Theseus, the national hero of the Athenians, was regarded by them as the founder of their greatness. Legend represents him as having united the twelve quarrelling little towns of Attica under one government with Athens at its head. His father was a noted hero, AEgeus, king of Athens; his mother was a princess in a foreign city whither Ægeus had wandered. On departing AEgeus placed his sword and sandals under an enormous mass of rock, and told the mother she might send him their son when the lad proved himself worthy, by himself rais- ing the stone. Theseus, grown to manhood, easily performed the feat, and set out to claim his father and his inheritance. The land in those days was filled with robbers and monsters such as Her- cules had met, so the fond mother would have had her son go to Athens by sea. But Theseus was resolved to prove himself worthy of his hero sire, and de- clared he would turn aside for neither man nor monster. So he set out by land, and met and slew one robber chief after another. The most notorious of these was the cruel and bloody Procrustes, who had an iron bed upon which he tied his prisoners. If they were too short to fill it, he stretched them out, pulling apart their joints till they fitted it. If they were too tall, he cut them down. This bed has become so well known that to-day, when any man finds himself in an uncomfortable place where he does not fit, we say he is on the bed of Procrustes. After many adventures Theseus reached Athens and was hailed with joy and pride by his father. He undertook to free Athens from a horrible tribute which it had to pay to Minos, the great king of Crete. Every year seven Athenian youths and seven maidens were sent to Crete to be devoured by the Minotaur, a monster half-man, half-bull, which Minos kept in a vast confused prison called the Labyrinth, out of which no one who had once entered could I 28 The Story of the Greatest Nations retrace his way. Theseus went voluntarily into the den as one of the Athe- nian victims; but he carried his sword with him and slew the Minotaur in a tremendous conflict, thus ending the tribute. Then he found a way out for himself and his companions by means of a thread which he had trailed behind him from the entrance. The thread had been given him by Ariadne, a daugh- ter of King Minos, who loved him and sailed away with him; but he deserted her, and for this the gods punished him with many misfortunes. Later he succeeded his father as king of Athens, made Athens a great city, and took part in many other famous exploits. Minos is the name applied to two kings of Crete. The first is said to have been the son of Jupiter and Europa, the brother of Rhadamanthus, the father of Deucalion and Ariadne, the foe of Theseus, and after his death a judge in the lower regions. The second Minos was a grandson of the first and son of Lycastus and Ida. Tt is to him that the celebrated Laws of Minos are ascribed, in which it is said he received instruction from Jupiter. Homer and Hesiod mention only one Minos, the king of Knossus, and son and friend of Jupiter. In this mythological period there were three expeditions so celebrated that it will not do to pass them by. These are the Voyage of the Argonauts, the War of the Seven against Thebes, and the Siege of Troy. Pelias, a descendant of AEolus, had robbed his half-brother AEson of his dominion over the kingdom of Iolcus in Thessaly. Jason, the son of AEson, upon reaching manhood, went to his uncle and demanded back the throne that now by right was his. AEson promised to grant the demand on one condition, which was that Jason should first bring the golden fleece of AEa, which was a region in the far east ruled by Ætes, offspring of the sun-god. The fleece was that of the ram Chrysomallus, and was preserved in the grove of Mars, sus- pended upon a tree where it was guarded by a dragon that never slept. The most renowned heroes of the time, including Hercules and Theseus, embarked in the Argo under the lead of Jason. They arrived after many adventures at AEa, where the king Ætes promised Jason to deliver to him the golden fleece, provided he yoked two fire-breathing oxen with brazen feet, ploughed a piece of ground with them, sowed in the furrows the remainder of the teeth of the dragon killed by Cadmus, and then defeated the men that would spring up from the seed. Medea, the daughter of Ætes, loved Jason, and, being a sorceress, provided him with the means of doing all that her father had imposed upon the hero. Her parent still delayed to surrender the golden fleece, whereupon Medea through her magic put the dragon to sleep, seized the fleece herself, and set sail in the Azgo with Jason and his companions. They were pursued by the indig- nant AEtes, but this too Medea had foreseen and provided against. She had Greece—Voyage of the Argonauts I 29 brought along her infant brother, and as their father neared them she slew the child and scattered his dismembered limbs along their route. The grief- stricken parent stopped to gather the fragments, and the Argonauts escaped. On their return to Greece, Medea gave Jason still further help by her sor- ceries. His father, Æson, being dead, she bathed the body in a magic caldron of herbs she had brewed, and the old man stepped forth not only alive, but with all the freshness and vigor of youth restored to him. The daughters of the usurper Pelias urged her to do the same for their father. So, at her bidding, they slew him, whereon she refused to restore his life, and Jason claimed the throne. Retribution soon overtook Medea for her cruel deed. Jason forsook her, and she was reduced in her despair to murdering her own children by him, much as she had slain her brother. With the exception of Hercules and Theseus, Jason's most famous compan- ion in his expedition was Orpheus. He was the son of Apollo and one of the Muses. Apollo was the god of music, and he made his son the most wonderful musician who ever lived. Birds, wild beasts, and even inanimate things felt the charm and followed Orpheus as he played upon his lyre. When his wife Eury- dice died, he followed her to Hades to beg for her release, and so wonderful was his music that all the monsters of hell paused to listen, and he passed through the terrible gates unharmed. Even the god Pluto himself was moved, and promised Orpheus he should take Eurydice back with him, if he would not once look at her until they reached the upper world. So Orpheus climbed back up the rugged way, still chanting to his lyre; and Furydice followed hap- pily until they reached the very edge of earth. Then Orpheus looked back to make sure she was behind him. That one thoughtless glance broke the prom- ise, and Eurydice was swept back into Pluto's dominion. - The story of the Seven against Thebes is not so widely known. Laius was king of Thebes, one of the principal cities of Greece. He was warned by an oracle that if he ever became the father of a son, that son would murder him. When therefore CEdipus was born unto him, he exposed him to death, but the infant was saved and carried to Corinth, where King Polybus brought him up as if he were his own son. Angered because of the slurs cast upon his paren- tage, CEqipus consulted the Delphic oracle, who warned him not to return to his native land; for if he did so, he was destined to slay his father and marry his own mother. CEdipus believed all this time that Polybus was his real father; so he kept away from Corinth and made his way to Thebes, thus inviting the very doom he was so anxious to escape. He met Laius in a narrow place; they quarrelled as to who should pass, and CEdipus slew the king. He then made his way to Thebes, met the queen Jocasta, and never suspecting she was his mother, married her, his success being due to her promise to bestow her hand 9 I 3o The Story of the Greatest Nations upon the man who should solve the riddle propounded by a sphinx or monster, who, in accordance with his agreement, had to slay himself upon the solution of the enigma. Two sons and two daughters followed this unnatural marriage, and because of the horror the land was swept by a pestilence, to avert which an oracle declared that the murderer of the king must be banished. The investigation revealed the dreadful truth, whereupon Jocasta hanged herself, the grief-stricken CEdipus put out his own eyes, and, being driven from the city by his two sons, Eteocles and Polynices, he pronounced a curse upon them which was quickly fulfilled. In a war for the dominion, Polynices was expelled from Thebes by his brother, and, going to Argos, obtained the aid of King Adrastus to regain his rights. In addition to that monarch, five other heroes joined the expedition, which formed the confederacy known as the “Seven against Thebes.” With the exception of Adrastus, all were slain and the brothers fell by each other's hands. Ten years afterward, the sons of these allies undertook another expedition against Thebes, which proved successful. Most of the inhabitants having fled, the city was razed to the ground. * The expedition against Troy forms the last and greatest of all the heroic achievements. Paris, son of Priam, king of Ilium, outraged the hospitality of Menelaus, king of Sparta, by carrying off Helen his wife, who was the most beautiful woman of her time. The Grecian princes considered the crime a personal one against themselves, and, in answer to the call of Menelaus, they assembled in arms, chose Agamemnon, brother of the king and himself the king of Mycenae, leader of the expedition, which sailed across the AEgean Sea, their force so numerous that they filled more than a thousand ships. * Agamemnon, having succeeded to the throne of Eurystheus, was the natural leader of the Greeks; but connected with this memorable expedition were a number more famous in war than he. There was Achilles, chief of the Thessalian Myrmidons; Ulysses, king of Ithaca, a genius of eloquence and wisdom; Nestor, king of Pylus, noted for his wisdom and experience; the heroic Diomedes, king of Argos; the Telamonian Ajax of Salamis, ranking next to Achilles as a warrior; and Idomeneus of Crete, grandson of Minos. On the side of the Trojans was Hector, a son of Priam, more valiant than his effeminate brother Paris, and next to him ranked AEneas, while the gods took part on both sides, sometimes encouraging their favorites and often fight- ing for them. Ten years passed before the siege of Troy ended with the fall of the city, and part of the last year forms the subject of the Iliad, the immortal work of Homer, the greatest poet of antiquity. Achilles, being offended by Agamemnon, “sulked in his tent,” refused to take part in the war, and even begged his mother, the goddess Thetis, to obtain from Jove victory for the Trojans. Hector marshalled the Trojans, took leave Greece—The Siege of Troy I 3 I of his wife Andromache and their infant son in one of the most beautiful pas- sages of the whole poem, and then led his forces in a tremendous attack. They drove the Greeks back and were setting fire to the ships, when Achilles gave his armor to his friend Patroclus, who made a charge at the head of the Myrmidons. He drove the Trojans from the ships, but the god Apollo was fighting against Patroclus, who fell before the spear of Hector. Fired by the desire to avenge the death of his friend, Achilles donned the armor forged for him by the god Vulcan at the prayer of Thetis. The Trojans fled, and Achilles, having killed Hector in single combat, fastened the body to the rear of his chariot and dragged it three times round the city walls in sight of Andromache and all the Trojans. The burial of Hector closes the poem of the J/iad, the death of Achilles and the capture of Troy being related in later poems, as well as his victories over the queen of the Amazons and the king of Ethiopia. Achilles himself was killed by an arrow shot by Paris but directed by the hand of Apollo, the wound being in his heel. This was the only vulnerable part of his body, since when his mother dipped him in the river Styx she made him invulnerable except in the heel, by which he was held during the immersion. Thus the most gallant fighters had fallen on both sides and Troy remained untaken. At this critical hour, Ulysses solved the seemingly impossible problem. Under his directions an immense wooden horse was built, within which he and a number of equally brave men concealed themselves. The rest of the Greeks pretended to give up the siege, and withdrew from the city. The exultant Trojans rushed out to explore and roamed through the abandoned camps. Gathering round the gigantic horse, they stared at it in wonder and amazement. Then a Greek, who had remained behind for that purpose, came out from his hiding-place and declared himself a deserter from his countrymen. He told the Trojans that the colossal horse was a magic ani- mal, and that so long as they kept it their city could not be captured. The delighted Trojans seized hold of the monstrous thing to drag it within their walls, instead of heeding the numerous warnings they received. Cassandra, one of King Priam's daughters, possessed the power of looking into the future, but unhappily she always seemed to be prophesying evil, and therefore was discredited. Sometimes you hear a person called a “Cassandra,” which is another way of saying she is a prophet of evil. When Cassandra saw the intention of her countrymen, she wrung her hands and begged them to leave the huge structure alone; but they were so happy over the seemingly tri- umphant ending of the long war that they only laughed at her wailing and warnings. Among the Trojan priests was Laocoön, who added his warnings to those I 32 The Story of the Greatest Nations of the young woman, saying that he distrusted the Greeks always, but most when they left gifts. Then the priest drove his spear into the wooden horse, and all were startled by hearing a groan from within. In truth, one of the hidden Greeks had been wounded by the spear. Then the gods having deter- mined on the destruction of the city, and resenting the interference of Laocoön, sent two enormous serpents, which, gliding up out of the Sea, strangled him and his two sons in their coils. Nothing could check the infatuated Trojans. The great wooden horse was dragged into the city; and then, in the darkness of night, the Grecian army again silently surrounded the walls. The Greeks within the wooden horse crept out and opened the gates to their comrades, who rushed into Troy, having performed an exploit that has become one of the most famous in all classical history. Troy was captured and reduced to ashes. - The return of the Grecian leaders forms another theme for poetical legends. Agamemnon was murdered on his arrival at Mycenae by his wife and her para- mour. The guilty pair were then slain by his son Orestes. For thus killing his mother Orestes was condemned by the gods to become a fugitive and wandered with his friend Pylades into strange lands. At Taurus they were seized by the natives to be slain in honor of the goddess Diana. One of them was to be spared, and a memorable contest of friendship arose between them as to which should sacrifice himself for the other. The priestess, however, proved to be Orestes' lost sister Iphigenia; and she helped them both to escape and returned with them to Greece. Diomedes, who on returning from Troy also found his home outraged, was expelled from Argos and settled in Italy. The most interesting and famous wanderings, however, were those of Ulysses, which form the subject of the Odyssey. The sea-god Neptune had a grudge against Ulysses, and would not let him cross the seas back to his own kingdom of Ithaca. One storm after another drove him from his course. One by one his followers succumbed to privation and disaster, until he alone returned to their native home, after an absence of twenty years. He had been in the country of the lotos-eaters, a dreamy land, where fruit fell constantly around the people for their sustenance, and none ever worked, but drowsed in idleness until old age and death ended their worthless existences. He had been among the cannibals, among the Cyclops, great giants with only a single eye. He had withstood the enchant- ments of Circe, a famous sorceress, who turned all men who visited her into beasts; and he had even visited the underworld of Hades. During all this time his wife Penelope had sadly awaited his return, watch- ing across the waters; and her pathetic figure has become typical to us of all wives who have to watch and wait. Her friends tried to persuade her that he Greece—Wanderings of Ulysses I 33 must be dead, and many suitors gathered in the palace. They became clamor- ous, insisting that she choose a husband from among them, to take Ulysses' place and rule the country. To evade them, she said she must first finish a wonderful shroud she was weaving for her aged father; and on this she undid each night what they had seen her finish in the day. So that now, any work always being labored on but never advancing is called “Penelope's web.” At last the suitors would no longer be put off; and they declared there should be a great feast, and they would force her to wed whichever of them proved able to bend Ulysses' great bow. At the trial an old beggar-man came in ; and, in drunken sport, amid Sneers and taunts, they allowed him also to try the bow. The beggar was Ulysses himself, home at last, though ragged, worn, and solitary; and he, who had matched himself against giants, was not likely to be awed or overcome by these idle roisterers. He bent the bow and sent an arrow through their leader. His weeping wife recognized him. His young son Telemachus joined him, and together they drove the drunken mob from the palace. Ulysses was the last survivor of the chiefs who had fought against Troy. - - In studying Greek history, both mythological and authentic, you will often find mention of the Oracles. The word oracle means both the response made by a deity or supernatural being to the inquiry of a worshipper, and the place where the response is delivered. These responses were supposed to be given by a certain divine afflatus, either through means of mankind and the dreams of the worshippers in the temples, or by its effect on some objects, as the tinkling of the caldrons at Dodona, the rustling of the sacred laurel, the murmuring of the streams; or by the action of certain animals, as displayed in the sacred bull of Apis at Memphis and the feeding of the holy chickens of the Romans. Oracles date from the remotest antiquity, but gradually declined with the increasing knowledge of mankind. The Grecian Oracles enjoyed the highest reputation for truthfulness, and the most famous were the Dodonean, the Del- phic, and that of Trophonius and Amphiarus. The Dodonean was the only oracle in Greece that was given by Jupiter, the others being those of Apollo, or of certain soothsayers who had received the gift of prophecy from that god or other gods. The greatest of all was the Delphic oracle, of which you will read in the following pages. It was open to all Greece and was consulted for public purposes, the faith in its responses being absolute. The consultations were generally in the Delphic month of April, and once a day on other months. Those who wished to consult the oracle drew lots as to who should have prece- dence. The inquirers offered sacrifices, wore laurel crowns, and delivered sealed questions. The response was accepted as infallible and was usually marked by good sense, justice, and reason. As the questions grew in political I 34 The Story of the Greatest Nations importance, the guardians became fearful of offending, and framed their answers in such ambiguous terms that they would “read both ways,” or they allowed the answers to be corrupted by gold and rich presents. Delphi, now known as Castri, was situated about eight miles north of an indentation in the northern shore of the Gulf of Lepanto, at the southern base of Parnassus. Homer always refers to it as Pytho. The chief magistrates and the priests of the temple were at first taken from the Delphian nobles, while the Pythia, or female who delivered the oracle, was at first a young maiden, but afterward a woman not younger than fifty, usually selected from some poor family of country people. In the centre of the temple was a small opening in the ground, from which arose an intoxicating vapor; and the Pythia, having breathed this, took her seat upon the tripod or three-legged stool, which was placed over the opening in the ground. Hence she delivered the oracle, which if not pronounced in hexam- eters, was handed over to a poet employed for that purpose, who converted it into that form of verse. The reputation of its oracle caused Delphi to become a town of great impor- tance and wealth, its fame spreading to other nations. The Pythian games were first celebrated at Delphi in 586 B.C. I have said that although the mythology of Greece is based upon fable, yet in many instances there was more than one germ of truth in those grand and sometimes shocking imaginings of the ancient people. The astonishing fact is that later discoveries and investigations have proven that there was more truth than has been generally supposed. When you come to study the later history of Greece, you will learn of the pacification of Crete by the interference of the European Powers. This has been followed by explorations on the site of ancient cities and palaces, which have brought to light some of the most valua- ble and interesting discoveries of later years. The Labyrint/, of Crete was, according to legend, built by Daedalus for Minos, king of Crete, and by his orders the Minotaur, or bull of Minos, of which you have heard, was imprisoned within it. The Labyrinth was a con- fused maze of Countless halls and rooms and winding passages leading nowhere. This Labyrinth has generally been supposed to be a mere fable; but in 1900 excavations at Knossos in Crete uncovered the ancient “House of Minos,” a remarkable building which undoubtedly suggested the stories of the Labyrinth. We quote something of the account of the discovery, by Mr. A. J. Evans and Mr. D. G. Hogarth: “At but a very slight depth below the surface of the ground the spade has uncovered great courts and corridors, propylaea, a long succession of magazines containing gigantic stone jars that might have hidden the ‘Forty Thieves,' and Greece—Discovery of the Labyrinth I 35 a multiplicity of chambers, pre-eminent among which is the throne room and council chamber of Homeric kings. “The throne itself on which (if so much faith be permitted to us) Minos may have declared the law, is carved out of alabaster, once brilliant with colored designs and relieved with curious tracery and crocketed arcading which is wholly unique in ancient art and exhibits a strange anticipation of thirteenth century Gothic. In the throne room, the western entrance gallery and else- where, partly still adhering to the walls, partly in detached pieces on the floors, was a series of fresco paintings, excelling any known examples of the art in Mycenaean Greece. “A beautiful life-size painting of a youth, with a European and almost clas- sically Greek profile, gives us the first real knowledge of the race who produced this mysterious early civilization. Other frescoes introduce us to a lively and hitherto unknown miniature style, representing, among other subjects, groups of women engaged in animated conversation in the courts and on the balconies of the palace. The monuments of the sculptor's art are equally striking. It may be sufficient to mention here a marble fountain in the shape of a lioness's head with enamelled eyes. “One of the miniature frescoes found represents the façade of a Mycenaean shrine, and the palace itself seems to have been a sanctuary of the Cretan God of the Double Axe, as well as a dwelling-place of prehistoric kings. There can be little remaining doubt that this huge building with its maze of corridors and tortuous passages, its medley of small chambers, its long succession of magazines with their blind endings, was in fact the Labyrinth of later tradition which supplied a local habitation for the Minotaur of grisly fame. “The great figures of bulls in fresco and relief that adorned the walls, the harem scenes of some of the frescoes, the cornerstones and pillars marked with the labrys or double axe—the emblem of the Cretan Zeus, explaining the deriva- tion of the name ‘Labyrinth itself—are so many details which all conspire to bear out this identification.” Minos then was real, and the legendary lore which gathered round him had some basis in fact. The site of ancient Troy has been discovered too, and the stories of its siege and capture are proving not wholly imaginary. With Minos and the Trojan war therefore, we waver on the border line between myth and history. The next legend in point of time is the “Return of the Heraclidae.” It tells how the exiled descendants of Hercules returned and reconquered the Peloponnesus. It is generally regarded as a poetic version of the Dorian inva- sion, a great event which really happened, and with which we begin the true, historic account of ancient Greece. & |[5][5] 3|Elſalſalſalſa Chapter XII THE GROWTH OF SPARTA AND THE RULE OF - THE TYRANTS the sunlight of real history. About the year IIoo B. c. the Dorians, who before were an unimportant tribe in the small piece of northern territory on the southern slope of Mount CEta, began moving southward, and, conquering the Achaean kingdoms in the Peloponne- sus, occupied Laconia or Lacedæmon, and in the course of time brought the neighboring tribes under subjection. The Achaeans, being driven out of the southern and eastern parts of the peninsula, withdrew to the northern coast, where they ex- pelled the Ionians, who found a refuge with their friends of the same race in Attica. Thus the Ionians became the master peo- ple in Central Greece, and occupied most of the Cyclades Islands in the AEgean Sea. Another important result of the general movement caused by the Dorian conquest in that remote period was the planting of Greek colonies in Asia Minor. These colonies were composed of AEolians, Ionians, and Dorians. The AEolian colonies settled along the coast of Mysia, and in the island of Lesbos, where the confederacy of Æolis was formed, con- sisting of twelve cities. The Ionians made their homes on the shores of Lydia and on the islands of Chios and Samos, and in the course of years became numerous and powerful. The Dorian colonies were established in the southwestern portion of Asia Minor and the neighboring islands, but they were of less importance than the AEolian Greece—Early Migrations • I 37 and Ionian settlements. Still other settlements were made by the Greeks, the most noted being those on the coasts of Thrace and Macedonia, on the islands lying west of Greece, in Sicily, in lower Italy, and in the territory of Cyrene, along the northern Coast of Africa. A few colonies were planted on the shores of the Euxine Sea, and there was one in the extreme western part of the Medi- terranean at Massila, since known as Marseilles. It is probable that all these settlements were made about IOOO B.C. At that period the Ionians and Dorians were the two leading races or peoples of Greece. There were many striking differences between them, which differ- ences form a leading feature of Grecian politics and history. Athens was the city of the Ionians, and Sparta of the Dorians, and because of the marked con- trast in the characteristics of the inhabitants there arose a deep-seated rivalry and enmity between the two cities. The Ionians were democratic in their tastes, lively, fickle, fond of commerce, refined enjoyments, and the fine arts. On the other hand, the Dorians were severely simple in their manners, prefer- ring an aristocratic form of government, and they maintained the worst form of slavery. The exact chronological history of Greece opens with what is known as the First Olympiad, B. c. 776. The Olympic games were the great religious festi- val of Greece. During their celebration a sacred truce was proclaimed which united all the Greeks in one brotherhood. The games were held every four years about midsummer at Olympia in the state of Elis, and were in honor of Jupiter, who had there a temple and an Oracle. The principal contest was at first a foot-race, but afterward other trials of skill were instituted; and a victory at the Olympic games was the highest honor for which a Greek athlete could strive. The happy winner was given rewards of every kind by his fellow-citi- zens, who felt that he had made their city famous in the eyes of all Greece. . The Olympiad of 776 is called the first Olympiad, only because it was the first of which a regular written record was kept. The institution was much older, being indeed of unknown antiquity, its origin lost in the mists of fable. From 776, however, the records of the winners were kept with great care, and served as a standard of time from which national events were reckoned. It is an interesting fact that those famous Olympian games have been revived in later years, representatives of our own nation appearing at them, and more than holding their own. At that period, the government had become republican, the country consist- ing of a number of little free states. Of them all, Sparta was the only one that clung to a king. It was the city that was the state, each forming an inde- pendent commonwealth, and it was this peculiar government which no doubt had much to do with the marked development of Grecian political science. 1 38 The Story of the Greatest Nations But while these petty states or cities were each independent, yet the Greeks were bound together by a national sentiment. They were proud to know them- selves as Hellenes, with a common language, literature, and religion. Their festivals, temples, and rites were equally free to all, but, like Our Countrymen in the South before the great Civil War, their strongest attachment was to their own states, and, as in the later days, that sentiment brought woeful conse- quences. The early history of Greece is mainly that of Sparta and Athens, and we begin with Sparta, which at the time of the First Olympiad possessed only a small territory, comprising little more than the valley of the river Eurotas. Her remarkable constitution was ascribed by the ancients to the legislator Lycurgus, who helped in establishing the Olympian games. It is also said that he was the son of one of the two kings who ruled over Sparta, and his father was killed in the dissensions which existed at that time. An elder son suc- ceeded to the throne, but did not live long. His widow offered to slay her unborn child, if Lycurgus would share the throne with her. Lycurgus pre- tended to consent, but, as soon as the child was born, he presented it in the market-place as the future king of Sparta. The angered mother took her revenge by charging Lycurgus with entertaining designs against the life of the infant. The disgusted legislator withdrew from Sparta, and spent a number of years visiting different countries, including Egypt, and some think India, in order to study the different systems of government so as to devise the wise laws of which Sparta stood in sore need. Lycurgus did not return until the young king had grown to manhood and assumed the reins of government. There was great disorder in Sparta and the monarch had a hard time of it. The people were dissatisfied, and delightedly welcomed the coming of Lycurgus, eager to accept his new ideas of govern- ment, for anything was better than the disorder which prevailed. He had learned a great deal during his extensive travels, and he began his work of reform with intelligence and vigor. He first presented himself to the Delphian oracle, from which he received strong assurances of divine support. Lycurgus then appeared in the market-place, accompanied by thirty of the leading Spartans in arms. The young king Charilaus was at first disposed to resent this interference, but he could not fail to note the temper of the people, and see the wisdom of the proposed revolution. He therefore announced him- self as a friend of his uncle, who issued a set of ordinances called R/etra, which revolutionized everything. All radical reforms are sure to meet with violent Opposition, and the story is that in one of the disturbances Lycurgus lost an eye, but he persevered and succeeded in carrying out his plans and in securing the ardent support of the people. - Greece—Laws of Lycurgus I 39 When this triumph was attained, he persuaded them to take a solemn oath that they would not change the laws until his return. Then he went off and that was the last ever heard of him. His aim in thus sacrificing himself was to make his beneficent laws last forever. Now it is proper I should add, that while beyond question such a man as Lycurgus lived and greatly benefited Sparta by the laws which he framed, yet many historians think too much credit has been given to him. One authority uses these words: “The most that can be assumed as probable is, that a cer- tain Lycurgus may have once existed, who at Some critical juncture in Spartan affairs may have been selected, probably on account of his wisdom and reputa- tion, to draw up a code of laws for the better government of the state. To represent the entire legislation of Sparta as invented (so to speak) by Lycurgus and imposed upon the people as a novelty, is simply incredible; the only theory worth a moment's consideration is that which supposes him to have collected, modified, improved, and enlarged the previously existing institutions of Sparta.” Be that as it may, it is unquestionable that Sparta became one of the most remarkable towns or communities that ever existed. In the first place, the Spartans numbered only about nine thousand, and the little country they pos- sessed was won by the sword and could be held only by the sword. Hence it was necessary before everything else that they should be soldiers trained to the highest possible skill and efficiency. The means by which this was done was of fearful severity; but it could not fail of success, for it may be said that endurance and training were carried to the utmost human limit. You will bear in mind that Sparta or Lacedaemon, the capital of Laconia and the most famous city of the Peloponnesus, occupied partly a range of low hills on the right bank of the Eurotas and partly the intervening plain. The natural defences of the place were so great that it continued unfortified down to the Macedonian period, and in fact was not regularly fortified until the time of the tyrant Nabis in B. C. I.Q5. Laconia contained three distinct classes: the Spartans, the Perioeci, and the Helots. The Spartans were the descendants of the Dorian conquerors, and alone could hold office and be eligible for honors. All of them lived in Sparta and were subject to the terrific discipline imposed by Lycurgus. They received support from their estates, which were cultivated for them by the Helots. The Perioeci, although politically subject to the Spartans, were personally free. They had no share in the government and were compelled to obey the commands of the Spartan magistrates. They lived in a hundred townships spread throughout the whole of Laconia. They fought as heavy-armed Soldiers in the Spartan armies, but were exempt from the iron regulations of their supe- riors. Most of the lands of Laconia belonged to Spartan citizens, but nearly I 4 O The Story of the Greatest Nations one-half was held by the Periosci. Since no Spartan was allowed to engage in commmerce or manufactures, those industries were wholly in the hands of the Perioeci, who became wealthy, and formed what may be called the Laconian or Lacedaemonian branch of the Spartans. The Helots were the slaves who lived in the rural villages, as the Perioeci did in the towns, cultivating the land and turning the rent over to their mas- ters in Sparta, but they were allowed to dwell with their families on the lands. They went with the Spartans as light-armed troops, and it does not appear that they were ever sold. They were treated with great severity and compelled to wear a dress consisting of a leather cap and a sheepskin as a badge of their degrading servitude. They were so brutally abused that they formed an intense and deep-seated hostility to the Spartans. They were always watchful for an opportunity to rise against their oppressors, and it was said of them that they would gladly “have eaten the flesh of the Spartans raw.” - The Spartan government was vested in two kings, a senate of thirty mem- bers, a popular assembly, and an executive directory of five men called the Ephors. It was not possible for even Spartan nature to prevent jealousies, dis- sensions, and a mutual weakening of authority between the two heads of the government. The power of the kings gradually declined and was absorbed by the Ephors, who in the end gained full control of the government, though the kings at all times were treated with respect. The Senate or the Council of the Elders included thirty members, among whom the two kings were counted. No man was eligible until he reached the age of three-score, and he held office for life. They had considerable power and served as a check upon the Ephors. The Popular Assembly was of slight importance and its actions seem to have been only formal, while the right of discussion was not permitted. The Ephors were elected annually from the general body of Spartan citizens, and were chosen to protect the interests of the people against any encroach- ments by the king and senate. As has been said, the whole political power of the state became centred in their hands. Every one obeyed them, and they used their vast authority like despots, without being responsible to any one. If they chose, they could arrest both kings and bring them to trial before the Senate. It has been shown that the whole aim of the system of Lycurgus was to produce and maintain a vigorous race of men and soldiers. Thus he made sol- diers, who were really nothing else. By his system, all weakly children were exposed to perish, while of those allowed to live, the males, at the age of seven, were taken from their homes and trained by the state educators. The child's education, beginning at that early age, was not relaxed until he was sixty years old. He was drilled in gymnastic games and military movements, and sub- Greece—Spartan Education 4 I jected to the most rigid bodily discipline. The earliest gymnasium of which we know is the Spartan dromos, a field specially set aside for running races, and afterward arranged for general athletic training. The youth were at times compelled to go without food or to forage for it, which was another name for stealing it. It was considered right to steal, but wrong to be detected. You have heard the incident told by Plutarch of a boy, who, having stolen a fox, hid it under his garment, and, without the slightest expression of pain, held it there while it ate out his vitals rather than allow his theft to be discovered. The Spartan was taught to despise literature, eloquence, and philosophy. Long speeches were an abomination and he used the fewest words that would express his meaning. From this fact comes our word “laconic" from the other name of Sparta, “Laconia.” A citizen was not considered to have reached the full age of manhood until thirty years old. Then he was allowed to marry, to take part in the public assembly, and might be chosen to any of the offices of state. His discipline, however, continued as unrelaxing as ever. Most of his time was spent in military and gymnastic exercises. He slept at night in the barracks and took his meals with his comrades at the public mess. This mess was instituted to prevent indulgence of the appetite. Every male citizen was compelled to eat his meals at these tables in sight of all. At each table were seated fifteen men, whose unanimous assent was necessary for a new mem- ber to gain admission. Fvery month each man sent to the mess a certain quan- tity of barley meal, wine, cheese, and figs, and a small amount of money to buy flesh and fish. At the meals there was no social distinction whatever. The Spartan women in their earlier years underwent a system of training almost as severe as that of the men. They were not only taught regular gym- nastic exercises, but contended with one another in running, wrestling, boxing, and playing with a ball. The greatest glory of the Spartan wife was to become the mother of heroes, and she felt and instilled in her offspring the same indomitable courage and patriotism as the men. “Return either with your shield or on it,” was the women's command to their sons when they went to battle. If defeat overtook their arms, the women thanked the gods for their youths who had fallen, while those whose sons returned wept over the disgrace that they had survived the defeat. One result was certain to follow such a system of education, that was wholly unknown among the neighbors of Sparta, most of whom were her rivals and enemies. She grew rapidly, and steadily subjugated those around her. In the time of Lycurgus, the Spartans were simply a garrison in a hostile country, but they became masters of Laconia. This success, instead of satisfying those warriors, only whetted their appetite for new conquests, and they cast their longing eyes upon the lands of their Dorian brethren in Messenia. I 42 The Story of the Greatest Nations Of the early wars in which Sparta engaged the two waged against Messenia were the most important. They were desperately fought, lasted a long while, and ended in the triumph of Sparta and the conquest of Messenia. That much is known, but we have few reliable particulars of the wars themselves. Differ- ent causes are named for them, but the real one no doubt was the covetousness of Sparta for the possessions of her neighbors. While it is not certain when these wars began and ended, it is probable that the first broke out in B.C. 743 and closed in 724, while the second lasted from 685 to 668. The pretext for the first Messenian war is stated to have been the following: Mount Taygetus, separating the two kingdoms, contained the temple of Diana common to both people. On this mountain, the Spartan king Teleclus was killed by the Messenians. The Spartans said he was murdered while defending against insult some virgins whom he was escorting to the temple. On the other hand, the Messenians claimed that Teleclus had dressed up a number of young men as virgins with concealed daggers, and that the king met his death in the riot which followed the discovery of the trickery. Then a Messenian, who gained the prize at the Olympic games, was grossly maltreated by a Spar- tan, and, unable to obtain redress from the Spartan government, revenged him- self by killing all the Lacedaemonians whom he met. Sparta demanded the surrender of the offender, which being refused, she went to war. Without making any declaration, the Spartans secretly completed their preparations, crossed the frontier, surprised the fortress of Amphea, and put the inhabitants to the sword. Euphaes, king of Messenia, acted with vigor and for four years held his own. A great battle was fought in the fifth year, without decisive results, but the Messenians were handled so severely that they consulted the oracle at Delphi, who, to their consternation, told them that the salvation of Messenia required them to sacrifice a virgin of the royal house. Aristodemus offered his own daughter for the victim. A young Messenian who loved her sought to save her, whereon her father slew her with his own hand. The Spartans were so depressed by the tidings that they refrained for several years from attacking the Messenians. In the thirteenth year of the war, another severe but indecisive battle was fought. Euphaes was killed in the action, and Aristodemus, succeeding him, pressed hostilities with energy. Five years after he became king, a third battle took place, in which the Corin- thians fought as allies of the Spartans and the Arcadians and Sicyonians as those of the Messenians, who gained the victory and drove the Lacedaemonians back into their own territory. The latter asked the advice of the Delphian oracle, who assured them of success through strategem. Being warned by a vision that his country was doomed, Aristodemus slew himself on the tomb of his daughter and, soon after- Greece—Wars of Sparta and Messenia 1 4 3 ward, in the twentieth year of the war, the Messenians abandoned Ithome, which the Lacedaemonians razed to the ground, and the whole country became Subject to Sparta. Many of the inhabitants fled, and those who remained were treated with great harshness. They were degraded to the condition of the Helots and forced to pay their conquerors one-half of the produce of their lands. This grinding tyranny was endured for thirty-nine years, when in B.C. 685 they again took up arms against their oppressors. They had found a new leader in Aristomenes of the royal line, who proved himself a superb warrior and general. As before, the Corinthians fought on the side of the Spartans, but the Argives, Arcadians, Sicyonians, and Pisatans were allies of the Messe- nians. The first battle took place before the arrival of the allies of either side. The valor of Aristomenes terrified the Spartans. While neither party could claim the victory, the Messenian hero crossed the frontier, made his way into Sparta by night, and fastened a shield to the temple of Minerva with the inscription, “Dedicated by Aristomenes to the goddess from the Spartan spoils.” The Spartans were in a panic and applied to Delphi for counsel. They were bade to ask Athens for a leader. Afraid to disobey the oracle, but not wishing to help its rival, Athens sent them Tyrtaeus, who was a lame school- master. He was received with all honor and demonstrated the wisdom of the oracle in a most unexpected manner. He wrote a number of martial songs of such stirring patriotism that the courage of the Spartans revived, and they were roused to deeds that in the end made them successful. The following is a specimen of his war-songs, from those that have been preserved to us: “To the field, to the field, gallant Spartan band, Worthy sons, like your sires, of our warlike land Let each arm be prepared for its part in the fight, Fix the shield on the left, poise the spear with the right. Let no care for your lives in your bosoms find place ; No such care knew the heroes of old Spartan race.” It took tremendous fighting, however, before the Spartans attained success. In the battle at Boar's Grave, when the allies of both sides were present, the Spartans were defeated with great loss. Another battle was fought in the third year of the war, when the Messenians were signally repulsed through the treachery of their ally Aristocrates, king of the Arcadians. Their loss was so severe that Aristomenes no longer dared meet the Spartans in the open field. He withdrew to the mountain fortress of Ira, where he prosecuted the war for eleven years, often sallying forth and attacking the Spartans, who were en- camped at the foot of the mountain. Amazing stories are told of the exploits of Aristomenes during those fateful years. He was taken prisoner three times 144 The Story of the Greatest Nations but twice burst his bonds and escaped. On the third occasion, he was carried to Sparta and with fifty of his companions flung into a deep pit. The fall was so great that all were killed except Aristomenes, who, seeing no hope, resigned himself to death. As he sat thus philosophically awaiting the end, he saw on the third day a fox prowling among the bodies. Seizing its tail, he held fast, allowing the terrified animal to lead the way in its efforts to escape. It con- ducted him to an opening in the rock through which the hero emerged once more into the sunlight. The following day he appeared at Ira, to the amaze- ment of friends and foes. But Aristomenes could not alone save his people. Ira was surprised one night and he was wounded, but, gathering the bravest of his followers, he fought his way through the enemy and fled to Arcadia, where he was kindly received. He quickly formed a plan for surprising Sparta, but it was betrayed by Aristocrates, who was stoned to death by his countrymen for his treachery. Messenia was completely subjugated, and, as before, the people became the slaves of the Spartans. Many fled the country, and Aristomenes died peace- fully in Rhodes. Messenia sank into insignificance until its independence was restored by Epaminondas in the year B.C. 369, the country up to that time form- ing a portion of Laconia, which reached from sea to sea across the south of Peloponnesus. - * We have few particulars of the wars between Sparta and Arcadia. The several attempts of the Spartans to extend their dominions over Arcadia drove the people of that country to the help of the Messenians in their gallant fight against their conquerors. The subjugation of southern Arcadia probably fol- lowed the conquest of Messenia. It is known that the whole northern frontier of Laconia belonged at first to Arcadia and was conquered from them by the Ilacedaemonians. The latter met with a very different reception when they attacked Tegea, a city in the Southeastern part of Arcadia, on the border of Laconia. The popu- lation were as brave and warlike as the Spartans, and for more than two hun- dred years repelled every assault made upon them. In one of the early battles the Spartan king and all his soldiers who survived the battle were taken prison- ers. A good many years later, about B.C. 580, the Lacedaemonians again marched against Tegea, only to meet with disastrous defeat. The chains which they took with them to bind upon the Tegeatans were fastened to their own limbs, and they were compelled to become slaves of their masters. About twenty years later, however, the Spartans were successful, and in the end the Tegeatans were obliged to submit to Sparta; but they were not made slaves like the Messenians, being allowed to remain masters of their own territory and becoming dependent allies of Sparta. 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Sºdvig10（v onl_Lonae LSN.1 salvae oos - º - - º - º n in. º - tº ºn º - º 22: 22:… PHIDIAS STATUE OF MINERVA IN THE PARTHENON S30||1Slºw qw w S3 （100H dos -- - º ſº - º --- - º - Ézººs- -ºš §§ 7° - - - - º - - - - º fº = 3. --~~ - º- - tº-ses jº º - - º * º * N º º - - O º PARIS ABDUCTING HELEN Greece—Spartan Supremacy in Peloponnesus I 45 Still less is known of the early struggles between Argos and Sparta. At the beginning, the whole eastern coast of Peloponnesus belonged to Argos, or to the confederacy over which she presided. The Lacedaemonians conquered all the eastern coast of Laconia and also annexed the district of Cynuria on their northern frontier, which once formed part of the dominions of Argos. The attempt of the Argives to recover this territory in 547 B.C. was the cause of one of the most noted combats in Grecian history. The Lacedaemonians and Argives agreed to settle the question by a combat between three hundred champions chosen respectively by each side. This strange battle was fought out with such desperation that when it ended only one Spartan and two Argives were left alive. The latter, thinking no enemy had escaped, hurried home with the joyful news of the victory, but the Spartan warrior, Othryades by name, remained on the field and despoiled the dead bod- ies of his foes. Victory was claimed by both sides, and to decide the dispute a general battle took place, in which the Argives were defeated. What a strik- ing proof of the heroic patriotism of the Spartans it is that Othryades, ashamed to return to Sparta as the one survivor of the battle of the six hundred cham- pions, slew himself on the field ! The power of Argos was broken and Cynuria came under subjection to the Spartans. Thus Sparta had fought her way to the most dominant position of all the Grecian states. It has been shown that her territory embraced the whole south- ern portion of Peloponnesus. She had made the Arcadians her subject allies; Argos was so humbled that she dared not molest her powerful neighbor, and north of the Isthmus of Corinth there was none to compete with her. Athens had not yet reached the point where she could be considered a formidable rival. It has been said that throughout the most brilliant period of Grecian history Sparta was the single state that clung to the kingly form of government, the only one known at first. But at an early age a gradual hatred of monarchy grew up among the different cities, each of which, it will be remembered, formed a separate political community. The change seems to have been brought about without violence or revolution. In some cases when the king died, his son was accepted as ruler for life, or a stated number of years, with the title of Archon, sometimes the whole royal family was set aside and a noble was chosen to act in place of the king, without the kingly title. In each instance the new ruler was more or less responsible to the nobles. After a time he was elected for a brief term from the nobles themselves, to whom as before he was accountable. Thus, when the monarchy was abolished, it was followed by an oligarchy, or the government of the few. This was the beginning of republi- canism in Greece, and the way was thus paved for greater changes. It was the entering wedge when the few should give way to the many. I O I 46 The Story of the Greatest Nations The nobles owned most of the lands of the state, their estates being culti- vated by a rural and dependent population. Besides these two classes there were many small landed proprietors who tilled their own fields, and there were also a good many artisans and traders who lived in the towns. These two classes grew faster than any other. They had wealth and intelligence, and demanded with good reason a share in the government, from which they had been shut out so long. The oligarchies were oppressive, and did not increase in numbers. Matters drifted toward revolution. Instead of the blow being struck by the people, however, it came from the usurpers, who were named Tyrants by the Greeks. The word tyrant does not have the meaning in Greek that it has in English, its reference being to an irresponsible ruler. They came forward about the same time in different Grecian cities, their first appearance being in the middle of the seventh century B.C. Within the succeeding one hundred and fifty years they completed their work in almost all the towns. * It can be easily understood that when the discontent was so general, ambi- tious men saw a chance for advancement. The most common method was for a noble to espouse vehemently the cause of the people. Aided by them, the oligarchy was easily overturned and the champion was put forward as the chosen ruler. It came about in a few instances that a noble who had been elected president persisted in holding the office despite the other nobles, while now and then the Supreme power was placed in the hands of a dictator for a limited period, until he could accomplish some important object the citizens had at heart. Naturally the Tyrants were highly popular when first raised to power by those who exulted in the humiliation of their former masters, but in most cases the Tyrants became oppressive and cruel. Then the people showed their dis- content; the ruler resorted to violence; this made him more detested than before, and he called in foreign troops to protect him; surrounded by these mercenaries he exiled or put to death the most distinguished and virtuous citi- zens, by which time the Tyrant had earned the English meaning of the word as applied to him. But all were not cruel and base. Some built splendid public works; others tried to win the good-will of their subjects by becoming patrons of literature and art; but although about every device possible was resorted to, the Tyrants, in the order of things, could not prolong the life of their dynasties. It was natural that the Lacedaemonians, who were ardently on the side of oligarchy, should look with hatred upon the rule of these usurpers. They gladly gave their help to crush them, and through such assistance, many of the Tyrants were overthrown. Of course the expectation and wish of the Lace- daemonians was to re-establish the government of the few, but this seldom hap- Greece–Rule of the Tyrants - I 47 pened. The distinction between the nobles and the common people had been broken down by the rule of the Tyrant, and when he was removed it was rarely possible to restore the nobles to their former privileges. Thus the oligarchy, having defeated royalty, was next forced to fight with democracy. These phases . of the revolution will be most strikingly shown when we come to study the his- tory of Athens, but for the present a few examples of other Greek states will serve. The most celebrated Tyrants were those of Corinth, whose rule lasted for seventy-four years. The founder was Cypselus, who overthrew the oligarchy in B.C. 655. His mother belonged to the ruling house, but, since she was lame none of her class would marry her, and she wedded an “outsider.” An oracle having declared that her son would prove the ruin of the oligarchy, the mem- bers endeavored to kill the infant, but the mother succeeded in concealing him. Upon reaching manhood, Cypselus espoused the cause of the people against the nobles, and with their help drove them out, and ruled as a Tyrant for thirty years, his government being paternal and very popular. Periander, his son, was despotic and cruel. If he thought a noble danger- ous, he cut off his head, and all attempts at revolt were put down with merci- less rigor. Nevertheless, he was an able man and warrior, and under his rule Corinth attained a height of prosperity and power which surpassed all the com- mercial communities of Greece. A number of important colonies were founded and art and literature were encouraged. By some Periander was numbered among the Seven Sages of Greece. In his last days he suffered great afflic- tion. It is said he killed his wife in a fit of anger, whereupon his shocked and indignant son withdrew to Corcyra, refusing to return when his father, in his old age, begged him to assume the government. Then Periander offered to go away if his son would come back. The offer was accepted, but, fearing that the stern rule of the father would be repeated in the son, the Corcyraeans put the latter to death. Periander reigned forty years (625–585), and was succeeded by a relative, who held the reins of power only three or four years when he was “removed ” by the Lacedaemonians. * Theagenes made himself Tyrant in the neighboring city of Megara about B. C. 630, by espousing the popular cause against the oligarchy, but some twenty odd years later he was driven from office. Then followed a violent struggle between the oligarchy and democracy, in which the latter triumphed; but they grossly abused their power and robbed the rich and confiscated their property. The expelled nobles returned and restored the oligarchy, but were driven out a second time; and it required long and hard fighting finally to re-establish the oligarchy. These revolutions may serve as illustrative of the general unrest and strife in the Grecian cities between the Few and Many, which in the fulness of time were to end in the triumph of the people, or the Many. º º º E. ************º. -. --- --- - -- º -- Nº- & FT-- --- º - --- 3. 3. 3. º - -- º º ...]- - º 3. -3. = º - º: º *- : >{{< : % . ---- -> 3. cº- | *3 - - - - º º --- - - - - tºº - - - - - - ºcºs º tº o 9- §º vºv-Tº ºvcºv-Tº - - - - - -- º - - - ºvºvºvº THE TEMPLEs or PERGAMUM Chapter XIV THE GREEK COLONIES º HISTORY of Greece would be incomplete without an ſºlº account of her colonies, which formed a part of Hellas - |iº, as much as did Athens and Sparta. º tº the main causes of Greek colonization. The parent Eº city generally not only gave its consent to the planting vised their migration and settlement. When the colony had been formed, it was usually considered independent of the glory of belonging to the same race. It was a shocking thing for a colony and its mother to go to war, and this very rarely oc- When our own country was settled it was mainly by bands of adventurers, scattered over a wide area and forming a union long beginning. The first step was to found a city and to erect those buildings necessary in the religious and social life of the Greeks. There were temples the training of youth, followed in later years by a theatre for dramatic repre- sentations. for containing a hill high enough for an acropolis. Since the places thus colo- nized were generally occupied by others, the Greeks either drove them away or Civil discord and an overflowing population were º gº º º: of such a colony from its inhabitants, but also super- mother city, though connected by filial affection and the common curred. afterward. On the contrary, a Greek colony was an organized body from the for the gods, a place of public meeting for the citizens, and a gymnasium for Nearly every colonial city was built on the sea-coast, and a site was looked made slaves of them, very much after the manner of our ancestors in the case Greece—Colonies in Asia I 6 I of the Indians. In some instances they were absorbed by the conquerors, and in time were admitted to political rights. It must be remembered, too, that through intermarriages a foreign element was introduced into the population, whose influence came to be felt more than once to a marked degree. An interesting fact is to be noted: in most of these colonies democracy was established before it was adopted in the mother country. Furthermore, the enterprise of the colonists and their favorable location caused many to sur- pass in power and prosperity the parent cities from which they sprang. This was the case with Miletus and Ephesus in Asia, Syracuse and Agrigentum in Sicily, and Croton and Sybaris in Italy. The earliest Greek colonies were planted on the western shores of Asia Minor. They formed three divisions, each named for the section of Greece with which they claimed kinship. The northern part of the coast was occupied by the AEolians, the central by the Ionians, and the southern by the Dorians. Their early history reaches so far back in the past that it is lost in the blur of the mythical age, but their later developments made them and others so essen- tial a part of Greece that their record is inseparable. The Ionic cities, occupying the middle of the district named, displayed the most commercial enterprise, and soon outstripped in wealth and power their neighbors to the north and south. Miletus was the most important, and, dur- ing the seventh and eighth centuries before Christ, it was the leading commer- cial city of Greece. Its navigators visited all parts of the Mediterranean and the adjoining seas, and it is said at one time to have had no fewer than eighty colonies of its own planting, most of which were on the Propontis and the Euxine. Inasmuch as some of these colonies in turn planted others, the sys- tem, beginning at the first parent city, suggests the “endless chain " of corre- spondence. Ephesus at a later date exceeded Miletus in population and wealth, its greatness being due to its trade with the interior and its extensive territory, most of which was obtained at the expense of the Lydians. It was surpassed by several smaller cities in commercial enterprise. The Phocaeans visited the coasts of Gaul and Spain and planted several colonies, one of which was Mas- salia, or Marseilles. - Coming down to the time of the first Olympiad, we can speak with some certainty of the colonies in Sicily and Italy, for they were established about that period. The Campanian Cumae, near Cape Misenum on the Tyrrhenian Sea, claimed to be the oldest in Italy, the date of its founding, it is said, being fully a thousand years before the Christian era. It stood alone for a long time, and for centuries was the most flourishing city in Campania, but in the fifth century B.C. it was surpassed by Capua. r r I 62 The Story of the Greatest Nations The first Grecian settlement in Sicily was made in B. c. 735. The island was inhabited by rude tribes, who were easily driven into the interior by the Greeks. On the western side of the island were most of the Carthaginian set- tlements, but the exceeding richness of the soil and the ease with which it could be acquired drew many colonists from different parts of Greece, who lined the shores with flourishing and successful cities. Syracuse on the eastern coast contained at one time a population of half a million and was surrounded by twenty miles of walls. Agrigentum on the western coast was not founded until a century and a half later, by the Dorians of Gela, which was an offshoot of the Rhodians and Cretans. Its growth was amazingly rapid. It was famous for the magnificence of its public buildings, and was called by Pindar “the fairest of mortal cities.” With all its grandeur and power it was cursed by one of the most abomina- ble Tyrants that ever climbed to a throne, and whose rule was parallel in time with that of Pisistratus and Croesus. This was Phalaris, who roasted alive in a brazen bull those whom he disliked. This hideous instrument of torture was in existence for many years after the death of Phalaris. He was engaged in numerous wars and greatly extended his dominions. Cicero called him the “most cruel of all Tyrants,” and yet, since he was a patron of literature, some have thought he did not wholly deserve the general execration in which he was held. In 1690 the learned Richard Bentley of England published a masterly “Dis- sertation upon the Epistles of Phalaris,” in which he clearly proved that the production, which professed to have been written in the sixth century B.C., was the forgery of a period some eight centuries later. Phalaris' diabolical brutality became intolerable after a time, and the inhabitants put him to death. The Grecian colonies in Italy were of about the same age as those in Sicily, which after a time they surpassed. They covered an immense extent of sea- Coast on the South, reaching from Cumae on the one sea to Tarentum on the other. Because of their great number and wealth, the south of Italy became known as Magna Graecia or Greater Greece. The most important event in the history of this section is the war between Sybaris and Crotona, both cities sit- uated on the Gulf of Tarentum and of Achaean origin. Sybaris was founded in B. c. 720 and Crotona ten years later. For two hundred years they ranked among the most flourishing cities in Greece. The walls of Sybaris were six miles in extent and those of Crotona double that, though the former city was the more powerful, for it had greater territory and a larger number of colonies. Sybaris was one of the richest, most effeminate, and debauched places in the world, and it is from this fact that we derive the word “Sybarite.” Crotona, on the other hand, was famous Greece—Colonies in Italy I 63 for the skill of its physicians and surgeons, and for the number of prizes its citizens won in the Olympic games, the best proof of their immeasurable supe- riority over the Sybarites. Its government was an aristocracy, the governing body being a senate of one thousand citizens. - There were certain to be dissensions in such a depraved city as Sybaris, where an insurrection placed a man named Telys at the head of affairs. He drove several hundred of the oligarchical party into exile. They took refuge in Crotona, and Telys threatened war unless they were surrendered to him. Cro- tona was scared because of the superior military power of Sybaris, and would have yielded to the demand of her neighbor, but for the urgency of Pythago- ras, who had settled there, and whose soul burned with indignation at the pro- posed humiliation. War followed, the force which Sybaris put in the field being more than double that of the Crotonites, who were led by the famous athlete Milo, and had the aid of a body of Spartans, under a brother of Cleomenes, who was on his way to found a colony in Sicily. In the battle the Sybarites were disas- trously defeated, their city was captured and razed to the ground. Then it was literally washed from the face of the earth by the turning of a river over its site (B.C. 5 IO). Among the other important Greek settlements in the south of Italy were those of Locri, Rhegium, and Tarentum. The first named was founded in B. C. 683 by a party of Locrian freebooters. To them belongs the distinction of being the first Hellenic community with a code of written laws, their date being forty years previous to those of Draco at Athens (B.C. 664). These laws are said to have been as severe as those of Draco, but they were rigidly obeyed, since that was the only means of escaping the turbulence of the people which threatened the country with ruin. - Rhegium stood on the straits of Messina, opposite Sicily, and was founded by the Chalcidians, who were afterward joined by many Messenians, driven thither by the results of the Messenian wars. The Tyrant who succeeded in becoming the head of the government in B.C. 500 was of Messenian descent. Tarentum, of which there is more general knowledge, stood at the head of the gulf of the same name and was founded about B.C. 708. The location was excellent, it being the only town on the gulf with an absolutely safe harbor. After the destruction of Sybaris it grew into the most flourishing and powerful city in Greater Greece, and held that rank until subjugated by the Romans. With the opening of the fifth century before Christ, the cities of Greater Greece began to decline, partly because of the aggressiveness of the Samnites and Lucanians, who pushed forward from Middle Italy toward the south, and in time deprived the Greek cities of all their inland territory. I 64 The Story of the Greatest Nations We have referred to the Grecian settlements in Gaul and Spain. Modern Marseilles was founded in B.C. 600 by the Ionic Phocaeans, so that this well- known city is twenty-five hundred years old. It long remained the chief Gre- cian town west of Italy, and planted five colonies along the eastern coast of Spain. It possessed an extensive commerce, and its navy was powerful enough to defeat the attacks of the Carthaginians. It was about the middle of the seventh century before the Christian era that the Greeks were allowed for the first time to settle in Egypt and to trade with that country. The Hellenic colonists also occupied the northern coast of Africa between Carthage and Egypt. The commerce between the countries extended the knowledge of the Greeks, and they founded the city of Cyrene on the African coast about B.C. 630. Standing on the margin of a range of hills, ten miles inland from the Mediterranean, its site was well chosen. The cli- mate was healthful and the soil remarkably fertile. Thus favored, Cyrene grew rapidly in power and importance, as is proven by the extensive remains which still mark its site. It differed from most of the Grecian colonies in that it was governed for eight generations by kings, but a democratic form of gov- ernment was established about B.C. 460. Cyrene was the mother of several other colonies, of which Barca was the most important. Of the Grecian colonies on the eastern side of the Ionian Sea in Epirus and its neighborhood the island of Corcyra (now Corfu) was the richest and most powerful. It was an offshoot of the Corinthians, and was founded about B. c. 7OO. Corcyra gave a melancholy example of a war between a colony and its mother country. In this case it was due to jealousy because of the great com- mercial activity of Corcyra. The naval battle between the two is the most ancient of which there is a record, it having been fought in B.C. 664. It was not decisive, and the wrangling went on, notwithstanding which the two joined in planting four Grecian colonies on the same stretch of coast— Leucas, Anac- torium, Apollonia, and Epidamnus. There were many colonies in Macedonia and Thrace, fringing the coast of the AEgean, the Hellespont, the Propontis, and the Euxine, from the frontier of Thessaly to the mouth of the Danube. The most important in Thrace was Byzantium, now Constantinople, founded in B.C. 657. We have related enough to show the wide diffusion of the Hellenic race for several centuries preceding the Christian era. º- º º 2 \ P- º º º º N º || & ºn - --- Fººtºººººº Yºº ºt Socrates Brrone. His JUDGEs Chapter XV THE GROWTH OF GREEK LITERATURE AND ART splendor has been the wonder of all the centuries that have followed, and whose achievements will be viewed with admiration to the end of time. There have been many ingenious theories to explain this amazing devel- opment of a single race amid a world of comparative ignorance and darkness. There must have been a variety of causes, but none perfectly explains the mar- vel. It seems, as in the case of the Renaissance, that certain epochs come of themselves, as may be said, in the fulness of time, and the rest of mankind can only wonder and admire. The activity and development of the Grecian mind seem to have begun in the earliest dawn of its history, and continued until the downfall of its political independence. In order to present this pro- foundly interesting subject with clearness, we must hold other mat- ters in abeyance for a time, and pass beyond the dates of many im- portant political events, leaving them to be treated in the pages that follow. Repeated references have been made to the gods of the Greeks, and you need not be reminded that the people were not Christians. They were what is termed polytheists, that is, they believed in many gods, and in that sense were idolaters. Their religion, however, had little or none of the sombre supersti- tions of most of the ancient nations. It was rather a religion of love than of fear, and they looked upon their gods as personal friends. Their mythology was luminous with ideal conceptions, which formed the subjects for poets, artists, and sculptors. I 66 The Story of the Greatest Nations The worship of the gods consisted mainly in sacrifices, which were offer- ings of prayer and thanksgiving, or sin-offerings, and were usually celebrated by priests either in the open air, on the mountain-tops, in groves and forests, or in temples, particularly during the celebration of the great national festivals. Sometimes the offerings were fruits, wine, honey, milk, frankincense, etc., or animals in great numbers, the last being called hecatombs. Among the other methods of honoring the gods were short forms of prayer, repeated Standing with outstretched arms, and solemn processions and religious dances. We have already learned that the Greeks believed they received divine revelations from the oracles, the most famous being the one at Delphi. As you know, Greece comprehended the states and colonies, whose tie was the common one of race and religion. All these people took an enthusiastic part in the four great religious festivals—the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean Games. - The Pythian festival was held every ninth, or later every fifth year, near Delphi, in honor of Apollo. The Isthmian festival received its name from the fact that it was celebrated on the Isthmus of Corinth, and it was in honor of Neptune, the god of the sea. The Nemean festival was celebrated at Nemea, in the Peloponnesus, in honor of Nemean Jupiter. In these famous contests the struggle was at first for the prize in athletic exercises, but there were also trials of skill in music and in poetry. The prizes had no monetary value, being a simple garland of olive or laurel placed on the victor's head. But the chaplet in one respect had a value beyond a prince's realm. The name of the victor was proclaimed before the assembled Greeks, his statue was set up in the sacred grove, and the poets sang his praises. He was escorted in triumphal procession to his home, where honors and rewards were showered upon him and fame made his name immortal. These festivals drew an enormous number of people from all parts of Greece and lasted for several days. Philip Smith, in his “History of the World,” says: “In the booths around the plain of Olympia merchants exchanged the rude wares they had brought from the banks of the Tanais and the Rhone against the rich products of Asia and Africa; the social and political condition of the various states of the mother country, of her farthest colonies, and of the barbarian nations around them, might be compared. Teachers of philosophy discussed the theories which sprang up in Athens and Italian Greece; sculp- tors and painters took occasion to exhibit the finest productions of chisel and brush ; while poets and historians read aloud, in all their freshness, those immortal works which we only half admire for want of such a hearing. Such intercourse must have powerfully tended to maintain that intellectual sympathy which, in the absence of any political union, was the strongest bond of nation- Greece—The Epics of Homer 167 ality among the sons of Hellas.” No literature of antiquity can compare in value to that of Greece, which embodies the noblest conceptions of the human mind. Poetry precedes prose, the oldest poems that have been preserved being the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer. They are incomparably the finest ever writ- ten, and “breathe the freshness and charm of the poetic springtime of the world.” It is a remarkable fact that these immortal epics or narrative poems belong to colonial and not to continental Greece. Its literature originated in the Ionian and AEolian cities on the coast of Asia Minor. It is a strange misfortune that in the case of Homer as of Shakespeare so little is known of the personality of the master genius. Some have doubted his existence, the German historians especially reducing him to a mere “sym- bol,” but the almost unanimous verdict of competent scholars is that he was an actuality, the internal evidence of the poems themselves pointing to that fact. All traditions make Homer an Asiatic Greek, and though many places have contended for the honor of his birthplace, “through which when living he begged his bread,” it is generally conceded that Smyrna is the city where he first saw the light. All that relates to this remarkable man is so interesting that we quote the following admirable account: - “The chronology of the Homeric poems, both as respects the great central event which they celebrate—the Trojan war—and the age of the poet himself, is doubtful; but it is quite certain that Homer lived considerably before the recognition of a regularly received record of dates among the Greeks—that is, before the year B.C. 776, the commencement of the calculation by Olympiads. The date given by Herodotus for the age of Homer—four hundred years before his own time, that is, about 850 B.C.—is probable enough ; but considering the entire want of any reliable foundation for chronology in those early times, we must seek an accuracy in this matter beyond that which was attained by the Greeks themselves, and allow a free margin of at least two hundred years from the time of Solomon (IOOO B.C.) downward, during which the singer of the //iad and Odyssey may have flourished. To throw him further back than the earliest of these dates would be inconsistent at once with the historical elements in the midst of which his poems move, and with the style of the language which he uses; for this exhibits a luxurious freedom, a rich polish, and an exquisite euphony, which remove it far from that roughness and clumsiness which is wont to characterize languages in the earliest stages of literary development. The Ionic dialect used by Homer is, in fact, a highly cultivated shoot of the old Hellenic stock, which was in the poet's hands so perfect for the highest poetical purposes as to have remained the model for the epic style during the whole period of the poetical literature of the Greeks. I 68 The Story of the Greatest Nations “In endeavoring to form a correct estimate of the position of Homer as a poet, the primary fact from which we must start is, that he was not the epic poet of a literary age—like Virgil among the Romans, Tasso among the Ital- ians, or Milton among ourselves—but he was decidedly and characteristically an aoidos, or minstrel, a character well known to us from our own mediaeval literature, both in other shapes, and especially as it has been presented to us by the kindred genius of Sir Walter Scott. - “That there is an essential and vital generic distinction between the popular minstrel of an age when books are either not known or little used, and the cul- tivated poet of an age which rejoices in all sorts of libraries, and possesses a special class of literary reading, admits of no doubt. The conditions of the work to be done being different, the work itself cannot possibly be the same. It is quite certain, however, that the great majority of the critics and transla- tors of Homer in this country have not recognized this distinction. The con- equence is, that they strike an entirely false note, and blow the Seraphic trump of Milton when they should be content to take a plain shepherd's pipe in their hands. . . . In order to understand Homer, therefore, we must look on him as the culmination of the minstrel or ballad poetry, in the shape of the minstrel epos; a grand combination of popular ballad materials and ballad tone, elevated to the highest pitch of which it is capable, with the architectural form and structure of the epos. . . . “The characteristics of Homer's poetry, as the culmination of ballad poetry and the grand model of the minstrel epos, may be expressed in a very few words. In the first place, the materials are essentially national, and if not strictly historical in every detail of decoration, grow, like all ballad poetry, out of the real life of the people, and rest at least upon an honest historical sub- stratum. In this view the Iliad is as valuable for the earliest history of the Hellenic race as Herodotus and Thucydides are for the later periods. But it is not for the Greeks alone that Homer possesses an important historical value; he is for all ages an important record of the earliest stages of human society, second only to the books of Moses, and perhaps some of the very oldest of the Vedas. The first germs of almost all other arts and sciences afterward culti- vated by the Greeks and Romans are to be found in Homer. In this view he was to the Greeks themselves an encyclopedia of their national culture; and, as embodying the grand features of their polytheistic faith, he is also constantly quoted by their great writers with all the deference due to a Bible.” The poet who ranks next to Homer is Hesiod, who was born probably in the eighth century B.C. at Ascra, in Boeotia. He was a peasant or herdsman, judging by his references to himself in his poems. He was robbed of his share of his father's estate by a brother. Nevertheless he prospered, and when the SEP 6 1906 - \ º l º | º - |MAW - * Wºw' . º "º º - - º T. LYCURGUS PLEDGING THE SPARTANS TO HIS LAWS snaevo ao 390,188 ± Hl. Baaeta Saud Sxh3 389 3 HL THE DELPHIC ORACLE DECREES ATHENS LIBERATION XO-3 BH） L Wº 0338-i S3. Nº wollslaev } RECEPTION OF THE PERSIAN ENVOY AT SPARTA |- º. ---- = （）,7% ſººſ BATTLE OF THE GODS AND GIANTS o - < u I H -1 ~ u- H. ~ < u º u I H. º ~ < ºn < ar O c < I H. > d- NOH, Lvuvw -- O B-1_1_lvº a H_1. Greece—Elegiac and Lyric Poetry 169 brother, having squandered everything, was compelled to turn to him for aid, he gave, in his poems, excellent advice to the spendthrift. Let us hope he accompanied it with more substantial help. He removed afterward to Orcho- menos, on Lake Copais, where he spent the remainder of his days, and where in later times his tomb was shown. He and his disciples were the poets of rural quietude and peaceful pursuits, while Homer was the poet of grand deeds. Seven poems are ascribed to Hesiod, of which the principal are: “Works and Days,” “Generation of the Gods,” and “Catalogues of Women.” The first two are entire, while the famous “Shield of Hercules” is believed by many to be a remnant of the third. The epic was the poetry of the kingly age, but when democracy supplanted monarchy, the “elegy,” meaning emotional poetry, became the favorite form of expression. The best representative of this school was Tyrtaeus, who was the lame schoolmaster of whom we learned in the account of the Messenian war. He was sent to Sparta by the Athenians, who, ignorant of his lyric power and jealous of their rival, thought thus to comply literally with the com- mand of an oracle, while disobeying it in spirit. Tyrtaeus lived to see the remarkable success of his stirring poems, which did more for Sparta than any military genius could have accomplished. Another writer of noble elegies was Simonides, born in the island of Ceos, in the year 556 B.C., and educated with a view of making music and poetry his profession. You will remember that he is credited with originating four of the letters of our alphabet. Hipparchus, by means of large rewards, induced him to reside in Athens. It must have been subsequent to the expulsion of Hippias that he made his home in Thessaly, but he returned to Athens after the inva- sion of Greece by the Persians, and used his poetic powers in the composition of elegies, epigrams, dirges, etc. He won the prize relating to the battle of Marathon from his rival AEschylus, and “made a record,” as may be said, when at the age of eighty years he gained his fifty-sixth prize in a poetical contest at Athens. He died at the court of Hiero of Syracuse at the age of ninety. It is of him that the story is told that, being asked by Hiero what was the nature of God, he requested a day to consider his answer. The next day he asked for two days more, and so continued without answering, always doubling the time of delay, until Hiero demanded why. He answered, “Because the longer I re- flect on the subject, the more unsolvable does it appear to be.” Now came the development of lyric poetry, whose chief feature was its con- nection with vocal or instrumental music, accompanied also at times with danc- ing. Sappho was the chief representative of the AEolian School of lyric poetry, and was born at Mitylene in Lesbos. She lost her father when six years old, and was a contemporary and friend of Alcaeus. She fled from Mitylene to some 17o The Story of the Greatest Nations place of refuge in Sicily, because of political trouble, between the years 604 and 592 B.C. Her celebrated plunge from the Leucadian rock, on finding her love for Phaon unreturned, is probably a fiction of later times. She is supposed to have been the centre of a literary coterie at Mitylene, all women, and most of them her pupils. That she possessed great genius Cannot be denied, as is proven in her beautiful ode to Aphrodite, and no one can fail to regret that of her nine books of poems only the fragments have been preserved to us. Hardly second to Sappho as lyric poets were Alcaeus, Anacreon, and Pindar. Alcaeus called Sappho the “violet-crowned, pure, sweetly smiling Sappho.” Pindar, born in Boeotia 522 B.C., was the leader of the Doric school of lyrists, and the Greeks esteemed him the most sublime of their lyric poets. The drama, the highest form of Greek literature, arose in Athens in the fifth century B.C., reaching its full development at the hands of Æschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The first is ranked as the father of Greek tragedy, and was born at Eleusis in Attica in 525 B.C. He fought in the battles of Mar- athon, Salamis, and Plataea, and was given special honor for his martial bra- very. He is believed to have been the author of more than seventy tragedies, but only seven have been preserved to us—“Prometheus Bound,” the “Seven Against Thebes,” the “Persians,” “Agamemnon,” the “Choēphorae,” “Eumen- ides,” and the “Suppliants.” For some uncertain cause AEschylus left his na- tive city and went to Sicily, where he died at Gela, in 456 B.C., and the inhabi- tants raised a monument to his memory. Sophocles was born near Athens probably in 495 B.C. He was carefully educated, was remarkably handsome in appearance, and because of his skill in poetry and music was selected to lead with dance and the lyre, after the victory at Salamis, the chorus of youths in a triumphal paean of his own composition. His first play was exhibited when he was in his twenty-eighth year, and previ- ous to that, in a contest with rival scenic writers, one of whom was AEschylus, he gained the first prize. He was reputed to be the author of one hundred and thirty plays, but seventeen are believed to be spurious. He gained the first tragic prize twenty times, often against the most distinguished competitors, and died at the age of ninety, full of honors. The tragedy generally ranked as his greatest is the “CEdipus Tyrannus.” Several of his other plays are also based on the story of CEdipus, the legendary king of Thebes. We are told that in his old age his heirs appealed to the legal authorities to be allowed to manage his estate, claiming that he had sunk into senility. For answer he wrote and read to the judges another tragedy, “CEdipus at Colonus,” in which he depicted CEdipus as an old man seeking refuge from his misfortunes at Colonus, the native town of Sophocles. The laments of the aged and forsaken king thrown on the charity of strangers were the cries of Sophocles himself; and the judges, Greece—The Great Dramatic Poets 171 promptly dismissing the charge, escorted him in a triumphant procession to his home. Euripides, the latest of the three great Greek tragedians, fifteen years younger than Sophocles, was born at Salamis 480 B.C., on the very day of the glorious victory of the Greeks over the Persians near that island. He first studied painting, then philosophy, then rhetoric, and was a firm friend through life of Socrates. The first play of Euripides that was performed was the “Ple. iades,” in 456 B.C. He gained the prize for tragedy in 44 I B.C., and contin- ued to write for the Athenian stage for more than thirty years. In 408 B.C. he accepted an invitation to the court of the king of Macedonia, and is believed to have been killed two years later by dogs, which were set upon him by two envious poets, jealous of his fame. The plays of Euripides have been reckoned as high as ninety-two in number. Concerning him Schlegel remarks: “Of few authors can so much good and evil be predicated with equal truth. He was a man of infinite talent, skilled in the most varied intellectual arts; but, although abounding in brilliant and amiable qualities, he wanted the sublime earnestness and artistic skill which we revere in AEschylus and Sophocles. He aspires only to please, no matter by what means. For this reason he is so frequently unequal to himself, producing at times passages of exquisite beauty and frequently sinking into positive vulgarity.” The greatest master of Greek comedy was Aristophanes, born in Athens 444 B.C.. His first appearance as a comic writer was in 427 B.C., when he pro- duced the “Banqueters,” which received the second prize. It ridiculed the follies of extravagance, and like all his works displayed a contempt for modern life and an admiration for the manners of former generations. His “Babylo- nians,” produced the next year, satirized Cleon so savagely that he tried to deprive the author of the rights of citizenship, by asserting that he was not an Athenian by birth. In 425 B.C., Aristophanes won the first prize by a brilliant attempt to show the utter folly of the war then raging between Athens and Sparta. The finest of his comedies were the “Clouds” and the “Knights.” They overflow with the author's rich fancy, wit, humor, satire, and keen insight, which distinguish all of his productions. The “Wasps,” “Peace,” the “Frogs,” and the “Birds” also show splendid cleverness and ability. He produced fifty- four comedies, of which eleven have been preserved. It is worth noting in this place that Greek tragedy bore little resemblance to the modern drama. The former dealt with the gods and heroes of mythol- ogy, and the author was bound to obey the rules of unity of time and space. The plot had to be confined to one place, and the period spanned by the inci- dents could not exceed that occupied by the representation. There was no “between the first and second acts three years (more or less) are supposed to 172 The Story of the Greatest Nations have elapsed,” as you now often see on the programme of a play. When it was necessary to exceed the limit of two or three hours, the excess was narrated instead of being acted. Much of the story of the play was told by the chorus. At first there was only one actor who spoke separately. AEschylus increased this number to two and Sophocles to three. The number of individual actors in Greek tragedy never properly exceeded this. Down to the close of the seventh century before Christ, literary renown in Greece was confined to the poets, but during the following century there arose in different parts of the country a number of men known as the Seven Sages, who became noted for their wise sayings or proverbs, which are often quoted even in these days. The most famous were Solon, Thales, Pittacus, Periander, Cleobolus, Chilo, and Bias. To them are attributed the inscriptions afterward placed on the Delphian temple: “Know thyself,” “Know thy oppor- tunity,” “Suretyship is the precursor of ruin,” etc. It was Pittacus, the saga- cious and virtuous ruler of Mitylene, who said, “The greatest blessing which’ a man can enjoy is the power of doing good,” “The most Sagacious man is he who foresees the approach of misfortune,” “The bravest man is he who knows how to bear it,” “Victory should never be stained with blood,” and “Pardon is often a more effectual check to crime than punishment.” Cleobolus, the Tyrant of Lindus, in the island of Rhodes, uttered many wise sayings. One was, “A man should never leave his dwelling without considering well what he was about to do,” and that “It is folly in a husband either to fondle or reprove his wife in company.” When Chilo of Sparta was asked the three most difficult things for a man to do, he replied: “To keep a secret, to forgive injuries, and to make a profit- able use of leisure time.” Bias of Ionia saw the Persian conquest of the Ionian cities. He declared: “The most unfortunate of all men is the man who knows not how to bear misfortune"; “A man should be slow in making up his mind, but swift in executing his decisions"; “A man should temper his love for his friends by the reflection that they might some day become his ene- mies, and moderate his hatred of his enemies by the reflection that they might Some day become his friends.” One of the keenest expressions he ever uttered was when he was overtaken in a storm with a wicked crew, who broke into wild prayers for their safety: “Be silent, lest the gods discover that you are at sea.” Turning to prose literature, the “Father of History” was Herodotus, an Ionian Greek born in Halicarnassus, in Asia Minor, in 484 B.C. You will remember his stories of Egypt and Babylon. He travelled extensively and was a keen observer, but there is reason to fear that he was unduly credulous at times and accepted as truth that which was invention on the part of the narrator. His Contributions, nevertheless, are highly valuable, and it is a striking fact that Greece—Prose Literature 173 many statements of Herodotus, which were the most generally questioned, have been proven by investigation during the last few years to be true. It has taken a long time to vindicate his memory. His style is winning, and he will always be read because of that charm, aside from the interest one naturally feels in the statements made by an historian who lived so many years ago. A pleas- ing picture of those remote times is that of Herodotus reading his historical works to the assembled Greeks. Thucydides was born at Athens in 47 I B.C. and was the most philosophic historian of ancient Greece. Posterity has preserved a uniformly favorable estimate of his history of the Peloponnesian war, due mainly to its strict impar- tiality, its honesty, the brilliant force of his style, which often in a few vivid words gives the results of months of investigation, his graphic picture of the plague in Athens (from which he suffered himself, though he afterward recov- ered), and his profound insight into the motives of men. Xenophon lived at the same time with Thucydides, and had an easy and flowing style, while suc- ceeding him were Polybius, living in the second century, and Diodorus in the first century B. C. Oratory or eloquence reached a high development in early Greece. The style of Pericles was so sublime that he was called “the Olympian.” In the contest between Æschines and Demosthenes, political oratory attained its loft- iest height. The occasion of this memorable debate will be told in its proper place. The Greeks may have originated the telling of fables. The honor of invent- ing this witty and useful form of literature is generally attributed to AEsop, a Greek slave of the sixth century B.C. Tradition represents him as a hunchback, strangely deformed and ugly, and a slave. He was sold from master to master, his intellect making him everywhere a power, until finally he was given his freedom in recognition of his great ability. He then travelled widely, but finally settled at the court of that Croesus whom Cyrus of Persia conquered. Croesus raised him to high honor, and in the end sent him, with a large sum of treasure, on a mission to the Delphic oracle. This caused his death, for he got into some quarrel with the Delphians over the money, and was hurled from a precipice by the angry mob. AEsop did not write books; he only told clever little stories, back of which there always lay a moral, a hint which could be applied to whatever subject was being discussed. It was only in after-ages that these fables were written down; and whether they were really the ones AEsop told or only imitations of them, or whether he really ever told any at all, it is now impossible to say. But, rightly or wrongly, AEsop will always stand for us as the little, deformed inventor of the fable. I 74 The Story of the Greatest Nations Philosophy also, if it did not originate with the Greeks, was certainly vastly improved by them. Their deep and earnest thinkers paved the way for the broader and nobler thought of Christianity. The doctrines of their greatest philosopher, Aristotle, were followed with absolute faith by students for nearly two thousand years, and are still held in high reverence. - The earliest of these famous philosophers of whom we have any definite record is Thales of Miletus in Asia Minor, the founder of the Ionic school. He lived during the seventh century B. C., and much of his wisdom is said to have been gained from the Egyptians. To him are traced the beginnings of geometry and astronomy. In his system it was taught that water or fluid sub- stance is the single original element from which everything came and to which it returns. His successor was Anaximander, who was born in 6 IO B.C. and died in 547. He had a remarkable knowledge of geography and astronomy for those days, and is credited with the invention of the sun-dial. Anaximenes was the third in the list of Ionian philosophers. Like Thales he derived all things from a single original element and made air the source of life, while Heraclitus of Ephesus regarded fire or heat as the primary form of all material things, a belief held by other philosophers of the same school. The greatest of the Ionic philosophers, however, was Anaxagoras of Clazo- menae, who was born in 499 B.C. He came to Athens when not quite twenty years of age, and resigned his wealth that he might give his entire time to philosophy. For thirty years he taught at Athens, and among his hearers were Pericles, Socrates, and Euripides. He threw aside the system of those who had preceded him and caught a glimmering of truth itself by regarding a Supreme mind or intelligence, Outside of the visible world, as that which had imparted form and order to the chaos of nature. He was charged with impiety, and would have been put to death but for the influence and eloquence of Peri- cles. As it was, he was sentenced to pay a heavy fine and compelled to leave Athens, dying at Lampsacus at an advanced age. The second school of Greek philosophy was called the Eleatic, and was founded by Xenophanes of Colophon, who, when his native land was conquered by the Persians, fled to Elea, from which place the name of the philosophy is derived. He declared the whole of nature to be God, and boldly denounced Homer's description of the gods. He won many disciples, and his system was developed in the next century by Parmenides and Zeno. Pythagoras, of whom mention has been made, was the founder of the third School of philosophy, which included the idea of the passage of the soul through different bodies. He was born in Samos about B. c. 580, and was the son of a wealthy merchant. He travelled extensively and pondered the teachings of Thales, Anaximander, and others. He believed in the transmigration of souls Greece—Philosophy of Pythagoras 175 and possessed an unusual knowledge of arithmetic and geometry. He was profoundly religious, and, as a teacher rather than a philosopher, was held in the highest veneration. When he returned to Samos in middle life, he was strongly convinced that his mission was to reveal a new and purer mode of life to his fellow-men. His native country at that time was under the rule of the Tyrant Polycrates and unfavorable for his work, because of which he made his home in Crotona in Italy, where he attained great success in his missionary labors. Among his pupils was a beautiful maiden, Theano, said to be the first woman who achieved distinction in philosophy. Perhaps it was her powers of mind which attracted Pythagoras, or perhaps he was won, as lesser men have been, by a fair face and a sweet manner; any way the maid became his bride, and in time another Theano, their daughter, also achieved distinction in her father's school. He founded a religious brotherhood, which because of its Secrecy, system of initiation and pass-words, and its charitable nature, must have resembled the modern Free Masons. It was based upon noble principles, and most of the members belonged to the wealthy and leading classes. His doctrines spread over Greater Greece, and clubs like those named were formed in the principal cities. Although Pythagoras did not aim at political power, the very character of his followers made them influential, and he himself acquired powerful influence. The immense order of which he was the head obeyed him implicitly and exerted its strength in favor of the oligarchical party. Because of this, its Secrecy and vast might, a reaction set in, and it was bitterly denounced. We have learned of the conquest and destruction of Sybaris by Crotona in 5 IO B. C. Pythagoras, as you know, was in Crotona, and it was he whose burn- ing eloquence led the people to defy the threats of the debauched city. Milo, the commander of the Crotonian army, was a member of the Pythagorean brotherhood. At the close of the war, the aristocrats strongly opposed the attempts of the common people to gain a share in the government of Crotona, and refused to divide among them the conquered property. This caused a revolution and the establishment of a democratical form of government in Cro- tona. Much violence accompanied the uprising, during which many Pythago- reans were killed, and finally the order was suppressed; but the Pythagoreans continued to live as a philosophical sect, and Pythagoras himself is believed to have died at Metapontum. •% Let us come still further “down the corridors of time,” to the period of Socrates, one of the wisest and greatest men the world ever knew. He was born at Athens in the year 469 B.C., and did not teach any special philosophy, but aimed to break down prejudices, to show people their mistakes, and to impress upon them the existence of the great necessary truths—of the good, 176 The Story of the Greatest Nations the true, and the beautiful. He loved Athens to that degree that he never left it except to serve on the battle-field. He was of so religious a nature that he claimed to be guided in all his actions by a divine voice. A sculptor by trade, he accepted only the most meagre pittance in the way of wages, and spent his time in talking with whoever would listen to him. He would accept no fee for his instruction (though he always insisted that he was the most igno, rant member of the company), and mingled with the rich and poor until he had gathered around him a band of disciples who shaped the philosophy of the fol- lowing century. Socrates wrote nothing himself, nor did he try to frame any system of ethics or to teach any regular course. His great power lay in con- versation. By a series of skilful and subtle questions he would lead the discus- sion along till his opponent was hopelessly entangled, and then, while insisting upon his own ignorance, would stimulate his listener to lay a sure foundation of knowledge and virtue. Among his most famous pupils was Alcibiades, who acted so prominent a part in the subsequent history of Greece. Socrates gained great influence over him, but was unable to restrain his love of luxury or dissipation. We are indebted to Xenophon, one of his most attentive lis- teners, for a picture of the wonderful man, as he was seen in the market-place at Athens, or at a barber shop, or in the house of a friend, day by day, asking questions and tearing to shreds the answers he received. Plato, one of his disciples, made the conversations of Socrates the basis of his “Dialogues.” Xenophon says the philosopher could pass from his severe cross-examining method, with its humiliating shock of convicted ignorance, and address to his hearers plain and homely precepts inculcating self-control, temperance, piety, duty to parents, brotherly love, and all the virtues. He maintained that virtue consisted in knowledge. To do right was the only road to happiness; and since every man sought to be happy, vice could arise only from ignorance or mistake as to the means; hence the right corrective was an enlarged teaching of the consequences of actions. In the year 399 B.C., the Athenian magistrates pronounced Socrates guilty of not worshipping the gods whom the city worshipped, and of corrupting youth, and he was condemned to death. The interval of thirty days between his sentence and execution was spent by him in cheerful converse with his friends. He had not the slightest anxiety on account of his approaching end, and on the last day occurred his conversation on the immortality of the soul, referred to in the Platonic dialogue called “Phaedon.” Then he calmly drank the poisonous cup of hemlock given him, and passed away with the serene dignity becoming his past life and teachings. Grote says: “There can be no doubt that the individual influence of Soc- rates permanently enlarged the horizon, improved the method, and multiplied Greece—Socrates and Aristotle 177 the ascendant minds of the Grecian speculative world in a manner never since paralleled. Subsequent philosophers may have had a more elaborate doctrine and a larger number of disciples who imbibed their ideas; but none of them applied the same stimulating method with the same efficacy; none of them struck out of other minds that fire which sets light to original thought.” Plato, born in Athens in 429 B.C., was the founder of the Academic school, thus named from the groves of Academus, near Athens, where he gave his lec- tures. His works remain in the form of his “Dialogues,” in which Socrates is represented as the chief speaker; but the philosophy is Plato's own. Its nature is lofty, and, as Swinton states, the Platonic doctrines had a powerful influence on the human mind, and are the high-water mark of spirituality in the ancient world. Aristotle was born at the Grecian colonial town of Stagira in the year 384 B. C., and studied medicine, but abandoned it and aimed at the cultivation of universal knowledge for its own sake. In this he attained a distinction never equalled by any man. He came to Athens in his eighteenth year, for it was then the intellectual centre of Greece and of the civilized world. He devoted three years to study, and when Plato returned from Syracuse he became his pupil, and quickly impressed the philosopher by the astonishing reach and grasp of his intellect. He remained at Athens for twenty years, during which he set up a school of rhetoric, thus making himself the rival of the celebrated orator and rhetorical teacher Isocrates, whose methods he severely criticised. Upon the death of Plato Aristotle left Athens, having failed to succeed his master as chief of the Academy, as the school was called, though no man was so well qualified as he for the station. Aristotle, now in his thirty-seventh year, made his home in the Mysian town of Atarneus, in Asia Minor, where he lived with Hermeias, a former pupil, who had conquered his dominion for him- self from the Persians, at that time masters of nearly all Asia Minor. Through treachery a Persian officer arrested Hermeias and put him to death, whereupon Aristotle took refuge in Mitylene, taking with him the sister of Hermeias, whom he married. She died soon after in Macedonia, and at the end of two years he accepted an invitation from Philip of Macedon to become the instruc- tor of his son Alexander, then in his fourteenth year. He was his teacher for three years, during which master and pupil formed a strong attachment for each other, turned later into bitter enmity on the part of Alexander the Great. The two parted company when Alexander was about to invade Asia in 334 B.C., and Aristotle returned to Athens, where at the age of fifty he entered upon the final epoch of his life. He opened a school called the “Lyceum,” and from his practice of walking up and down in the garden the School acquired the other name of Peripatetic, a word in common use in these times. I 2 178 The Story of the Greatest Nations He was thus engaged for a period of twelve years, when his enemies prepared an accusation of impiety against him. Aristotle had not forgotten the fate of Socrates, and prudently fled to Chalcis in Euboea in 322 B.C., where he died the same year from chronic dyspepsia. Without attempting to analyze the philosophy of Aristotle, it may be said that it was the most logical and scientific of all the systems of Greece. Quot- ing again from Grote: “What was begun by Socrates, and improved by Plato, was embodied as a part of a comprehensive system of formal logic by the genius of Aristotle; a system which not only was of extraordinary value in reference to the processes and controversies of its time, but which also, having become insensibly worked into the minds of instructed men, has contributed much to form what is correct in the habits of modern thinking. Though it has now been enlarged and recast by some modern authors (especially by Mr. John Stu- art Mill in his admirable ‘System of Logic') into a structure commensurate with the vast increase of knowledge and extension of positive method belong- ing to the present day, we must recollect that the distance between the best modern logic and that of Aristotle is hardly as great as that between Aristotle and those who preceded him by a century—Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and the Pythagoreans; and that the movement in advance of these latter commences with Socrates.” It was Aristotle who first gave form to the deductive system of reasoning, which, beginning with abstract principles, seeks to reach the truth by reasoning downward. This system was accepted for two thousand years, when it was supplanted by the inductive system, which reasons upward from facts to general laws. * In closing this fragmentary glance at the literary era of Greece, the question arises as to whether we are not inclined to give too much credit to the ancients as compared with the moderns. The distance of time throws a halo around many of those heroes and their achievements, great as they were; but nearly all have been equalled, and in numerous cases surpassed, by the moderns. Homer in some respects was inferior to Shakespeare; no warrior of antiquity possessed the genius of Napoleon Bonaparte, and who can be made to believe that Demos- thenes was more eloquent than our own Daniel Webster, or others whose names readily occur to us? Conceding all this, however, the early Greeks have never been approached, and can never be surpassed, in some other attainments, for the very good reason that they reached perfection. It is of those marvellous accomplishments that we shall now speak. The fine arts are generally classed as four in number—music, painting, sculp- ture, and architecture. Just what artistic height the Greeks reached in the first two of these we cannot be sure. They are perishable arts; and the frag- Greece—Orders of Architecture 179 ments which have survived from them are of too slight and vague a character to supply us much positive information. Sculpture and architecture, however, express themselves mainly through the more lasting medium of stone. The remains of Grecian triumphs in these two arts are fairly numerous; and we are enabled to say positively that no other nation has ever approached the Greeks in the appreciation of beauty as expressed in statues and buildings. It is not that one man among them was great. They were a nation of beauty lovers, a nation of artists. In Greece, as nearly everywhere else, architecture was mainly indebted to religion for its development. The most important buildings, therefore, were the temples of the gods; and we find the architecture following different lines, according to the differing religions and national character of the various branches of the race. Thus the Grecian temple developed in three forms—the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. The first is the most ancient and derives its name from the characteristics of the Dorians. It is simple, massive, and majestic. The column is without a base and thick. The shaft rapidly dimin- ishes in thickness, with a capital that is simple and massive. The entablature or portion which rests upon the top of the column is divided into the architrave immediately above the column, the frieze or central space, and the cornice, which consists of the upper projecting mouldings. In the Doric the architrave is in one surface and is quite plain. The Ionic order is distinguished for its gracefulness and by a richer style of ornament. It had its origin in the Greek cities of Ionia in Asia Minor, where the luxury of the Persians had enriched, and perhaps injured, the sim- plicity of the Grecian mind. The shaft is more slender than the Doric and rests upon a base. The capital is adorned by spiral volutes, and the architrave is in three faces, one slightly projecting beyond the other, The most famous example of this order was the temple of Diana at Ephesus, burned on the night that Alexander the Great was born, by Herostratus, and rebuilt in more mag- nificent form in the Roman age. It was 425 feet long and 22O feet wide. English explorers have left scarcely a fragment to show where it stood. The Corinthian order is a later form of the Ionic, and was the highest and most richly ornamented of the Grecian orders. It is distinguished by its beau- tiful capital. It arose only as Grecian liberty was declining, the earliest known example being the monument of Lysicrates, or Lantern of Demosthenes, built about 335 B.C. It was employed in temples dedicated to Venus, Flora, and the nymphs of the fountains, because of the delicacy and beauty of the flowers and foliage which form a marked feature of the Order. The immortal illustration of the Doric order of architecture is the Parthe- non, or “House of the Virgin,” dedicated to Minerva. It crowned the Acrop- I 8o The Story of the Greatest Nations olis at Athens and was built of pure white marble. Ferguson, in his “History of Architecture,” says of this structure: “In its own class it is undoubtedly the most beautiful building in the world. It is true it.has neither the dimen- sions nor the wondrous expression of power and eternity inherent in Egyptian temples, nor has it the variety and poetry of the Gothic cathedral; but for intel- lectual beauty, for perfection of proportion, for beauty of detail, and for the exquisite perception of the highest and most recondite principles of art applied to architecture, it stands utterly and entirely alone and unrivaled—the glory of Greece, and the shame of the rest of the world.” The architects of the Parthenon were Ictinus and Callicrates, but the general superintendence of its construction was under the master-genius of Athenian art, Phidias. It stood on a rustic basement of ordinary limestone, and was sixty- six feet in height to the top of the pediment. It consisted of a cella (the part inclosed within the walls, as distinguished from the open porticoes), sur- rounded by a peristyle (range of columns), which had eight columns at each front and seventeen at each side (counting the corner columns twice), so that the whole number of columns was forty-six. They were thirty-four feet high and six feet two inches in diameter at the base. The building was adorned with the most perfect sculptures, executed by different artists under the direc- tion of Phidias. The wonder and masterpiece of them all, however, was the statue of the Virgin Goddess within the temple. This came from the matchless hand of Phidias himself. It was forty feet in height, and represented the god- dess standing, clothed with a tunic reaching to her feet, with a spear in her left hand and an image of Victory in her right. She wore a helmet and breast plate, and her shield rested on the ground at her side. The eyes were made of a marble resembling ivory, and it is probable were painted to show the iris and pupil. Phidias used ivory instead of marble for the face, hands and feet, and the parts that were uncovered, and instead of employing real drapery, as was the custom, he supplied its place with robes and other ornaments of solid gold. The gold in the statue weighed more than a ton, but could be removed at pleasure. The Acropolis held other works of art, which combined to make it the most notable spot in Greece. In addition to the Parthenon there were other beauti- ful temples to other gods. Minerva, however, or Pallas Athene as the Athe- nians themselves called her, was their principal goddess, the patron of their city, and the centre of their worship. The most prominent object on the Acropolis was a gigantic bronze statue of her, seventy feet high, towering in air like a church steeple. This statue was the pride of the city; it could be seen over all the buildings and was a landmark for sailors far out at Sea. Another great statue by Phidias was that of Jupiter in the temple at Olym- Greece—Sculpture of Phidias I 81 pus in Elis. It was composed of gold and ivory, and the figure though seated was sixty feet in height. The great, calm brow and clustering hair were sug- gested to Phidias by the description of the deity in Homer. All the Greeks saw the statue when they gathered for the Olympian games; and it is said that its grandeur gave them a new and deeper idea of the splendor of the gods, and added to the force and dignity of Greek religion. The discovery of certain mechanical processes in the use and application of metals, early in the sixth century before Christ had given an impulse to sculp- ture. Dipoenus and Scyllis of Crete (580 B.C.) were the first sculptors who became famous for their statues in marble. They founded a school in Sicyon, while others scarcely less distinguished were at Samos, Chios, AEgina, and Argos. There was a greater display of ingenuity which showed itself in the representations of the gods as well as of national heroes. Those most worthy of notice still extant are the reliefs in the metopes (spaces on the Doric frieze), of the temple of Selinus, the statues on the pediments of the temple of AEgina, and the reliefs on the monument of Xanthus in Lycia. Most of the friezes from the Parthenon are in the British Museum, and two of the statues from the pediments of the temple of AEgina are in the collection at Munich. They were restored by Thorwaldsen, and represent Minerva leading the AEginetan heroes in the war against the Trojans. The reliefs on the monument of Xan- thus were probably executed about the same time. Most of the sculptures taken by Lord Elgin from the Parthenon are broken and mutilated, but enough remains to display the perfection of grace, loveliness, beauty, and majesty. As I have stated, it is impossible to give a comprehensive history of the marvellous achievements of the Greeks in sculpture, without passing far beyond events which in chronological order precede them. Having given a mere glimpse of that wonderland, we will return to the fascinating subject later, but it will be interesting in this place to speak of Greek manners, life, and social customs; or, in other words, to take a look at the people in their homes. Their dress was simple, and they made scant display of ornaments. The dress of the men and women was nearly alike. At first, the flowing garments were generally made of wool and linen, and later of cotton. The women wore no coverings for their heads, and the only men who used hats were certain kinds of workmen and those who went on travels. When in the house, all walked about barefooted, but out of doors they used sandals, shoes, and sometimes what we would call boots. They ate three meals a day, reclining on couches, but never with a table- cloth or napkins. Forks are a comparatively modern invention, and in those remote days knives were unknown. The fingers had to serve the purposes of both, but the diners washed their hands before and after meals, and certainly 182 The Story of the Greatest Nations they must have needed it at the conclusion of every meal. The principal food of the common people was dried fish, barley, bread, and dates. The wealthier classes had many luxuries in the way of food and drink. When dinner was over, the host and guests drank many goblets of wine mixed with hot or cold water, during which there were lively conversation, music, dancing, and other amusements. This was known as the symposium. Schools, as we think of them, were unknown, yet all the boys (though not the girls) attended instruction, and their course of study consisted of grammar, music, and gymnastics. Under the term “grammar” were included the pri- mary branches of education, and under “music” the intellectual accomplish- ments. Perhaps the most important feature was the gymnasium, where the youths practised wrestling, boxing, running, and every sort of exercise calcu- lated to make their bodies strong and supple. You can understand that this was an important part of their training for the Olympic games. The man who had charge of the youths was the grammatistes or grammarian. Women always held a much lower station than the men, though their rank was comparatively high during the Homeric period. It was said of the hus- band that he treated his wife like a faithful slave, “something better than his dog, a little dearer than his horse.” A woman's education was “finished ” when she knew how to manage the female slaves and the household, and look after the bodily wants of the children. Her life was secluded and narrow, and so remained, until Christianity raised her to the rank and beneficent influence for which the Creator intended her. ==== - | | GREEK: A RT-Thir, WRESTLERs Tº -------- -- - - ºvºvº. º --------- -º-º-º-º-º: º --~~~ º º º º ºr 'º' º º º º - - * - - - ºº: | "...º.A: --- sº nº- - -º- º, º --- - º º ſº º --- --- º º º º º - - º º º , - º --- º/, / Nº. ---------- - - - - Nº------- lº-A- - - -º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º- | - - - i - - MoUNT OLYMPUs And The WALE or Tempº Chapter XVI M A R A T H O N Greece. We have learned in our study of Persia of the rise of that monarchy, whose might for a time threatened to overshadow the world. This immense kingdom was founded by Cyrus, extended by Cambyses, and welded and consolidated by Darius. Croesus, king of Lydia, had succeeded in conquering the Greek cities on the coast of Asia Minor, after which he himself was subju- gated by Cyrus; in this manner the Greek cities named came under the dominion of Persia. It may be well to recall that Darius in consolidating his empire divided his vast dominions into twenty provinces, and fixed the tri- bute they were to pay to the royal treasury. Each province was ruled by a satrap or governor, and Darius was the first Persian king who coined money. His ambition and the aggressiveness of his people would not allow him to rest satisfied with the boundaries of his vast possessions. He determined to attack Scythia in Europe, on the wide plain between the Danube and the Don, peopled by a numerous body of fierce savage tribes. Accordingly, he collected an immense army and fleet. His ships were ordered to sail up the Danube and to throw a bridge of boats across the river, while his army marched through Thrace, crossed the Danube by this bridge, after which the fleet was to break down the structure and follow the army to Scythia. Reminded, however, of thus destroying the means of retreating, he told the Asiatic Greeks, in whose care he left it, to hold it intact 184 The Story of the Greatest Nations for sixty days. If he did not return at the end of that time, they could break down the bridge and sail home. Then he marched away. The sixty days and more came and went without bringing any signs of the Persian army. Instead, a body of Scythians appeared, with news that Darius had been defeated and was in full flight before the Scythians, who would destroy him and his army if the bridge failed them. They vehemently urged the Greeks to seize this chance of annihilating the Persian host and recovering their own liberty, by breaking down the structure. Many were inclined to act upon this counsel, but it was not done, and finally Darius arrived with his weary army and safely crossed the network of boats. The failure of this expedition did not cause Darius to abandon his plans of conquest. Although returning to Sardis himself, he left an army of eighty thousand under Megabazus, to subjugate Thrace and the Greek cities upon the Hellespont. Megabazus completed the task with little difficulty. After sub- duing the Thracians he crossed the Strymon and pressed his way as far as the borders of Macedonia, into which he sent heralds to demand earth and water as a sign of submission. These were granted, and thus in 5 IO B.C. the Persian dominions were extended to the frontiers of Thessaly. Several years of profound peace followed, and then a tiny flame was kindled, which spread into a conflagration whose glare crimsoned the skies of Greece and Asia. It was about the year 502 B.C., that an uprising took place on the Greek island of Naxos, one of the most important of the Cyclades, and the oligarchical party were driven from the island. They applied for help to Aristagoras, Tyrant of Miletus, the leading Ionian city in Asia, and he gladly gave it, knowing that if the exiles were restored he would become master of the island. But Arista- goras speedily found he was not strong enough to carry out this plan, and he went to Sardis to secure in turn the aid of Artaphernes, the Persian satrap of Asia Minor, who was shown that he would be able to annex not only Naxos but the rest of the Cyclades, and even the important island of Euboea. When Aristagoras assured the satrap that failure was impossible, that he needed only two hundred ships with their forces, and that he himself would defray all the expenses, it is no wonder that Artaphernes did as he wished. Everything being ready, the Naxian exiles were taken on board and Aris- tagoras sailed toward the Hellespont. The incidents which followed were curious and interesting. Reaching Chios, Aristagoras dropped anchor off the western coast, meaning, as soon as a fair wind arose, to Sail across to Naxos. The Persian general, like a prudent commander, made a personal examination of his fleet to assure himself that all was in readiness. He was enraged to find one of the vessels without a single man on board. He ordered the captain of the ship to be brought before him, and then commanded him to be put in chains Greece—Ionian Revolt Against Persia 185 with his head thrust through one of the port-holes of his own vessel. Now it so happened that this captain was a valued friend of Aristagoras, who immedi- ately set him free and warned the Persian general that his rank was subordinate to his own. Naturally the Persian was not soothed by this treatment, and as Soon as night came he sent a message to the Naxians warning them of their danger. Until then they had had no thought that the expedition was intended to act against them. They hurriedly carried their property into the city and made preparations to withstand a long siege. The Persian fleet arrived, but was repulsed by the resolute resistance, and several months later gave up the siege and returned to Miletus. Aristagoras was in a desperate plight. He had made a bitter enemy of the Persian general and had deceived Artaphernes, so that no favor was to be expected from the Persian government. Probably, too, he would soon be called upon to pay the expenses of the disastrous expedition. There seemed but one possible way out of his dilemma: that was to stir up his countrymen to revolt against Persia. And while he was meditating over the step, lo! a message Came, urging him to do that very thing. You could never guess the cunning way this message was sent, nor why. It came from Histiaeus, uncle of Aristagoras, and his predecessor as Tyrant of Miletus. The Persian king, fearing the power of Histiaeus as the most influ- ential man among the Asian Greeks, had carried him, half as friend, half as prisoner, to Persia. Histiaeus' only purpose in advising a revolt was the belief that Darius would send him to put it down and thus give him the liberty for which he so ardently yearned. He shaved the head of a trusty slave, branded the few words necessary upon his shining poll, and then kept him until the hair grew out again. Then he sent him to his nephew, with the significant request to shave the head of the slave. This being done, the full meaning of the words broke upon Aristagoras, who hesitated no longer to take the exceedingly dan- gerous step. He called the leading citizens of Miletus before him, explained his plan, and asked their advice. All, with one exception, approved his course. This important point being settled, the next was to persuade the other Greek cities in Asia to unite with them. Then the Grecian Tyrants, most of whom were with the fleet, were seized as they returned from Naxos, and a democratical form of government was established throughout all the Greek cities in Asia and the adjoining islands, followed by a “Declaration of Independence” from Persia. Thus the die was cast. Aristagoras acted with vigorous promptness. Without waiting for the Per- sians to gather their forces to strike, he crossed to Greece to beg the help of the powerful states. First, of course, he went to Sparta, where he met with a singular experience. He told so winning a story to Cleomenes, showing how I 86 The Story of the Greatest Nations easily the Spartans could march straight to the Persian capital and secure the measureless riches there, that the king told his suppliant he would take three days to think over the matter. When at the appointed time Aristagoras came back, Cleomenes quietly asked how far Susa was from the sea. “It is a jour- ney of three months,” replied Aristagoras, failing to see the drift of the ques- tion. “Stranger,” severely interrupted the king, “you are an enemy of the Spartans if you wish them to journey three months' distance from the Sea. Quit Sparta before sunset.” Aristagoras' heart was so set upon the success of his errand that he went to the house of the king and tried to bribe him. He offered a large sum and probably would have succeeded, for those Greeks were very open to such argu- ments, had not the little daughter of the king warned him to flee before he was tempted into sin. That ended the mission, and Aristagoras did not waste another hour in Sparta. He went direct to Athens, then the second city in importance in Greece. There his heart was warmed by his reception. Since she was the mother city of the Ionic states, it was impossible for her not to sympathize with her kins- men. The people voted to send twenty ships to their assistance. The Athe- nian fleet crossed the AEgean, and five sails from Eretria united with them. Leaving the ships at Ephesus, and being joined by a large force of Ionians, Aristagoras led an expedition into the interior. Artaphernes was caught unprepared, and he and his small force retreated into the citadel, leaving the town of Sardis at the mercy of the invaders. While they were plundering the houses, one of these was accidentally set on fire, and the whole city was quickly wrapped in flames. Being deprived of a refuge, the people gathered in the market place. While huddled there, they discovered to their astonishment that they were more numerous than their enemies. They determined to attack them, and while preparing to do so, were joined by a large number of reinforce- ments. The Ionians and Athenians saw their own danger and began a hurried retreat. Before they could reach the shelter of Ephesus, they were overtaken by the Persians, who routed them with dreadful slaughter. The surviving Ionians scattered to their cities, and the Athenians, Scrambling on board their ships, sailed away. - When Darius heard of the burning of Sardis, he was thrown into a furious rage. “Who are those Athenians?” he roared, “that have dared to do this?” On being told, he seized his bow and viciously launched an arrow high in the sky, uttering a prayer to Jove that he would permit him to avenge himself upon the presumptuous Athenians. Then he ordered one of his servants to say to him three times each day, “Sire, remember the Athenians!” It will be seen that there was little danger of the monarch forgetting his purpose. Greece—Subjugation of the Asian Greek 187 Meanwhile, the uprising was fast growing formidable. The flames spread to the Grecian cities in Cyprus, as well as to those on the Hellespont and the Propontis, while the Carians joined in the revolt. Against the rebels Darius launched the whole prodigious power of his empire. A Phoenician fleet, carry- ing an immense force of Persians, brought Cyprus under submission, and the Carians and the Greek cities of Asia were relentlessly pressed to the wall. Aristagoras in his despair deserted his countrymen, and with a force of Mile- sians sailed for the Thracian coast, where he was killed while besieging a town. Darius was suspicious of the part played by Histiaeus, but that wily individ- ual not only convinced him of his innocence, but induced him to send him into Ionia to help the Persian generals in putting down the rebellion. When His- tiaeus reached Sardis, Artaphernes bluntly accused him of treachery, and His- tiaeus prudently fled to the island of Chios, but every one suspected him; the Milesians denied him admittance to the town, and the Ionians refused to have him for their leader. Finally, he managed to secure several galleys from Les- bos, with which he sailed toward Byzantium and turned pirate, seizing prey wherever he could find it. While making a raid on the coast of Mysia, he was captured by the Persians and carried to Sardis, where Artaphernes caused him to be crucified and sent his head to Darius, who gave it honorable burial and condemned the act of his satrap. Previous to this, and in the sixth year of the revolt (495 B.C.), when it was partly suppressed, Artaphernes determined to attack Miletus by sea and land. That city was the key to the insurrectionary districts, and, if it could be taken, its capture was sure to be followed by the submission of the others. With this end in view, Artaphernes collected all his land forces near the city and ordered the Phoenician fleet to approach Miletus. Since the defenders were not strong enough to resist the army, they decided to leave the city to its own defences on the land side, while all their forces went on board the ships. The fleet assembled at a small island near Miletus, the number being not much more than one-half of that belonging to the Phoenicians. But the Ionians were so noted for their nautical skill, that the enemy was afraid to attack them. The Persians ordered the Tyrants who had been expelled from the Grecian cities, and were serving in the Persian fleet, to do their utmost to persuade their countrymen to desert the common cause. The effort was made, but in every instance failed. There was no discipline in the Ionian fleet. The men left the ships and scattered over the island, refusing to obey orders, and even going to the length of opening communication with the expelled Tyrants, to whom they promised to desert their comrades in time of battle. Under such circumstances the Persian commanders did not hesitate to attack Y 88 The Story of the Greatest Nations the vessels. Just as the battle was about to open, the Samian vessels treacher- ously sailed away, and directly afterward the Lesbians did the same; but the hundred ships of the Milesians fought with unsurpassable heroism until they were crushed by the overwhelming numbers of the enemy. This was the decisive struggle of the war. Miletus was soon taken by storm. Nearly all the men were slain, and the few who were spared were car. ried with the women and children into slavery. Similar harshness was shown in the cases of the other Greek cities in Asia and the neighboring islands. Chios, Tenedos, and Lesbos were desolated, and the Persian fleet carried death and destruction up to the Hellespont and Propontis. At Byzantium and Chal- cedon the inhabitants fled, and the distinguished Athenian Miltiades barely escaped by making all haste to Athens. The cup of Ionia was full. The Asiatic Greeks had been conquered by Croesus of Lydia, then by Cyrus, and now they were the captives and slaves of Darius; and the last was the worst of all. Artaphernes devoted himself to establishing an orderly government, and did what he could to heal the bleeding wounds of the subject province (494 B.C.). Darius had not yet punished Athens for what to him was her unpardonable crime against his authority. His fury was as hot as ever, and now that the Ionic revolt had been subdued, he made his preparations for striking a terrific blow against that gallant little commonwealth, Mardonius, his son-in-law, was ambitious and longed for a chance of winning glory on the field of battle. Darius removed Artaphernes from the government of the Persian provinces bordering on the AEgean, and appointed Mardonius in his place. A large armament was placed at the command of Mardonius, with orders that he should send to Susa all the Athenians and Eretrians who had insulted the Great King. The task was a congenial one to Mardonius, who crossed the Helle- spont, and, marching through Thrace and Macedonia, brought under subjection such tribes as still defied Persian authority. With so powerful a force, this was easy work against the undisciplined barbarians. But disaster was at hand. He had sent the fleet to double the promontory of Mount Athos and join the army at the head of the Gulf of Therma, when a tremendous hurricane destroyed three hundred of the ships and drowned twenty thousand of the men. While in Macedonia, Mardonius had his army almost cut to pieces in a night attack by an independent Thracian tribe, and though he stayed long enough to subdue the country, he was obliged to retreat across the Hellespont, and, shamed and humiliated, he returned to the Persian court. This failure only roused the anger of Darius to greater intensity than before. He would not rest until he had humbled Athens to the dust, and he began his preparations on so colossal a scale that it seemed nothing short of the direct Greece—Darius Advances Against Athens 189 interposition of heaven could save Greece from extinction. Before beginning his fearful work, he sent heralds to the principal Grecian states, demanding from each earth and water as a symbol of submission. When the herald reached Athens, he was flung into an excavation in the earth, while the mes- senger who visited Sparta was tumbled into a well and told to help himself to all the earth and water he wanted. In nearly every other instance, however, the Grecian cities were so cowed by the subjugation of Ionia, that they com- plied with the demands of Darius. In the case of AEgina, the first maritime power in Greece, the people hated the Athenians as much as they feared Darius. They had been at war for several years with Athens, and welcomed the promise of seeing her pride humbled. The Athenians sent ambassadors to Sparta, charging the AEginetans with having betrayed the common cause of Greece by sending the symbol to the barbarians, and demanding that Sparta, as the leads ing state of Hellas, should punish them for the crime. The Spartans sent to AEgina, and, taking away ten of its leading citizens, placed them as hostages in the hands of the Athenians. The noteworthy fact about this is that it was the first time in Grecian history that the Greeks appear as having a common political cause, and Sparta was recognized by Athens as entitled to the leader- ship. It was the impending peril from the Persians that brought about this union, so fraught with momentous results. Darius was busy all this time in completing his preparations for the inva- Sion of Greece. In the spring of 490 B.C., he assembled an immense army in Cilicia, under the command of Datis, a Median, and Artaphernes, son of the satrap of the same name in Sardis. Their fearful resolve was to reduce the cities of Athens and Eretria to ashes, and carry off the inhabitants as slaves, while all the other cities that had not sent earth and water to the Persian king were to be brought under subjection. Thousands of fetters were taken along with which to bind the hapless people, and Darius was warranted in believing that failure was the most unlikely thing that could happen to his hosts. There were six hundred galleys, and numerous transports for horses, ready to receive the troops on board. The army set sail for Samos, and, remembering the disaster to Mardonius, Datis decided to pass directly across the AEgean to Euboea, bringing under subjection the Cyclades on his way. The Naxians, seeing their city about to be attacked, fled to the mountains, and the invaders burnt it to the ground. The other islands of the Cyclades made haste to give their submission, for it would have been madness to resist. The first fighting took place at Eretria, which, knowing the fate intended for it, held out bravely for six days, when it fell through the treachery of two of its citizens. The city was destroyed and the inhabitants were put in chains, I 9o The Story of the Greatest Nations as a part of the plan of Darius. Having accomplished one object of the in- vasion, Datis now crossed over to Attica and landed on the plain of Marathon. Meanwhile, as may be supposed, Athens was awake to her peril, and made tremendous exertions to meet it. All her available forces had been placed under the command of her ten generals, who, it will be remembered, were yearly selected. Among these was Miltiades, who as Tyrant of the Cherso- nesus, had won a reputation as one of the bravest of men and the possessor of signal military ability. It was he who accompanied Darius on his invasion of Scythia, and did his utmost to persuade the Ionians to destroy the bridge of boats and thus overwhelm the Persian monarch with ruin. While the Persians were occupied in putting down the Ionic revolt, Miltiades captured Lemnos and Imbros, drove out the Persian garrisons and the Pelasgian inhabitants, and turned over the islands to the Athenians. - - Knowing all this, the Persian leaders would have exchanged thousands of their men for Miltiades. None knew this better than Miltiades himself, who, upon the appearance of the Phoenician fleet in the Hellespont, after the Sup- pression of the Ionic revolt, hurriedly sailed for Athens with five ships. The Phoenicians pursued, but were unable to overtake him, though they captured one of the vessels commanded by his son. The enemies of Miltiades brought him to trial on the charge of tyranny while ruler of the Chersonesus, but he was not only acquitted, but elected one of the ten generals who were to meet the Persian invasion. In the very hour that Athens heard of the fall of Eretria, its swiftest run- ner was sent to Sparta to beg for assistance. One hundred and fifty miles separate the two cities, yet the runner covered the distance in forty-eight hours. The aid asked for was promised, but a superstition prevented giving it until the full of the moon, which was several days distant. Darius, however, did not tarry for any such cause, nor could the Athenians afford to do so. The latter had advanced to Marathon, where they encamped on the moun- tains surrounding the plain. Upon receiving the answer of the Spartans, the ten generals held a council of war. Half were opposed to fighting the over- whelming army until the arrival of the Lacedaemonians, but the others, led by Miltiades, insisted upon not losing a moment in attacking them; for, by doing so, they would have the measureless advantage of the enthusiasm of their men, and would forestall any treachery among their own people. It must be ad- mitted that with all their valor the Greeks were plentifully supplied with trait- ors, and more than once those in whom the fullest trust was reposed were bribed to betray their country. - Since the vote was a tie, the decision fell upon Callimachus, the Pole- march, for we have learned that down to this time the third Archon was a col- Greece—Battle of Marathon I 9 I league of the ten generals. Miltiades, seconded by two other generals, The- mistocles and Aristides, argued so earnestly with him that he was convinced, and voted for immediate battle. It was the practice for each general to com- mand in rotation the army for a day, but all agreed to place their days of com- mand in the hands of Miltiades, and it was surely a wise proceeding to have everything in the hands of a single person, whose ability had been proven. An inspiriting occurrence took place while the Athenians were preparing for battle. They had given help to Plataea years before when she was attacked by the Thebans, and now the Plataeans sent their whole force to the help of the Athenians, consisting of one thousand heavy-armed men. Athens never forgot this favor. The whole Athenian army consisted of only ten thousand heavy armed soldiers; they had no archers or cavalry, and only a fêw slaves as light- armed attendants. We have no means of knowing the strength of the Persian army, except that it was more than ten times that of the gallant body which girded up its loins and made ready to rush forward into the life-or-death struggle. The plain of Marathon is six miles long and at its broadest part in the mid- dle about two miles wide. It is curved like a crescent, each end of which is a promontory extending into the sea, with marshes at the northern and the southern point. There is hardly a tree on the flat plain, which is inclosed on every side toward the land by rugged mountains, which cut it off from the rest of Greece. “The mountains look on Marathon— And Marathon looks on the sea.” The Persian fleet was drawn up along the beach, and the army formed about a mile from shore. Gazing down upon them were the Athenians who occupied the rising ground, from end to end, so that the mountain prevented the enemy from flanking them and sending their cavalry around to attack them in the rear. This line, however, was so extensive that it could not be fully occupied, with- out being weakened at some portion. Miltiades met this difficulty by drawing up the troops in the centre in thin files, relying mainly upon the deeper masses at the wings. The post of honor, the extreme right, was given to the Pole- march Callimachus, while the equally difficult post, the far left, was held by the Plataeans. It must be remembered, in the first place, that the trained army drawn up in battle array on the plain was ten or twelve times as numerous as the Greeks, and the renown of the Medes and Persians was equal to theirs. They had been engaged for centuries in sweeping dynasties and monarchies out of existence; the Median, Lydian, Babylonian, and Egyptian empires had crumbled under their tread, and since those woeful days the Asiatic Greeks had felt the iron heel I 92 The Story of the Greatest Nations of the conqueror. In truth, the Medes and Persians had never been defeated by the Greeks in battle, and their name had long filled all people with terror. Miltiades was eager to come to close quarters, and ordered his men to advance on the “double quick” over the mile of plain which separated the two armies. The Persians viewed this charge as if made by madmen, and calmly awaited the moment when they should come within reach and go down like ripe grain before the reaper. But those ardent Greeks, shouting their war- cry, assailed their enemies with the fury of a cyclone. Each wing was success- ful and the Persians were tumbled back toward the beach and the marshes, but the weak Greek centre was broken through and put to flight. Miltiades called back the wings from the pursuit of the enemy, and hurled them upon the cen- tre, overthrowing the Persians, who scattered in a panic and hurried after their friends that had made such desperate haste to scramble aboard the ships. The impetuous Athenians strove to burn the vessels, but succeeded in destroying only seven. The enemy were driven to the wall and fought with the energy of desperation. In this memorable battle the Persians lost more than six thousand men, while of the Athenians only one hundred and ninety-two fell; but among them was the valiant Polemarch Callimachus and several of the most noted citizens of Athens. As soon as the Persians were safely aboard their ships, they sailed in the direction of Cape Sunium. Suddenly a burnished shield shone out like the Sun from the crest of one of the Attican mountains. The watchful Miltiades saw it, and noted the course taken by the fleet. Suspecting the meaning of the signal, he marched his army with all haste back to Athens. The signal in truth was an invitation to the Persian fleet to attack the city while the army was absent, and it set out to do so. Miltiades arrived just in time to save it from certain capture. When the Persians were about to land, they saw the very soldiers from whom they had fled at Marathon, and they had no wish to meet them again. The invasion was given up in despair, and the fleet returned to Asia. SATYR DANCE º H HERMANN CALLING THE GERMANS TO ARMS I I \， , |- THE DEFENCE OF THERMOPYLA- §§§ º |- | - ºpºzorºwy) s N=H_1w 1xº º glwa.Hil ovisa Nord a Hı GREEK TROOPS CAPTURING MOUNT ST. 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THE SEARCH OF DIOGENES vºl. ºf cº- - vaea w1H 1Iv aStaedaens a H1. ， ， ， THEMISTOCLES PERICLES CELEBRATED GREEKS-11. tahlaw！ Nºwołae a Hl. ---- 000）005dae）.0：1o. sºlſ w Jo ºleos • • º.-Tsno seuled *…· {！}}"）; ∞ *№.\， v^| ſuſn- | ſimi ----§§№|}}ſuae? №n - ·~~..]wºtnia waev Č …» （（ № №！ |- №， S^ ！ № caeuºae, $$$$}} }} as：&-iſko |×！ ź|§<%„Șſſºn03}\\ ……## |-！\， , ----S§§ §：: · ſeu exeug ± ！-- ·--------· - ----………-…~� ---------H）3ſºn fuaagvàă） ···~ ！ · ! &ae~ ~ º O- º & - 3. 3: . &#: º ºº: º º |33 ± : fº º º &: |**, *@ *@ 33, º, º ºſº *@º 5& 23, Tomb or Leonidas at SPARTA THE STORY OF THE GREATEST NATIONS ANCIENT NATIONS-GREECE Chapter XVII. THE INVASION OF XERXES. º º - º HE victory of Marathon was one of the decisive battles of the world. Had the tide turned the other way, Greece would have been crushed, its whole history changed, and Oriental barbarism would have obtained a firm foot- hold in Europe. The victory has been celebrated by many poets, and the Athenians firmly believed the gods fought on their side. The one hundred and ninety- two heroes who fell were buried on the field, and the mound erected over them still remains. The flood of Persian inva- sion was rolled back, and Miltiades received every honor that a grateful people could render him. To his memory a separate monument was raised on the immortal battlefield; and his form is the most prominent in the picture hung on the painted porch of Athens. Shortly after the battle the strained relations between AEgina and Athens resulted in a war which lasted until the next great invasion of Greece by the Persians. A demand was made by the AEginetans for the sur- render of their ten hostages. This was refused, and war followed. Its most important result was the resolution brought about by Themistocles to convert | | ; :º ;- -º- ---º * I 94 The Story of the Greatest Nations Athens into a maritime power. Themistocles was a sagacious though selfish. statesman, who foresaw that Persia would ere long renew her attempt to conquer Greece, which would be helpless without a powerful navy. The leading men in. Athens at this time were Miltiades, Themistocles, and Aristides. Because of his pure patriotism, Aristides was known as the “Just,” but he was stubborn and impracticable and in these days would be called a “crank.” He bitterly opposed the policy of Themistocles, and the people finally became so impatient with his obduracy that they ostracized him. It is said that a countryman, not knowing Aristides, asked him to write his name in favor of the measure, and when calmly asked by the patriot his reason for doing so, he replied that it was. merely because he was tired of forever hearing of “Aristides the Just.” Be that as it may, it was undoubtedly a good thing that Athens was freed of his. presence for a few years. The Athenians had a full treasury, and the scheme of Themistocles was so sensible that they willingly set about building a navy. A fleet of two hundred ships was provided for, and a decree was passed to add twenty ships each year. Perhaps the most potent argument was the pressing necessity for them in order to fight the AEginetans, for few were as Sagacious as Themistocles, who saw that another Persian invasion was inevitable. “Thus,” says Herodotus, “the AEginetan war saved Greece by compelling the Athenians to make themselves a. maritime power.” How often it has happened in the history of great men that the latter part of their lives has obscured the glory of their former deeds ! Many a bright. name has been tarnished, and often their admirers have been compelled to feel that the heroes lived too long. It would have been better for Miltiades had he fallen at Marathon, when his fame was at its zenith, for he never could have added to it by subsequent achievements, and historians would have been spared the pain of recording his unworthy ending. So unbounded was the admiration of his countrymen and so limitless their confidence in him, that when he asked for seventy of these new ships, without telling what he intended to do with them, except that he would enrich the state, his request was promptly granted. Now, all that Miltiades wished to do was to gratify a private spite against a prominent citizen of Paros, one of the most flourishing of the Cyclades. He sailed to that island and laid siege to the town. He was resisted so spiritedly that by and by he saw he would have to retire in disgrace and return to Athens. - One day word was brought to him from a priestess of the temple of Ceres, that if he would secretly visit by night a temple from which all men were excluded, she would show him a way by which Paros would fall into his power. Miltiades went thither, but after climbing the outer fence became suspicious, Greece—Death of Miltiades I 95 that the whole thing was a plot against him, and, yielding to the panic which sometimes seizes the bravest persons, he hurried away with such headlong haste that, in climbing the fence again, he received a dangerous wound in the thigh. Reaching his ships, he gave up the siege and sailed back to Athens. There was no concealing the ignominy of which he had been guilty, in thus grossly violating the confidence of his countrymen. Xanthippus, the father of Pericles, charged him with having deceived the people, and he was brought to trial. His condition was already serious from his gangrened wound, and he was carried into court on a couch, where he lay while his friends pleaded for mercy. They could not, and did not, seek to justify his recent action, and their only appeal was based upon his inestimable services at Marathon. The judges did not close their ears to the prayer. Miltiades had committed a crime which in any other person would have been punished with death, but in his case he was sentenced with a heavy fine—so heavy indeed that it was beyond his ability to pay. It has been said by some that he died in prison, but let us hope this statement is an error, and that the death from his wound, which occurred shortly after his conviction, came soon enough to avert the degradation. The fine was afterward paid by his son Cimon. It was hard that the illustrious hero should have been compelled to suffer thus, and yet it must not be denied that he merited the punishment, for crime in a person cannot be justified by his previous good behavior. In laying our plans, it is always wise to remember the obstacle that, sooner or later, is certain to block the path before us: that obstacle is death, and it was that which now brought the far-reaching schemes of Darius to naught. In the midst of his preparations for another invasion of Greece, he was brought low by the enemy that is always on the watch and will not be denied. He died B. c. 485, leaving his immense kingdom to Xerxes, who was the eldest son of his second wife, and who was appointed in preference to Artabazanes, the eldest son by his first wife. Xerxes was tall, fair, and of attractive personal appearance, but a contemptible man in every respect. He was indolent, vainglorious, cruel, cowardly, licentious, mean, and in short the worst specimen of an Eastern des- pot that the mind can picture. Darius had been engaged for three years in his preparations for the invasion of Greece when he was diverted by an uprising in Egypt, and it was while suppressing it that he died, after a reign of thirty-seven years. Thus Xerxes inherited the Egyptian revolt, which it was necessary to subdue before he could give his attention to the important project against Greece. There was not much difficulty in subjugating Egypt, which was accomplished in the second year of the reign of Xerxes (B.C. 484). Impelled by that vanity which was one of his marked characteristics, he determined to gather the largest army that had I 96 The Story of the Greatest Nations ever trod the earth. So it was that, although Darius had nearly arranged what he considered a sufficient force, the din of preparation sounded for four years more throughout Asia. The multitudes streamed into Critalla, in Cappadocia, the appointed rendezvous, from every part of the Persian empire. The land force included forty-six different nations, with their jargon of strange tongues, their crude weapons, and their wide diversity of dress and appearance. The fleet was manned by the Phoenicians, the Ionians, and other maritime nations, and immense stores of provisions were piled at different points along the line of march to the borders of Greece. An important part of this gigantic work was the construction of a bridge across the Hellespont, which was completed by the Phoenician and Egyptian engineers. The length of this structure was an English mile, as it consisted of boats secured together; but hardly was it finished when it was destroyed by a violent storm. Then it was that Xerxes showed himself a ferocious fool, for he had the heads of the engineers cut off, and, with the silliness of a child, caused the impudent sea to receive three hundred lashes, and a set of fetters was cast into it. Then he ordered two bridges to be built, one for the army and the other for the beasts of burden and the baggage. This was done, and the respective rows of ships were held in place by anchors and by cables fast- ened to the sides of the channel. Xerxes could not forget the peril his ships faced in rounding the rocky promontory of Mount Athos, where the fleet of Mardonius had been wrecked. To avoid this, he ordered a canal to be cut through the neck which joins the isthmus of Mount Athos with the mainland. The building of this canal re- quired three years, but it was magnificently completed, with a length of a mile and a half, and a breadth sufficient for two triremes to sail abreast. To-day the traces of this canal may be seen. Early in the spring of B.C. 480, Xerxes left Sardis, the Lydian capital, for Abydos, on the Hellespont. Professor Greene, referring to the pomp and splen- dor of this march, says: “The vast host was divided into two bodies of nearly equal size, between which ample space was left for the great king and his Persian guards. The baggage led the way, and was followed by one-half of the army, without any distinction of nations. Then after an interval came the retinue of the king. First of all marched a thousand Persian horsemen, fol. lowed by an equal number of Persian spearmen, the latter carrying spears with the points downward, and ornamented at the other end with golden pome. granates. Behind them walked ten sacred horses, gorgeously caparisoned, bred on the Nisaean plain of Media; next the sacred car of Jove, drawn by eight white horses; and then Xerxes himself in a chariot, drawn by Nisaean horses. He was followed by a thousand spearmen and a thousand horsemen, correspond- Greece—The Army of Xerxes I 97 ing to the two detachments which immediately preceded him. They were suc- ceeded by ten thousand Persian infantry, called the “Immortals,’ because their number was always maintained. Nine thousand of them had their spears orna- mented with pomegranates of silver at the reverse extremity; while the remain- ing thousand, who occupied the outer ranks, carried spears similarly adorned with pomegranates of gold. After the ‘Immortals' came ten thousand Persian cavalry, who formed the rear of the royal retinue. Then, after an interval of two furlongs, the other half of the army followed. -> “In this order the multitudinous host marched from Sardis to Abydos on the Hellespont. Here a marble throne was erected for the monarch upon an eminence, from which he surveyed all the earth covered with his troops, and all the sea crowded with his vessels. His heart swelled within him at the sight of such a vast assemblage of human beings; but his feelings of pride and pleas- ure soon gave way to sadness, and he burst into tears at the reflection that in a hundred years not one of them would be alive. At the first rays of the rising sun the army commenced the passage of the Hellespont. The bridges were perfumed with frankincense and strewed with myrtle, while Xerxes himself poured libations into the sea from a golden censer, and turning his face toward the east offered prayers to the Sun, that he might carry his victorious arms to the farthest extremities of Europe. Then throwing the censer into the sea, together with a golden bowl and a Persian scimeter, he ordered the Immortals to lead the way. The army crossed by one bridge and the baggage by the other; but so vast were their numbers that they were seven days and seven nights in passing over, without a moment of intermission. The speed of the troops was quickened by the lash, which was constantly employed by the Per- sians to urge on the troops in battle as well as during the march.” One of the interesting questions connected with this remarkable invasion is the number of men who crossed the Hellespont, like so many cattle, subject to the whim of the Persian monarch. Xerxes is said to have taken a peculiar method of counting his foot-soldiers. He first had ten thousand told off, and afterward crowded as close together as they could stand. Then a line was drawn around them and a wall built on this line. Into the space thus enclosed other soldiers quickly crowded themselves and then passed out again. This was done one hundred and seventy times before the entire army was measured. The process was substantially accurate, and made the number of foot soldiers to be I,7OO,OOO. In addition, there were 8o, OOO horses and numerous war chariots and camels, with fully 20, Ooo men. The fleet was composed of 1,2O7 triremes and 3, OOO smaller vessels. In each trireme were 200 rowers and 3O fighting men, while according to Herodotus, every accompanying vessel carried 80 men. This would give a total of 517,61O for the naval force. During the 1 98 The Story of the Greatest Nations march from the Hellespont to Thermopylae, the army was continually increased by the Thracians, Macedonians, Magnesians, and other nations through whose territories Xerxes marched on his way to Greece. . Herodotus estimates the number of camp followers, exclusive of eunuchs and women, as greater than the fighting men, so that the stupendous host was reckoned by the ancients as more than 6,000,000, or double the entire population of the American colonies dur- ing the Revolution. The mind is dazed by this inconceivable array of men, and it is impossible not to believe that the number was vastly exaggerated. Nevertheless, at no other time in the history of the ancient or modern world has so prodigious a force of men been gathered under the command of one person. Grote, who refuses to accept the estimate of Herodotus, says: “We may well believe that the numbers of Xerxes were greater than were ever before assembled in ancient times, or perhaps at any known epoch of history.” The invading host moved along the coast through Thrace and Macedonia, and at Acanthus Xerzes looked with pride upon the canal that had been con- structed by his order. There he parted from his fleet, which was directed to double the peninsulas of Sithonia and Pallene and await his arrival at Thessa- lonica, then known as Therma. There Xerxes rejoined his navy, and then pressed forward along the coast until he reached Mount Olympus, where he in- tended to leave for the first time his dominions and enter Hellenic territory. All Greece had long known of the stupendous preparations in Persia for their annihilation. During the winter preceding the invasion the Grecian states were summoned to meet in congress at the isthmus of Corinth. The Spartans and Athenians were vigorously united in the presence of the terrifying danger, and put forth all effort to bring the whole Hellenic race into one resolute league for the defence of their homes and firesides. It would seem that such a union should have been quick and ardent, but it wholly failed. Many of the Grecian states were so panic-stricken by the rumble of the descending avalanche that they looked upon resistance as the height of madness, and made haste to sub- mit to Xerxes in many cases before he had time to demand such submission. Even those who were far beyond the line of march refused to take any part in the congress. Let us remember that the only people north of the isthmus of Corinth who stood true to the cause of Grecian liberty were the Athenians and Phocians and the people of the small Boeotian towns of Plataea and Thespae. Those in the northern part of Greece who were not allies of the Persians, like the Thebans, had not enough patriotism to pay a fair price for their independ- €In Ce. Over in Peloponnesus, the powerful city of Argos scowled and grimly shook her head to the appeal. The inhabitants could not forget the humiliation re- Greece—Dissensions of the Greeks I 99 ceived a few years before from the Spartans, and they viewed with indifference, if not pleasure, the prospect of the evening up of matters by the Persian mon- arch. The Achaeans had also a sufficient grievance to hold them aloof, for had not their ancestors been driven from their homes by the Dorians? This desertion by their natural allies did not affect the resolution of Sparta and Athens to fight it out to the death with the barbarian multitudes that were pouring into the country like the inundation of the ocean itself. The Atheni- ans were wise in securing the friendship of the AEginetans, whose powerful navy was of vast help to the common cause. The Spartans were given the su- preme command on land as well as Sea, though the AEginetan ships comprised two-thirds of the whole fleet. Themistocles was the soul of the congress, his magnetic patriotism thrilling the others with his own dauntless spirit. The patriots swore to resist to the end, and in case of success, to consecrate to the Delphian god one-tenth of the property of every Grecian state which had sur- rendered to the Persians except under the stress of resistless necessity. When the question came up of where resistance should be offered to the Persian invasion, the Thessalians insisted that a body of men should be sent to guard the pass of Tempe, declaring that if this were not done they would be compelled to make terms with the foe. A force of IO,OOO men was therefore sent to the pass in which a small body could check a large one; but, upon reach- ing it, the Grecian leaders discovered that the Persians would be able to land a force in their rear, and they learned also that there was another passage across Mount Olympus, a short distance to the west. These causes led them to with- draw from Thessaly and return to the isthmus of Corinth, whereupon the Thes- salians carried out their threat and made submission to Xerxes. * The Greeks now fixed upon the pass of Thermopylae (literally the “hot gates”), leading from Thessaly into Locris, and forming the only road by which an army could penetrate from northern into southern Greece. It lies south of the present course of the river Sperchius, between Mount CEta and what was formerly an impassable morass bordering on the Malic Gulf. The presence of several hot springs in the pass is doubtless what gave it its name. It is about a mile long, and, at each extremity, the mountains approach so near the morass as to leave scant room for a single vehicle. Moreover, the island of Euboea is separated from the mainland by a strait only two and a half miles wide in one portion, so that by defending that part with a fleet, an enemy can be prevented from landing at the southern end of the pass. This the Greeks determined to do. Accordingly, the whole Grecian fleet, under the command of the Spartan Eurybiades, passed to the north of Euboea and took position off the northern coast of the island to check the advance of the Persian fleet. A singular cause led to the sending of only a small land force for the de- 2 OO The Story of the Greatest Nations & fence of Thermopylae. The Greeks were on the point of entering upon the celebration of the Olympic games, and the Peloponnesians did not feel willing to abandon this, even when it was known that the Persians were near at hand. They decided therefore to send only a small force which they believed would be able to hold the pass until the celebration was over, when a much larger number would join their comrades. This body was placed under the command: of the Spartan king Leonidas, the younger brother and successor of Cleomenes. It was composed of 300 Spartans, with their attendant Helots, and about 3,000 foot soldiers from different Peloponnesian states. They were joined while marching through Boeotia by 700 Thespians and 400 Thebans, the latter of whom Leonidas compelled the Theban government to furnish him. At Ther- mopylae, 1,000 Phocians were added to the number. Leonidas now made the alarming discovery that an overgrown path led over Mount CEta, and would permit a foe to reach southern Greece without passing through Thermopylae. He received the information from the Phocians, who, upon their own request, were posted on the summit commanding the pass, while Leonidas took position with the remainder of the troops within the pass. of Thermopylae. His station was strengthened by the rebuilding of a ruined wall across the northern entrance. I Although the Spartan commander was calm and confident, the case was far different with those around him. The sight of the overwhelming numbers of Persians made the Peloponnesians clamor for the abandonment of the position, and the adoption of that of the isthmus of Corinth. They would have done so, but for the persuasions of Leonidas and the angry remonstrances of the Pho- cians and Locrians. When Xerxes came in sight of Thermopylae and was told of the handful of men that were waiting to dispute his advance, he could hardly credit it. He delayed his march for several days in the belief that they would disperse; but, seeing they did not, he ordered on the fifth day that the presumptuous mad- men should be brought before him. The Persians attacked with great bravery, but the narrow space prevented their utilizing their superior numbers, and the Greeks easily held them at bay. When the battle had lasted a long time, with- out the slightest advantage to the Persians, Xerxes ordered his ten thousand Immortals forward, but they were repulsed as decisively as the others. Xerxes. sat on a lofty throne which had been erected for him, in order that he might enjoy the sight of the overthrow of the audacious little band, and he sprang to his feet several times in a transport of fear and rage. The attack of the next day promised no better success, and the monarch. began to despair, when an execrable miscreant, a Malian by birth, named Ephi- altes, revealed to Xerxes the secret of the path across the mountains. As, Greece—Defense of Thermopylae 2 O I speedily as possible a strong detachment started over the trail under the guid- ance of the traitor. Setting out at dusk they were near the summit at day- break. The Phocians stationed there were so terrified at sight of them that they fled from the path and took refuge on the highest point of the ridge. The Persians paid no attention to them, but hurried along the path, and began de- scending the mountain on the other side. The watchful scouts of Leonidas, however, had brought him news of his mortal peril several hours before. He called a council of war, in which the majority urged the abandonment of the position they could no longer hold, that they might reserve their strength for the future defence of Greece. Leonidas, being a Spartan, was bound to die where he stood if necessary, but never to retreat. His comrades were equally heroic, and the seven hundred Thespians pledged themselves to remain and share their fate. The rest of the allies were allowed to retire, with the excep- tion of the four hundred Theban hostages. Xerxes waited until the sun was overhead, when, confident that the detach- ment sent over the mountain had reached its destination, he prepared to attack; but Leonidas and his “deathless Spartans,” knowing they must die, came out from behind their wall and charged the Persians in the very desperation of valor. Their assault was resistless; hundreds of the enemy were mowed down like grass; others were tumbled into the sea, and many more trampled to death, by the confused legions behind them. The hissing lash and savage threats were scarce sufficient to hold the Persians to their work; but when the spears of the Greeks were broken and they were left with only their swords, the enemy began to wedge their way among them. One of the first to die was Leonidas, over whose body the most furious fighting of the day took place. Again and again the Persians were hurled back, until human endurance could stand no more, and utterly exhausted the Greeks tottered back, “all that was left of them,” and flung themselves down on a hillock behind the wall. A brief while later, the detachment that had passed through the secret path appeared in the rear of the heroes. The Thebans called out that they had been compelled to fight against their will and begged for quarter. Their lives were spared, but the Spartans and Thespians, surrounded on every side, were slain to the last IIla I). The poet Simonides said of this immortal defence of Leonidas: “Of those who at Thermopylae were slain, Glorious the doom, and beautiful the lot ; Their tomb an altar : men from tears refrain To honor them, and praise, but mourn them not. Such sepulchre nor drear decay Nor all-destroying time shall waste: this right have they, 2O2 The Story of the Greatest Nations Within their grave the home-bred glory Of Greece was laid ; this witness gives Leonidas the Spartan, in whose story A wreath of famous virtue ever lives.” Meanwhile, the two fleets were battling off the northern coast of Euboea. The Greek ships under Eurybiades numbered only two hundred and seventy-one, with Themistocles in charge of the Athenian squadron, and Adimantus of the Corinthian. Three vessels sent out to watch the movements of the enemy were captured. This and the sight of the vast Persian fleet approaching so alarmed the Greek ships that they abandoned their position and sailed up the channel between Euboea and the mainland to Chalcis, where the width was so slight that it could have been easily defended. This retreat let the Persians free to land any force they chose in the rear of Thermopylae. News being carried to the Persian naval commander that the way was clear, he sailed from the gulf of Therma, and a day carried him almost to the southern point of Magnesia. Opposite a breach in the mountains the commander de- cided to pass the night, but the space was so slight that he had to line his ves- sels eight deep off the shore. The next morning a terrific hurricane tore the ships from their anchorage, flung them against one another, and hurled them upon the cliffs. There was no abatement in the fury of the tempest for three days and nights, at the end of which the wrecks of four hundred ships lined the shore, with thousands of bodies and a vast amount of stores and treasures. The vessels that had managed to ride out the gale passed around the southern promontory of Magnesia and anchored at Aphetae, near the entrance to the Pagasaean gulf. Under the belief that the whole Persian fleet had been destroyed, the Greeks at Chalcis hurried back to their former station at Artemisium, only a few miles from Aphetae; but to their dismay saw that an overwhelming number of the enemy's ships had escaped and now confronted them. They would have fled had not the Euboeans sent one of their citizens to Themistocles with an offer of thirty talents, if he could induce the Greek commanders to stay and defend the island. Themistocles dearly loved a bribe, and eagerly seized the chance. By placing the money “where it would do the most good,” he per- suaded his companions to stay, and at the same time he laid aside a tidy sum for himself. The Persians were so sure of victory that in order to prevent the Greeks from escaping they sent two hundred ships to sail round to the rear and cut off their retreat. These vessels were attacked with such sudden impetuosity that thirty were disabled or captured. Night descended before the Persians could rally sufficiently to strike back with effectiveness. That night another storm did Greece—The Abandonment of Athens 2O3 great damage to the Persian fleet and many of the Greeks began to believe the gods were fighting on their side. Their spirits rose still higher through the arrival next day of fifty-three fresh Athenian vessels, which helped to destroy some of the enemy's ships at their moorings. The Persians were enraged by these attacks, and dreading also the anger of Xerxes, who had an uncomfortable habit of cutting off the heads of those who displeased him, they prepared for a resistless assault on the morrow. When about noon they began Sailing toward Artemisium, their line was in the form of a Crescent. The Greeks hugged the shore, to escape being surrounded, and with a view of preventing the enemy from bringing all their fleet into action. The battle was of the fiercest nature, both sides displaying great bravery. Much mutual damage was done, but at the close of day the Greeks were so weakened, for they could less afford their losses, that all agreed it would be impossible to renew the fight on the morrow. Hardly had this decision been reached when news was received of the fall of Leonidas and his comrades at Thermopylae. The Greeks lost no time in sailing up the Euboean channel; and, doubling the promontory of Sunium, did not pause until they arrived at the island of Salamis. Absolute destruction now impended over Athens, for there was nothing to prevent the Persians from marching straight to that city. The Athenians had relied upon the pledge of the Peloponnesians to march an army into Boeotia, but nothing of the nature was done, and the Athenian families and property were at the mercy of the ruthless foe. The Grecian fleet had stopped at Sala- mis, and Eurybiades consented to pause a while and help carry away the Athe- nian families and their effects. All agreed that in six days at the furthest Xerxes would be at Athens. Not an hour, therefore, was lost, and before the time had passed all who wished to leave the city had done so. Many refused to go farther than Salamis, but the capital was depopulated in less than a week. Themistocles found it an almost impossible task to hold his countrymen to the supreme work that now confronted them. When the Delphian Oracle was appealed to, its first answer was a command for them to flee to the ends of the earth, since nothing could save them from destruction. A second appeal to the oracle brought forth the dubious reply that the divine Salamis would make women childless, but “when all was lost, a wooden wall should still shelter the Athenians.” Probably the wily Themistocles suggested this answer, for he interpreted it to mean that a fleet and naval victory was to be their only means of safety. But some insisted that the reply meant that the Athenians should find refuge in the Acropolis, with the western front fortified by barricades of timber. 2O4. The Story of the Greatest Nations The awful danger brought all closer together. Themistocles urged a de- cree, which was passed, recalling those that had been Ostracized, specially in- cluding his former rival Aristides the Just. The knights, led by Cimon, the son of Miltiades, marched to the Acropolis to hang up their bridles in the tem- ple of Athena, and to bring out the consecrated arms fitted for the naval service in which they were about to engage. The rich and aristocratic contributed without stint to the funds for the equipment of the fleet and the care of the poor. In short, nothing that promised to help the public good was left undone. Meanwhile, the Persian army was steadily approaching the city. When he arrived, Xerxes found a small body of citizens gathered in the Acropolis, who refused his demand for surrender. A desperate fight followed, but the handful were overcome; and those who did not find death by flinging themselves from the rock were put to the sword. The temples and houses of Athens were pil- laged and burnt. It is said that in the midst of the embers and desolation the Athenians in the train of Xerxes, while sacrificing in the Acropolis, saw with amazement that the 'sacred olive tree, growing on the temple of Athena, had within the two days following the fire thrown out a fresh shoot a cubit in length; but the hap- less and deserted capital lay prostrate at the feet of the Persian conqueror. The fleet of Xerxes, which had arrived at the bay of Phalerum, included, by the least estimate, a thousand vessels, while those of the Grecian fleet at Salamis. were about one-third as numerous. Moreover, there were disputing and dissen- sion among the Grecian commanders. The Peloponnesian leaders urged that the fleet should sail to the isthmus of Corinth, so as to effect communication with the land forces, and their arguments gained force from the arrival of the news that Athens had been captured by the enemy. Themistocles was vehe- mently in favor of staying at Salamis and fighting in the narrow straits, where the superior numbers of the Persian ships could not help them. But all his enthusiasm and eloquence were insufficient to convince his colleagues, and when night closed the council the majority voted in favor of retreat, which was to begin on the following morning. But there was no shaking the resolution of Themistocles. He was almost in despair when he returned to his ship, but he soon went back to Eurybiades and succeeded in persuading him to call the council again. The commanders obeyed, but were surly and angered, insisting that the whole matter had been closed. Plutarch relates that Eurybiades was so incensed by the language of Themistocles that he raised his stick to strike him, whereupon the Athenian exclaimed, “Strike, but hear me!” The Spartan commander, however, was won over, and without putting the question to a vote, he issued orders for the fleet to remain at Salamis and give Greece—The Council of Salamis 2O5 battle to the Persians. Preparations were vigorously made, but the dishearten. ing news received from home the next day caused an almost open mutiny. A third council was called, and, despite the fierce pleadings of Themistocles, he saw the majority were against him, and then it was that he did an exceedingly clever thing. The debate went on hour after hour. The members who were opposed to remaining were impatient and wished to bring the question to a vote, for there was no doubt of the result, but Themistocles dinned away with his arguments, repeating many of them over and over again, though never without great force. It may be wondered whether among his listeners there was none who saw there was something, unsuspected by the others, behind all this argumentation of the eloquent Athenian. The truth of it was that Themistocles was neither trying nor hoping to bring his comrades over to his view; he was talking against time, for the success of the stratagem he had on foot depended upon staving off the vote as long as possible. Finally, when the wearied council adjourned, it was with the understanding that it should reassemble before daybreak. So in the gloomy hours beyond midnight the shadowy figures came together again, sullen, angry, impatient, and each more set than ever in his view. It did not add to the charitable feeling of Themistocles' opponents when they saw how their wishes were baffled so continuously by one person. They resolved to bring the matter to a decisive issue without any more delay. But hardly had they come together when a messenger appeared with word that a man had just arrived on urgent business and wished to speak to Themis- tocles. The latter hurried outside, where to his astonishment he stood face to face with his old rival Aristides. The latter with characteristic chivalry in- stantly proposed that their former rivalry should now be directed as to which could do the most for his country. Aristides had spent more than five years .in exile, but his heart glowed with the purest patriotism, and it need hardly be said that Themistocles eagerly echoed the words of the Just, who then revealed that the Persian fleet had completely surrounded that of the Greeks, Aristides having stolen through with much difficulty in the darkness. Themistocles asked his friend to repeat what he had just told him to the Council, since the members would give it more weight than if the news came from himself. Aristides passed inside and did so, but he would hardly have been believed had not his words been confirmed by the arrival of a fleeing ship with the same tidings. Now, strange as it may sound, it was Themistocles himself who had caused the Persian ships to surround those of his countrymen. He had among his slaves a learned Asiatic Greek, the instructor of his children, and a master of the Persian tongue. Themistocles sent him secretly and in great haste to 2O6 The Story of the Greatest Nations Xerxes with tidings of the quarrel among the Grecian commanders, assuring the great king that he would not have the least difficulty in surrounding and capturing the whole wrangling assemblage of ships. Moreover, Xerxes was persuaded that Themistocles was favorable at heart to the Persian cause. It is not impossible, in view of the subsequent course of the Athenian, that he wished to gain favor in the eyes of the monarch. Be that as it may, the latter acted upon the advice sent him, and the Greek ships being shut in on every side had no choice but to fight. Xerxes, in his vanity, declared that the previous naval disasters resulted from his absence, and he now caused a lofty throne to be built, opposite the harbor of Salamis, where all his people could see him and be inspired by his. presence. “A king sat on the rocky brow Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis; And ships, by thousands, lay below, And men in nations ;-all were his He counted them at break of day— And when the sun set where were they 2” Since the Greeks were driven to bay and forced to fight, they did so with the utmost heroism and skill. Nor can a display of bravery be denied the Persians, who fought as if the consciousness of being under the eye of the great king, perched high and far away on his throne, was an inspiration. Had. the battle been fought on the open sea, it is inconceivable that the Greek ships should have escaped, but the narrow space fatally hindered the thousand vessels. which collided with one another and became entangled in their efforts to reach their opponents, who had just enough room in which to do their best. The Greeks lost 40 and their enemies 200 vessels. A single incident will illustrate the conditions of this famous battle more graphically than pages of detailed. description. Artemisia, queen of Halicarnassus, accompanied Xerxes on this invasion and was held in high esteem by him on account of her prudence and bravery. She was almost alone in opposing an attack upon the Greeks, but when over- ruled, no one displayed more impetuous daring than she. Watching every phase of the fight, however, with the eye of a general, she was not long in awaking to the fact that the only way of avoiding capture was by flight; so she fled, hotly pursued by Aminias the Athenian trierarch, or commander of a trireme. Directly across her line of flight lay a Persian vessel. Without turn- ing a hair to the right or left, Artemisia drove her boat straight into the other, cutting it in two and sending all on board to the bottom. Aminias saw only one explanation of this act—the queen was a deserter from the Persian cause;. and he therefore allowed her to escape. Greece—Flight of Xerxes 207. But the whole fleet of the invaders was defeated and fled in a disgraceful panic. Besides the 200 ships that had been destroyed, the Greeks captured. many more with their crews. A considerable Persian force had been landed on a low barren island near the Southern entrance to the straits, with a view of helping such of their vessels as should be driven thither, and to destroy those of the Greeks that might Come within reach. When the Persian fleet was in full flight, Aristides landed on the island with a body of troops, attacked the Persians, overcame, and slew every one. Who can imagine the rage of Xerxes when from his lofty perch he wit- nessed this crowning degradation of his arms? He was like a lunatic, and when some Phoenician crews were driven ashore at his feet, and attempted to make excuse for their misfortune, he answered them by ordering their heads. cut off. And then Xerxes, as might have been expected, acted the part of the cow- ard. Despite the severe losses of his fleet, it was still far superior to that of the Greeks, who, expecting another battle, prepared for it; but the whole Per- sian fleet was ordered to make haste in returning to Asia, and the best Persian troops were landed and marched toward the Hellespont in order to save the bridge there. The Greeks started in pursuit, but Eurybiades and the Pelopon- nesians, well aware of the formidable strength of the Persians, thought it pru- dent to let them escape, instead of driving them to bay as the Greeks them- selves had been driven. It is impossible not to believe that this was the wiser course; but Themistocles used the occasion to send another message to Xerxes, which proved his selfishness and Cunning, as well as his resolve to take care of his own interests. He used his former trustworthy slave to tell the monarch that it was because of his personal friendship for him that he dissuaded his countrymen from destroying the bridge over the Hellespont and cutting off his retreat. We have learned of the failure of Mardonius in his former attempt to invade Greece, and it was he who did much to persuade Xerxes to withdraw. He flat- tered the vanity of the monarch by representing that the great object of the ex- pedition had been attained through the capture of Athens, and his glory there- fore was not tarnished by a departure from the country. He insisted that the complete conquest of Greece was easy, and he engaged to accomplish it with an army of 300,000 men. Mardonius was supported in his views by Queen Artemisia and the courtiers, and thus it happened that the stupendous invasion of Greece came to naught. When the retreating host reached Thessaly, Mardonius gathered the army with which he expected to subdue the Greeks; but since autumn was at hand and 60,000 of the troops were to act as an escort for Xerxes he decided tº 208 The Story of the Greatest Nations postpone his campaign until the following spring. The diminished Persian army reached the Hellespont after a march of about six weeks, where it was found that the bridge had been swept away by storms; but the fleet was there and carried the troops across. Thus closed the prodigious invasion, and the Greeks celebrated their triumph, after their national custom, by welcoming the victors with all honors in a great procession, and by the distribution of re- wards. The chief prize for valor was given to the AEginetans and the second to the Athenians, the first individual rank being accorded to Polycritus, the AEginetan, and to Eumenes and Aminias, the Athenians, while the deities re- ceived their full share of honor. The main prize, however, was to be for the commander whose skill had most helped to defeat the enemy. Each chieftain was called on to vote for whom he thought deserved it; and, according to the story, each with frank simplicity voted for himself. This did not help the people much toward a choice. But fortunately the vote had called also for a second choice, and every single chief had selected, as next to himself in merit, the same man—Themistocles. So by unanimous vote Themistocles was declared the greatest of the Greek command- ers. The Spartans crowned him with olive leaves, made him presents, and received him in their city with such honors as they had never accorded before to any but a Spartan. He stood upon a pinnacle of glory, the most famous man of all the known world. While Xerxes was thus being repelled in the east, a formidable enemy was also assailing the western Greeks in Sicily. The most powerful of the Greek colonial cities there was Syracuse. Her strength at this time was probably greater even than that of Sparta; and it had need to be, for the Phoenicians of Carthage, probably in alliance with Xerxes, suddenly invaded the island. They made some trivial pretext of interfering among the quarrelling Greek cities, and landed an army of, we are told, three hundred thousand men to besiege the little town of Himera. Gelon, the king, or tyrant, of Syracuse, gathered all the troops he could from the neighboring cities and attacked the invaders, with a force far smaller than theirs. The battle was prolonged and desperate, the result looked uncertain. - Finally, Gelon resorted to a clever stratagem. The Carthaginians had been assured of aid by certain traitorous Greeks; and Gelon, knowing this, sent a body of his own men, who pretended to be the promised support. They were received with joy by the invaders, and, being admitted to the centre of the Camp, turned suddenly on the unsuspecting foe, set fire to their ships, and slew right and left. The whole Greek army rushed again to the attack, and the Carthaginians were crushed. Christianity had not yet come to teach charity toward a fallen foe, and that Greece—Battle of Himera 2O 9 entire body of three hundred thousand men was practically swept out of exist. ence. A few escaped in the remnants of the burning ships, but a storm over- whelmed these, and if we may believe the historian Diodorus, only one small boat reached Carthage with the dreadful tidings. Fugitives by thousands hid in the Sicilian mountains until hunger forced them to surrender themselves to the Greeks. The remainder of their miserable lives they spent in chains labor- ing for their conquerors. So numerous did these slaves become that their lives were treated as of no account whatever; some private citizens had as many as five hundred of them being worked or starved to death. The Greek cities of Sicily were almost entirely rebuilt by this forced labor, becoming the splendid monuments of a cruel crime. Herodotus places this decisive battle of Himera on the same day with that of Salamis. Europe had hurled back the invading forces of both Asia and Africa. Later she was to attack them in her turn. - Meanwhile the Persian fleet, after conveying Xerxes and his army across the Hellespont, reassembled to the number of 400 in the following spring at Samos, with the purpose of watching Ionia, which had become restless. The Greek fleet, consisting of I IO vessels, gathered at the same time at AEgina, under the command of the Spartan king Leotychides, but neither force attacked the other. Meanwhile, Mardonius completed his arrangements for the cam- paign, which he had promised Xerxes should bring all Greece under subjection. While a number of the towns showed disaffection toward Persia, the Macedo- nians, the Thessalians, and the Boeotians were disposed to aid the Persian leader, who used all his arts to persuade the Athenians to join in the alliance, but without effect. Sparta promised to support Athens, but broke the pledge. Mardonius marched against Athens, accompanied by his numerous Greek allies, and occupied it again early in the summer of B.C. 479, less than a year after the retreat of Xerxes. Seductive offers were again made to the Athenians, who fled from the city; but such was their resentment that the only man who favored yielding was stoned to death with all the members of his family. Having removed to Salamis, the Athenians sent messengers to Sparta, bit- terly denouncing such faithlessness and intimating that unless their former allies did their duty, the Athenians might find it necessary to form the pro- posed alliance with Mardonius. If this were done, it meant the destruction of Sparta; so she now moved vigorously. An army of IO,OOO, exclusive of the Helots, was sent to the field, quickly followed by other allies from the Pelopon. nesian cities. Mardonius abandoned Attica before the approach of this force, and passed into Boeotia, where the country was more favorable for his cavalry. He took illp his position near the town of Plataea, where he built a strongly fortified I4. 2 I O The Story of the Greatest Nations camp. It should be borne in mind that many of his troops were dispirited by the disastrous campaign of Xerxes the year before, and by the retreat of Mar- donius himself, while the Greeks were enthusiastic and their numbers con- stantly increased. Although they had no cavalry and only a few bowmen, their forces numbered IIo,000 men. Each army was afraid to make an open attack, and for days there was much skirmishing and harassing of each other's forces. Finally Pausanias, the Greek commander, finding his position untenable, ordered a retreat to another, about a mile to the rear, which was superior in every re- spect. The withdrawal, owing to disputes among the leaders, was disorderly and confused. It was made in the night, and, when Mardonius learned at day- light of the movement, he ordered a pursuit. The battle that followed was of the most furious nature, but Mardonius was killed and his whole army driven in headlong confusion back to their fortified camp. There they were impetu- ously attacked, and, despite a valiant resistance, defeated with great slaughter. The dead were numbered by the tens of thousands, and many days were occu- pied in burying the bodies. Mardonius was interred with honors, and the spot remained marked for several hundred years by a monument. The treasures and spoils gathered from the camp of the enemy were worth a kingdom. Thebes, which had been the most powerful ally of the Persians, was next besieged and captured; and the most prominent citizens who had favored the enemy were put to death. The defensive league against the Persians was re- newed and it was arranged that deputies should meet annually at Plataea. Meanwhile, Leotychides having crossed the AEgean, attacked the Persian fleet at Mycale, a promontory near Miletus, where he landed on the 4th of Sep- tember, B.C. 479, the very day of the battle of Plataea. The army of 60,000 Persians lining the shore fled to their fortifications. They made a fierce de- fence, but were routed and both their generals killed. What was left of the Persian army retreated to Sardis, where Xerxes had lingered. Thus his vast host had been ignominiously routed and his immense fleet destroyed. Never again did the Persians dare invade Greece. It took several years to dislodge them entirely, but in the end they were driven wholly out of Europe. ATHENIAN HELMETS - º - |- - º º º Mſ. | ſº º º º --- ſº |-- $º. º . - -- ºll. Nº º º º * sº º fº º º tº A. º THE PIRAEUS AND LONG WALLs of ATHENS Chapter XVIII THE AGE OF PERICLES *HE reason the Greeks are so renowned in history is partly, of course, because of their splendid war against the Persians; but it is even more because of the half-cen- tury of peaceful achievement and development that fol- lowed. It was the golden age of Greece. A sudden impulse was given to the whole Greek world, to the Greek mind and heart and eye and tongue, by their splendid triumph, their glorious independence. Just so we, here in America, believe that much of our progress and suc- cess have been due to the pride and high spirit roused by our own War of Independence. Indeed, the two wars are so simi- lar that a parallel is often made between them. In each case, a powerful world-conquering nation attempted to subjugate a small but sturdy race, scattered in little groups along the seashore with a wilderness at its back, a race of expert sea- men, practised mountaineers. The task seemed easy and was approached at first with confidence, almost contempt; but in each case distance paralyzed the mighty arm of the striker. The resisting patriots were at first beaten down by superior resources, their cause seemed desperate; but refusing to recognize defeat, they rallied again and again, and in the end the hired troops, fighting for pay, fell backingloriously before the men who defended their homes and liberties. You can trace the resemblance for yourself through the years whose story is to follow, even down to the jealous civil war which disrupted the Grecian 2 I 2 The Story of the Greatest Nations states. Only bear in mind that our progress has been mainly intellectual, that of the Greeks was along artistic lines. The Athenians came back after the war to a city twice destroyed and a country made desolate. They had lost all their wealth, but they had learned, at least for a time, a lesson more valuable than wealth. They had learned the strength that lies in united action. They had passed together through such trials as had made them really brothers. They had won by their courage and determination a fame which they were resolved to maintain and to increase. As one man they set to work to rebuild their city on a greater scale than before. The Spartans had learned to respect and even to fear Athens as a possible rival for the supremacy of Greece. They could not quarrel openly with a city which had just done and suffered so much for their common land, but they saw a way of checking its rising power. They sent an embassy advising that no walls be built around the new city, for fear the Persians might capture it again and make it a Persian stronghold. Spartan advice had long been equivalent to a command in Grecian affairs, and the Athenians were much perplexed, because to leave their city unwalled was to leave themselves forever at the mercy of Sparta, or even of a lesser foe. In this dilemma it was again the crafty Themistocles who came to the front. He got himself sent to Sparta on an embassy to argue the matter. Two other Athenians were to follow him, but these purposely delayed. Then while The- mistocles lulled Spartan suspicion by wondering loudly why his two colleagues. did not arrive, every man, woman, and child in Athens set to working night and day upon the walls. There was no time for quarrying stone. Old houses were torn down, and ruined temples. Broken columns and statues mingled with the heap. Even gravestones were sacrificed to the pressing need, and for centuries after could still be seen in the remains of the ponderous walls, as proof of the haste and spirit with which the Athenians labored. Rumors reached Sparta of what was going on. Themistocles equivocated, still delayed things, and at last flatly denied the charge. He urged the Spar- tans, instead of believing idle whispers, to send messengers for themselves and See that nothing was being done at Athens. They took him at his word and sent the messengers, thus causing further delay. Before their return the walls were so far advanced that Themistocles threw off the mask, flatly avowed what he had done, and told the Spartans that Athens needed no advice; she was capable of judging her course for herself—and also of defending herself. That was obviously so. It was too late to go to war against the walled and resolute city; and besides, her late sacrifices for Greece made that a shameful thing to do. So the Spartans yielded the point as gracefully as they could, but they hated Themistocles ever after, as much as they had formerly honored him. Greece—The Delian League 2 I 3 Another event at this time contributed even more to the rising power of Athens. The Greeks were still busy driving the Persians from various forti- fied posts which they held around the AEgean sea. The Asiatic Greeks had also thrown off the Persian yoke, and all the fleets were now acting in unison under a Spartan commander, Pausanias. Pausanias had won great renown by being the general of the allied forces in the victory of Plataea; but he seems to have been an incapable sort of man, haughty, treacherous, and selfish. He lost his head under the honors heaped on him, and treated all around him, especially the Asiatic Greeks, as though they had been slaves, not allies. He became a victim to the subtle disease which destroyed so many Greeks, and which they called Medism ; that is to say, he became fascinated by the wealth and display of the Persian Satraps, he imitated their gorgeous dress and contemptuous man- ner, he coveted their gold. He sold his honor and his country and entered into an arrangement with Xerxes by which he was to bring all Greece under the monarch's power and have the rule of it himself, as a Persian satrap with un- bounded riches. You would think that with such an aim he would have been specially careful to conciliate the forces under him ; but instead he became more over- bearing and offensive to them every day. Complaints against him poured into Sparta, and at length he was summoned home from the fleet to answer the charges against him. Even before he left, the Asian Greeks broke into open revolt against him. They had not the old respect for Spartan leadership which awed the European Greeks, and as Ionian colonies they looked naturally to Athens as their mother city. Very fortunately for the Athenians the com- mandant of their ships in the fleet chanced to be Aristides, Themistocles' old rival, “the Just.” Even as Themistocles' craft had helped them before, so Aristides’ high repute served them here. The Ionians came to him in a body, and begged him to assume the leader- ship of the fleet, to protect them against Spartan insolence and incapacity. They formed a great naval union, called the Delian league, of which Athens was to be the head; and to Aristides was entrusted the entire power to draw up a set of equitable laws, by which all were to be bound. So well and justly did he do his work that all the maritime cities around the AEgean readily joined the league, then or soon thereafter. Athens found herself suddenly and unexpectedly at the head of the mightiest naval power the world had known. At first, it was a league where all were equal. Each city was taxed, according to its size, a certain amount in ships and in money, Aris- tides alone estimating the amount in each case. What an opportunity it was for bribery! Yet never a whisper was heard against him; not one apportion- ment was protested as unfair. gº 2 I 4 The Story of the Greatest Nations The powerful and united navy slowly drove out the Persians; it cleared the AEgean sea of pirates; it made Grecian commerce safe as it had never been be- fore. Gradually the lesser and lazier cities found it much easier to contribute all money instead of ships and men. Athens readily consented to the change and herself supplied the vessels. As years slipped by the navy became more and more Athenian, and the lesser cities became mere tributaries, which Athens protected in return for their money. Then some of them sought to withdraw from the league altogether, but Athens insisted on the necessity of a Greek fleet, insisted on her tribute; and they were helpless. Almost unconsciously, the equal and republican Delian league had shifted into an Athenian empire. This, however, was a matter of many years, during which many things had happened. The traitor Pausanias had met his punishment. So high was his fame that on his recall to Sparta no man dared accuse him, and he remained in Sparta for years prosecuting his plans defiantly, almost openly. His agents spread all through Greece, his revolt was fully prepared, when, at the last mo- ment, a frightened slave revealed everything. The proof was absolute and damning; Pausanias himself was overheard discussing the plot. The unwilling judges could no longer refuse to believe, and determined on the arrest of their hero. He saw the anger in their eyes and fled from them to the shrine of a temple. It would have been irreligious to drag him thence, so a wall was built up around the shrine, a guard set about it, and Pausanias was left to starve within. He was carefully watched, and just as death's hand was touching him, the wall was broken down and he was carried out, that he might not pollute the place by dying there. His treason had touched a greater man. Themistocles, always delighting in intrigue, always eager to mine deeper than other men and show himself sub- tler than they, had taken some hand in the conspiracy, what, we hardly know. The Spartans eagerly sent the proofs of this to Athens, whence he had been already temporarily ostracized on a lesser suspicion of bribery. Themistocles did not wait for a trial, which must inevitably have convicted him; he fled to Persia. Romance entwines all his later career. His flight is represented as full of adventures. The successor of Xerxes was so delighted at his arrival that he started repeatedly from his sleep, crying, “I have got Themistocles, the Athe- nian.” The fugitive asked a year to learn the language before visiting the Persian king, and then presented to him such schemes for conquering Greece that the tribute of three cities was given him for his support. Year after year he delayed putting his plans for the conquest into action, until he died, perhaps taking poison when he could no longer delay the promise he had never meant to keep. Greece—The Beautifying of Athens 2 I 5 At the beginning of his career he had been only moderately rich, his for- tune amounting to two or three talents; but he left vast estates to his descend- ants in Persia. In Athens, too, even after his friends had saved for him all they could, there had remained of his, and been confiscated by the state, the enormous fortune of eighty talents, an astounding sum in those days, and a sufficient commentary on his public career. Aristides, dying soon afterward, had to be buried at the public expense. Of all the wealth that had passed through his hands in connection with the Delian league, not one penny had clung to soil them. Of the younger generation of statesmen who succeeded these, the most famous was Pericles. Indeed, this is often called, after him, the Age of Per- icles. He was the son of the Athenian commander at Mycale, and himself fought as a youth against the Persians. He became the leader of the people's party or democracy of Athens. Changes had been made in the Athenian con- stitution soon after Salamis by Aristides, which much extended the power of the lower classes. Indeed, after the common exile and suffering, the common labors and triumphs of that period, it would have been difficult to reintroduce the old class distinctions. Now all men could vote, all could hold office; and Pericles, as a splendid orator and the consistent champion of the common peo- ple, became the real ruler of Athens. As the city rose from its ruins, he determined to make it worthy of its fame and power. He had all the wealth of the Delian league at his command, he had a people the most artistic the world has known. It was the time of the sculptor Phidias, of whom you have already read. Pericles supplied the money, Phidias and twenty others brought the genius, and among them they created the wonderful Athens of story. Day after day Pericles, with his beautiful friend and counsellor, Aspasia, visited the studio of Phidias to admire and to criticise. Not only were the wonderful buildings and statues on the Acropolis erected; every quarter had its temples, every street had its marble figures of the gods and heroes. The market place, or agora, a great open Square in the middle of the city, was surrounded with covered walks lined with statues. The long walls were built connecting Athens with its seaports five miles away, and making it practically secure from conquest. Pericles had grasped the theory of modern governments, that since the state is supported by all the citizens, it must be governed for the good of all. He believed that every man ought to be brought in actual touch with the govern- ment, so as to have a living interest in it. Moreover, his state had the money to make his ideas effective. Few Athenians engaged in trade or business of any kind. They spent their lives in the service of the state, and the state re- paid them liberally. They served in her fleets and armies abroad, or in her law 2 I 6 The Story of the Greatest Nations courts and assemblies at home. To such a general height of culture did the citizens attain that most officials were chosen by lot, not elected, each man proving about as capable as others of filling his position with success and honor. The leisure time of the people was occupied in the study of the arts, for the further beautifying of their city, or in practising athletic games in the gymna- sium. They reached a state of bodily health and strength and beauty appar- ently far in advance of ours. They became trained orators; they built splen- did open-air theatres and developed the drama to heights of great power. It was the time of the three famous tragedians, AEschylus, Sophocles and Euri- pides, and of the comic dramatist Aristophanes. Some giddier heads unfortunately gave themselves more or less to dissipa- tion. We have a very clear picture of the mingled wisdom and folly of the young “bloods” in Plato's dialogue, the “Symposium.” It depicts a dinner at the house of Agatho, a well-known tragic poet, the friend of Plato, Socrates, Alcibiades, and Euripides. Love in all its phases is made the subject of the speeches of those present at the banquet. Agatho, and the wise Socrates, have a lively argument which a friend represses. The poet Aristophanes is about to say something, when a band of revellers break into the court and the voice of the dashing young Alcibiades is heard asking for Agatho. He is brought in intoxicated and is welcomed by Agatho, whom he has come to crown with a garland. He is placed on a couch at Agatho's side, but suddenly, on recogniz- ing Socrates, he starts up and carries on a sort of wit conflict with him which Agatho is asked to appease. Alcibiades insists that they shall drink, and has a large wine-cooler filled, which he first empties himself, then fills again and passes to Socrates. He is informed of the nature of the entertainment, and joins in the spirit of it, singing the praises of Socrates and expressing the hope that the sage will soon fall in love with him. When Alcibiades has finished, a philosophical dispute begins between him, Agatho, and Socrates. Presently another band of revellers appears and introduces disorder into the feast; the sober guests withdraw; others remain, till by dawn all but Socrates are hope- lessly drunk, and he goes to his daily devotions. - Naturally Pericles made enemies, not personal but political ones. Sparta, seeing herself outshone by her more active rival, intrigued against him. The party of the aristocracy were always opposed to his liberal democratic meas- ures. Even among the poorer classes envious men were not wanting who would gladly have overthrown him to take his place. But hatred itself could find no criminal charge to bring against Pericles. He had wealth of his own, more than sufficient for his wants. In appearance he was handsome but re- served, and even haughty. He had none of the arts of the demagogue. His } y. FLIGHT OF MILTIADES zaostałº Naerºdow ni Saewoºn-, BO Twal_1S3 → H3. LS√≠ 3. Hl. DESTRUCTION OF THE ATHENIAN ARMY AT SYRACUSE PSYCHE | || | | | --- < 2 c º u- O ºn 2: º -- u I- H. c m an - -- - o -: C ~ o -n - -- m - - ~ 2. º I -n r- m m - > - 2. > - > > 2. C º : -- -º- -. -º * |- º--- : - !º |º- º-º * - | XERXES COMMANDS THE PUNISHMENT OF THE SEA Svoldo Tºd do Bºlºn a H1 Sº^vs svo NoNuwwata SNw1N + H_1_v = H_L BO HOAwa BH. L 9 N1-Laen00 NOWIO ----- „（S（ |× §§ // ± - | | ALEXANDER'S CHARGE AT GRANCUS Greece—Death of Pericles 217 leading aristocratic rival, Cimon, the son of Miltiades, stooped to curry favor with the people, to praise them for their greatness, to scatter money among them, to clap them on the back and set them drinking. Pericles was always quiet, retiring, even austere; but the people trusted him, and followed him as they would no other. His oratory is said to have been so convincing that he carried all men with him, even his enemies. These, finding him invulnerable to their attacks, assailed him through his friends. In the early days of his success, when party feeling was at its high- est, his comrade and equal, Ephialtes, was murdered by the aristocracy. It is the sole instance of such an outbreak during the age, and by the indignation aroused, it contributed not a little to the success of Pericles. Later his foes tried subtler arts. His close friend, Socrates, was repeatedly accused of im- piety in his teachings to the young, and was finally, after Pericles' death, exe- cuted on that charge. Aspasia was also assailed because of her relations to the great Statesman. The main force of this cowardly method of attack, however, was directed against the unfortunate sculptor Phidias. He was first accused of having stolen for himself some of the gold intended for the statue of Minerva in the Parthe- non. Fortunately, Pericles, foreseeing this very charge, had advised his friend to place the gold on in such a way that it could be removed without damaging the statue. So Pericles was able to clear himself triumphantly by taking off the gold and weighing it in the presence of his enemies. Then he was accused of impiety and insolence toward the gods in that he had placed a likeness of himself and also one of Pericles among the figures on Minerva's shield. What truth there may have been in this charge we hardly know. The sculptor was thrown in prison to await trial, but when the jailors came to bring him before the tribunal they found him dead. Perhaps he had been poisoned by those evil foes, whose malice found in his wonderful genius only an additional stimulus to their hatred. It is plain, then, that Pericles' power in Athens was not absolute, yet he remained its leading citizen and guide until his death. This occurred during the early days of the great Peloponnesian war, a tragedy which he had long sought to avoid, but whose early operations he managed with wisdom and suc- cess. Athens was stricken with a plague, and Pericles was among the victims. As he lay dying, the friends who surrounded his bed whispered of this and that great deed that he had performed. “You forget,” said he, rousing, “the dis- tinction of which I am most proud. No Athenian has ever put on mourning for any act of mine.” =================== SPARTAN SPIES Watching ATHENS FROM ELEUsis Chapter XIX THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR ºHE grandest scheme of Pericles was that of uniting the º Grecian states into a Hellenic confederation the aim of which was to end the mutually destructive wars of the kindred peoples. He opened negotiations for that *Aj purpose, and had his countrymen been able to measure - up to his far-reaching sagacity, Greece would have be- come a mighty nation fitted to confront the world. There would have been no danger from the semibarbarous Macedonians, and it is not improbable that Rome herself, at a later period, would have been compelled to stop the march of her legions on the shores of the Adriatic instead of the Eu- phrates. But the other Greeks could not appreciate the nobil- ity of such patriotism, and through their secret intrigues brought the magnificent scheme to naught. Sparta and Athens, each jealous of the other, were long in such mood toward each other that war was inevitable. Their immediate cause of battle was found in the quarrels of their lesser allies. The Corcyraeans had founded the city of Epidamnus on the coast of Illyria. Corcyra (now Corfu) was itself a colony of Corinth, and though long on ill terms with her, was obliged, according to long-established custom, to se- lect the founder of Epidamnus from the Corinthians, whose city therefore be- came the metropolis of Epidamnus also. The people of the latter were hard pressed at that time by the Illyrians, and applied to Corcyra for help, which Greece—Causes of the Peloponnesian War 2 I Q was refused. Then they turned to the Corinthians, who organized a force to assist them. This highly angered the Corcyraeans, who proceeded to upset the Epidamnian government, and blockaded the town and its Corinthian garrison. Then the Corinthians fitted out a stronger fleet, aided by their allies, but they were decisively defeated by the Corcyraeans off Cape Actium, and on the same day Epidamnus surrendered to their blockading squadron. The Corinthians were humiliated beyond endurance. They devoted two years to preparing to wipe out the disgrace and built so formidable a navy that the alarmed Corcyraeans applied to Athens for help. The Corinthians also sent an embassy thither to protest. After much hesitation the Athenians concluded a merely defensive alliance with Corcyra. In other words, it was agreed to help the Corcyraeans in case their country was actually invaded, but to go no further. In the naval battle which soon followed, the victory was won by the Corin- thians, whereupon the Athenians abandoned their neutrality, and the small force they had sent to the help of the Corcyraeans did its utmost to save them from their pursuers. When the battle was renewed, the help of the Athenians en- abled the Corcyraeans to defeat their enemies. This was in B. c. 432. The Corinthians were not the ones to forgive Athens for the part she had played and they longed for the opportunity of revenge. Some time previously the Athenians had received into their alliance two brothers of the Macedonian prince Perdiccas, with whom he was at odds. In his resentment, Perdiccas stirred up a revolt among the tributaries of Athens, giving special attention to the town of Potidaea, on the isthmus of Pallene. Though it was tributary to Athens, it was originally a colony of Corinth toward which it still owed a cer- tain allegiance. Perdiccas sent envoys to the town to start a revolt, and de- spatched others to Sparta to urge the Peloponnesian league to declare war against Athens. Well aware of what was going on, the Athenian fleet on its way to act against Perdiccas ordered the Potidaeans to level the walls of their town toward the Sea, to send away the Corinthian delegates, and to give hostages as pledges of their future loyalty. The reply of the Potidaeans was to raise the standard of revolt. The Athenians were tardy in acting, and the Corinthians used the time in throwing reinforcements into the town. A half understanding was patched up with Perdiccas and the entire Athenian force marched overland to Potidaea. In the battle fought outside the town, the Corinthians were defeated and withdrew into Potidaea, which was besieged both by sea and land. The Lacedaemonians yielded to the urgings of their allies and called a gen- eral meeting of the Peloponnesian confederacy at Sparta. There were numer- ous grievances against Athens, and after earnest debate it was decided by a 22 O The Story of the Greatest Nations large majority vote to declare war against her. A second congress of the allies was summoned at Sparta, when the whole Peloponnesian confederacy pledged itself to the war. This important resolution was adopted near the close of B.C. 432, or a few months later. The formidable character of the war can be gathered from the respective allies arrayed on the two sides. With Sparta was the whole of Peloponnesus, except Argos and Achaia, and also the Megarians, Boeotians, Phocians, Opun- tian Locrians, Ambraciots, Leucadians, and Anactorians. Their lack was a Strong navy, though ships were furnished by Corinth and several other cities. Aid in this direction was expected from the Dorian cities in Italy and Sicily, and it was the intention to apply to the Persian king for a Phoenician fleet to use against Athens. The allies of Athens were all insular with the exception of the Thessalians, Acarnanians, Messenians at Naupactus, and Plataeans, and they included the Chians, Lesbians, Corcyraeans and Zacynthians, and later the Cephallenians, and also the tributary towns on the coast of Thrace and Asia Minor, and all the islands north of Crete, except Melos and Thera. Athens had also at immediate Command 3OO triremes, I,2OO Cavalry, I, 6OO bowmen, and 29, OOO hoplites. The treasury at the Acropolis contained $7,000,000, with a reserve fund in the shape of the plate and votive offerings in the temple, besides which she could Count upon the annual tribute of her subjects. Sad it was that these two for- midable rivals could not have joined hands as Pericles had urged, instead of flying at each other's throat; but such has been the madness of men from remote generations. The Lacedaemonians ordered their allies to send two-thirds of their dispos- able troops to the isthmus of Corinth, for the purpose of invading Attica. The Spartan king Archidamus was their commander-in-chief, and he hoped that when the Athenians learned of the vastly superior force threatening them they would yield; but at the instance of Pericles, the herald who was sent for- ward by the Spartan commander was not allowed to enter the city. The soldiers under the command of Archidamus numbered nearly a hundred thousand, and for a time he held back, still hoping the Athenians would see the folly of resisting him; but finding this hope in vain, he moved slowly forward, and by a roundabout route crossed the border and arrived at Eleusis in the month of June, B. C. 43 I. * Following the orders of Pericles, the inhabitants of Attica secured them- selves and their property within the walls of Athens, which was greatly crowded therefrom. Encamping within a few miles of the city, Archidamus ravaged the fertile country, destroying crops and property to such an extent that the owners were roused to exasperation and demanded of Pericles the privilege of marching Greece—The Plague in Athens 22 I out and attacking the despoilers. Because he resolutely refused this Pericles was denounced as a traitor. He would not risk an open battle, though he per- mitted a number of forays upon the enemy by way of retaliation. Still further, he retaliated upon Peloponnesus itself, where much damage was done by the troops sent thither on his vessels. It was this expedition that secured the vol- untary submission of the island of Cephallenia and its enrolment among the allies of Athens. The naval operations of the year were of considerable importance. In- censed against Ægina for the part its inhabitants had taken in bringing on the war, Pericles himself led a fleet against them and totally destroyed their sev- enty-five ships. The island was almost depopulated, the people fleeing to the mainland, where they settled under the protection of Sparta. It was not until the close of the long war that they were able to return to their ruined homes. Archidamus withdrew from Attica at the end of about six weeks, and the Athenians took sharp vengeance upon the Megarians, whose territory they ruthlessly ravaged; and the same thing was repeated every season up to the close of the war. It was apparent to both sides that the hostilities would con- tinue for a long time, and preparations were made to that end. The next year, the invasion of Attica by Archidamus was accompanied by a more dreadful enemy. A plague broke out which carried off one-third of the whole population, among them Pericles himself, whose death we have already noted. The scenes were dreadful beyond description, with the dead and dying lying unheeded in the streets and the dogs fighting over the bodies. Those who escaped the grisly visitation were oppressed by almost mortal despondency, during which the invasion of the Lacedaemonians was pushed to the more southern portions of Attica, while the privateers of their fleet inflicted great damage upon the Athenian commerce and fisheries. Sad to say, too, each side was guilty of atrocities more worthy of Savages than of civilized persons. The third year of the war (B.C. 429) opened with nothing decisive accom- plished by either party. The fact that the country had already been ravaged by two invasions, and the fear of the plague led Archidamus to direct his ener- gies against the town of Plataea. In reply to the protests of the defenders, he agreed to respect their independence if they would promise to remain neutral. The Plataeans replied that they would do nothing without the consent of the Athenians, in whose care they had placed their families. Archidamus offered to hand over their town and territory to the Lacedaemonians, pledging to hold everything in trust until the end of the war, when it should be restored to them. The offer was so fair that the majority favored accepting it, but decided that the consent of the Athenians must first be obtained. The answer to their message to Athens was an exhortation for them to hold out and the promise to 22, 2. The Story of the Greatest Nations send the needed assistance. The reply was proclaimed from the walls, and Archidamus, who seemed really to be reluctant to press the siege, felt that he had no excuse for holding back. This siege formed one of the most remark- able episodes of the Peloponnesian war. The garrison consisted of only 400 citizens and 80 Athenians, including also I Io women for the management of household affairs. This number defied the whole army of Archidamus, who set about his work with deliberation and skill. He first surrounded the town with a palisade, thus shutting in the garrison against any escape during the storm or darkness of night. Then he began building an immense mound of timber, earth, and stones against the wall, the outer side sloping away in an inclined plane. It will be seen that when this was completed it would give an easy road to the top of the wall, over which the besieging troops could pass without trouble. The entire army labored at this miniature mountain for seventy days and nights. In the mean time, the Plataeans undermined the vast mound and caused it to fall in repeatedly, but the besiegers overcame this difficulty. When, how- ever, they carried the summit to the level of the wall, they were frustrated by the cleverness of the defenders, who had built a new wall, curving inward like a horseshoe, which left the threatened portion of the old one outside. When that should be carried, the besiegers would be in no better position than before. Baffled in this manner, the Lacedaemonians settled down to a blockade that should compel the little garrison to yield through hunger. The town was sur- rounded by a double wall, the space between being sixteen feet wide and roofed over, with a deep ditch on the outside and one on the inside toward the city. A large number of troops were left to guard this wall and keep watch of the defenders, while those who could be spared were sent to other fields of opera- tion. The siege lasted two years, during which not a thing was done by the Athe- nians for the relief of Plataea, but in the second year one-half the garrison es- caped by means of a daring stratagem. Provisions were running low and the Plataean commander urged the men to make the attempt, but only 212 had the courage to try the hazardous venture. On a cold, stormy night in December, these men stole like so many phan- toms out of the gates, each carrying a ladder, adapted to the height of the wall. These were set against it midway between the two towers occupied by the guard, and the first party went up and killed the sentinels on duty, without causing any alarm. Nearly all the Plataeans had gained the summit, when one of them knocked down a tile in the darkness, the noise of whose fall told the guards what was going on. They instantly turned out, but were at great dis- advantage, for in the darkness all was confusion, and the lighted torches which Greece—Destruction of Plataea 223 they carried made them targets for the arrows and javelins of the Plataeans, who had reached the other side of the walls. All escaped except one man, who was captured, and several who lost heart and turned back. Starvation threatened the remaining garrison. The Lacedaemonian com- mander could have taken the place by storm, but refrained, because if he did so he would be compelled to give it up at the conclusion of peace, whereas if the submission was voluntary his country would have the right to keep it. When, therefore, the demand was made for surrender with the promise that only the guilty should be punished, the terms were accepted and Plataea submitted in B. c. 427. Sad to say, the 200 Plataeans and 25 Athenians, after the mockery of a trial, were put to death, and the town transferred to the Thebans, who some- time later levelled the houses to the earth. The events of the remaining years of the war were indecisive down to B. c. 42 I, when a truce or pretended peace—that of Nicias—was made. A good deal of injury had been inflicted on both sides, but since the towns captured were mutually to be restored, Sparta and Athens, with the exception of the loss of life and suffering, stood where they were at the breaking out of hostilities. In the fifth year, Mitylene had been captured and the Athenian assembly, urged thereto by Cleon and other demagogues, decreed that all of the Mityle- neans should be put to death; but the terrible decision was reversed just in time to prevent its being carried into effect. The awful plague came back in the sixth year, and there were floods and earthquakes of great violence. The Athenians proved themselves masters on the Sea, and having blockaded Sphac- teria, where the flower of the Lacedaemonian army were shut in, the Spartans were so despondent that they sued Athens for peace; but the terms of Cleon were so extravagant that they could not be accepted, and the war went on. Finally, as we have learned, peace was declared in the eleventh year of the war, when it was decreed that the peace should last for fifty years. It was about this time that the marplot Cleon was slain, while suffering defeat at the hands of Brasidas, who also lost his life. The terms of the treaty between the Athenian Nicias and the Spartan king Pleistoanax provided for a mutual restitution of prisoners and places captured during the war, but the Thebans retained the ruins of Plataea on the claim that it had been voluntarily surrendered, while on the same grounds Athens was allowed to keep Nisaea, Anactorium, and Sollium. Neutral towns were to remain independent and pay only the assessments of Athens. By the terms of this treaty, as will be seen, Sparta sacrificed the interests of her allies in order to preserve her own. They were sullen and resentful, and the Boeotians, Corin- thians, Eleans, and Megarians refused to ratify the agreement. This action alarmed Sparta, which formed an offensive and defensive alliance with Athens, 224 The Story of the Greatest Nations it being agreed that each might increase or diminish at pleasure the number of its allies and subjects. Matters were in a worse shape than before. The dissatisfied allies of Sparta set to work to revive the ancient pretensions of Argos, and to make her the head of a new league which should include all Greece with the exception of Athens and Sparta. The Corinthians launched this important scheme, and were soon joined by the Eleans and Mantineans and the Chalcidians. Tegea, Boeotia and Megara, however, held aloof. This state of affairs was very unsatisfactory to Athens and Sparta. The latter confessed that she could not compel her allies to ratify the treaty, and the successor of Brasidas, in command at Amphipolis, claimed he was not strong enough to surrender it against the will of the inhabitants. He withdrew the garrison, but the Athenians made no attempt to occupy the town. Athens on her part refused to evacuate Pylus, although she removed the Helots and Messenians from it. - The negotiations regarding the surrender of Pylus brought forward one of the most remarkable Greeks of his time. This was Alcibiades, born in Athens, B.C. 450. We have already seen him as the pupil and friend of Socrates. He was educated in the house of Pericles, his uncle, and in his youth gave evidence of extraordinary mental and bodily gifts. He was of distinguished birth, hand- some of person, very wealthy, and highly popular, but was unable to restrain his love of luxury and dissipation. He bore arms for the first time when eigh- teen years old in the expedition against Potidaea, where he was wounded and was saved from death by Socrates. Eight years later, it was his privilege to save in turn the life of the philosopher at the battle of Delium. Alcibiades took no part in politics until after the death of Cleon, when he exerted all his great ability to stir up the old enmity against Sparta. It was due to him that the Athenians engaged in the enterprise of conquering Syra- cuse, the most important city of Sicily. If this proved successful, Athens would gain a vast preponderance over Sparta, and Alcibiades would be carried to the topmost wave of prosperity and glory. In B.C. 4 I 5, the Athenians despatched a fleet and army against Syracuse, to which the Spartans sent rein- forcements, and thus the Peloponnesian war was renewed. The story of Alcibiades is deeply interesting. He was appointed to the command of the Sicilian expedition, together with Nicias and Lamachus; but while preparations were under way, it happened one night that all the statues of Mercury in Athens were mutilated. The people were exasperated, and well knowing the roystering character of Alcibiades, they laid the blame upon him and his boon companions. His enemies waited, however, until he had sailed upon his expedition, when they kindled so strong a resentment against him Greece—Athenian Defeat at Syracuse 225 that he was recalled to stand trial. He was incensed, and on his way home landed at Thurii, made his escape, and, fleeing to Sparta, speedily made himself highly popular with the people. It was he who persuaded the Lacedaemonians to send assistance to the Syracusans, and to form an alliance with the king of Persia. - The Syarcusans needed help greatly, for they had been reduced almost to despair by the bold attacks and close siege of the Athenian general Nicias. However, Gylippus, the general sent against him by the Spartans, proved as able as his opponent, and with his troops soon restored the struggle to an equal footing. Sicily now became the chief centre of the war. Both sides were heav- ily reinforced; the flower of the Athenian army and navy gathered at Syracuse. At last the Spartans and Syracusans combined managed to win a complete victory. The Athenian fleet was destroyed and the army, left unsupported and unprovisioned in a strange country, surrendered in a body, after suffering all the tortures of flight and starvation. Nicias, their general, was put to death, and the entire army became Sicilian slaves. This is considered one of the great decisive battles of the world, for it broke the power of Athens. It left her hopeless of the universal empire toward which she had been aiming; and her struggle now became only that of the captive in the toils, a battling for mere existence among the enemies that hemmed her round. This was in the year B. c. 413, and all Greece supposed that Athens must now surrender on whatever terms the allies chose to dictate. Instead, she con- tinued the war with an energy worthy of her in the best days of Pericles. Most of her allies and dependent cities deserted her, threw off her yoke, or even joined the attack against her; but every remaining citizen devoted himself and his fortune actively to the struggle. Ship after ship was built and manned. The city with its giant walls remained impregnable. Throughout the next eight years the Peloponnesian war was carried on mainly at sea off the coast of Asia. Sparta did not hesitate to ally herself with Persia, which could never forgive Athens for the humiliation suffered at her hands a few years before. Thus it was that Persian gold enabled Sparta to wage the contest against Athens, which, however, made a bold stand and kept up the contest with amaz- ing vigor. Alcibiades had gone to Chios and soon had all Ionia in revolt against Athens; but his popularity roused the jealousy of the leading men in Sparta, who ordered their generals in Asia to have him assassinated. Alcibiades learned of the plot and fled to Tissaphernes, a Persian satrap, to whom he soon made himself indispensable. He resumed his old luxurious habits and repre- sented to Tissaphernes that it was against the interests of Persia to disable the Athenians. I 5 226 The Story of the Greatest Nations The next step of the audacious Alcibiades was to send word to the com- manders of the Athenian forces at Samos that he would procure for them the friendship of the satrap if they would commit the government of Athens to an oligarchy. This offer was accepted by the desperate citizens, and the Supreme power was vested in a council of four hundred persons, but the body did not recall Alcibiades. This so angered the army that they chose him as their com- mander, and demanded that he should lead them against Athens and overthrow the tyrants. Alcibiades thought it wise to postpone his return until after he had rendered Athens some signal service. Accordingly, he attacked and defeated the Lacedaemonians both by sea and land. Tissaphernes ordered him to be arrested on his return to Sardis, but Alcibiades found means to escape, and, again placing himself at the head of the army, defeated the Lacedaemo- nians and Persians at Cyzicus; captured Cyzicus, Chalcedon, and Byzantium; restored to the Athenians the dominion of the sea, and then in the year B.C. 407 returned to Athens, where he was received with unbounded enthusiasm. Being now in one sense the foremost man of his country, he was sent again into Asia with one hundred ships, but being distressed because he was not sup- plied with money for the soldiers' pay, he was obliged to ask assistance at Caria, when he turned over the command for the time to Antiochus, who was drawn into an ambuscade by the Spartan admiral Lysander, killed, and a part of his ships captured. This gave the opportunity to the enemies of Alcibiades to accuse him and appoint another commander. He went to Thrace and lived in voluntary exile in Pactyae, one of his splendid castles and a small part of his former spoils. A couple of years later, finding himself in danger from the Lacedaemonians, he proceeded to Bithynia, intending to go to Artaxerxes, the Persian king, and try to win him over to the interests of his country. The tyrants then ruling in Athens sent a request which brought an order to Pharnabazus, a satrap of Artaxerxes, to put Alcibiades to death. His castle in Phrygia was surrounded and set on fire, and while trying to escape from the flames he was pierced to death by a shower of arrows. Thus died Alcibiades in B. c. 404, in the forty-fifth year of his age. - Meanwhile the Spartan Lysander had inflicted another and final defeat upon the Athenians. While they were engaged in ravaging Chios, they learned that Lysander had begun the siege of Lamsacus, and they immediately sailed for the Hellespont, arriving too late to save the town, but they moved up the strait and took post at AEgos Potamos, or Goat's River (B. C. 405). The position was a bad one in every respect, it being so difficult to obtain supplies that the sea- men were obliged to leave their ships to procure their meals. Naturally the Athenians were eager to bring Lysander to an engagement, but since he had an excellent position and an abundance of provisions, he chose to await his own Greece–Surrender of Athens 227 convenience. He refused so persistently to come out and fight that the Athe- nians looked upon his conduct as cowardice, and became negligent. This was what the wily Spartan admiral Lysander was waiting for, and when his opportunity came, he passed swiftly across the strait with his ships. Of the one hundred and eighty Athenian vessels no more than a dozen were prepared for attack, and he captured all the rest without striking a blow. Among those that escaped was the trireme of Conon, the Athenian commander, who, afraid to return to Athens after such shameless incompetency, took refuge with the prince of Salamis in Cyprus. All the Athenian prisoners, numbering nearly four thousand, were put to death, in retaliation for the cruelty perpetrated upon Spartan captives. A shameful feature of this crowning disgrace was that it was aided by the connivance of some of the Athenian generals, a number of whom were always open to corruption and bribery. This overwhelming disaster sealed the doom of Athens. All her depend- encies, with the exception of Samos, yielded at once to Lysander. With star- vation stalking in her streets, the capital girded its loins for the supreme strug- gle. But famine did its insidious work, and the gaunt defenders surrendered on condition that the long walls and the fortifications of Piraeus should be de- molished; that the Athenians should give up all their foreign possessions and restrict themselves to their own territory; that they should yield their ships of war, and should receive back all their exiles and become the allies of Sparta. It was in the latter part of March, B.C. 404, that Lysander sailed into Piraeus, took formal possession of Athens, and all the conditions of the surrender were carried out amid the gloom and unspeakable depression of the people and a carnival of rejoicing on the part of the conquerors. Thus ended the Pelopon- nesian war, which had lasted for twenty-seven years. GREEk Soldiers in HEAVY AND LIGHT ARMor º, YY - --- - - º | - º *. -- - º ſº. A wº. - - n- - - --- - º - --- º ºn - º º L-----> § º º-yº - - [. - Nº. NT 9.9°N, 9.2 o o - o-º-º-o Nº. 2) ºs ººº-ºº-º-º-º-º: iº ſo - - - - - - - - - º - - - - - o - DEATH OF EPAMINONDAS - - Chapter XX SPARTAN AND THE BAN SUPREMACY #; *PARTA stood without a rival in Greece after the fall and decline of Athens, and for thirty-four years the Lacedae- monian sway was supreme. Yet, despite the humbling of Athens, it was during the period named that Greek genius put forth some of its choicest blossoms of art and literature, which have been the charm of the succeeding ages. Marvellous indeed were the gifts imparted to that wonderful people. We have already learned of the alliance between the Per- sians and Sparta, by which the might of Athens was overthrown. Now, Cyrus the Younger was the second of the sons of Darius Nothus, or Ochus, and he plotted against his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, who had succeeded to the Persian throne in B. c. 404. The plot being discovered, he was at first sentenced to death, but afterward pardoned and even made satrap of Asia Minor. Cyrus returned to Sardis filled with flaming resentment and re solved never to rest until he had dethroned his brother; but he bided his time, The peace which followed the fall of Athens seemed to be his opportunity, for thousands of the incomparable Greek soldiers were idle or driven into exile, and would welcome employment in his service. He hired a large number under the pretext of a private war with the satrap Tissaphernes, for he knew that every man of them was the equal of three or four of his own countrymen. The preparations for so important an enterprise as that of Cyrus consumed time, Greece—March of the “Ten Thousand” 229 and were not completed until the opening of B.C. 4OI. When he marched from Sardis his army numbered IOO,OOO Asiatics, besides I 3,OOO Greek mercenaries. He gave out that the object of the expedition was to chastise the mountain robbers in Pisidia, only one or two of the leaders knowing the truth. Among the volunteers was Xenophon, to whose Anabasis we owe the history of the enterprise. The march was an imposing one, but when Pisidia was passed the Greeks saw they had been deceived, and suspected the real object of the expe- dition to be the dethronement of the Persian king. They were incensed and would have turned back but for the dangers and the long distance behind them. They sent a deputation to Cyrus demanding to know his real intention. He replied that it was to march against the satrap of Syria, who was encamped on the banks of the Euphrates. The reply was accompanied by the promise to raise the pay of the Greeks, and, though they still suspected a trick, they de- cided to remain with the army, which marched forward to Issus, the last town in Cilicia, and on the gulf of the same name. There they met the fleet which brought I, IOO more Greek soldiers. When the Euphrates was reached Cyrus revealed the real object of the expedition; but it had generally been suspected, and the resentment of the Greeks was soothed by the promise of abundant pay and plunder. At a place called Cunaxa, they were attacked by Artaxerxes with a host that numbered nearly a million men, which smothered the army of Cyrus, who was killed while making a furious attempt to reach and slay his brother. The retreat of the remaining Greeks, the “Ten Thousand,” as they were called, who were fifteen hundred miles from Sardis and were compelled to overcome all manner of danger and difficulties, is a most interesting story. Their leaders were entrapped by the Persian monarch and murdered at a banquet to which he invited them. This, he thought, would settle the fate of the remainder, who must inevitably surrender. Indeed they seem to have been on the point of doing this, when Xenophon roused them to resistance. He was chosen one of their leaders, and, defying the whole force of Persia, led them on their march back to Greece. They had no guides, or only such as misled them, so they marched directly northward, knowing that thus they must eventually reach the Baltic Sea. The Persians assailed them continually; they had to cross mountain chains where many perished from the cold; they had to derive their sustenance from the wild regions through which they passed, and to defeat the ambuscades of savage tribes. Yet their valor and Xenophon's leadership brought them safely through all, and at last, after a march of many months, they reached the sea. After hailing it with such extravagance of joy as might be expected from men who had hardly even dared to hope for escape, they followed along the shores to safety among the Grecian colonies that lined the sea. This expedition had a most important effect in after years in that it 23O The Story of the Greatest Nations suggested to one Greek that he, too, might march an army through the heart of the Persian empire, but toward its capital, not away from it. We must now return to the main thread of our narrative which follows that of Spartan supremacy, resulting from the victory at AEgos Potamos, and which continued till the defeat at Leuctra in B. c. 37 I. Persia could not fail to see the jealousy and dislike of the other Grecian states to the newly acquired em- pire of Sparta, and she turned it to good account. By distributing a large sum of money, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos were brought in line with Persia, and the hostilities which soon opened were at first confined to Sparta and Thebes. But the flames spread and the strange sight was seen of the Thebans applying to their old rivals and implacable enemies, the Athenians, for help, with the offer to assist them in recovering their lost empire, and the Athenians promptly granted their appeal. The army of Lysander was routed by the Thebans, and that distinguished commander slain, the Lacedaemonians being compelled to withdraw from the territory. This humiliation of Sparta led her enemies to take fresh courage. Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos formed a league against her, and were soon joined by the Euboeans, the Acarnanians, the Ozolian Locrians, the Ambraciots, the Leucadians, and the Chalcidians of Thrace. Because a large force of the allies assembled at Corinth in the spring of B. C. 394, the war is known in history as the Corinthian. The battle of Corinth was fought in July, and though the al- lies of the Lacedaemonians were routed, the victory went to their leaders. Within a space of less than two months, two battles on land and one on sea were fought. The Spartans were successful on the land, though not decisively so, but the naval defeat at Cnidus caused the loss of nearly all of their mari- time empire. In the spring of B.C. 393, the Athenian admiral Conon and the satrap Phar- nabazus sailed from the Hellespont with a powerful fleet and headed for the Peloponnesus. Placing an Athenian garrison on the captured island of Cy- thera, they proceeded to the isthmus of Corinth, then occupied as a central post by the allies. Conon obtained the consent of the satrap to rebuild the fortifi- cations of Piraeus and the long walls of Athens, not because of the love of Pharnabazus for Athens, but because of his greater hatred of Sparta. It was a strange reversal of fortune that the Thebans who had been most delighted with the despoiling and fall of Athens, and the Persians who paid Sparta to destroy it, now joined hands in rebuilding it. - The pendulum of war swung back and forth until the disgraceful peace of Antalcidas was concluded in the year B.C. 387, by which Hellas was prostrated at the feet of Persia, for the terms engraven on stone and set up in the sanc- tuaries of Greece accepted the barbarian king as the arbiter of her destinies. Greece—Rise of Thebes 23 I Sparta pretended to aim to secure the independence of the Grecian cities, but her real purpose was to break up the confederacies formed by Athens and Thebes, and, with the aid of Persia, become supreme in Greece. Sparta did not delay her plans for the weakening of her most dreaded enemy Thebes, which in the end was forced to become a member of the hated Lace- daemonian alliance. The power of Sparta on land soon reached its greatest height, while she divided with Athens the empire of the smaller islands, most of the larger ones retaining their independence of both. And yet it was in Thebes that a new power was arising that was to stop the insolent advance of Spartan despotism, and tumble Sparta forever from her high estate. The three years during which Thebes was in the hands of the Spartans were years of ferment, growth, plotting, and crystallization of the ever-deepen- ing hatred of the Thebans against their oppressors. This was now to take definite form, so that when the hour came for action, the man, or rather the men, to strike the blow were ready and waiting. The rise and greatness of Thebes were due to two persons—Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The former was a daring, chivalrous young man of noble de- scent and immense wealth, while Epaminondas belonged to the very poorest class, but was one of the ablest generals whose names illumine the pages of Grecian history. The inviolable friendship that existed between these two is one of the most beautiful things in the annals of their country. Either was ready to sacrifice his own life at any hour for the other. Once when Pelopidas was wounded and thrown down in battle, Epaminondas stood over him and pro- tected him with his shield, holding his ground against a ring of enemies until help arrived. This incident cemented their friendship. Pelopidas was driven out of Thebes in B.C. 382 by the oligarchical party, who were supported by the Spartans. He was forced to take refuge in Athens, whence he returned to Thebes three vears later, with a number of spirits as daring as himself, entered the city in disguise, and recovered possession of the citadel, slaying the Spartan leader with his own hand. Epaminondas knew of the plot, but his sense of honor would not permit him to take a hand in what was really a treacherous piece of work, but when the revolution was set on foot he gave it his ardent support. The grateful assembly unanimously chose Pelopidas, Charon, and Mellon as the first restored Boetarchs. In order to force Athens into becoming the ally of Thebes, in the struggle against Sparta, Sphodrias, a Spartan general, was bribed to invade Attica. This so enraged the Athenians that they made the desired alliance with Thebes, and in B.C. 378 declared war against Sparta. Pelopidas gave all his energies to the training and disciplining of his troops, who soon became as formidable as the Lacedaemonians. He organized the famous “Sacred Band,” composed of Theban youths to the number of 300, Sup- 232 The Story of the Greatest Nations ported at public expense and always under arms. The Thebans were naturally good soldiers, but their great fortune lay in having Epaminondas as commander- in-chief. Under his leadership the successes of the Thebans and Athenians were so decisive that Sparta appealed to Persia for intervention; but the suffer- ings of the war, and perhaps also the jealousy of the growing power of Thebes, caused Athens to open negotiations with Sparta, and a Congress assembled in that city to arrange the terms of peace. Now arose a dispute as to the manner in which the terms should be Šigned by the representatives of the different parties. Sparta ratified the treaty for herself and allies, but Athens did so only for herself, leaving each ally to sign separately. When the turn of Thebes came, Epaminondas refused to sign except in the name of the Boeotian confederation, maintaining that the title of Thebes to the leadership of Boeotia rested on as good a foundation as that of Sparta to the sovereignty of Laconia, which depended wholly upon the power of the sword. - This view was enforced in an able speech, which was received by the Spar- tans as the most flagrant of insults. Their king Agesilaus angrily Sprang to his feet, and turning upon Epaminondas called out, “Speak! Will you or will you not leave each Boeotian city independent?” Epaminondas calmly replied with . the question, “Will you leave each of the Laconian towns independent?” Agesilaus was too angry to reply, but ordered the name of the Thebans struck out of the treaty and proclaimed them excluded from it. The peace concluded on the part of Sparta, Athens, and their allies is known as the peace of Callias. The renewed war between Sparta and Thebes brought on the decisive battle of Leuctra, fought in B.C. 37 I, in which the military genius of Epaminondas, the Theban commander-in-chief, and the brilliant support of Pelopidas outweighed the much superior numbers of the Spartans. In this engagement, Epaminondas for the first time employed the strategy of Napoleon Bonaparte, through which in later years he won many of his greatest victories. This was in concentrating heavy masses of troops and hurling them irresistibly against some point of the enemy's line. Pelopidas, with his Sacred Band, formed the front of this ter- rific wedge, which drove everything before it. Cleombrotus, the Spartan king, was killed, and his whole army put to flight, with a loss ten times greater than that of the Thebans, Two years later Epaminondas and Pelopidas marched into the Peloponne- sus and incited several tribes to turn against Sparta, toward which city the two marched with their troops; but it was so ably defended by Agesilaus that the Thebans withdrew and returned to their city. These operations compelled Epaminondas to hold the command of his army a short time beyond the period for which he was appointed, and he was now accused of violating the laws of Greece—Death of Epaminondas 233 his country. He replied that he was willing to die if the Thebans would record that he was put to death because he had humbled Sparta and taught his coun- trymen how to conquer her armies. He was acquitted and became more loved and honored than before. In B. C. 368 Epaminondas sent an expedition against the ferocious tyrant Alexander of Pherae, who treacherously made Pelopidas a prisoner while acting in the character of an ambassador. Epaminondas led a force the following year into the country, and conducted the matter with such tact and skill that he secured the release of his friend without harm to him. In B. C. 364 Pelopidas led an expedition into Thessaly against Alexander of Pherae, who met him with a much superior force among the hills of Cynosceph- alae, but was routed by the impetuous Theban and his troops. Catching sight of the man who had treated him so treacherously, as he was trying to rally his forces, Pelopidas gave way to his rage and rushing forward challenged him to a single combat. The frightened Alexander shrank back among his guards, but Pelopidas dashed after him and was killed while desperately striving to get within reach of his foe. His death robbed the victory of the joy that other- wise would have been felt throughout Thebes. It was in the spring of B.C. 368 that the war between Sparta and Thebes was renewed with great fury. Epaminondas again marched into the Pelopon- nesus, but did not accomplish much, and, returning home, received a check at Corinth. To retrieve this lack of success, he advanced with 33,000 men into Arcadia and met the main body of the enemy near Mantineia, in B.C. 362. At the head of his troops he broke the Spartan phalanx, but was mortally wounded in the breast by a javelin. He was carried off the field and told by the physi- cians that he would die as soon as the weapon was extracted. He waited until he learned that his army was victorious, when it is said he tore out the javelin with his own hand, saying, “I have lived long enough.” Thus died a truly great man, whose moral purity, justice, and clemency were admired as much as his military talents, and of whom it is recorded that such was his horror of an untruth that he was never known to tell a lie even in jest. It may be said of Epaminondas, as it was said in modern times of Washing- ton, that the life and death of his country was involved in him. He gave Thebes its commanding influence, and when he died it perished with him. Just before passing away he advised the making of peace, and it was done. This treaty left everything as it was, with the acknowledgment of the Arcadian constitution and the independence of Messene. Because of the last article Sparta refused to join in the treaty, but none of her allies supported her in this step, and Sparta herself was in the dust, from which she never fully rose again. - (% ~ ESV- §§§%@@%@ -- S-S & ~~ * <3 - - N Qº THE Woux DING OF PHILIP Chapter XXI MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY_PHILIP ==º T was in the year B. c. 368 that Pelopidas led a Theban - force into Thessaly for the purpose of protecting sev- eral cities against its king, the miscreant Alexander, who afterward treacherously made him prisoner. Alexander was compelled to sue for peace, and Pelo- pidas passed into Macedonia, whereupon its regent, Ptolemy, formed an alliance with the Thebans. To make sure it would be observed, a number of hostages were sent to Thebes, and among them was Philip, the youngest son of the dead Macedonian king. Thus it came about that Philip spent several years at Thebes, and it was the most fortunate thing that could have happened to him. He was a remarkable young man, who employed his time © - in studying the art of war, and the constitution and laws of the º Greek states, as well as the literature and character of the people. The assassination of his eldest brother, Alexander II., after a reign of only two years, and the death of his second brother, Perdiccas III., in battle in B. c. 360, made Philip guardian to his nephew Amyntas, still an infant, but the stress of events soon brought Philip to the throne, the rights of Amyntas being set aside. - Now Macedonia in ancient times was a country of small extent, lying north of Thessaly, embracing only the district of Emathia, but it gradually grew until in the time of Philip it reached on the north the Scardian Mountains, a portion Greece—Rise of Macedon 235 of the modern Balkan range; on the west, the borders of Epirus and Illyria; on the east, the river Strymon, and on the south Thessaly. As a whole, the coun- try is mountainous, especially in the south and west, but it has a number of large plains of great fertility. In remote years Macedon was famous for its gold and silver mines and its productiveness in oil and wine. It contained numerous populous cities, the principal of which were Pella, the capital, Pydna, Thessalonica, Potidae, Olynthus, Philippi, and Amphipolis, some of which you will remember as being mentioned in the Scriptures. The language of the Macedonians differed from and yet was allied to the Greek, but it is a singular fact that it contained words not used in the Greek, but preserved in Latin, which would indicate that the inhabitants and those of Greece proper were united at a very ancient period, but that unknown causes prevented the early development of the Macedonians. The history of Macedon is vague until about B. c. 490, when the Persians subdued it, and its king Alexander I. was compelled to aid Xerxes in his in- vasion of Greece, but on the retreat of the Persians Macedonia regained its in- dependence. It grew rapidly in strength and power under the wise reign of Archelaus, who died in B.C. 399, when a series of civil wars desolated the coun- try, and ended in the accession of Philip II. to the throne. He was only twenty-three years old, and he was met by dangers which might well have daunted a less aggressive and ambitious spirit. He easily freed himself of two pretenders to the throne, and then confronted the Paeonians and Illyrians, who were preparing to invade Macedonia. The former were sub- dued with little effort, and then Philip marched with a force of ten thousand men against the Illyrians. This was his first battle, and he brought into play the art of war as he had learned it from Epaminondas, its ancient master. By con- centrating his troops and precipitating them against one point in the enemy's line, he routed the Illyrians and destroyed two-thirds of their army. The peo- ple were compelled to submit unconditionally. Throughout the years of his young manhood, a grand scheme had been gradually taking shape in the brain of Philip. This was not to conquer Greece, but to have Macedonia recognized and accepted as a Greek state, and then to make it the leading one, thus becoming the successor of Athens, Sparta, and Thebes. The manner in which this remarkable scheme was carried through to success reflects the highest credit upon Philip's skill. He was handsome and attractive in appearance, very eloquent, overflowing with what we call magnetism, and he was never bothered by moral scruples. When he set his heart upon an object, he neglected no means of Securing it. If corrup- tion was necessary, he used it freely, and it is said he often boasted that he had taken more towns with silver than with iron. When, however, force was re- 236 The Story of the Greatest Nations quired, no man knew better how to apply it than he, and his rugged strength gave him the power to stand all the hardships of the most difficult campaigns. With his far-reaching scheme ever before him, Philip trained his army to the highest point of efficiency. Early in his career he introduced the cele- brated Macedonian phalanx, and amazed and gratified most of his countrymen by the establishment of a standing army. Here is an incident that illustrates the methods of this extraordinary man: Amphipolis, on his eastern frontier, was once the most highly valued of cities to the Athenians, who, although they made several attempts, had never been able to recover it after its capture by Brasidas, in the eighth year of the Peloponnesian war. Its site at the mouth of the Strymon gave it the highest value to Macedonia as a commercial port, and also as opening a passage into Thrace. The Olynthians were equally anxious to secure Amphipolis as a member of their confederacy, and proposed to Athens that they should form an alliance and compel Philip to keep his hands off. Such an alliance would have been insurmountable to him, and he set out to prevent it. His first step was to promise the Athenians to secure Amphipolis for them if they would give him possession of Pydna. This pledge caused the Athenians to reject the proposal of the Olynthians. Then Philip ceded the town of Anthemus to the latter and thus satisfied them. He next laid siege to Amphipolis, which sur- rendered in the year B.C. 358. Advancing against Pydna, he compelled its sub- mission, and then, on the ground that he had secured it without the help of the Athenians, he refused to let them have Amphipolis. But the subtle king had not yet threaded his way out of the labyrinth. Nothing would seem more natural than for Athens and Olynthia to hasten with their alliance when they saw how they had been outwitted. It was the Athe- nians who were most bitter against him, so he set to work to win the favor of the Olynthians. He helped them in recovering Potidaea from the Athenians, but treated the Athenian garrison with great kindness and allowed them to go home in safety. Crossing the Strymon, Philip secured possession of the Pangaeus range of mountains, belonging to the Athenians, and containing valuable gold mines. There he founded the famous town of Philippi, and through superior methods secured a product from the gold mines of more than a million dollars annually. And all this time Athens could not raise a hand to prevent, because of the war with her allies known as the Social War. This broke out in B.C. 357, and was due to the heavy taxes laid upon the allies by Athens. They formed a coalition against the parent government, which two years later was compelled to assent to a disadvantageous peace, which secured the independence of the more important allies. Greece—The Sacred War 237 Everything seemed to work in favor of Philip. The Sacred War raged at the same time as the Social War, and was between Thebes and Phocis. The relations between those two countries, as we say in these days, had been strained for a long time, and the Phocians reluctantly joined the Theban alli- ance. They sullenly refused to give any assistance to Epaminondas during his last campaign in the Peloponnesus, and after his death they struck at Boeotia more than once. The Amphictyonic Council was the central political and religious court of the leading Greek tribes, and was held twice a year. Its purpose was twofold: to determine questions of international law and to preserve the religious insti- tutions of the Greeks. It was a powerful means of binding the different tribes in a bond of brotherhood, but the pledges of its members were often broken, and it never checked the ambitious projects of a really able man. The Thebans used their influence in the Amphictyonic Council to induce that body to impose a heavy fine upon the Phocians, on the charge that they had cultivated a part of the Cirrhaean plain, which had been consecrated to the Delphian god with curses pronounced upon those who should thus desecrate the ground. The Phocians protested that the fine was so exorbitant that to pay it would ruin them; the Amphictyons replied by doubling the amount, with the warning that if they did not pay they would be reduced to the condition of serfs. Driven to desperation, the Phocians seized the temple of Delphi itself, to which they claimed an ancient right. The leader in this daring act was Philomelus, whose force numbered about two thousand men. He destroyed the records containing the sentence of the Amphictyons, and appealed to all Greece against its injustice. Receiving reinforcements, he invaded the Locrian territory and defeated the forces there in a pitched battle. The Locrians now applied to Thebes for aid. Philomelus, as master of the oracle, easily secured a decree sanctioning all that he had done, and sent envoys to the different cities, assuring each that the treasures of Delphi had not been touched. Sparta and Athens consented to form an alliance with Philomelus, but Thebes repelled his messengers with threats and did all she could to help the Locrians. Messages were sent to rouse the Thessalians and all the northern tribes that belonged to the Amphictyonic Council. This new and formidable danger caused Philomelus to throw aside all disguise, and he announced that the sacred treasures should be used for the payment of the mer- cenaries who now crowded around him. In the war which followed, all prison- ers were put to death, Philomelus losing his life in the last important battle. The war was still going on under his successor when Philip of Macedon interfered. In the sharp fighting which followed, Philip met several defeats, but in the 238 The Story of the Greatest Nations main he was victorious. He assumed the character of a champion of the Del- phic god, and by his orders his soldiers wore wreaths of laurel plucked in the groves of Tempe. A victory in B.C. 352 made Philip master of Thessaly. Then he marched against the Phocians, but a strong Athenian force at Ther- mopylae compelled him to retreat. All this time Philip was playing his deep game, but there seemed only one man in Greece who had the wisdom to penetrate his purposes and the courage to denounce them. That man was the greatest orator of ancient times—De- mosthenes. Who has not heard of this wonderful man, who was born in Athens about B.C. 385, though the exact year is unknown He was Swindled out of his for- tune by the stewards who had care of it during his boyhood. Upon reaching maturity he prosecuted them, but secured only sufficient to save him from poverty. His success induced him to study the laws and politics of his coun- try with a labor and perseverance never equalled. His voice was harsh, his utterance stammering, and his health frail. He strengthened his lungs by climbing steep hills, reciting as he went, spoke with pebbles in his mouth and thus overcame his stammering, declaimed on the shores of the sea in stormy weather, took lessons from a famous actor, practised before a mirror, and toiled for months at a time without intermission, except to eat and sleep. He first began to take part in public affairs when about thirty years of age, and hence- forward to his death his history is the history of Athens. Recognizing Philip as the enemy of the liberties of Greece, Demosthenes in his first “Philippic” (a word that has become incorporated in our language) tried to rouse his countrymen to their danger, but was only partially successful. Olynthus was the head of thirty-two towns, and, when in B. c. 350 Philip cap- tured one of them in Chalcidice, Olynthus awoke to its danger and sent envoys to Athens to beg for help. It was on this occasion that Demosthenes delivered his three Olynthiac orations, in which with burning eloquence he urged an alliance with Olynthus. He was opposed by the dry, cynical, but pure and dis- interested statesman Phocion, whom Demosthenes feared more than any other man. His opposition so crippled the efforts of the Athenians that Philip cap- tured town after town of the confederacy, and finally (B.C. 347) secured Olynthus itself, razed it to the ground and sold the inhabitants into slavery. This made Philip master of the whole of the Chalcidian peninsula. ... • No one could now fail to see the peril of Athens. The freedom of the Greek towns on the Hellespont was threatened and the possessions in the CherSonese were in danger. Demosthenes turned his efforts to persuading his Countrymen to form an alliance among the Grecian states, to check the over- shadowing power that threatened the liberty of all. Many of the politicians Greece—The Philippics of Demosthenes 239 who had formerly opposed him arrayed themselves on his side, but their efforts came to nothing. The attention of the Athenians was next turned toward a reconciliation with Thebes, where the progress of the Sacred War seemed favorable to the plan, for Thebes was weary of the exhausting struggle. The shrewd Philip saw his danger, and in the Summer of B.C. 347 made several overtures to the Athenians, which were received with suspicion by some, and with favor by others. It was decided to send ten ambassadors to Philip's court, among whom was Demosthenes. This was one of the occasions when the Macedonian used gold and lavish hospitality with effect. The peerless orator was incorrup- tible, but it was not so with his companions, enough of whom yielded to the blandishments of Philip to render the whole scheme a dismal failure. Subse- quent attempts were brought to naught, and in the end Philip conquered all Phocis, occupied Delphi, and assembled the Amphictyons to pronounce sen- tence upon those that had taken part in the sacrilege committed there. This council decreed that all the cities of Phocis, except Abae, should be destroyed and their inhabitants scattered into villages containing no more than fifty houses each, while they were to replace the stolen treasures in the temple by the pay- ment, through annual instalments, of a Šum equal to twelve million dollars. Still further, Sparta was deprived of her share in the Amphictyonic privileges; the two votes of the Phocians were turned over to the Macedonian kings; and Philip was to share with the Thebans and Thessalians the honor of presiding at the Pythian games. This seat in the Amphictyonic Council made Philip a Grecian power, and was sure to give him the pretext for interfering in the affairs of Greece. To Thebes were restored the places which she had lost in Boeotia, and the Sacred War closed in B.C. 346. Macedon was now the leading power in Greece, and the blindest man among the Athenians read Philip's ambitious designs. Those who had promoted the peace with him were execrated and Demosthenes rose higher than ever in popular favor. The wisdom and pure character of the orator shone forth like the noonday sun. Philip, holding the position lately held by Thebes, declared himself the protector of the Messenians and the ally of the Megalopolitans. Demosthenes was sent into Peloponnesus to counteract his work there, but could do nothing. With his usual fearlessness he publicly accused Philip of perfidy, and that it hurt was proven by the act of the Macedonian in sending an embassy to Athens to complain of the scarifying accusation. This was in B.C. 344, and Demosthenes delivered his second Philippic, aimed chiefly against the orators who supported the Macedonian. - Philip steadily pushed his conquests, and began an attack upon the Greek cities north of the Hellespont. He met with varying success, but it was plain 24.O - The Story of the Greatest Nations that the nominal peace between Macedon and Athens was near the breaking point. Fierce fighting soon followed at different points, but, to the disgrace of many of the Athenian leaders, they were corrupted by the gold of Philip and played directly into his hands. Finally, early in B. C. 338, the Amphictyonic Council declared war against the city of Amphissa, and Philip, acting as gen- eral for the Council, marched southward. Instead, however, of attacking Am- phissa he seized Elatea, the principal town in the eastern part of Phocis, and began rebuilding its fortifications. This action left no doubt that his real de- sign was against Boeotia and Attica. - The news reached Athens at night and threw the city into consternation. Hurried preparations were made against immediate siege, and early the next morning the Five Hundred met in the senate house and the people gathered in the Pnyx, where all with bated breath discussed the astounding tidings. The herald invited any one who chose to speak. There was no response for some minutes, and then Demosthenes ascended the platform and soothed the fears of his countrymen by showing that Philip apparently was not acting in concert with the Thebans, since he had thought it necessary to secure Elatea. He ap- pealed to his hearers to make the most vigorous preparations for defence, and urged them to send an embassy to Thebes to persuade the people to unite with them against the common enemy. The advice was acted upon and ten envoys were sent thither, Demosthenes being one of the number. When they reached Thebes a Macedonian embassy was there, and it was with great difficulty that the Athenians persuaded the Thebans to shut their gates against Philip. The combined Athenian and Theban army marched forth, some time later, to meet Philip, and at first gained some advantage. The decisive battle was fought in August, B. c. 338, on the plain of Chaeronea in Boeotia, near the border of Phocia. It is noteworthy that in Philip's army was his youthful son Alexander, who commanded one of the wings. At that early age he gave proof of his great military ability, for he led the charge against the Sacred Band which won the battle. The Band was annihilated, all holding their ground and refusing to fly, and the whole army was routed. Demosthenes was serving as a foot-soldier and was among the disorderly fugitives driven from the field. This defeat prostrated Greece at the feet of Macedonia, and she now became simply a province of that monarchy. Athens was thrown into so great dismay that many of the wealthier citizens fled, and more would have gone had they not been prevented. Demosthenes exhorted his countrymen to make the utmost preparations for defence, and he was appointed to pronounce the funeral oration over those who had fallen on the battlefield. The elation of Philip was extraordinary. He is said to have celebrated his great victory by outlandish drunken orgies, during which, so intoxicated that al His aeta H daeae aelºdraewr ao Nollonae LS30 ---- . * . |- ae | 1 |× KING PORUS BROUGHT BEFORE ALEXANDER *4. º - 2. ſe "… - " - | ºw - \\ º \\ ". |\"\". - THE FARNESE HERCULES Slawo ： Hl. ：o 3：11, Lwa xNºnºſ-hae Nw|Nodºrow w taſ-al |×||- \， -|-… -- - | --- | | | |W º - º ºf iº tºº sº sº. A -> º - º ALExANDER AT THE SLEGE OF TYRE º º vºlvinae +0 = T_L_I_vº a Hill XENOPHON AND THE TEN THOUSAND HALL THE SEA - - - - || lº º - | - º u O u u -- o 2. -- u o O > 2 º 2 - O > u- O o O I- H. u > Greece—Philip's Power and Weakness 24. I he could barely stand, he danced over the dead, singing and beating time to his grotesque gyrations. When he became sober he treated the Thebans with harshness, compelling them to recall their exiles, into whose hands their govern- ment was placed, and he deprived them of their sovereignty over the Boeotian towns. After restoring Plataea and Orchomenus, he filled them with people hostile to Thebes. But he seemed to feel a certain respect and affection for Athens, because of her supremacy in art and refinement. He sent all the Athenian prisoners home with their baggage, and to those who needed clothing he furnished it. The peace which he then offered gave better terms than Athens would have dared to ask. He took Oropus from the Thebans and gave it to the Athenians, whose only punishment was that they were required to surrender a few of their foreign dependencies. Philip now announced his purpose of uniting all the forces of Greece in a war upon Persia, to avenge the invasions of Darius and Xerxes. In the con- gress of the Grecian states assembled at Corinth, Sparta was the only state that refused to send delegates. War was declared against Persia, each state was assessed its quota of men and ships, and Philip naturally was named the chief commander of the expedition. He first chastised Sparta for her sullen- ness, and returned to Macedonia in the autumn of B.C. 338 to complete his preparations for the Persian expedition. No doubt the glimpses you have had of this man have shown you that he was immoral and depraved. He adopted the Eastern practice of polygamy, and had several wives. It was Olympias, daughter of the king of Epirus, who was the mother of Alexander. She was a proud, imperious woman who considered herself the legitimate queen, but soon after his return to Macedonia Philip celebrated his nuptials with Cleopatra, daughter of Attalus, one of his generals. At the nuptial banquet wine flowed freely and unloosed the tongues of the feasters. Attalus in his maudlin state taunted Olympias. With a savage ex- clamation the prince Alexander hurled his goblet at Attalus. Philip seized his sword, sprang from his couch and dashed at his son, whom he would have killed had he not in his intoxicated condition slipped and fallen to the floor. Alexander rose and walked out of the banqueting hall, but at the door paused, and, pointing at his father who was being helped to his feet, said: “Behold the man who was about to pass from Europe to Asia, but who cannot keep his feet in going from one couch to another l’’ * Alexander and his mother left Macedonia. She found shelter at the court of her brother, the king of Epirus, while Alexander made his home in Illyria. After a time Philip patched up a reconciliation, and the prince was persuaded to return to Pella. Olympias was compelled to return to Philip's court, but in her heart burned an inextinguishable hatred of her husband. I 6 242 The Story of the Greatest Nations Before setting out on his great expedition against Persia, Philip determined to secure the stability of his dominions by marrying his daughter to the king of Epirus. The ceremonies at AEgae, the ancient capital of Macedonia, were marked by great splendor, and included banquets, musical and theatrical entertainments. The latter were opened with a procession of the images of the twelve Olympian deities, in which Philip took part, clothed in white robes and crowned with a chaplet. As this procession was moving through the city a youth named Pausanias suddenly glided out from the throng, and, before any one could suspect his purpose, drew from under his clothes a long sword which he drove deep into Philip's side. The monarch fell dead, and the assassin, having stumbled, was cut down before he could reach the spot where his horse was waiting. It was said that the motive for his crime was an insult received from Attalus, which the king refused to punish; but the question naturally arises why Pausanias did not visit his vengeance upon At- talus himself. Olympias could not conceal her delight over the death of her husband, and both she and Alexander were suspected of having instigated the assassination. The general belief now is that Alexander had nothing to do with it, but that his mother was guilty. º º - - º - º Uſº º ޺ssº ºšº º º M Coins of ALExANDER THE GREAT º º º º º º - º ºfºº º º §§§ & §§ º ***** *:: º: º - - º - f º - -- | |- - ENTRY OF ALEXANDER into Babylon–A GREEk FRIEze Chapter XXII ALEXANDER THE GREAT able men that ever lived. Alexander's early education was entrusted to Leonidas, a kinsman of his mother, while Lysimachus, a governor, instilled in him an ambition to emulate the heroes of the //iad. More important, how- ever, were the three years, as the period is supposed to have been, spent under the guidance and instruction of Aristotle. It must not be supposed from the account of the quarrel between the prince and his father, as related in the pre- ceding chapter, that Philip had any intention of excluding his son from the throne. On the contrary, he was fond of him and appre- ciated the evidences of greatness shown in his youth. When only sixteen years old the son was made regent of Macedonia during his father's absence, and it was two years later that he acted his bril- liant part in the great battle of Chaeronea. His age was but twenty when he ascended the throne of Macedon. Alexander announced his purpose of prosecuting his father's expedition into Asia, but before doing so he was obliged to tranquillize his own country, in several portions of which revolts were set on foot. The insurgents had to learn the character of the young monarch, and they learned it so quickly and force- fully that the various rebellions were crushed before they had time to get fairly under way. This done, he called a general congress at Corinth, which again ºº º º º n 244 The Story of the Greatest Nations was attended by delegates from all the Grecian states except Sparta, and which appointed him generalissimo for the Persian war in place of his father. All bowed to the rising sun. The philosophers and men of note in Corinth called upon Alexander to offer congratulations, but he noticed the absence of Diogenes, the eccentric cynic. The monarch could afford to be magnanimous, and he hunted out the singular fellow whom he found lolling in the sunshine. At sight of the king and his gorgeous retinue Diogenes raised up and looked curiously at him. Courteously saluting, the smiling monarch asked in what way he could serve his friend. “By standing out of my sunshine,” was the impudent reply that startled the attendants. But Alexander, instead of being offended, said to them : “If I were not Alexander, I should like to be Diogenes. } } This cynic philosopher was born in Sinope, in Pontus, in B. c. 412. He was a spendthrift and a rake in his youth, but on coming to Athens he plunged into the opposite extreme of austerity and self-mortification. He wore the coarsest clothing, lived on the plainest food, rolled in hot sand during the heat of summer, and in winter would embrace a statue covered with snow. His home was in a tub belonging to the temple of the mother of the gods, and he was accustomed to grope around the streets in daylight, with a lantern, with the explanation to inquirers that he was looking for an honest man. Despite his eccentricities the Athenians respected him and submitted good-naturedly to his rebukes and comments. He was captured by pirates on a voyage to AEgina, carried to Crete and sold as a slave. His ability soon enabled him to rule his master, who gave him his freedom and appointed him tutor to his children. It was at this time, while living at Corinth, that he had the interview described with Alexander. Perhaps there is a valuable lesson in the fact that Diogenes, in spite of his early excesses, lived, through his abstemiousness and privations, to the age of ninety. Alexander treated with indifference the pretensions of Sparta to the suprem- acy of Greece, and did not imitate his father in punishing her for her inso- lence in not attending his congress. He was detained from starting on his great expedition, however, by news of disturbances among the Thracians and Triballians. The wild tribes of these regions had been only half subdued by Philip, and they were determined to test the mettle of this young, new king before they would submit to him. His military genius showed itself even in this, his first campaign. The Thracians prepared to resist his advance from the summit of the famous Spitka Pass in the Balkan mountains. They had carts loaded with great stones ready to roll down the mountains, hoping to crush the advancing foe beneath the wheels, or at least break their ranks and throw them into confusion. The Macedonian soldiers were much disheartened, and hesi- Greece—Alexander’s Victories at Home 245 tated to climb the pass; but Alexander formed them into the famous phalanx, and directed them to advance with shields above their heads. When the thun- dering carts came plunging amidst them, they crouched to the ground, their shields presenting a solid mass of steel, over which, as Alexander had hoped, the swift carts leaped without injury to the mass of men below. Then the phalanx rose and moved on. The Thracians, who stood ready expecting to rush among the broken ranks and easily slay the half-crushed men, were help- less before the long spears of the unbroken phalanx. With their inferior weapons they could not even reach their enemies to strike a blow. Their resistance was soon overcome, and so impressed were they with their own infe- riority that Thrace became thoroughly and permanently a Macedonian province. Crossing the Balkan mountains Alexander entered the territory of the Triballians, defeated them and pursued them to the Danube, where they took refuge on an island and fortified themselves. Leaving them there, he crossed the river by means of a fleet brought from Byzantium and attacked the Getae; but so great had his reputation become that they fled in a panic on his ap- proach. Returning to the banks of the Danube, he received the submission of the Danubian tribes and admitted them into the Macedonian alliance. While the Illyrians and Taulantians were preparing to assault his kingdom, he attacked and quickly reduced them to obedience. During these months of absence nothing was heard at home from Alexan- der, and the report was generally believed that he had been killed. Under this belief the Thebans revolted and besieged the Macedonian garrison in the Cad- mea, calling at the same time upon the other states to declare their independ- ence. As might be supposed, Demosthenes threw all his energies to the aid of the movement. Through his persuasions the Thebans were furnished with subsidies and were promised an alliance; but before they dreamed of their dan- ger Alexander was at Onchestus in Boeotia. The rebels fought desperately, but were driven back in such confusion that, as they scrambled through the gates, the Macedonians mixed with them and massacred thousands of the de- fenders. The punishment of Thebes for its treason was left to the decision of the allies, who decreed that it should be destroyed. All the inhabitants were sold as slaves, and the only house left standing was that of Pindar the poet. The . severe punishment struck terror throughout Greece, but Alexander showed for- bearance and generosity toward the other states, and accepted their expla- nations and excuses. The affairs of Greece being placed at last upon a satisfactory footing, he set out for the Hellespont in the spring of B.C. 334 with a force of 30,000 foot and 5,000 horse. Antipater was left as regent of Macedonia, supported by about 246 The Story of the Greatest Nations one-third as many troops as marched away with the king. The latter before setting out divided most of the crown property among his friends. “What have you reserved for yourself?” asked Perdiccas. “My hopes,” was the reply. At the end of sixteen days the army reached Sestos, where ships and trans. ports were waiting. The march northward was along the coast of the Propon- tis. An army larger than Alexander's, among whom were twenty thousand Greek mercenaries, were encamped on the Granicus, waiting to dispute the pas- sage of the river. Disregarding the advice of his veteran general Parmenio to delay the attack until morning, Alexander led the plunge into the stream and the climb up the precipitous bank. In the impetuous attack, which scattered the Persians, Alexander's life was often in danger, and once he was saved by his friend Clitus. He killed two Persian officers with his own hand. The course of the conqueror was now southward toward Sardis, which sur- rendered as soon as the invaders came in sight of its walls. Ephesus did the same four days later, and Magnesia, Tralles, and Miletus fell like ripe fruit into his hands. There was sharp resistance at Halicarnassus and a siege, until finding it untenable, the defenders set it on fire and crossed over to the island of Cos. The town was destroyed, and Alexander pursued his course along the Southern coast of Asia Minor, intending to seize such cities as were likely to afford shelter to the Persian fleet. Winter was at hand and most of the army went into quarters under Parmenio at Sardis. The officers and soldiers who had been recently married were allowed to return to Macedonia on condition that they should bring back in the spring all the recruits possible. Parmenio was instructed to join the king with the main army at the same time in Phrygia. With a select body Alexander proceeded along the coasts of Lycia and Pam- phylia, and crossed the Xanthus, nearly all the Lycian towns making their sub- mission. Alexander was a man who loved danger and adventure for their own sake. By some historians he has been characterized as simply a colossal adventurer, and it must be admitted that there is justice in the charge. He was restless, and his thirst for new perils and difficulties to be overcome was insatiable. Mount Climax, on the frontier of Lycia and Pamphylia, approaches the sea abruptly, leaving only a narrow footway along the base, which is often under water. Alexander found it buried out of sight on his approach, and sent his main force by a tedious and difficult road across the mountains to Perge; but instead of going with them, he and several of his companions waded through the chilling waters for a whole day, obliged to struggle at times to prevent being carried off their feet. It was easy to subdue all with whom he came in contact on the road to the Greece—Alexander’s Victories in Asia 247 neighborhood of Gordium in Phrygia, where he was rejoined by Parmenio and the new recruits from Greece. Now here is an interesting story connected with Alexander's visit to the place at that time: There is a legend that Gordius, a Phrygian peasant, was ploughing in the field when an eagle settled on his yoke of oxen, and remained until the labor of the day was over. Astonished and puzzled by the strange incident, Gordius sought an explanation and was told by a prophetess of Telmissus that he should offer sacrifice to Zeus. He obeyed, and, grateful for the kindness done him, married the prophetess, by whom he had a son, the famous Midas, whose touch (until relieved of the nuisance) turned everything to gold. The disturbances in Phrygia caused the people to send messengers to the oracle at Delphi for advice about choosing a new king. The oracle told them that a king would come to them riding on a wagon and peace would follow. The messengers were telling the people these things, when Gordius with his father was seen approaching on a wagon or car. He was immediately chosen king, and he dedicated his vehicle and yoke to Zeus, in the acropolis of Gordium, a city named for himself, and tied the knot of the yoke so cunningly that an oracle declared that whoever should untie it would become ruler of all Asia. Know- ing the legend, Alexander went to the acropolis and took a look at the wonder- ful knot of bark which held the yoke of the wagon to the pole. Instead of wasting his time in trying to disentangle it he drew his sword, cut the rope in two, and took the prophecy to himself. This constituted the “untying of the Gordian knot,” of which every one has heard. Alexander resumed his march eastward in the spring of B.C. 333. While heated from a trying march, he bathed in the cold waters of the Cydnus near the town of Tarsus, and the result was a flaming fever which threatened his life. An Acarnanian physician was called in, but directly after he had pro- vided a remedy a letter came from Parmenio warning his master that the phy- sician had been bribed by Darius to poison him Alexander after reading the letter handed it to the physician, and then, to show his confidence in him, took up the cup and swallowed the draught. The fact that he speedily recovered his usual health warrants the belief that the veteran general did injustice to the medical man. - So when strong enough, Alexander advanced toward the defiles of Cilicia, where Darius had stationed himself with an army numbering more than half a million men. He arrived in the neighborhood of Issus, where the ground was so unfavorable for the Persians that they wholly lost the advantage of their superior numbers, while Alexander had full play for his consummate skill. The splendid charges of the Macedonian troops sent their enemies flying from the field. Before the battle Darius took his station in the centre of the line in 248 The Story of the Greatest Nations his gorgeous state chariot, that he might enjoy the overthrow of the insolent Macedonians; but the Persian king was an arrant coward, and the moment he saw his left wing defeated, he dived out of his chariot, ran panting to the hills, leaped upon the back of a fleet horse, and after throwing away his royal robes. and his bow and shield, Scurried off at headlong speed. The treasures of the Persian army became the spoils of the Macedonians, but the tent of the king was reserved for Alexander, who gazed in astonishment upon a scene of Oriental royalty. One part was fitted up as a bath, and was heavy with rich perfume, while another was a splendid pavilion with a table spread for a banquet. In a tent near at hand were the wife and mother of Darius, who were treated with delicate courtesy and consideration. This famous battle of Issus was fought in the month of November, B.C. 333. Darius fled toward the Euphrates, which he crossed with a body of four thousand fugitives. Meanwhile, the immense number of levies which he had summoned were still hurrying toward Babylon, so that in a short time he would be at the head of a still larger number than that which had been defeated. Nevertheless, the cowardly monarch twice made overtures to peace, the latter proposition being a proposal that Alexander should possess all Asia to the Euphrates. Hearing this, Parmenio exclaimed: “I would accept the proposal if I were Alexander.” “So would I,” replied Alexander, “if I were Parmenio.” The Macedonian monarch next turned toward Syria and Phoenicia, with a view of cutting off the escape of Darius by the sea. When he occupied Da- mascus, he secured a prodigious amount of treasure, and with little difficulty conquered all the cities along the shore of the Mediterranean. Tyre had such a powerful position that it held out for seven months, when after tremendous exertion on the part of the besiegers, it fell, B.C. 332, and was destroyed. From that point Alexander continued his trumphant career through Palestine, where the only city that refused to submit was Gaza, whose fate was the same as Tyre's. Egypt, as will be remembered, was groaning at that time under the Persian yoke, and it welcomed Alexander as a deliverer. Different from the merciless Cambyses, he won the respect and affection of the people by restor- ing all the old customs and religious institutions of the country. There, too, he founded Alexandria, which became one of the leading cities of ancient times, and is still an important metropolis of Egypt. * Alexander next marched through the Libyan desert, in order to consult the Oracle of Jupiter Amon, whose priests saluted him as a son of Jove. He made the consultation in secret, and it is said never revealed the answer which he received, though the magnificence of his offerings to the god leave no doubt that it was favorable. At the town of Arbela, now known as Arbil, east of Mossul, in Assyria (the Greece—Excesses of Alexander 249 battle was really fought near Guagamela, to the northwest), Alexander met Darius with an army numbering fully half a million men, and routed and pur- sued them for fifty miles from the scene of the fight. He was particularly anx- ious to make the Persian king a prisoner, but the latter fled as before on a swift horse, leaving again his baggage and royal treasure in the hands of his con- queror. Babylon and Susa opened their gates to him, and he next moved toward Persepolis, the capital of Persia, which he entered in triumph. Rarely, indeed, can a man withstand the perils of attaining the highest pinnacle of success. Alexander had always been fond of wine and luxurious living, and he now descended to the most degrading debauchery, during which he spent days in Sodden drunkenness. At such times he was capricious and as ferocious as a demon. It seems pretty certain that he set fire to Persepolis, then the most splendid city of the world, and reduced it to ashes. We are told that he applied the torch in the midst of a drunken feast, being prompted to the wanton destruction by Thais, a Grecian courtesan, who urged him thus to avenge his comrades, the soldiers who had fallen in his battles. When sober, he was ashamed of his wicked act, and, as a diversion to his mind, set out with his cavalry in hot pursuit of Darius. He had learned that Bessus, the satrap of Bactriana, held the king as prisoner, and fearing the worst, Alexander made all haste in the hope of Saving him. When he overtook Darius, he found that Bessus had inflicted upon him a mortal wound and left him dying at the road- side. Alexander was shocked and gave the fallen king a suitable burial. He then resumed his pursuit of Bessus, who aspired to the throne of Persia, and after a long pursuit to the present city of Bokhara, he found that Bessus had been surrendered by the satrap of that city, and he was put to death by order of the Persian court. Then a plot was revealed to Alexander in which the son of Parmenio had conspired to take his life. The father was entirely innocent, but the cruel monarch executed his faithful old general, as well as the son. This act horrified all who knew it, but no one dared protest. In B.C. 329 Alexander pushed his way to the farthest known limits of northern Asia and routed the Scythians on the banks of the Jaxartes. The following year he conquered the whole of Sogdiana and married Roxana, the daughter of one of his enemy's captains, and said to be the most beautiful woman in Asia. Returning to Maracanda, he was joined by the other divisions of his army. It was at this time that he made Clitus, the friend who had saved his life at the battle of the Granicus, satrap of Bactria. On the night before Clitus was to depart to his new post, he and Alexander drank heavily. They quarrelled, and the king in his rage drove a spear through the body of Clitus. Then, when he realized what he had done, he was seized with an agony of remorse, and flinging himself upon the corpse, refused for three days 25 O The Story of the Greatest Nations to leave it or take any nourishment. It was not until utterly exhausted that he allowed himself to be led away and consented to partake of food. In B.C. 327 Alexander advanced upon his famous conquest of India. Cross- ing the Indus near the modern town of Attock, he made his way under the guid- ance of a native prince to the Jelum, where he met and defeated another native prince, Porus, after a furious battle. Porus was brought captive before his conqueror, who demanded frowningly how he expected to be treated. “As a king should be,” returned the Indian, haughtily. And Alexander, pleased by the pride of the answer, freed him and made a friend of him. Then the con- queror marched through the part of India now known as the Punjaub, planting Greek colonies at different points. He was accompanied by a number of historians, and it is to them that we are indebted for the first authentic knowledge of that wonderful country. The strange fact is, that what they wrote more than two thousand years ago would answer well for an account of the country to-day; for India, like China, has stood still for centuries. Its oldest history is wholly legendary, and nothing is known with certainty about the region and the people until the fourth cen- tury before Christ. The narrative is a fascinating one which tells of India's riches and valuable natural productions, its costly merchandise and splendid manufactures, the magnificence of its sovereigns, its overwhelming animal and vegetable life, which includes the fiercest wild animals and the deadliest rep- tiles in the world, its smothering heat, its physical features which have led it to be called “an epitome of the whole earth,” and its whole record from the Mohammedan conquest in IOIO down to the present day, with its population five times as great as that of England, of which it has long remained a princely dependency. The army of Alexander was sated with conquest, wearied with endless tramping and fighting, and so homesick that when it reached the southern boundary of the Punjaub, it refused to go any farther. The king could not help himself, and, after erecting twelve immense altars, on the banks of the river, to mark the limit of his conquests, he gave the order to march homeward. Arriving at the newly founded cities of Nicaea and Bucephala, he separated the army into three divisions, two of which were ordered to pass down the river on opposite banks, while Alexander himself with eight thousand men embarked on a fleet, which had been built with a view of descending the Indus to its mouth. Setting out in the latter part of November, B.C. 327, several months were occupied, during which there was considerable fighting with the natives. Al- exander never had a narrower escape than in the storming of a town standing on the present site of Mooltan. A ladder was placed against the wall, and he was the first to run to the top. He was closely followed by four of his officers, Greece—Alexander's Plans of Empire 25 I but as the fifth placed his foot on the ground the ladder broke and the king was left on the wall, a fair target for the missiles of the enemy. If he stood still but for a minute, he was certain to be killed; he must either leap down among his own friends or among his enemies. He chose the latter desperate alternative, and, dropping on his feet, placed his back against the wall and faced the clamoring mob who fought among themselves to get to him. Two chiefs who ventured within reach of his sword were killed, but an arrow pierced his corselet, and, overcome with weakness, he sank to the ground. Two of the officers who had followed him fought off their assailants until the arrival of more soldiers, who had scaled the walls and opened the gates. The place was quickly taken and every defender put to the sword. Having reached the ocean, Alexander ordered Nearchus, the commander of the fleet, to sail to the Persian Gulf, while he pushed inland with a division of the army which he intended to lead through the present territory of Beloochistan. There he had to cross burning deserts, where thousands of his men died through want of water. When he arrived in Persia in B. c. 325, three-fourths of the men who had left their homes in such high hopes were absent, never to return. In the handling of his conquests Alexander displayed many proofs that he was more than a mere general. He seems to have had extensive and far-seeing plans for the welding of his loosely held dominions into one united and settled state. For this reason he had all along treated the Persian nobles with great consideration and encouraged friendships between them and his own command- ers. In the year 325 he announced that the two nations were henceforth to be governed as one people; and in proof of this he himself wedded Statira, the eldest daughter of Darius. The ceremony was celebrated with great pomp at Susa, and at the same time many of his Macedonian and Grecian officers were married to Persian ladies of rank. The overbearing conduct of Alexander and the marked favoritism he showed toward the Persians roused the jealousy of his own people, and, but for his severity in crushing the discontent, he would have had to face a formidable mutiny. Then he went to Ecbatana, where in the autumn he celebrated with imposing splendor the festival of Dionysius. Then in the face of the warning of the priests of Belus, that some evil would befall him, he entered the city of Babylon in the spring of B. c. 324. There were to be enacted the crowning, grandest ceremonies of all. He came as the invincible conqueror of Asia. Ambassadors from all parts of Greece, from Italy, Libya, and still more remote regions, were waiting to greet and do him homage. Nearchus had arrived with the fleet and was joined by other vessels built in Phoenicia and brought over- land and then down the river to Babylon. Nothing was wanting to make the scene one of the grandest of which the world's history contains a record. 252 The Story of the Greatest Nations Strange that men will go on planning, scheming, and fretting as if they are to live forever! Alexander was still young, and his brain seethed with daz- zling visions of conquest that opened out before him. He had already proven himself one of the greatest conquerors that ever cursed the earth, but ambition grows by what it feeds upon. He meant to become master of the world. As the first step in this stupendous dream, he determined to subjugate Arabia. Three expeditions were sent out to survey its coast; he gave orders to build a fleet for the Caspian Sea, and the course of the Euphrates was sur- veyed with a view of improving its navigation. With myriads as slaves to his will, there seemed no possible limit to his triumphs, nor any reason why the same towering success should not attend his schemes in the future as had in the past. There was but a single contingency to fear, and that was death, and the grim foe now rose in the path in front of him. All preparations for the Arabian campaign being completed, solemn sacri- fices were offered up for its success, and luxurious banquets were given before the departure. It was natural that Alexander should be inspired by the over- whelming grandeur of the vista opening before him. He drank deeply, and continuing his debauch, was seized with a fever. He regarded it lightly and refused for several days to take to his couch; but he grew steadily worse, and eleven days after the attack, B.C. 323 (May or June), he died, in the thirty- second year of his age, having reigned twelve years and eight months. His body was placed in a golden coffin at Alexandria and divine honors were paid to it in Egypt and other countries. Although such men as Philip, Alexander, Napoleon Bonaparte, and their like, are stupendous curses to mankind, yet it is seldom that their career proves an unmixed evil. Alexander was selfish and, as has been said, craved adven- ture and danger for their own sake. He was controlled by an insatiate ambi- tion, which had no regard for the rights of others; but wherever he went, he carried Hellenic civilization with him. Thus he bore light and blessing to mul- titudes which otherwise would not have received them for centuries. Of the two continents thus brought into closer communication, both were gainers. The arts and literature of Greece obtained a footing in the East, and after Alexander had passed away Greek kingdoms were formed in the western parts of Asia and lasted for centuries. “The Greek language became the tongue of all government and literature throughout many countries where the people were not Greek by birth. It was thus at the very moment that Greece began to lose her political freedom that she made, as it were, an intellectual conquest of a large part of the world.” - --- - - - º º - ~ - : - º º 35.5º j ACHAIA AND THE CORINThian GULF º- Chapter XXIII THE FALL OF GREECE S Alexander lay dying, he was asked to whom he left his empire. “To the strongest,” was his reply; but there was none strong enough to take his place and his vast schemes of policy and conquest were buried in the grave with him. After much dispute, threatening the gravest con- sequences, a complicated division was made, but the empire broke apart, and the generals who had served under Alexander fought for twenty years over the fragments. A decisive battle at Ipeus in Phrygia, in B.C. 301, gave Syria and the East to Seleucus, Egypt to Ptolemy, Thrace to Lysimachus, and Macedonia to Cassander. It is not our province to give a detailed account of the various kingdoms founded by these men, and we must now return to the history of Greece, from which we have been necessarily diverted by our story of the career of Alex- ander. When the latter pushed into the interior of Asia in the pursuit of Darius, he left his favorite Harpalus at Ecbatana, with a large force in charge of the royal treasures. Harpalus removed to Babylon, where his rioting and wild excesses alienated the people. No doubt he believed Alexander would never return from Asia and the regions of the far East, but when he learned he was on his way and was punishing with rigor all who had been faithless to their trust, Harpalus fied, at the head of six thousand mercenaries and with all the treasures he could collect. Crossing to Attica, he applied to Athens for admission, but obtained 254 The Story of the Greatest Nations it only by the free use of bribes. This was such a flagrant act of hostility against Macedonia that Antipater, the vicegerent left in charge there by Alex- ander, called upon the Athenians to deliver up Harpalus and those of their number who had accepted bribes. The Athenians did not dare refuse and Harpalus was put in prison, but succeeded in escaping. Demosthenes, one of the accused, was convicted and sentenced to pay a fine so enormous that it was impossible to meet it, and he too was thrown into prison. Since there is every reason to doubt his guilt, it is a pleasure to record that he also made his escape. He lived mostly at AEgina and Troezene in sight of his native land, toward which it is said he often turned his tearful eyes. Alexander died the following year, and Demosthenes was recalled from exile and once more placed at the head of affairs. The Macedonian power, however, prevailed and the conquerors demanded the surrender of the great orator and statesman. There was no escape this time for him, and he sought an asylum in the temple of Neptune, in the island of Calaurea, where, before his pursuers could overtake him, he died, there is reason to fear from poison administered by his own hand (B.C. 322). Of him it has been said that it is scarcely possi- ble to praise or admire him too much. His dauntless bravery, the stainless purity of his public and private life, his splendid and disinterested patriotism, and his services as a statesman and administrator entitle him to a place among the highest and noblest men of antiquity. As an orator, the intelligent of all ages have, with hardly a dissenting voice, assigned to him the highest place. Homer is not more clearly the prince of ancient poets than is Demosthenes the prince of ancient orators. On the death of Antipater, his son Cassander expected to become king of Macedonia, but the honor was given to another, which so angered Cassander that he determined to contest the sovereignty. He had been ill-treated by Alexander, and had formed an implacable hatred toward that monarch and the members of his family. He succeeded in his contest for the throne, but while engaged in conquering Southern Greece news reached him that Olympias, mother of Alexander, was making serious trouble in Macedonia and he hurried thither. He captured Olympias and put her to death, after which only Roxana, widow of Alexander, and her son Ægus stood between him and the throne. He married the half-sister of Alexander, “removed ” the widow and son who stood in his way, and caused Thebes, which Alexander had destroyed, to be re- built. His war with Antigonus, king of Asia, lasted from B.C. 3 I 5 to 3o I, in the latter year of which Antigonus was defeated and killed at the battle of Ip- sus. Then with his auxiliaries Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus, Cassander seized and shared the dominions of the vanquished. It was in the year B.C. 317 that Cassander placed Demetrius Phalereus at Greece—Struggles of the Macedonian Generals 255 the head of affairs in Athens, where he ruled with so much wisdom for ten years that the grateful Athenians heaped all manner of honors upon him, includ- ing no less than three hundred and sixty statues. But he lost his popularity through dissipation, and upon the approach of Demetrius Poliorcetes, the son of Antigonus, in B.C. 307, he was obliged to flee, while all his statues except one were demolished. After the battle of Ipsus, Demetrius Poliorcetes had succeeded to what was left of his father's power, and retreating with the remnant of his army to Ephe- sus, had sailed to Cyprus. He wished to go to Athens, but the Athenians would not receive him. He then turned toward the Peloponnesus, but found that his allies in that quarter had joined Cassander. While engaged in ravaging the Thracian Chersonese in B.C. 3OO, he was gratified to receive an embassy from Seleucus with a request from that monarch for the hand of his daughter. The request was gladly granted, and Demetrius was so much strengthened by the new alliance that in the Spring of B.C. 296 he besieged and captured Athens. The ferocious tyrant Lachares, established there by Cassander, was driven out, and since the city was suffering fearfully from famine, Demetrius distributed corn among the starving inhabitants and treated them with a kindness that was as marked as it was unexpected. * Cassander had died a short time before, and his successor, who was his eld- est son, known as Philip IV., lived but a short time, whereupon the two broth ers Antipater and Alexander quarrelled over the succession. The mother, Thessalonica, a daughter of the great Philip, tried to smooth matters by divid- ing the kingdom between them, but Antipater got the belief that she was favor- ing his brother, and in a paroxysm of rage killed her with his own hand. Alex- ander called upon Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and upon Demetrius to assist him. Demetrius was in the Peloponnesus, and Pyrrhus being nearer, succeeded in partitioning Macedonia between the two brothers. This of course weakened the kingdom, and Demetrius, seeing a good opportunity for gratifying his am- bitious designs, entered the country with his army and did not hesitate to have Alexander assassinated when he joined him with his forces. Somehow or other Demetrius convinced the Macedonians that his crime was justified, maintaining that Alexander was plotting against his life. Be that as it may, they would not have the other brother, the slayer of his mother, to rule over them, and therefore made Demetrius their king. But after a time Demetrius offended his subjects by his pomp and splendor, and the scorn with which he treated them. He aimed to recover all of his father's dominions in Asia, but before he could take the field his adversaries forestalled him. In the spring of B. c. 287 Ptolemy sent a great fleet against Greece, and Pyrrhus and Lysimachus invaded Macedonia at the same time from two different directions. 256 The Story of the Greatest Nations Pyrrhus had won the favor of the Macedonians by his generosity, kindness, and courage, while, for the reasons named, they detested Demetrius. In the hour that Pyrrhus appeared, the Macedonians flocked to his support and Demetrius had to fly for his life. Pyrrhus became king, but seven months later Lysima- chus drove him out. Demetrius tried several times to regain his power in Greece, but failed and then set sail for Asia, where he finally fell into the hands of his son-in-law Seleucus, who held him captive in Syria, with all his depraved tastes gratified until his death in B.C. 283, from gross indulgences. Meanwhile, Pyrrhus retreated to his own kingdom of Epirus, while Seleucus and Lysimachus fought until the latter was killed. Thus Seleucus, the last of Alexander's generals, held all of his empire except Egypt, Southern Syria, Cy- prus, and part of Phoenicia, but while taking possession of Macedonia he was murdered by an Egyptian Greek, to whom he had shown many favors (B. C. 28O). This wretch, Ptolemy Ceraunus, in the turmoil that followed, made himself king of Macedon. The miscreant did not long escape punishment. The Celts or Gauls swarmed into Macedonia, defeated the people, cut off the head of Ceraunus, carried it on a pole and overran Thrace and Macedon. A second invasion by these barbarians compelled the Greeks to rally against them, and the command of the army was given to the Athenian Callippus (B.C. 279). The Celts pene- trated as far south as Delphi, which they intended to plunder, but they were repulsed and their leader Brennus killed. Anarchy and confusion followed the death of Ceraunus, till in B.C. 278 Antigonus Gonatus, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, succeeded in gaining the throne. He held it with slight interruption until his death in B.C. 239. Pyrrhus marched into the Peloponnesus in B.C. 272, at the head of a large army with which he intended to make war upon Sparta and also to reduce the places which still supported Antigonus. He failed to capture Sparta and then advanced against Argos, arriving at the same time with Antigonus and his forces. Si- multaneously the two entered the city by opposite gates. While fighting in the streets, Pyrrhus was knocked from his horse by a tile hurled by a woman to save her son, and was slain by several soldiers. Antigonus shed tears at sight of the head of his enemy and caused the body to be honorably buried in the temple of Ceres. Finding himself master of the greater part of Peloponnesus, Antigonus Gonatus governed the various cities by means of Tyrants and then laid siege to Athens, in whose defence an Egyptian fleet and Spartan army assisted. Ath- ens was finally taken about the year B.C. 262, after the defenders had been re- duced to the last stages of famine and exhaustion. And now while all Greece, except Sparta, lay bound and helpless at the Greece—The Achaean League 257 feet of Macedonia, a new and strange power came into life. The troubles in Macedonia kept Antigonus Gonatus there, thus offering the opportunity for a well-directed revolt in the Peloponnesus. In the early part of our history we learned something about the narrow slip of country upon the shores of the Co- rinthian gulf known as Achaia, where a sort of religious league had existed from a remote period. It embraced the twelve cities of the province, but was suppressed by the Macedonians, who held possession of all the towns, now ten in number, two having been destroyed by earthquakes. Relieved of the pres- ence of Antigonus Gonatus, these cities began to draw together again. It was about the year B.C. 25 I that Aratus of Sicyon succeeded in bringing the new Achaean League into being. He had spent many years in exile at Argos, and now collected a number of his companions and, attacking Sicyon at night, drove out the last of the execrated Tyrants. This daring act brought Sicyon into the league, which was governed by a general, with the sovereignty, however, resid- ing in the general assembly, which met twice a year in a sacred grove near AEgium. Every Achaean who had reached the age of thirty was a member, and the body decided all questions that affected the welfare of their country. Ara- tus was the general in B. C. 245 and again two years later, when he performed a still more daring exploit by capturing Corinth from the Macedonians and join- ing it to the league, which grew with amazing rapidity, embracing in the end all the towns except Sparta, Elis, and a few of the Arcadian cities. Sparta although independent was only a wreck, hardly suggestive of her former greatness. The whole number of citizens was only seven hundred, of whom no more than a hundred retained enough land to support themselves in idleness. They removed to foreign courts to live in extravagance, for the Spar- tan simplicity that has made the name immortal had long since departed. The young king, Agis IV., who came to the crown in B. c. 244, was fired by the noble spirit of the ancient founders, and determined that Spartans should regain their virtue. He gave up all his own wealth as well as that of his fam- ily, but was bitterly opposed by his colleague bearing the honored name of Le- onidas, who rallied the wealthy citizens on his side. Agis, however, succeeded in deposing Leonidas, and it looked as if the reformer would succeed in his beneficent purpose; but he undertook an expedition to aid Aratus against the AEtolians, and when he returned he found that Leonidas had been restored to power and was strong enough to seize him and put him to death. Some years later Cleomenes, the son of Leonidas, who had married the widow of Agis, affected most of the reforms which Agis had had in view. Cleomenes made himself powerful through his military successes, and was thus able to carry out his political principles. Aratus in his efforts to extend the Achaean League seized several Arcadian towns which the AEtolians had ceded to Sparta. This I 7 258 The Story of the Greatest Nations brought on a war (B. c. 227–226), in which the League was defeated by Cleom- enes, who returned home and began carrying out with military rigor the re- form measures of Agis. A natural consequence was the renewed successes of the Spartan arms, and Aratus, driven to the wall, appealed to the Macedonians. Antigonus and his son were dead, and the government was administered by Antigonus Doson, a guardian of the youthful heir Philip. The Macedonians compelled him to accept the crown, yet he remained faithful to his trust, and at his death Philip succeeded him. Antigonus Doson, in answer to the prayer of Aratus, marched into the Pel- oponnesus and drove Cleomenes into Laconia. The war was not brought to a close till two years afterward (B.C. 221), when in the battle of Sellasia in Laco- nia, the army of Cleomenes was annihilated, and he was compelled to take refuge in Egypt. Then Sparta, which had remained unconquered for so many centuries, fell into the power of Macedonia. It was a great triumph for Antigonus, but within a year he was recalled to Macedonia by an invasion of the Illyrians, whom he defeated. He died a short time afterward, and Philip V., son of Demetrius II., still in his teens, suc- ceeded him. Because of his youth, the AEtolians ventured to make plundering excursions into the Peloponnesus. They had previously united into a confed- eracy composed of tribes instead of cities, and were held in great dread by their neighbors. The disorganized state of Greece, following the death of Alexan- der, had encouraged them to increase their power, which in time extended over Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, and parts of Acarnania, Thessaly, and Epirus. Such was the state of the AEtolians when Philip came to the throne of Macedon. In the effort to help the Messenians, Aratus was routed and the Achaeans applied to Philip for help. He made an alliance with them and the Social War fol. lowed, with the AEtolians on one side and the Achaeans, aided by Philip, on the other. The AEtolians suffered several defeats, but three years after the open- ing of the war, B.C. 2 I 7, Philip made peace with them, because a more formida- ble power demanded his attention. The tremendous struggle was now going on between Rome and Carthage, with the certainty that miserable, distracted Greece would be inevitably swal- lowed by the victor in that mighty contest for supremacy. Philip made the fatal blunder of uniting with the forces of Carthage, and the Romans formed an alliance with the AEtolians who made war against him. Previous to this, Philip, who had become arbitrary and harsh in his methods, quieted the remonstrances of Aratus by causing him to be poisoned to death. The AEtolians pressed the Achaeans so hard that in B.C. 209 they again called upon Philip for help. There were a few noble spirits left among the Greeks, of whom the leader was Philo- poemen, called by Plutarch “the last of the Greeks.” He was born in Mega- Greece—Victories of Philopoemen 259 lopolis about B.C. 252, and received a careful education, through Cleander, a wealthy citizen. He fought bravely in the defence of Megalopolis against Cle. omenes, king of Sparta, in B. c. 222. At the head of one thousand horse he joined Antigonus the next year and greatly aided in the routing of the Spartan king Satellasia. Foreseeing the trouble that was coming to his people, he im- proved the few years of peace by going abroad and studying the science of war. He learned well, and, on his return to Peloponnesus in B.C. 2 IO, was appointed general of the Achaean horse. He did splendid service, and in the expedi- tion against Elis in B.C. 209 killed the Elean leader with his own hand. The following year he was raised to the highest possible military rank, that of com- mander-in-chief of the Achaean League. So admirable were his discipline and training of the forces under his command, that it began to look as if the ancient heroism of his country had returned to life again. In B. c. 207 Philopoemen gained a great victory at Mantinea over the Spar- tans, whose king and leader fell in a personal encounter with him. They had formed an alliance with the Romans, who now withdrew to give their whole attention to Carthage, and Greece enjoyed a few years of tranquillity. The fame of Philopoemen had reached the highest pinnacle, and at the Nemean festival which followed he was proclaimed Liberator of Greece. The beautiful simplicity of his character was not touched by these honors. His influence over his quarrelsome countrymen was so great that Philip feared Greece would regain her independence. He attempted to have her liberator secretly assas- sinated, but the plot was discovered in time and Philopoemen was more endeared than ever to his people. The conduct of Philip gave the Romans good grounds for renewing their de- signs against Greece at the conclusion of the second Punic war. In B.C. 200 the Romans declared war against Philip, and relieved Athens which he had be- sieged. Two years later the Achaean League was won over to the Roman alli- ance, and since the AEtolians had already deserted him, Philip was faced by a problem beyond his power to solve. In B.C. 197 the deciding battle between the Romans and Philip was fought at Cynoscephalae in Thessaly. Philip was defeated and the doom of the Macedonian empire sealed. The treaty which he was compelled to sign in the succeeding year renounced its supremacy, with- drew its garrisons from the Grecian towns, surrendered its fleet, and bound it to pay more than a million dollars for the expenses of the war. The independ- ence of Greece was proclaimed, and in B.C. 194 the Roman armies were with- drawn from the country. On the departure of the consul, Nabis, ruler of Sparta, attacked the Achae- ans, but his force was almost annihilated by Philopoemen, and he was killed soon after by the AEtolians. Philopoemen exerted himself to heal the quarrels 26o The Story of the Greatest Nations among his countrymen, knowing that unless they stopped, Rome would step in and take away the independence she had lately given them. The AEtolians were mad enough to fight alone against the Romans, who utterly crushed them in B.C. I 89, and compelled them to make peace upon the most humiliating term S. Sparta had put to death a number of the friends of Philopoemen, who took a savage revenge upon the city, for which he was strongly censured by the Ro- man senate, as well as by the commissioner sent into Greece in B.C. I 85. Two years later, Philopoemen was elected commander-in-chief or Strategus, as it was called, for the eighth time. He was seventy years old and was lying ill with fever at Argos when news was brought to him that the Messenians had broken from the league. He sprang from his couch and hurried at the head of a force of cavalry to quell the revolt, but having fallen from his horse was captured and two days later was presented with a cup of poison by the Messenian leader, which he calmly drank off and died. Philip, the Macedonian king, died in B. C. I79, and was succeeded by his son Perseus, who, although his country was prepared for war, renewed the treaty of peace which lasted seven years. Perseus improved this interval in making alliances with Greek and Asiatic princes. Rome was watching his actions, and reading their meaning, declared war against him in B. C. I 7 I. The struggle lasted four years, the first three of which were so advantageous to him that there was a widespread feeling in his favor in the countries bordering on the Levant and the Archipelago. The final battle was fought at Pydna, June 22d, in which the army of Perseus was utterly routed. He was compelled to surrender shortly after and was taken to Rome, where he adorned the triumph of the conqueror. Perseus was the last king of Macedonia, and with him fell the empire of Mace. don. The Roman commissioners charged with arranging the affairs of Macedonia gave their attention also to Greece, which they intended to bring under Roman sway. There were plenty of traitors who were readily bribed, and Callicrates a man of great influence, was chief of them. He did everything in his power to bring about the degradation of his country. Wretched, miserable Athens had become a tramp, begging for meagre favors. Sometimes in her distress she craved the bounty of Eastern princes or the Ptolemies of Egypt. The con- dition of the people was so desperate that in B.C. 156 they sent out an expedi- tion against their neighbor Oropus, and appropriated supplies without permission of the owners. The Oropians complained to the Roman senate, which sentenced the Athenians to pay an enormous fine; and here follows a fine story of the state of morals at that time: The Oropians being injured again, appealed to the Achaean League, which at Greece—Destruction of Corinth 26 I first refused to have anything to do with the matter. Then the Oropians bribed Menalcidas, a Spartan, and the Strategus of the league, of which Sparta was an unwilling member. He in turn hired the corrupt Callicrates to obtain the intervention of the league. Menalcidas cheated Callicrates out of his share of the bribe, and the latter in revenge charged him with having urged the Ro- mans to separate Sparta from the league. Menalcidas would have been con- demned had he not bribed Diaeus, his successor in office. This becoming known Diaeus became so odious that to turn attention from himself, he stirred up the Achaeans to violence against Sparta. Too weak to repel the attack, Sparta appealed to Rome, which sent two commissioners in B. c. 147 to adjust matters. They decided that Sparta, Cor- inth, and the remaining cities, except those of Achaia, should be disjoined from the league and restored to independence. Corinth was enraged and fierce riot- ing broke out, the Roman commissioners narrowly escaping violence. The new embassy sent thither could obtain no satisfaction for the outrages, and finally the Roman Senate declared war against the league. The Strategus was incompetent and cowardly; he fled, and upon being overtaken was routed. Diaeus, who succeeded him, did a little better, but he was overthrown near Cor- inth, which city was immediately evacuated by most of the inhabitants. Mum- mius, the Roman commander, put to death the men who remained and burned the city to the ground. Ten commissioners arrived from Rome to settle the future condition of Greece. As a result, the whole country to the frontier of Macedonia and Epirus was made into a Roman province, under the name of Achaia, and thus vanished the freedom of Greece. GRECIAN CATAPAULTS PAUL PREACHING IN ATHENS Chapter XXIV GREECE AS A ROMAN PROVINCE—ITS LITERATURE AND ART == ſº HE story of the decline of Greece is a sad one. As a dependency of the Roman empire, it suffered severely during the wars of Antiochus and Mithridates, which you will hear of in the story of Rome. Later for over § § º two centuries there were comparative peace and pros- 2 perity under the early Roman emperors. Julius Caesar rebuilt Corinth and made it the capital of the prov- ince. Standing where the isthmus was only six miles across, with a beautiful harbor on each side, it was entered by many travellers who, fearing to sail around the dangerous headlands of the Peloponnesus, were accustomed to land on one side and embark on the other, just as people do in going from New York to San Francisco by way of the Isthmus of Panama. Thus Corinth grew into a great commercial city, where at all times could be found hundreds of Jews and Greeks. Christianity was early introduced by Paul, the great apostle of the Gentiles, whose memory is revered by Christians throughout the world. He was born of Jewish parents at Tarsus in Cilicia, and from them he inherited the rights of Roman citizenship. One law of the empire was that a Roman citizen could be tried only by the magistrates and laws of Rome; so it was a fortunate thing for a person to attain the rank of a Roman citizen. Men of eminence were com- plimented in this way, and sometimes an entire city was given the honor. Paul Greece—Paul Preaches Christianity 263 is said to have been of small stature, of spare frame, and able “to stand under the arm of a man of ordinary height.” His original name was Saul. His native city, where he was first educated, was then at the zenith of its fame as a centre of schools of literature and philosophy. There he doubtless, learned to speak Greek and perfected himself “in the law of his fathers.” He was next sent to Jerusalem, where he studied under Gamaliel, a noted Jewish scholar, and became one of the most rigid of Pharisees. In accordance with the good rule prevailing at that time, he learned a trade, which was that of tent-maker, and at which, as he records, he afterward labored to support himself. Among his sect there was none more furious than he in persecuting the Christians. This wonderful man came upon the stage of action shortly after the death of the Saviour. The Jews of the Cilician synagogue were savage disputants against Stephen the martyr, and no doubt Saul, still in his youth, was among the crowd who were clamorous and headlong in their determination to crush the humble followers of the Nazarene. When Stephen was stoned to death, young Saul stood by consenting, and holding the garments of those who flung them off that they might the better hurl the missiles at the man who thus perished for his Master. Saul now became a leader in the relentless persecution of the Christians which broke out in Jerusalem, but, as told in the book of Acts, he was miracu- lously converted while on the road to Damascus. He went into seclusion for a time in Arabia, probably to prepare himself for the solemn work to which he was henceforward to give his life. He changed his name to Paul, and with ab- solute fearlessness and whole-souled devotion began the labors which made him the foremost teacher and Christian of the ages. The hatred of the Jews against him became so intense that nothing but his death could satisfy them. His friends, however, helped him to escape and he fled to Jerusalem, where the dis- ciples were at first frightened and suspicious, but Barnabas convinced them of his sincerity and he was gladly received. He “spoke boldly in the name of Christ,” disputing with such power with the Hellenistic Jews that again his life was sought, and he escaped by fleeing to Tarsus, his birthplace, where it ap- pears he remained until Barnabas brought him to Antioch, which was not far off. A brief visit was made to Jerusalem in the year 44, which was that of the great famine. He and Barnabas were selected by the prophets and elders of the church at Antioch for work among the more distant Jews. Starting from Seleucia, they entered upon their first missionary expedition, which led them to the southern regions of Asia Minor, where they met with great success. At Pisidian Antioch, the Jews were enraged at his preaching of the gospel to the Gentiles as well as themselves, and he boldly announced Christ as the uni- 264 The Story of the Greatest Nations versal Redeemer. Later the two missionaries crossed the AEgean and set foot in Europe, planting at Philippi, the capital of Thracian Macedonia, the first Christian church on that continent. & This remarkable work brings the great apostle into the history of Greece, and he himself has given the account of his visits to Thessalonica, Berea, Ath- ens, and Corinth. In Athens, the city of philosophers and followers of false religions, he was invited to the Areopagus to set forth the new doctrine which he taught. There, on Mars Hill, before a multitude among whom were Epicu- rean and Stoic philosophers, he delivered his magnificent discourse, containing the noble words: “Ye men of Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are greatly religious. For as I passed through your city, and beheld how ye wor- ship, I found an altar with this inscription, ‘To THE UNKNOWN GOD.’ Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto you.” - The Greeks listened attentively, but when Paul spoke of rising from the dead, they derided and mocked him. He gained but few converts, but remark- able success was had in Corinth, where he remained nearly two years, and sent thence his letters to the Thessalonians. Leaving Corinth, he wrote to that city and promised another visit, which was made on his third journey. After his arrest in Jerusalem, where the captain of the Roman guard had to interfere to save him from being torn to pieces by the mob, and while he was awaiting his trial in Rome, he wrote to his friends in Philippi so bright and hopeful a letter that it has been called the Epistle of Joy. - - - St. Andrew also labored in Greece and suffered martyrdom at Achaia, where he was crucified, but exhorted the spectators so long as the power of utterance remained to him. Paul was treated with respect at Rome, where he was allowed to live “for two whole years in his own hired house.” It is not known posi- tively whether he ever left the city or not, but it is believed that he obtained his liberty about A.D. 64, made journeys both to the east and to the west, and carried out his longing to preach the gospel in Spain. He and the evangelist St. John, and those of the apostles who still survived, appointed bishops of the cities. Dionysius of Athens was set over Corinth, and Titus became bishop of Crete. Christianity had taken root in Greece, and the divine work of the evan- gelization of the world began, to continue until all nations shall acknowledge the true God. In the midst of Paul's labors occurred the burning of Rome, of which the diabolical Nero was guilty. He threw the blame on the Christians, of whom there were many in the city, and in consequence they suffered the most fright- ful persecution. One of those who perished was Paul, whose death, according to tradition, took place in A.D. 67. º The rapid spread of Christianity was due partly at least to the waning of all OCT 9, 1906 THE BRITISH RED CROSS NURSES LANDING IN ATHENS 830 Nºvxa nº BO HLv3.0 ±H1 THE FARNESE BULL || || lº. º º1 º | ST. PAUL PROTECTED FROM THE MOB BY THE ROMANS SULOTES 1. Lwºw .lv A8:a. Llwyd SIH CINw SwTOHO IN BONI： H.L.N 1.800 do nadvillo a Hal THE GREEKS AFTER CUNAXA NOQ30w w 30 d. 11Hd 30 NOI. LvNISSyssy 1H0 NOTOSSI w „Lw 380 w SS yw QINw LinwSS w nw NI： 3 Hı | | º º ſ l | Greece—Athens the Centre of Art 265 belief in the old gods. Both art and literature had begun to treat them lightly. Writers invented new legends concerning them, and told these as our own wri- ters tell stories, without any pretence that they were true. Thus a Latin author, Ovid, wrote his “Metamorphoses,” in which he represents the gods as chang- ing men into beasts for mere caprice. And Apuleius wrote the legend of Psy- che, one of the most beautiful bits of classic mythology. It has been quoted as displaying the first yearnings of the pagan mind toward Christianity. Psyche represents the soul. She is wedded to Cupid or divine love, but loses him through lack of faith. She then seeks him through all the sorrows of the world, and even penetrates Hades in her wanderings, whence she brings, like Pandora, a box of sorrows back to earth. From the time of the Peloponnesian war, the character of Grecian art had naturally been undergoing change with that of the people themselves. In sculpture marble was more frequently used, and the serene majesty of the ancient gods as depicted by the early sculptors gave place to human passions and sentiments, with a softer and more flowing expression. Although the glory of Athens faded, it still had its philosophers and teachers; and many rich young men went thither from Rome, Carthage, Alexandria, and Asia to admire the splendid buildings and works of art, and to finish their educations. The two greatest artists of the later Athenian school were Scopas and Prax- iteles. Scopas was born in the island of Paros, and flourished during the first half of the fourth century B.C. His chief architectural works were: “The Tem- ple of Athena Alla at Tegea,” which ranks first in point of size and beauty in the Peloponnesus; the “Temple of Diana at Ephesus ” (though some mention Deinocrates as the architect of this building); and a number of the bas-reliefs in the great mausoleum erected by Artemisia, queen of Caria, in memory of her husband, and now in the British Museum. His Sculptures were numerous, and his single statues and groups illustrate the divinities of Greek mythology, most of which were executed in marble. They include subjects from the myths of Venus, Bacchus, Apollo, Diana, etc. The noblest piece of Sculpture exe- cuted by him was that which stood in the Flaminian Circus at Rome, and rep- resented Achilles conducted to the island of Leuce by the divinities of the Sea. It contains statues of Neptune, Thetis, the Nereids, Tritons, and a variety of sea monsters. Pliny says the whole is so beautiful that it alone would have immortalized any sculptor. Nothing is known regarding the life and date of death of this great artist. Praxiteles was also a citizen of Athens, who lived in the fourth century B.C., and of him all that is known are the productions of his genius. His principal works have been lost to the world. They included statues of Aphrodite at Cos, Cnidus, Thespiae, Latmian Alexandria, and Rome, that at Cnidus being the most 266 The Story of the Greatest Nations famous; statues of Eros at Thespiae and Parum on the Propontis; statues sin- gle and in groups from the mythology of Dionysus at Elis, Athens, Megara, and other places; statues of Apollo, the finest being the representation of Apollo as the Lizard-slayer. It is generally agreed that Praxiteles by his work intro- duced a new epoch in the history of Greece, marking the transition from the heroic, reverential age that preceded the Peloponnesian war to the more cor- rupt times that followed it. The witchery of woman and the intoxication of Bacchic pleasures were his favorite themes, but he portrayed them with mar- vellous grace, softness, and naturalness. If his god and goddesses were not divine, they were wonders of human loveliness. The later Athenian school gave way to the Sicyonic, distinguished by representations of heroic strength and athletic beauty. Euphranor, one of its chief representatives, was a painter as well as sculptor, who flourished during the time of Philip of Macedon. His figures were of all sizes and executed in bronze or marble. One by which he is perhaps best known is a statue of Paris. Lysippus was more celebrated, and following the school of Polycletus, made his ideals natural. Thus, instead of showing Hercules as a marvel of strength, he represented him as graceful and agile. It is believed that the famous Far- nese Hercules in the Naples Museum is a copy of one of his works. In his paintings, which were mostly portraits, Lysippus would have delighted the heart of Oliver Cromwell, for he represented his subjects precisely as they were. Alexander had a wry neck and it was shown in the portrait of him, but the great man was so well pleased with the work that he would permit only Lysippus and Apelles to portray him. The most famous of Lysippus' statues of Alexander shows him brandishing a lance. His works numbered over a thousand and were mostly in bronze. Pamphillus gained a wide reputation as a teacher of the art of painting. He developed a number of famous artists, the greatest being Apelles, the most famous of all Grecian painters. Apelles added scientific accuracy to the grace and elegance of the Ionic school. He appears to have spent most of his life at the court of Pella, where he was a favorite of Alexander, who, as has been stated, gave him and Lysippus the exclusive privilege of painting his portrait. He was with Alexander on his eastern expedition, and afterward travelled through the western parts of Asia, the latter part of his life being spent at the court of King Ptolemy in Egypt. I wonder whether any reader of these pages is able to tell the origin of the expression, “Let the cobbler stick to his last.” Here it is: Always anxious to improve, Apelles used to exhibit his unfinished pictures in front of his house and then concealing himself behind them, listen to the criticisms of those who stopped to view his work. One day a cobbler detected a fault in one of the Greece—Painting and Architecture 267 shoes of a picture and pointed it out. Apelles was prompt to correct it. En- couraged by the success of his criticism, the cobbler next ventured to find fault with the leg. At this the artist lost patience with his presumption, and uttered the reproof which has been repeated so many times since. The greatest of 'Apelles' portraits was that of Alexander wielding the thun- derbolt, and his most admired painting was the “Aphrodite rising from the Sea.” The goddess is shown wringing her hair, with the drops forming a veil around her. It was painted for the temple of AEsculapius at Cos, and after- ward placed by Augustus in the temple at Rome, which he dedicated to Julius Caesar. Apelles was ranked by the ancients as the first of painters, and no one was ever found competent to complete another figure of Aphrodite which he left unfinished at his death. Regarding architecture of this period, there was probably no improvement in the style of public buildings and temples, but the cities were laid out in a more majestic and convenient fashion. The finest examples of the improved cities were Alexandria in Egypt and Antioch in Syria. The times were also noted for the splendor of the sepulchral monuments, the greatest of which was the one erected at Halicarnassus by Artemisia, queen of Caria, to the memory of her husband Mausolus. Although this magnificent structure, which was ranked as one of the Seven Wonders of the world, disappeared centuries ago, late excavations have verified most of the description of Pliny, who says it was 140 feet high, the plan of the basement being 126 feet by IOO feet. The ele- vation of the basement was 65 feet, surmounted by an Ionic colonnade 23% feet high, on which was a pyramid rising in steps to a similar height, and on the apex of which stood a colossal group, some 14 feet in stature, of Mausolus and his wife, which is supposed to have been the work of Scopas. It is from this grand structure that the word mausoleum is derived. Greek art declined after the age of Alexander, though the decline was grad- ual, and a number of excellent works were produced. The art centre gradually moved from Greece to the coasts and islands of Asia Minor, Rhodes holding its eminence down to the Christian era. Its principal artist was Chares, whose great work, a statue of the sun, better known as the Colossus of Rhodes, was another of the Seven Wonders of the world. It was IoS feet high, of bronze, and of such vast size that it was a conspicuous object for many miles at Sea. Fifty-six years after its erection it was overthrown by an earthquake. The most impressively beautiful work of the Rhodian school is the group of the Laocoön in the Vatican, of which innumerable copies have been made. According to classic legend Laocoön was a priest of either Apollo or Neptune, in Troy, who vainly warned his countrymen of the deceit practised by the Greeks in their pretended offering of the wooden horse to Minerva, and was 268 The Story of the Greatest Nations destroyed with his two sons by two immense serpents, which came from the sea and first fastened themselves on the youths. The father went to their assist- ance and was fatally involved in the serpents' coils. The theme was a favorite one of the Greek poets and is introduced in the “AEneid” of Virgil. The sculp- ture representing the scene was discovered in I 506 at Rome, in the Sette Sale, on the side of the Esquiline Hill, and was purchased by Pope Julius II. for the Vatican. Napoleon carried it to Paris, but it was recovered in 1814. The anatomical accuracy of the figures, and the representation of bodily pain and of passion approach perfection, and have received the highest admiration. It was the work, according to Pliny, of three Rhodian artists, Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus, but the statement has been doubted. Another famous work of art belonging to the Rhodian period is the Farnese Bull, a colossal group said to be the work of two brothers, Apollonius and Tau- riscus of Tralles, in Asia Minor. The group represents Dirce bound to the horns of a bull by Zethus and Amphion, to avenge the ill usage of their mother. Pliny states that it was transferred to Rome and placed in the library of Asin- ius Pollio and afterward adorned the Baths of Caracalla. It was found in the year I 546, restored by Bianchi, and set in the Farnese Palace. Notwithstand- ing its striking vigor and merit, the best critics have pronounced the treatment not quite satisfactory. There were also eminent schools of sculpture at Pergamum and Ephesus, to the former of which may be referred the Dying Gladiator in the Capitoline Museum at Rome, and to the latter the Borghese Gladiator in the Louvre. The finest relic of ancient art is the Venus de Medici, preserved in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence. It was dug up in several pieces, either at the villa of Hadrian near Tivoli, or at the portico of Octavia, in Rome, in the seventeenth century. It received its name from being preserved for a while in the Medici Palace at Rome, whence it was carried to Florence by Cosmo III., about 1680. The figure is nude, four feet eleven and one-half inches high, without the plinth, and has long been held as the perfection of form in woman. The sculp- tor was Cleomenes, the Athenian, who lived about B.C. 200. • The exquisite Venus of Milo, now in the Louvre at Paris, is so named be- cause it was found in the island of Milo or Melos in the Archipelago. As Greece passed into the hands of the Romans, the finest Greek treasures were conveyed to Rome, where in time a new school arose. The many victories of the imperial empire brought thousands of the works of art to Rome, and yet so vast was the number in Greece that the temples and public buildings were crowded with statues and paintings as late as the second century of the Chris- tian era. Grecian literature, which touched perfection with the master minds of Greece—Later Literature 269 Athens, lost much of its splendor after the death of Alexander. Alexandria had become not only the emporium of commerce, but the principal seat of learning, and flourished under the munificence of the first Ptolemies. Noble and extensive libraries were founded, and literature was cultivated by gram- marians and critics. One of the greatest of these scholars was Aristophanes, chief librarian at Alexandria under the second and third Ptolemies, who estab- lished a school of grammar and criticism. He is credited with the invention of the Greek accents, while Aristarchus, his pupil, was the editor of the Homeric poems as we now possess them. The greatest dramatist of these times was the Athenian Menander (B.C. 342–292), who has been called the chief of the New Comedy. Of course tragedy would have been little welcomed in his degenerate days. So, while his plays are full of a deep knowledge of life, they are solely comedy, and all turn upon the passion of love. Two of the most admired relics of antiquity are the companion statues now in the Vatican at Rome, which represent Menander and one of his successors, the last of the famous Athenian dramatists, Posidippus. Theocritus, the most winning pastoral poet of antiquity, was a Syracusan by birth, but lived for a time in Alexandria. He had many imitators, his style being followed in later centuries by Virgil, Tibullus, and other Romans. The Alexandrine writers on pure science included Euclid (B.C. 323–283), whose Elements of Geometry is still among the most valuable of text-books. The work of the historian Polybius (B.C. 20.4–122) has been mostly lost, but the fragments are a part of the treasures of antiquity. Livy closely followed him from the period of the second Punic war. The greatest of ancient biographers and moralists was Plutarch, who was born at Chaeroneia in Boeotia, probably near the middle of the first century of the Christian era. The work by which he is best known is his “Parallel Lives” of forty-six Greeks and Romans, who are arranged in pairs, each pair consisting of the life of a Greek and a Roman. Now and then the comparison is omitted or lost. A distinguished critic says of the extraordinary charm and skill of Plutarch : “There are biographers who deal with the hero, and biographers who deal with the man. But Plutarch is the representative of ideal biography, for he delineates both in one.” The “Lives" have preserved their remarkable popu- larity through mediaeval and modern times, as they are sure to do for centuries to come. In addition to this famous work, Plutarch wrote a number of treatises on morals and other subjects. It has been seen that the closing years of the history of ancient Greece merge into those of Rome, whose grandeur overshadowed the world. In our account of that majestic empire, we shall have to refer to more than one inci- dent upon which we have already touched. REMAINS or A FRENch CASTLE IN GREECE Chapter XXV THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE N the year 330 A.D. the Roman Emperor Constantine had resolved to shift his capital from tumultuous Rome to some city where he could feel more secure against sudden rebellion or assassination. Looking over his vast domains he picked out, as having a good central situation, the old Greek colony of Byzantium, which stood at the entrance to the Black Sea on the narrow strait separating Europe from Asia. He greatly enlarged and beautified the old city, and renamed it for himself, Constantinople. Later there came a split in the Roman world, and while one emperor continued to rule over the East from Constantinople, another governed the West with his capital again at Rome. This Western empire was overthrown by the barbarian Goths, but the Eastern remained. So that, oddly enough, for nearly a thousand years after Rome was destroyed, an empire which called itself the Roman Empire of the East continued to exist at Constantinople. This state is often called the “Byzantine” or even the “Greek" empire. Byzantium had always been a Greek city, the bulk of its people remained Greek, and after a few centuries the Grecian language took the place of Latin even in the palace of the emperor. The Greeks themselves, proud of this par- tial restoration of their importance, became very loyal to this Roman ruler; but they were a different race from the valiant Greeks of old. Through centuries of peace and submission they had quite forgotten how to fight. Alaric, the Greece—Contrast of East and West 271 great Gothic leader who destroyed Rome, invaded their land in 396 A.D. and was received, not with iron, but with gold. Everywhere he collected an enor- mous tribute. He penetrated as far as Athens itself, and her citizens flocked around him like obsequious slaves, welcoming him as a conqueror and paying him a huge ransom for their lives and city. Mainly, however, the barbarian invasions passed by these Eastern lands, and the Byzantine emperors managed to keep some shadow of power, filling their armies not with their own subjects, but with small wandering tribes of the barbarians, who were quite as ready to fight on one side as another. In another story you will be told how, during all these years, Western Europe was passing through the destruction and the rebuilding of the Middle Ages, until it emerged with the new civilization of to-day. Meanwhile this Greek empire retained the old civilization, which had come down through Greece, Persia, Babylon, and Egypt. Unfortunately, all real vigor and manli- ness seemed to have died out of this ancient civilization. The Byzantines were over-refined; their art and literature ran into strange, capricious extremes; their habits were luxurious and effeminate; their manners haughty; their hearts subtle, deceptive, and treacherous. They looked on the rude and igno- rant though warlike nations of Western Europe, with intense contempt. This contempt of the East for the West changed gradually to fear. In those wild ages, the only way a man could be really secure of his property, and even of his own personal liberty, was by his bodily strength and courage. The “valor” or “value” of a man to himself and the world was measured by just what he possessed of these two qualities. This fact caused strength and cour- age to be highly prized, and this estimation has descended to the present gen- eration, when those qualities are deemed essential in the make-up of a man. The wit and diplomacy of the Byzantines proved in the end to be no match for the men who surrounded them. By the eleventh century commerce and peace had made the old Greek cities, Athens, Thebes, and Corinth, very rich and populous. Then the fierce Northmen, or Normans, who in their swift ships had pillaged most of the sea-coast of Europe, penetrated even to this furthest end of the Mediterranean. Three times in three large expeditions they ravaged the peninsula of Greece from end to end, seizing the cities almost at will, despite the feeble resistance of the terrified inhabitants. A more numerous foe from the East followed. They were the Turks, who had become the dominant race among those Mahometans of whom you heard as the conquerors of Persia. These Turks began to attack the empire from the east, and soon robbed it of most of its Asian possessions, including the Holy Land. This brought on the Crusades. The vigorous nations of Western Europe were all Christians, and they determined to own the Holy City of Jeru- 272 The Story of the Greatest Nations salem. To them it was a horrible profanation that people of another race and religion, the Mahometans, should possess the city of Christ and even bar Chris- tians from visiting it. So great armies of them invaded Asia again and again. The Greeks did not get on well with these Western allies, the “Franks,” as they called them. In addition to the natural antagonism between duplicity and openness, culture and ignorance, timidity and roughness, there arose a still more serious ground of quarrel in the religions of the two races. Both were Christians, but a technical point divided them. The Greeks regarded the Patriarch, or bishop of Constantinople, as the head of the church, while the Franks declared the Pope, or bishop of Rome, the supreme ruler. Quarrels on small points are often more bitter than on greater ones. Through constant friction and irritation, these two sects, both calling themselves followers of Christ, grew to hate each other worse than either hated the Turks. Their unfortunate enmity paralyzed the Crusades. The Turks could have made no headway against their united foes; but the quarrelling sects almost destroyed each other. In 1203 an army of Franks had gathered at Venice for one of the numerous Crusades, when chance turned their arms directly against Byzantium. The aged emperor, Isaac Angelus, had been deposed, imprisoned, and blinded by his brother. The son of the unfortunate man begged the Franks to help him rescue his father. They were only too glad of any excuse for fighting the insolent Byzantines, and assaulting Constantinople, they re- placed the blind king on his throne. He and his son were so grateful that they went to the utmost lengths to reward their champions. The emperor even ordered the Patriarch to submit himself and the whole Church of the empire to the Pope at Rome. This enraged the Byzantines as perhaps nothing else could. There were ominous murmurs through the city. One day some citizens saw the young prince with his own crown tossed aside, and a Frankish cap set in its place on his head. In a flame of passion, they rushed on the prince, and both he and his father were slain. A general uprising followed; and the Franks had to flee the city. They soon returned with their army and fleet. The city was captured a second time; much of it was burned, amid scenes of dreadful mas- Sacre; and the Franks set up an empire of their own. The land was divided among the chiefs who had conquered it, the greater part of the ancient penin- sula of Greece going to Otho de la Roche as Duke of Athens. This Duchy of Athens is famous in the romances of chivalry. For two hundred and fifty years Otho's French knights held possession of the land, never uniting with the people, but ruling them as a subject race, and gallantly. holding with the sword against all comers the land they had won. Theirs was one of the wealthiest courts in Europe, and it was certainly the gayest. Greece—Capture of Constantinople 273 Dances, tournaments, and gorgeous festivals followed one upon the other as if in story-land. Knight-errants wandered thither from all countries, assured of a welcome reception. Chaucer made the “Duke of Athens’’ the hero of one of his poems, and even our great Shakespeare chose him as the centre of a play. The Greek emperors soon won back Constantinople, though not Athens, from the Franks; but their rule was approaching its end. The Turks, whose career of conquest had been checked for a time by their wars with Asian nations, gathered again like vultures around their prey. In 1453, the warlike Sultan Mahomet II., finding himself with a most unusual peace on his hands, swore a great oath that the famous old city of Constantinople should be his capital or his tomb. Hearing this, its emperor, Constantine, made a similar oath himself, and began preparations for the defence. The one really fine story about this feeble, treacherous, old Byzantine empire is the story of Con- stantine's struggle to save it from its doom. Among all his subjects he could find scarce six hundred capable soldiers. He prayed the Christian West for help, promising all sorts of returns; but again intervened that fatal schism of the churches. The West turned coldly-away from his danger; only a few hundred Italian troops answered his call. Yet the coming even of these was enough to bring down on the unhappy emperor the curses of his own church. “Better,” thundered the bigoted Patriarch, “that we bow to the turban of the Turks, than to the hat of the Pope.” Constantine united all these jarring elements; he gathered nine thousand soldiers, and then calmly met the attack of Mahomet's two hundred thousand. Deeds of thrilling daring followed. The Turks battered down the walls with huge cannon, the largest that had ever been seen. These proved dangerous to both parties. More than one burst in firing, but the walls crumbled before them. Huge breaches were made, and the Turks carried the city in a furious assault. In the largest gap, Constantine fought heroically at the head of his men; and long after the others were swept back he was seen delivering his terrific blows in the midst of his foes. His last desperate cry as he was borne backward was, “Is there no Christian sword left to slay me?” Mahomet entered the city in triumphal procession. Many of the wretched inhabitants had refused to take part in the defence, trusting in a prophecy that at the great church of St. Sophia an angel with a flaming sword would appear and drive back the Sultan. So they huddled together at that point without resistance, and were massacred in cold blood. Forty thousand were killed, and fifty thousand sold as slaves. The body of Constantine was found, almost unrecognizable from the many wounds, lying amid a heap of his assailants. His head was cut off and exhibited to the people, not only in Constantinople 274 The Story of the Greatest Nations but throughout the Turkish empire. The Greeks, too late repenting their in- difference and cowardice, bowed before the head with secret tears. The few remaining cities throughout Greece soon succumbed to Mahomet. In only one part of the old empire did he meet resolute resistance. This was in Albania, a district corresponding roughly to Epirus of ancient Greece. An Albanian child, known as George Castriot, had been taken by the Turks and reared as a Mahometan. He became a famous military leader among them, and won the name of Scanderbeg (the great lord Alexander). Learning his origin he became again a Christian, deserted the Turks with three hundred faithful followers, and held an Albanian fortress against all the armies his for- mer friends could send against him. The Albanians rallied round him, and for twenty-five years the district became a death-trap that swallowed the bravest of the Turks. Mahomet II. himself led two armies against Scanderbeg with- out success, the first force losing thirty-five thousand men. All Europe rang with the heroic deeds of the Albanian and his little troop; he was the bulwark of Christendom against the Turks. But Europe was content to stand off and praise, and never sent him an army with which to complete his work. At last, as he lay an old man dying of fever, another Turkish force was reported approaching. He bade his men go out against it carrying his stand- ard; and at mere sight of the banner the enemy fled. The struggle collapsed with his death; the Turks seized Albania; and, digging up the bones of Scan- derbeg, they made charms of them and wore the fragments, hoping thus to inherit something of the bravery and success of the hero whom they regarded as more than mortal. The centuries that followed have been called the agony of Greece. The softening influence of Christianity, was unfelt by the Turks, whose religion taught them to slay all who refused to believe as they did. The Greeks re- mained steadfast on this one point. The bulk of them would not change their religion; and the Turks grew to hate their Christian victims with implacable intensity. More than once they meditated exterminating the entire race, even as to-day they seem bent on destroying the Christians in Armenia. They only hesitated because the Greeks were useful to them in many ways. Enormous taxes were exacted from the impoverished people; they were used as slaves at will; and, cruelest of all, every year a thousand of their fairest and sturdiest babies were picked from among them and brought up as Mahometans. The girls were placed in Turkish harems; the boys, knowing nothing of their parentage, were trained to become members of the famous band of soldiers, the Janissaries, the bulwark of the Turkish Empire. Venice, Hungary, and other Christian nations continued fighting against the Turks for centuries, and prevented the further advance of their power into Greece—Destruction of the Parthenon 275 Europe. It was in a siege of Athens by the Venetians in 1687, that the peer- less Parthenon of Pericles, which had outlived so many scenes of violence, was reduced to ruins. The Turks used it as a magazine for powder, which was exploded by a Venetian bomb, and the beautiful building, with its exquisite statues and carvings, was blown to fragments. PRINCE GEORGE OF GREECE ** ******* - º º --- - - - - s - º º º Nº º --- º º º --> - |W ºs- - - - >ſ ºr: GREER WESSELS or 1821 Chapter XXVI THE REVIVAL OF MODERN GREECE Y the beginning of the nineteenth century the Turkish --- nation had greatly decayed, or rather it had failed to }| % keep pace with Christian civilization. A hope of free- . º dom began to glimmer in the bosoms of the Greeks. s Little, helpless rebellions of despair had broken out now and then through all their period of slavery, and 35 they never wholly lost their nationality. The character * of the land itself nurtured the spirit of independence. It was impossible for an army to penetrate far into the wild and precipitous mountains which form the most of Greece, and small bands of soldiers were easily ambushed from the 3. overhanging rocks. So, when oppression roused a Greek to any º resistance which put his life in danger, he fled to the mountains ºjº and joined his fellows in the desperation of robber life. These o - brigands or “klephts,” as they were called, became the heroes of their more timid countrymen. They were sheltered as far as might be, and warned against the Turks. Wonderful tales were told of them, and ballads sung in their honor. Courage and reso- J lution revived in the hearts of the degenerate race. Selfish and wicked men of Russia, and perhaps of other nations, took ad- vantage of this fact. When Russia was at war with Turkey, in 1768, and more than once in later years, Russian agents claiming to have government authority roused the Greeks to revolt, and promised them Russian support. This aided Greece—The War of Independence 277 Fussia by dividing the Turkish armies; but the promised help never came to the betrayed and wretched Greeks, who were left to suffer the unspeakable ven- geance of their barbarous masters, while Russia made such peace as she could with advantage to herself. At last, in 1821, there came another rebellion more general than any before. This was started by a secret society, called simply the Hetairia, which means “societies.” The Hetairia were organized everywhere by the Greeks as liter- ary societies, and it was several years before the Turks suspected there was any unity or even any political purpose behind them. The system was elabo- rate; there were circles within circles; members of the outer one learned scarcely anything of the order, and only the final innermost circle of sixteen men knew fully its plans and purposes. The dream of the Hetairists was to restore the ancient freedom and glory of Greece, and their membership was not confined to Greeks; many romantic scholars throughout Europe supported the movement. They selected as their leader a Russian Greek, Prince Alex- ander Ypsilanti, and he raised the standard of revolt in the Turkish provinces along the Danube, March, 1821. The Greeks, armed and provisioned by the Hetairia, joined him rapidly. Especially noteworthy was one band of five hun- dred students, recruited partly from Greece and partly from enthusiastic young men of the best families of Europe. They called themselves the “sacred band,” and adopting the old Spartan motto, vowed to return carrying their shields in triumph, or be carried dead upon them. Ypsilanti's little army was defeated by the Turks in June at Dragaschan, he himself fled, and over four hundred of the gallant “sacred band '' were left lifeless upon the field. But the rebellion was begun, and the common people had taken it up through all Greece. The klephts of the mountains were its natural leaders, and instead of the romantic, high-minded, theoretical struggle planned by the leaders of the Hetairia, it became a bloody carnival of revenge and retaliation between the Savage Turks and the ignorant peasantry, brutalized by centuries of oppression. March 25, or according to our calendar, which differs from theirs, April 6, 1821, is the day celebrated by the Greeks as beginning their war of inde- pendence. It was on that day that Archbishop Germanos, being summoned to the Turkish Court to explain what was going on among the peasants, refused to go, and raising his holy cross at Laura, called the Greeks to join him. Already the peasantry with their secretly supplied weapons, were rising everywhere, and beginning the fearful work of vengeance. Early in March there were twenty thousand Turks residing in lordly comfort and security throughout Greece. Before June they were all dead, except a few miserable survivors who had man- aged to entrench themselves in strongholds where they were besieged. Men, 278 The Story of the Greatest Nations women, and children had been slain without pity. Old men may still be found in Greece who will point with calm satisfaction and say, “There we slew such a one, and his slaves, and his harem.” Before learning of this terrible massacre, the Sultan had instituted a similar one. Immediately on learning of Ypsilanti's rising and the suspicion of a gen- eral plot, the Sultan declared that the Greeks of Constantinople must be con- cerned in it, and he turned his soldiers loose upon them. Hundreds were slain in the streets without question and without warning. The aged Patriarch of the Greek Church and many of its leading bishops were among the victims. All Europe felt the vast difference between the frenzied outbreak of the unguided peasantry, and the authorized and deliberate barbarity of the Sultan; and Christian sympathy was naturally with the Greeks. But it was not easy for governments which had just recovered from the disorders of the French Revolution to approve revolution elsewhere. So for five years Greece was left to resist the hordes of the Sultan as best she might. It is said that over half the population perished. The land became a desert. Early in the war it became evident that the Greeks would not stand in the open against the regular charge of a Turkish army. They had neither the numbers, the individual strength, nor the training to make such a stand suc- cessful, and were too wise to sacrifice themselves uselessly. So, when the Turks charged they fled. On the other hand, place a Greek in the mountains with a gun and he would take desperate risks to get a shot at a few Turks; and if a few Greeks were caught in a corner whence there was no escape, they fought like tigers, laughing at death, and seeming only eager to slay as many of their foes as possible before succumbing. Hence this became, not a war of famous battles, but of small fights and sieges and deeds of individual heroism. The Greeks were scattered in little bands, and never united under one great leader. Such a man might have been found in the Suliote, Marco Botzarris. The Suliotes were a people of Epirus who had been in revolt against Turkey. Under promise of pardon they yielded, and the Turks then started to murder the entire race. Many escaped to Greece, and they were waiting there, hungry for blood and revenge. Under their leader Botzarris, they became the best soldiers of the war. Almost every schoolboy has read the poem about Botzarris's splendid attack, beginning, “At midnight in his guarded tent.” This able and heroic chieftain fell at the head of his “Suliote band ’’; and no other man ap- peared who seemed really qualified to be a leader of the Greeks. The klepht captain, Colocotrones, was almost the only chieftain who was prominent throughout the war. In 1822 occurred the massacre of Scio, which, for its unprovoked wanton- Greece—Massacre of Scio 279 ness and the number slain, stands unparalleled in modern annals. The people of the island of Scio, or Chios, had taken no part in the rebellion, but were liv- ing in quiet and peaceful submission. They were Greeks, however, so a Turk- ish fleet landed on their shore, a slight pretext was found, and the massacre commenced. It continued for days. Of the one hundred and twenty thou- sand inhabitants only a few hundred survived, by hiding half-starved in secret places. This atrocious deed was partly avenged by Canares, the naval hero of the war. The Greeks had no real warships; but they were always expert sailors, and now every little fishing smack, every tiny trading vessel, had a couple of cannon mounted, or a stack of small arms hidden in the hold, and took a dash- ing part in the struggle for independence. Of course they could not battle openly against the big Turkish men-of-war, but their daring seamanship made them enemies to be feared. Canares, while the Turkish fleet was returning from Scio, took four small boats. Two were made to represent fleeing Turk- ish merchants, the others pursuing Greeks. The supposed Turks were really fire-ships loaded with explosives and ready to burst into flame the moment the torch was applied. They steered straight for the Turks who stood in their riggings, cheering and encouraging the fleeing boats and making ready to drive back the pursuers. The fire-boats reached the two largest ships of the fleet, and were quickly fastened to them with numerous ropes. Then the daring Greeks lit the flames and leaped overboard into rowboats. One of the fire- ships failed to explode, but on the other was Canares himself. Seeing that his powder train had become disarranged, he remounted to the deck from his row- boat. By this time the Turks had discovered the true character of their visi- tors and were struggling desperately to cut the ships apart. Shots began to fall among the Greeks; the explosion might come at any instant; but Canares calmly rearranged his materials, relit the train, and sprang into his boat just in time to escape. The huge Turkish ship was set on fire and completely de- stroyed, with two thousand of her crew. Her commander, who had authorized the great massacre of a few weeks before, perished with her. The whole Turkish fleet, believing the remaining Greek vessels were also fire-ships, fled in dismay. Two frigates ran ashore and were wrecked in the confusion. So expert did the Greeks become with these fire-ships and other similar devices, that the Turkish naval officers were terrorized, and more than once whole fleets took to flight at sight of a few Greek boats sailing toward them. The most noted siege of the war, or rather series of sieges, occurred at Missolonghi. This little town, situated near the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf, was repeatedly besieged by both sides. Its final capture by the Turks 28o The Story of the Greatest Nations was in 1826. The populace held out for twelve months. They were reduced to starvation, living on rats' hides and seaweed. Yet they answered all com- mands to surrender, with fierce defiance. When the last fragment of food was gone, they made a desperate night attack on their besiegers. Three thousand men threw themselves against the Turkish line, hoping to cut a passage through which the women and children were to follow. The Turks had been warned and were specially prepared, yet the desperate Greeks swept their cavalry aside, cut down the infantry, and slew the artillerists at their guns. Eighteen hun- dred of them, including some two hundred women, escaped; but the main body of the women and children, bewildered in the indescribable confusion and up- roar, returned to the town. The Turks poured in after them, and a general massacre followed. It was not wholly one-sided. The wounded and decrepit Greeks who had been left behind, had grimly prepared for their foes. Death- dealing devices met them on every side. Beams fell, and shells were exploded by hand. One lame soldier shut himself with his family in the principal pow- der magazine, waited till it was crowded with howling Turks, then hurled a torch among the explosives, and went with those he most loved and most hated into eternity. The capture of Missolonghi was not achieved by the Sultan himself, for he had despaired of conquering the unyielding Greeks, and had called to his help his overgrown vassal, Mehemet Ali, the cruel and cunning khedive of Egypt, of whom you learned in Egypt's story. It was Ibraham, son of Mehemet Ali, who captured Missolonghi; and he next proceeded to capture Athens and harry Greece from end to end. He was a far more powerful and terrible foe than the Sultan, and the Greek cause sank to its lowest ebb. However, the turn of fortune's wheel was at hand for the heroic and de- spairing fighters. Europe at last was roused to action. Many noble men had espoused the Greek cause, both with sword and pen. Lord Byron, the poet, after writing magnificent poems which made all men sympathize with Greece, himself joined the fighters and died of fever, the most famous victim in the great cause. His death helped more perhaps than his life could have done. European sentiment was stirred to the quick; and the heroic defence of Missolonghi, the gallant deeds of Botzarris, Canares, and others—all these aided. The public compelled their governments to take action, and slowly and lumberingly enough the governments obeyed. They talked to the Sultan of yielding Greece some such semi-independence as Egypt enjoyed. The Sultan obstinately refused, and the hesitant governments came to a diplomatic standstill. Accident brought to the Greeks all that diplomacy refused. A number of warships of the three great allied nations, France, Russia, and England, had Greece—Battle of Navarino 28 I gathered outside the harbor of Navarino, in the southwest of the Peloponnesus. The Turkish and Egyptian fleet lay within the harbor. The English admiral in command of the allies decided that it would be wiser to have his ships inside also, so they sailed in. The Turks thought the allies were coming to attack them, or perhaps, with characteristic stupidity, they did not think at all, and were spoiling for a fight; they had twice as many cannon and four times as many vessels as the allies. At any rate, they fired on the approaching ships. The allies promptly returned the fire, and a wholly unintended naval battle fol- lowed in which the Turkish fleet was annihilated (1827). Even then the Sultan refused to yield. The French landed troops and began driving the Turks from the Peloponnesus. Mehemet Ali, with more sense than his master, saw that the game was up; he entered into negotiations; his helpless army was transported back to Egypt in the ships of the allies; and Greece was free in fact, though it took the Sultan two years longer to realize and admit it by treaty. The European “Powers,” which had thus established the independence of Greece almost against their wills, treated her as a child, and kept her long in leading-strings. Perhaps she needed it, for the Greeks had shown themselves united in only one thing—unyielding hatred of the Turks. In all else they were as quarrelsome as the famous “Kilkenny cats.” At one time during their life and death struggle, they had seven separate little private wars going on among themselves. Count Capo d'Istrias was chosen president, but was accused of injustice and assassinated in 1831. The Powers had told Greece they could not approve of republics and that she must have a king; but it was not easy to select one. Every native Greek had rivals as powerful as he. Several foreign princes were privately offered the throne, but declined the honor much as they would have declined a seat on a rumbling volcano. At last Prince Otho of Bavaria accepted, and in 1832 became king of Greece. It was a thankless position for the well-meaning youth of seventeen. The people distrusted him; they had learned to be experts at falsehood and decep- tion during their long slavery to the Turks; they were treacherously quick with their knives; and a Greek election was more dangerous and more hotly contested than the proverbial Irish one. King Otho was not a brilliant man, and he soon fell back upon the simple expedient of having nothing to do with his subjects. He called no parliaments or assemblies, and placed all the offices in the hands of Bavarian favorites who flocked around him One of the best handled rebellions on record followed in 1843. All Greece united in it. The government troops themselves surrounded the king's palace and notified him that the country meant to have a parliament and a constitu- tion. The king tried to temporize and delay, and the foreign ministers sought 282 The Story of the Greatest Nations to help him out with threats; but the people and soldiers insisted good- naturedly yet firmly. The king had no choice but to yield, and thirteen hours after it began the rebellion was over, the Bavarian ministers departed, and Greece became a constitutional kingdom. King Otho, however, was never a success; and as the Greek parliament slowly grew to manhood, it felt a stronger sense of its own power as represent- ing the people. So, in 1862, it dismissed him, and he returned to Bavaria. The crown was again offered to various princes, and finally accepted by the present king, George I., the second Son of the king of Denmark. The Greeks have had endless trouble with their old enemy Turkey. This is mainly due to the position taken by the European Powers. When they gave Greece her freedom, they allowed most of Thessaly and Epirus, and many of the islands in the AEgean Sea to remain in Turkish hands. These lands were really Greek, and their people, especially those of Thessaly and Epirus, had fought as bravely throughout the war as their more fortunate countrymen to the south of them. The undying hope, aim, and ambition of every Greek peasant or statesman, is to give these people their longed-for freedom and unite them to Greece. Every war against Turkey has found Greece eager to rush into the fray. But European policy has opposed the dismemberment of Turkey, fear- ing lest Russia become too strong. So again and again Greece has been held back with threats and promises, though her territory has been gradually in- creased by successive treaties, until to-day most of the islands and Thessaly belong to her. Epirus is still Turkish, and so is the famous old island of Crete, the probable birthplace of Greek civilization. It seems specially hard that Crete should remain under the Turkish yoke. During the war of 182 I, the Cretans overthrew their oppressors and were prac- tically free, but when peace came the “Powers” compelled them to submit again to Turkey. The condition of the people has been much improved by slow concessions wrung from the unwilling Sultan; but there have been nine different rebellions in the island during the last century. All have been put down with more or less of Turkish ferocity, at more or less expense of Chris- tian blood. The last one occurred in 1896. The Turks in Canea, the capital of the island, celebrated a religious holiday by massacring a few Christians. The Cretans, who have discovered their own strength, rose in masses, retaliated Savagely, and before troops could be marched against them, retreated to the mountains. The Turkish forces have learned to hesitate before entering among those wild cliffs and gorges. A few detachments did, however, and their fears were justified. A party of about two hundred were ambushed and slain. The “Powers ” interfered; and autonomy, that is the right to govern themselves though paying a money tribute to the Sultan, was promised to the Cretans. Greece—The Cretan Insurrection 283 This was an old pledge, often made but always evaded by the wily Turk. How- ever, a peace was patched up, and the Cretans returned to their homes. More Turkish troops were poured into the island; trouble flared up afresh, and the Cretans called on their brethren of Greece for help. In February, 1897, a Greek fleet came to the island and transported several thousand non-combatants, women, children, and aged men, into Greece for safety. The resolute Cretans who remained, joined in more than one instance by Greek soldiers, set out to sweep every Mahometan from the island. The Turks, driven from the hills and the open country, concentrated in a few strong forts and towers. The insurgents attacked the capital itself. The Sultan clamored to the Powers for protection. He was not at war with the Greeks; he was not allowed to go to war with them, yet here they were helping his subjects to rebel against him. Such an appeal to support regal authority has always strongly influenced European diplomacy. Greece was ordered to behave herself; the insurgents, again to submit; and as they hesitated, the European fleets which had been gathered about Crete, went so far as to bombard those portions of the capital which the insurgents had won, February 21, 1897. The insurgents were naturally compelled to retire from the town. Then, as Greece still refused to desert them, a “pacific blockade ’’ of the island was proclaimed, and all Greek vessels were prevented from either approaching or leaving it. This hurried Greece to the next step, open war with Turkey. From a merely mathematical standpoint such a war was madness. Turkey, though de- caying, is still a large Country and a fairly rich one; Greece is small and poor. But the Greeks are not a people who move by cold-blooded and logical calcula- tion. There was a deep, passionate public sentiment which clamored for war. Loyalty to their brethren in Crete, the still smouldering hatred against the Turk, the desire to prove worthy of their ancient name, bitter scorn at the pal- tering, fruitless policy of Europe—all these flamed out together into a resist- less cry for war. The wise and wary old King George tried to hold the nation back. He had been popular with the people before; his popularity vanished like straw in the blaze. All the troops of Greece, sixty thousand in number, gathered on the Turk- ish frontier. Twice as many Turks waited for them. There were the usual diplomatic quibbles. Europe warned both nations that the first to strike a blow would be held to strict account and punished. “We have no intention of attacking,” responded the well-trained statesmen of both sides. “We are only guarding ourselves against a threatened attack.” Theoretically the Greek government maintained this attitude throughout; 284 The Story of the Greatest Nations but every day little bands of Greeks slipped through the mountain passes of the frontier and attacked Turkish outposts. The Greek minister apologized profusely. “These are brigands,” he said, “wicked people over whom we have no authority.” “This is war,” growled the Sultan, and his troops proceeded to seize certain neutral ground between the two armies. “They are attacking us,” shouted the Greeks delightedly, and rushed to resist the assault. There was some brave fighting on the neutral ground. Twice the Greeks charged up the slopes of Mount St. Elias and recovered positions which the Turks had fortified. But the Turks had been prepared for the advance; the Greeks were far outnumbered, and eventually fell back. These were mere introductory skirmishes. It was on April 18 that the Sultan issued a formal proclamation that war existed. The din of battle was already rolling along the frontier from sea to sea. The Greeks pushed forward everywhere, under the lead of the king's eldest son, Prince Constantine, and his brother, Prince Nicholas. One division won its way far into Turkish territory, and seemed likely to outflank a portion of the enemy, when a message from headquarters reached the division, ordering it to return. This message was afterward explained as a “mistake.” If so, it was a mis- take which extinguished the only tiny chance of success the Greeks ever had. Everywhere else their forces, though fighting well, were unable to hold their own. The Turks in their turn poured through the mountain passes. There were two days of fighting (April 21, 22), mostly by artillery, known as the battle of Mati. Then came Prince Constantine's order to his weary soldiers to retreat from the frontier and rally at Larissa, a Thessalian town some twenty- five miles distant. Retreat when they had thought to surge like a tidal wave over Turkish territory ! when they had dreamed of marching amid the cheers and prayers of the liberated populations beyond the border The mercurial Greeks despaired; they were beaten from that moment. A sudden panic seized them on the gloomy backward march. It was night; some one cried out that the Turkish cavalry were coming, and without waiting to learn the truth, the men fled wildly through the darkness. Many in their blind terror threw away their arms. Instead of halting at Larissa, the Greek forces were not again rallied into anything resembling order until they were twenty miles further south, at Pharsala and the seaport town of Volo. The inhabitants of Larissa and the surrounding district of Thessaly were left with far greater cause for fear than the fleeing troops. They had thought themselves secure in the rear of their army, but they now found themselves between the two foes, left to the mercy of the “unspeakable” Turk. What Greece—The War with Turkey 285 they could carry of their household goods they took with them, the rest they left, and hurried southward in bewildered pitiable crowds, questioning every- body, helping to block the roads and add to the terrifying confusion. The Greeks began to think of peace. This was not the kind of war they had wanted. The European governments held sternly aloof. Private individ- uals in many lands had expressed and continued to express sympathy with the Greek cause, and the Greeks not unnaturally confused this with governmental sympathy. A party of “Red Cross' nurses, women who devote themselves to tending the wounded on the battlefield and in the hospital, came out from Eng- land. They were received in Athens with an extravagant delight, which seemed to see behind them every regiment and every battleship of the British Empire. Meanwhile, the Turks were advancing in leisurely fashion. Before any- thing definite came of the peace talk, they had driven the disorganized Greeks from their second line of defence, and also from a third line centred at Domoko, where the bloodiest battle of the whole war was fought. Then the patient Powers arranged a truce, and peace followed. Greece yielded a trifle of terri- tory, and agreed to pay Turkey $14,000,000, the Powers guaranteeing the pay- ment and taking control of the Greek custom duties with which to pay it. The war had lasted just thirty-one days. It is not surprising that the Greek royal family found itself in trouble. The king had opposed the war. The Crown Prince Constantine had proved himself a military bungler, if not worse. There was that first unfortunate “mistake" of recalling the successful troops; then came the order to the still resolute and unbeaten soldiers to retreat after the battle of Mati. Many Greeks soothed their national pride by crying that they had been betrayed from the beginning. An attempt to assassinate the king followed. While he was driving in the country with his daughter, two men rose from the side of the road and aimed their rifles at him. They proved poor marksmen, amateurs at the business perhaps, for the shots went wide of their mark. The king displayed consider- able personal courage; and the attack, which was intended to destroy him, restored in a measure his popularity among his people. Prince George, his second son, is, however, the only really popular member of the family. He is a sailor, has had a romantic love affair, escaped the smirching of the war, and has since done his country good service in Crete. In Crete the Powers continued their “pacific blockade ’’ and their discus- sion of autonomy for over a year. They might have been talking still, had not a Mahometan mob in the town of Candia attacked a patrolling party of British marines on September 6, 1898. Over fifty Englishmen were killed or wounded, the survivors escaping with difficulty to their boats. Then the tri- 286 The Story of the Greatest Nations umphant rioters swept the town, massacring over four hundred Christians. The Turkish governor thoughtfully kept his troops in barracks, so as not to add to the confusion, and only sent them out to restore order when the mob had fin- ished its bloody work. The four hundred dead Cretans might have been passed over, as so many thousand Turkish victims have been before; but a dozen Britons were lying among the slain. Within three months a new Order of things was arranged, and the rule of the Turk in the island, or at least his direct interference with its inhabitants, came to an end—let us hope forever. The island still pays an annual tribute to the Sultan, but it is governed by its own people through an elective parliament and a High Commissioner appointed by the Powers. This arrangement was a temporary one for three years, and Prince George of Greece was appointed High Commissioner. He landed in Crete, Decem- ber 21, 1898, and has since been very successful both in governing the island and in gaining the good will of the inhabitants, Mahometan as well as Chris- tian. The temporary arrangement came to an end with the close of 1901, but the Powers persuaded Prince George to reaccept office for a longer term. Since then Greece has been at peace, although much troubled in 1903 by the uprising across her borders, in Macedonia. The Greeks and other Chris- tians there rose in desperate rebellion against Turkey, and though the out- break was suppressed with great cruelty its flame still smolders. One thing is clear, the Greek war did not settle the Eastern question. It cannot be settled; it will not cease to be a menace and a bugbear to Europe until every Christian in the East is free from the cruelty and treachery of the barbarous Turk. As far back as I 896 the Greek government in its endeavor to fraternize with the other Christian nations, re-established upon an international basis the ancient Olympian games, which had sunk into oblivion during the ages of Gre- cian slavery. The friendly rivalry of these contests has already done much to attract to Greece the attention of the world. The recent games of 1906 resulted in a triumph for the athletes of the United States. The marvellous torch which once illumined the world has been extinguished, the sun of Hellas has gone down in gloom and darkness, but her Sons sit upon the throne whose splendor once dazzled the world, and they are not wholly degenerate. No picture in human history is more pitiful than the contrast be- tween ancient and modern Greece; yet even here we see the effort, the ctruggle, the hope, which have been inspired by Christian civilization. º º º º º CHRONOLOGY OF GREECE º: #. *ś HE early history of Greece is mythical and the dates are *śiº tºſſ either conjectural or wholly fanciful. Positive chron- %2 §§ | ology begins with the year 776 B.C. ſ º j. B.C. 2200–Conjectural date of the recently dis- % \º ſº covered ruins in Crete. 2089–Sicyon founded by º §s Kºź Ægialus, according to the historian Eusebius. 2042– - The god Uranus rules Greece; revolt of the Titans; war of the giants. 1856–Kingdom of Argos begun by Inachus. I773–Sacrifices to the gods introduced by Phor- oneus. I700–The Pelasgi hold the Peloponnesus. 1550– The Hellenes overthrow them. 1556–Cecrops founded Athens. I520–Corinth built. 1507–The Areopagus estab. lished in Athens. I497–Reign of Amphictyon and founding of the religious council in Athens. I495–Panathenaean games begun. I493–Cadmus with the Phoenician letters set- tled in Boeotia and founded Thebes. I490–Lelex, first king of Laconia, fol- lowed by Lacedæmon and his wife Sparta, who gave their names to the city. 1485–Danaus said to have brought the first ships into Greece. 1474–Lanaus usurped the kingdom of Argos. I457–Perseus built Mycene. 1453–First Olympic games at Elis. I384–Corinth rebuilt and so named. 1356–Eleu- sinian mysteries instituted by Eumolpus. Ig26–Isthmian games. 1313– The kingdom of Mycenae created out of Argos. 1266–OEdipus, king of Thebes. 1263–Argonautic expedition; the Pythian games begun by Adias- tus, king of Argos. I234—Theseus makes Athens the capital of Attica. 1225 –War of the seven Greek leaders against Thebes. II93–Beginning of the Trojan war. II84–Troy taken and destroyed. 1176–Teucer founded Sala- 288 The Story of the Greatest Nations mis. II23—Migration of AEolians who built Smyrna. IIo3—Return of the Heraclidae, who become kings of Sparta. Io98—End of the kingdom of Sicyon. Io'70–Codrus, the last king of Athens, sacrifices himself; the mon- archy abolished. IO44—The Ionians settle in Asia Minor. 935—Bacchus, king of Corinth. 884—Olympic games revived at Elis. 844–Laws of Lycurgus. 814–Macedonia founded by Caranus. 776—The first Olympiad; from this date an exact record was kept. 743–724—First Messenian war, end- ing with the capture of Ithome by Sparta, and the subjugation of the Mes- senians. 735—Sicily settled by the Greeks. 734–Syracuse founded. 720 —Sybaris settled. 710–Crotona founded. 708–Tarentum founded. 700– Corcyra founded. 685–669–Second Messenian war; the Messenians settle in Sicily. 683—Authentic history of Athens begins; Loci in Southern Italy founded. 664—The first sea fight on record between the Corinthians and the people of Corcyra. 659–Cypselus, king of Corinth. 657–Byzantium built. 630–Cyrene founded. 624—Draco appointed to draw up a code of written laws. 600–Marseilles founded. 594—Solon's laws supplant those of Draco; period of the seven sages. 560—Pisistratus makes himself master of Athens. 547—Battle of the three hundred champions of Argos and Sparta. 544– The Persians make conquests in Ionia. 535—First tragedy acted at Athens by Thespis on a wagon. 531—Pisistratus collects the poems of Homer. 527 —Pisistratus dies. 514—Assassination of Hipparchus. 5IO—Democracy at Athens; destruction of Sybaris. 504—War with Persia caused by the burning of Sardis by the Greeks. 496–Macedonia and Thrace conquered by Persia. 491—Sparta and Athens refuse homage. 490—The Persians defeated at Marathon. 480–Invasion of Greece by Xerxes; defeat at Thermopylae; destruction of Athens; battle of Salamis. 479–Mardonius defeated and slain at Plataea; the Persian fleet destroyed at Mycale. 472—Pausanias starved to death for treason. 469–Battle of Eurymedon and end of the Persian war. 464—Pericles and Cimon adorn Athens. 459—Athens tyrannizes over Greece. 444—Herodotus reads his history in Athens. 435—Corinth wages war with its colony Corcyra. 433—Athens helps Corcyra. 431–404—Peloponnesian war. 430—Plague in Athens; death of Pericles. 428–Surrender of Plataea. 413–Banishment of Alcibiades and destruction of the Athenian army at Syr- acuse. 4Io–Alcibiades defeats the Spartans at Cyzicus. 407—Alcibiades again banished. 405—Defeat of the Athenian fleet at AEgos Potami. 404— Surrender of Athens; Sparta becomes the ruling state in Greece; death of Alcibiades. 399—Socrates put to death. 378-360—Rise and fall of the Theban power. 371–Battle of Leuctra. 362–Battle of Mantinea; death of Epaminondas. 359–Philip of Macedon quarrels with Athens; orations of Demosthenes. 357—Social war. 348—Philip ends the Sacred Wars, taking | --- º 6 0 */e L- º THE FINDING OF ROMULUS AND REMUs MUCIUS DEFYING PORSENA 3038 Onn O'Nwº Nino ºvl Sn LX3 S → O 0 N1-L3 raw sa Hill w wlx w w wovono sa HL -jo H. Lºno w BHL .：：=≡_- |- Axhnsonº nlas a H. L º Nialtaosaſu Snw Sn1030 THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE SH100 a H1 WOH-. Sºnº LSBA BHL BO 1 Hºlm-， Greece—Chronology 289 all the cities of the Phocians. 338—Philip defeats the Athenians and Thebans at Chaeronea and overthrows the liberty of Greece. 336–Philip as- sassinated by Pausanius. 335–His son, Alexander, subdues the Athenians and destroys Thebes. 334—Alexander invades the Persian empire; victory of Granicus. 33.3—Battle of Issus. 332—Siege of Tyre and Gaza; capture of Egypt; founding of Alexandria. 331—Battle of Arbela. 327—Conquest of India. 323—Death of Alexander. 322—Death of Demosthenes. 30I— Battle of Ipsus settles the division of Alexander's empire among his generals. 296–Capture of Athens by Demetrius. 280—The Gallic invasion. 277— The Gauls expelled. 278–239—Antigonus Gonatus, king of the Greeks. 25I —The Achaean League revived. 200–Dissensions lead to Roman interven- tion. IQI—Sparta united with the League. I68—Macedon made a Roman province, its last king, Perseus, having been defeated at Pydna. I47—The Achaean League defeated by Rome. I46—Destruction of Corinth; Greece conquered and made a Roman province under the name of Achaia. 21— Augustus visits Greece and favors it. A.D. I22—Hadrian dwells in Athens and adorns it. 396—Invasion of Alaric. II.46–The Normans of Sicily plunder the Country. I2O4–Con- quered by the Latins and subdivided into small governments. I456—Athens and part of Greece conquered by the Turks, under Mahomet II. I.466—Athens and the Peloponnesus held by the Venetians. I540—The Turks control most of Greece. 1552–The island of Rhodes captured by the Turks. I670— Crete, or Candia, surrendered to the Turks. I7I7—All of the Peloponnesus' comes into the possession of Turkey. I770—Struggle for independence, with aid of Russia. I820–Kevolt of Ali Pasha, governor of Albania. I82I— Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia suppressed; war of independence be- gun; the Peloponnesus gained by the Greeks. I822—Independence of Greece proclaimed; Corinth besieged and captured; horrible massacre at Scio. I823 —National congress at Argos. 1824–Leath of Lord Byron at Missolonghi; provisional government of Greece set up. I825—Ibrahim Pasha Captured Navarino and Tripolitza. I826—Missolonghi captured by Ibrahim Pasha. 1827—The Egypto-Turkish fleet destroyed at Navarino by the allied fleets of England, France, and Russia, who signed the treaty of London on behalf of Greece. 1828–Count Capo d'Istria, president of Greece; Egyptians evac- uate the Peloponnesus. I829–Missolonghi surrendered to Greece; Greek National Assembly begins its sessions at Argos; the Porte acknowledges the independence of Greece by the treaty of Adrianople. I831—Count Capo d'Istria assassinated. 1832–Otho of Bavaria made king of Greece. I843– A bloodless revolution at Athens establishes a Constitution. I862—Provi- sional government at Athens deposed the king; Prince Alfred of Great Britain 29O The Story of the Greatest Nations offered the crown. I863–Prince William of Schleswig-Holstein proclaimed king as George I. I868–Rupture between Turkey and Greece in consequence of Greek armed intervention in Crete. 1869—Under pressure of the Western Powers diplomatic relations were resumed between Turkey and Greece. I878 —Insurrection in Thessaly against Turks, closed through British intervention. 1880—Berlin Conference to propose settlement of the Turkish and Greek frontiers met; order for mobilization of the army signed; national feeling war- like. 1886–Increased warlike feeling; British intervention supported by the Great Powers; foreign ironclads sent to Suda Bay, Crete; the Powers order Greece to disarm, and the king finally signs a decree for disarmament. I896—Olym- pic games reopened on the seventy-fifth anniversary of independence. I897— Greek warships sent to Crete with troops, ostensibly to protect the Christians; the Powers remonstrated, and compelled their withdrawal; Greece entreated the Powers to sanction the union of Crete with her, but the Powers proclaimed the autonomy of the island; Greek sentiment favored war with Turkey; the Powers notified both governments that the aggressor would be held responsible. Greek inregulars took the first serious step on the frontier, and the Sultan de- clared war, April 18; fighting began at once; the Greeks were continually defeated; the Powers intervened; the government accepted autonomy for Crete; treaty of peace was signed at Constantinople. I898—Indemnity loan arranged: attempt made to assassinate the king; Thessaly reoccupied by the Greeks, the Turkish troops having evacuated it; massacre of Cretans and British at Candia; Prince George of Greece made High Commissioner of Crete. 1901 —Student riots in Athens over the translation of the Gospels. 1902—Diplo- matic relations resumed between Greece and Persia. KINGS OF GREECE. 1832. Otho. | 1863. George I. PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY FOR GREECE Abydos (a-by'dos) AEschylus (és'ki-lus) Acarnania (ak'ar-nā'ni-á) - AEsculapius (és'cu-la'pi-us) Achaia (a-kāyā) AEsop (e'söp) Achelous (ak'e-lo'us) AEthra (6'thrā) Achilles (a-kil'léz) Agamemnon (āg-a-mêm'non) AEantides (é-an'ti-déz) Agesander (aj'e-san'der) AEgean (€-gé'an) Agesilaus (a-gés'i-lā'us) AEginetans (éj'i-né'tans) Alcibiades (äl-si-bi'a-déz) AEschines (és'ki-nēz) Alcides (äl-si'déz) Greece—Pronouncing Vocabulary 29 I Alcmaeonidae (älk'-mé-àn'i-dé) Alemani (al'e-ma’ni) Amphictyon (ām-fick-ti-Ön) Amphipolis (ām-fip'o-lis) Amphytryon (ām-fit'ri-on) Anacreon (a-nāk're-on) Anaxagoras (an-aks-āg'o-ras) Anchises (än-ki'séz) Andromache (ān-drom'a-ké) Antigonus (an-tig'o-nus) Antiope (an-ti'o-pé) Antipater (an-tip'a-ter) Apelles (a-pêl'léz) Aphrodite (äf-ro-di'té) Apuleius (ap-u-lé'yus) Arachne (a-rák'né) Aratus (a-rā’tus) Arbela (ar-bê'lā) Archidamus (ar'ki-dā'mus) Archon (ār'kon) Areopagus (a're-Čp'a-gus) Ares (ä'réz) Aristides (ār-is-ti'déz) Aristocrates (ar'is-tóc'ra-téz) Aristodemus (a-ris'to-dé'mus) Aristogiton (a-ris'to-ji'ton) Aristomenes (äris-têm'e-nēz) Aristophanes (ār-is-tóf'a-nēz) Aristotle (är'is-tūt-l) Artabazanes (ar'ta-bä-ză'néz) Artaphernes (ar'ta-fér'néz) Artemisia (ār-tê-misſi-á) Aryan (āryan or āri-an) Astraeus (as'tré-us) Athene (a-thé'ne) Athenodorus (a-thén'o-dò-rus) Athens (ä'thens) Athos (ä'thūs) Atropos (ätrö-pós) Atticus (āt'i-kus) Augeas (Öljé-as) Beleminatis (be-lém-i-nā'tis) Bithynia (bi-thin'i-á) Boeotian (bé-o'shi-an) Botzarris (bö-zar'i or bút'zā-ris) Brasidas (brås'í-dās) Bucephala (bu-séph'a-lā) Byzantium (bi-zán'ti-um) Calaurea (kāl'o-ré'a or ka-lo'ré-a) Calchas (kål"käs) Callimachus (kal-lim'a-kus) Callisto (căl-lis'to) Canachus (kan'a-kus) Canares (ca-nar'éz) Carneades (kar-ne'a-déz) Caryatis (ka'ry-ā'tis) Cassander (cás-san'der) Cassandra (cás-sän'drā) Cassiopea (kas'si-o-pe'ā) Ceres (sê'réz) Chaeronea (kér-o-né'ā) Charilaus (kar'i-lā'us) Chios (ki'os) Chrysomallus (kris'o-măl'lus) Cilicia (si-lis’i-á) Cimon (Simón) Circe (sir'sé) Cleobulus (kle'o-bu'lus) Cleomenes (kle-om'e-nēz) Clio (kli'o) Clitus (kli'tūs) Clotho (klö'thū) Clytemnestra (klyt'em-nestrā) Colocotrones (ko-lo-'ko-trö'néz) Colophon (köl'-o-fon) Copais (kö-pā'is) Corcyra (kor-Sirā) Corinth (korinth) Critolaus (krit'o-lā'us) Ctesiphon (tés'i-fon) 292 The Story of the Greatest Nations Cunaxa (kū-nāx'ā) Cyclades (Sik'la-déz) Cyclopean (si'klo-pê'an) Cylon (sillón) Cynoscephalae (sin'o-séf'a-lè) Cynuria (si-nu'ri-á) Cypselus (sip'sé-lus) Cyrene (si-ré'ne) Cythera (si-thé'rā) Demaratus (dem'a-rā'tus) Demeter (de-mé'ter) Demetrius (de-mé'tri-us) Demiurgi (dēm'é-urjë) Deucalion (du-kā'le-on) Diacrii (di-ā'kri) Diaeus (di-é'ús) Diogenes (di-öj'e-nēz) Diomedes (di'o-mê'dèz) Dionysius (dio-nis’i-us) Diopethes (di'o-pê'thès) Dipoenus (di-pê'nus) Dodona (do-dò'nā) Draco (drä'cö) Eleusis (e-lu'sis) Empedocles (em-pèd'o-klēz) Epaminondas (e-pam-i-nón'das) Epimenides (ep-í-mên'i-déz) Ephesus (éfe-sis) Ephialtes (éfi'-āl'téz) Ephora (éf'o-rā) Epictetus (ép-ik-té'tus) Epidaurus (ép-i-dor'us) Epirus (é-pi'rüs) Eretria (e-ré'tri-á) Erymanthus (éri-mân'thus) Etiocles (é-ti'o-klez) Euboea (yū-bê'ā) Eupatridae (yū-pât'ri-dé) Euphaes (yū-fā'éz) Euphranor (yū-frā'nor) Euripides (yū-rip'i-déz) Eurybiades (yū'ry-bi'a-déz) Eurydice (yū-rid'i-sé) Eurystheus (yū-ris'the-us) Euterpe (yū-tèr'pë) Euxine (yüks'én) Gaea (jā'ā) Gelon (jé'lón) Geomori (jé-öm'o-ri) Geryon (jé'ri-on) Graeci (gré'si) Granicus (grä-ni'kus) Gylippus (ji-lip-piis) Hageladas (hâg'é-lā'das) Harmodius (har-mö'di-ūs) Harpalus (hár'pá-lūs) Helios (heli-os) Hellenes (hēl-lè'nès) Helots (he'lóts or hēl'ots) Hephaestos (hē-fest'os) Here (hérè) Hermes (hērmēs) Hesiod (hē'si-od) Hestia (hés'ti-á) Hiero (hi'e-ro) Himera (him'é-rā) Hippocrates (hip-pôk'ra-téz) Hippolyte (hip-pêl'í-té) Idomeneus (i-dom'e-né'us) Iphigenia (if'í-jé-ni'ā) Iphitus (if'í-tūs) Isagoras (i-sāg'o-ras) Issus (is'sús) Ithome (i-tho'me) Jason (jä’son Knossus (nés'sus) Ancient form Cnosus (nd sus) Lacedaemon (läs'é-dé'mön) Lacedaemonian (läs'édé-mö'ni-ān) Lachesis (lāk'e-sis). Greece—Pronouncing Vocabulary 293 Laconia (lā-kö'ni-a) Laius (lā'yus) Laocoön (lā-öc'ö-ön) Leocorium (lé'o-co'ri-um) Leonidas (lé-ön'í-dās) Leotychides (lé'o-tîch’i-déz) Lycaonia (lic'a-o'ni-á) Lycomedes (lic'o-mê'déz). Lycurgus (li-kür'gus) Lysander (li-sān'dër) Lysicrates (li-sik'ra-téz) Lysimachus (li-sim'a-kus) Lysippus (li-Sip'pus) Maleatis (mā'le-ā'-tis) Mardonius (mār-dò'ni-us) Medea (mē-dé'ā) Medusa (mē-dû'sä) Megabazus (mēg'a-bā'zus) Megacles (mēg'a-klēz) Megalopolis (mēg'a-löp'o-lis) Melpomene (měl-pôm'e-nē) Menalcidas (me-nāl'si-das) Menander (mē-nān"dēr) Menelaus (měn'ê-lā'us) Messenia (měs-sé'ni-á) Miletus (mi-le'tūs) Miltiades (mil-ti'a-déz) Missolonghi (mis'sö-long'gé) Minos (mi'nos) Mithrydates (mith'ri-dā'tez) Mitylene (mit-i-le'né) Mnesicles (nés'-i-klez) Mycale (mic'a-lè) Mycenae (mi-sé'né) Mysia (misſi-á) Nearchus (né-ar'kūs) Nereid (ne'ré-id) Nesiotes (né'si-Ö'téz) Nicias (nic'í-as) Nicomedia (nic'o-mê'di-ā) CEdipus (éd'í-pús) Olynthus (Ö-lin'thūs) Orchomenes (or-köm'e-nes} Orpheus (Ör'fé-us) Ortygia (or-tij'i-á) Othrys (Ö'thris) Pagasaean (pāg'ā-Sé'an) Pallene (pal-lène) Pamphilus (pam'fi-liis) Parali (pār'a-li) Parmenio (pār-mé'ni-o) Patroclus (pā-trö'clüs) Pausanias (paw-să'ni-us) Peliades (pe-li'a-dèz) Pelion (pe-li'on) Pelopidas (pe-löp'i-das) Peloponnesus (pel'o-pon-né'sús) Penelope (pe-nēl'o-pé) Peneus (pe-né'ūs) Pericles (pêr'í-clés) Perioeci (pêr'i-e-si) Periphetes (per'i-fi"téz) Persephone (per-séf'o-ne) Persepolis (pêr-sép'o-lis) Perseus (pêr'zé-us) Phaea (fé'ī) Phidias (fid'i-ās) Philomelus (fil-o-mê'lús) Philopoemen (fil-o-pê'mén) Phrygia (frig'í-ā) Piraeus (pī-ré'us) Pisidia (pi-sidi-á) Pisistratus (pi-sistra-tūs) Pittheus (pitthé-us) Plataea (plå-té'a) Plistoanax (plis-to'a-nax) Pnyx (niks) Poliorcetes (po'li-or-sé'tes) Polybius (po-lib'í-us) Polycletus (pol-i-klé'tūs) 2.94. The Story of the Greatest Nations Polydorus (pol'í-dò'rūs) Polygnotus (pól-ig-no'tūs) Porus (pó'rūs) Poseidon (po-si'don) Posidippus (pó-sid'-di-pâs) Praxiteles (praks-it'e-lez) Prytanes (prit'a-nēz) Psyche (sikē) Psychro (si'kro) Pyrrhus (pirus) Pythagoras (pi-thäg'ö-rås) Pytho (pi'tho) Rhadamanthus (rad'a-man'this) Rhea (re'ā) , Rhetra (rét'rā) Salamis (säl'a-mis) Scio (si'o) Sciritis (si-ritis) Scopas (skö'pās) Scylla (sil'lā) Scythians (Sith'í-ans) Selene (se-lè'ne) Seleucus (se-lii'kus) Sicyon (Sis'í-on) Simonides (si-món'í-dèz) Sinis (sinis) Sinope (sin-Ö'pë) Solon (solón) Sophocles (sôf'o-klēz) Spercheus (sper-ké'us) Sporades (spor'a-dèz) Statira (stá-ti'rā) Stageira (sta-ji'rā) Stenelus (sten'e-lüs) Sybaris (sib'a-ris) Tartarus (tär"tā-rus) Tegea (té'jē-ă) Teleclus (tél'e-clüs) Telys (té'lis) Tempe (tém'pe) Terpsichore (térp-sik'6-ré) Thais (thá'ís) Thales (thá'lēz) Thalia (tha-li'a) Thasos (thà'sos) Theagenes (the-aj'e-nēz) Theano (the-ā'nö) Theia (the'ā) Themistocles (the-mis'to-klēz) Theocritus (the-àk'ri-tus) Theramenes (the-ram'e-nēz) Thermopylae (thèr-möp'e-lé or lä) Thrace (thrâce) Thucydides (thu-Sid'i-déz) Timoleon (ti-mo'le-on) Tissaphernes (tis'sa-fér'néz) Troezen (tré'zn) Typhoeus (ti-fô'e-us) Tyrrhenian (tir-rhé'ni-an) Tyrtaeus (tir-té'us) Ulysses (yū-lis'séz) Urania (yū-rā'ni-á) Uranus (yū'rā-nus) Xanthippus (zan-thip'pús) Xenophanes (ze-nof'a-nēz) Xenophon (zén'o-fon) Ypsilante (hip-si-lân'tee) Zacynthus (za-sin'thūs) Zethus (zé'thūs) Zeus (züs) Zeuxis (Züks'íss) Żë ~ º: ------~~~~ Romulus AND REMUS ANCIENT NATIONS-ROME Chapter XXVII THE BEGINNING OF THE CITY [Authorities : Gibbon, “History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire"; Mommsen, * History of Rome"; Goldwin Smith, “The Greatest of the Romans"; Horton, " History of the Romans"; Ihne, “History of Rome"; Pelham, “Outlines of Roman History"; Dyer, . History of the Kings of Rome"; Liddell, “History of Rome"; Smith, “Rome and Carthage”; Shuckburgh, * History of Rome to the Battle of Actium"; Merivale, “The Fall of the Roman Republic," and “History of the Romans"; Rawlinson, “Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy"; Forsyth, “Life of Cicero "; Long, “Decline of the Roman Republic”; Froude, “Caesar" : Browne, “History of Rome from A. ſ. 66"; Crevier, “History of the Roman Emperors"; Sismondi. “History of the Fall of the Roman Empire"; Bury, “History of the Later Roman Empire"; Hodgkins, Italy and her In- vaders”; Bryce, “The Holy Roman Empire”; Freeman, “The Chief Periods of Roman History '': Milman. “History of Latin Christianity”; Arnold, “History of Rome"; Creighton, "History of Rome"; Guerber, “Story of the Romans”; Taine, “History of Rome and Naples"; Duruy, “History of Rome."] *º. OME, the city of to-day, is only a shadow of its former self; * it is a city of ruins. It has two present claims to fame- as the capital of Italy, and as the centre and fountain- head of the great Roman Catholic church. But long be- fore Italy was thought of as a single country, long before lº. there was any Catholic or even Christian religion, long before Christ Himself came on earth, Rome was an im- mense city, far mightier than it is to-day, and ruling over all the known world. Many kings and many countries since history began have striven for this universal dominion, but Rome alone reached the goal. For centuries she retained the mastery over a vast region, bounded only by the burning deserts of Asia and Africa, and the icy wilder- nesses of the north. At what remote period Rome first became a great city is not - known with certainty. Her people were not scholars like the Greeks, but fighters. At first they had no historians, and kept no record of 296 The Story of the Greatest Nations their doings. Perhaps they had little cause to be proud of their origin. They became mighty before they became cultured. It was only after they had begun conquering the Greeks, that they learned from their new subjects the value of the arts. When they looked back through the centuries to record, as the Greeks had recorded, the story of their own growth, much of it had been for- gotten and was lost. The impression made on this rude though powerful people by the culture of the Greeks was so strong that it changed them in many ways. They tried to imitate what they admired. Even their religion felt the change. They aban- doned their old gods, or strove to identify them with those of the Greeks, declaring that both worshipped the same deities under different names. The chief Roman god, Jupiter, was declared to be Zeus; and his wife, Juno, was Hera; Minerva was Athene, and so on. It follows that in describing the gods and myths of Greece we have described those of Rome as well—at least as the later Romans understood them—though we shall find some few gods peculiarly Roman that have come down from those earlier and almost unknown ages. So, in telling what is popularly called the history of Rome, it is necessary to warn you that the earliest part of it is merely legendary, the invention of a later age, intended to explain with credit the circumstances in which the Romans found themselves and whose origin they had forgotten. In places we can catch a glimpse of shadowy facts behind the legends; but most of the story is as entirely imaginary as if it were being invented at this moment for your amusement. The story opens with the siege of Troy, of which you heard among the tales of the Greeks. There was one Trojan warrior, Æneas, who next to Hector was the greatest of them all. He was a son of the goddess Venus, and as he reverenced his mother and always implicitly obeyed her commands and those of the other gods, they took care of him, and saved him from the general destruction which overwhelmed the Trojans. When the horse of the Greeks was brought into the city, AEneas, by the command of Venus, departed, bearing on his shoulders his aged father Anchises, and followed by a troop of his rela- tives and friends. Some represent him as fighting valorously amid the ruins of the burning city, and remaining for a year or more to rule and protect the frag- ment of the Trojans who escaped the massacre. Sooner or later, however, he and his followers departed from Troy. They sailed to many lands and encountered many adventures. At last they reached Carthage, then a flourishing city under its foundress, Dido. The wandering hero was brought before the beautiful queen, and the two fell in love at first sight. He stayed long at the court, telling her hero tales of the great Trojan war, hunting with her, wooing her. Their marriage was daily Rome—Wanderings of Æneas 297 expected by their followers, when suddenly there came to AEneas in the night the command of his goddess mother to move onward, for not here was he to find rest. Without a word to Dido, this excellent servant of the gods rose, gathered his people, and departed on the instant, leaving the deserted queen to mourn and wonder at his flight, till finally she slew herself upon a funeral pyre built from the relics he had left behind. Thus, said the Romans, began the ancient enmity between the Carthaginians and themselves, the descendants of AEneas. It was in Italy that Æneas next paused, being assured by Venus that there his people should remain and become masters of the world. After conquering the natives of the land, he died and was rewarded for his some- what blind obedience to the gods by being carried up to their home in a cloud of fire. His son Iulus founded the city of Alba Longa—“the white, long city”—on the cliffs. Rome itself was not founded until over three hundred years later. Romulus and Remus, the reputed builders of Rome, were twin brothers, descended on their mother's side from AEneas and having for their father the stern war-god Mars. Their mother's uncle was king of Alba Longa. He had stolen the kingdom from his brother their grandfather, so, fearing the new-born infants might some day drive him from the throne, he exposed them in a basket on the flooded Tiber. The tumultuous stream carried them to a safe haven on the present site of Rome. There they were found and suckled by a she-wolf. Then a shepherd, Faustulus, discovered them and brought them up as his own sons. Eventually the mystery of their birth was solved; they did slay the usurp- ing king of Alba Longa and re-established their grandfather on his throne. He would have persuaded the young men to stay with him; but they had become leaders among the wild shepherds of the Tiber plains where they had grown up, and were determined to found a city for themselves. Ambition bred between them their first strife. Each wished to be the leader in building the new city. Neither would yield, so finally they agreed to leave the decision to an omen. The flight of great birds was considered a sign of good fortune, so each brother took his stand on the spot where he believed the city should be built, and watched for whatever sign the gods chose to send him. For a whole day and night they stood waiting, expectant and anxious. Then Remus saw with joy six great vultures, the largest of birds, fly past him. He hurried exultingly to tell his brother; but just as he arrived, Romulus discerned twelve vultures. Immediately the strife between them broke out afresh. Remus had seen first, but Romulus had seen most. Which did the gods mean to favor? Most of their friends decided in favor of Romu- 298 The Story of the Greatest Nations lus; but Remus and his adherents would not submit; so for a time it seemed likely that two cities would be built. Romulus and his larger party were the first to begin work. Choosing the summit of the steep hill beneath which he had been found as a babe, Romulus performed solemn religious ceremonies, and drove around the hill a bull and a heifer, each of purest white, and yoked to a brazen plough. The furrow thus turned up was to mark where the walls of the city were to stand; and as he ploughed Romulus recited this prayer: “Do thou, Jupiter, aid me as I found this city; and Mars, my father, and Vesta, my mother, and all other, ye deities, whom it is a religious duty to invoke, attend; let this work of mine rise under your auspices. Long may be its duration; may its sway be that of an all-ruling land; and under it may be both the rising and the setting of the days.” Jupiter's lightning flashed from the sky in sign that he had heard the prayer; and every one began work at once, digging and heaping up the earthern rampart. Remus, approaching, found them at work and laughed scornfully at their feeble walls, which were no higher than a man's breast. To show his derision and prove how little protection the wall would be, he leaped over it with a taunting word. Romulus, or according to Some, his friend Celer, flared up in anger and with his sharp spade struck Remus to the ground, where he lay dead. All recoiled in grief and horror, for the victim of a brother's anger had been their leader and their friend. Romulus, however, boasted grimly of the deed. “So perish all,” he said, “who seek to climb these walls.” Thus the defences of the infant city were cemented with a brother's blood. You will notice how all these stories flattered the Romans' self-love. They sought an origin as ancient and noble as that of the Greeks; and they found it by tracing their descent back to the Trojan prince AEneas. They were proud of their military prowess, as is repeatedly shown in the legend of Romulus. He was the son of Mars, thus making the whole race of Romans what they delighted to call themselves, “the Children of the War-god.” He was nour- ished by a wolf, and thus his race became the strong and Savage wolves of war. He slew his brother for insulting Rome; and his people placed the love of the city, or patriotism, above all ties of family. Romulus is the typical figure of what all Romans strove to be. The city which he built stood on what is now called the Palatine Hill (Mons Palatinus), a steep and rocky mound rising abruptly amid a group of others from the broad, flat plain around them. It was one of these other hills on which Remus had wished to build. In time the city covered them all, one of its famous names being the “City of the Seven Hills.” The first settlement, however, was on the Palatine. The river Tiber—“Father Tiber,” as the Romans Rome—Romulus and the Sabines 2.99 called it—ran past the foot of the mount. It was a turbulent, varying stream, shrinking to a mere creek in the summer drought, but roaring and raging in the spring-time, flooding the low valleys between the hills, and then, as it sank again, leaving its waters to stagnate in the hollows and form pestilent, fever- breeding marshes. There was not much in this stubborn rock and feverous marsh to attract strangers to the new city. So Romulus, to increase the number and power of his people, proclaimed that within its walls there should be an asylum ; and that he would protect the lives of all who fled thither from their enemies, no matter what they had done. As a consequence, criminals, rebels, escaped slaves, and all manner of desperate and hunted outlaws must have flocked to him. His city grew strong in men; but it lacked women. Naturally the peo- ple of neighboring cities had no desire to marry their daughters to those wild roisterers of Rome. This difficulty was also overcome by Romulus with his characteristic vigor and readiness. He held a great so-called religious festival near Rome, inviting thither all the inhabitants of the surrounding region. When they had gathered in large numbers, his young men rushed upon them from ambush and, seizing each such woman as caught his fancy, carried her off within the city walls for his wife. The remaining visitors, taken unawares and unprepared for attack on the strong city, retired in confusion, threatening vengeance for the unparalleled Outrage. Fortunately for Rome, they did not unite in one compact, aggressive body; and the men of each city, making war upon her separately, were beaten in detail. Last of all came the Sabines. They were the most numerous and powerful of the injured peoples, and they had waited to assemble all their forces. In them the Romans had an enemy likely to prove at least their match. They felt this, and therefore made the most careful preparations. They fortified the neighboring hill, the Capitoline, and gathered there all their herds of cattle and sheep under a strong guard, while the main body of their army withdrew within the walls on the Palatine Hill. Treachery gave the Sabines an advantage at first. A Roman maiden, Tar- peia, whose father held command on the Capitoline, was so fascinated by the golden bracelets of the Sabine warriors, that she offered to betray the fortress to them for “the ornaments on their arms.” The Sabines eagerly agreed, and thus secured possession of the Capitoline hill, from which the defenders fled. Tarpeia, however, failed to receive the reward she had expected; for the Sabines, while ready to profit by her treachery, felt that she ought to be punished for it. As she opened the way to admit them within the walls, each, as he passed, tossed his heavy shield upon her, saying, “These are the ornaments we wear upon our arms.” So she was deservedly crushed under the weight of metal. 3 Oo The Story of the Greatest Nations You will presently see why the Roman story-tellers wished to give the Sabines as well as themselves the credit of being bold, and hating treachery. The Romans sallied from their city to retake the Capitoline hill; the Sabines rushed to meet them, and the two armies encountered in deadly combat in the valley between. The less numerous followers of Romulus were being driven back up their hill, when their leader prayed to Jupiter for divine help. Instantly the temple of the old Roman god Janus, which had been closed, burst open; and from it poured a torrent of water, which swept the invaders down the hill again. A second time the resolute fighters were about to join battle in the valley, when suddenly the captured Sabine wives rushed between them. The women were happy, it seems, in their new homes; and now they begged their husbands and their relatives to become reconciled, and not, by mutual slaughter, plunge both nations into mourning. Their intervention was successful, so much so indeed that the two races, mutually respecting each other's prowess, agreed to unite in one. The Sabines stayed where they were; the two hills were joined as a single city; and both kings reigned together. Soon after, however, the Sabine chieftain died, and Romulus continued sole ruler of the united races and the growing city. He commanded the temple of Janus always to be left open in time of war, so that the god might again help his worshippers if he wished; and this god Janus was one of the few Roman gods who were never forgotten. Even when sacrifice was made to the other gods, an offering was first presented to Janus. He was the beginner of all things, the opener and guardian of all gates. Jan- uary, the first month of the year, is named for him, and from him we have our word “janitor,” a gate-keeper. He was represented as a two-faced god look- ing both ways, perhaps because gates generally open in both directions. Romulus reigned for thirty-seven years, and then in the midst of a terrific tempest he disappeared, carried up to the gods, as his ancestor AEneas had been, in a cloud of fire. His shade or spirit, anxious that there should be no doubt about this, appeared to a Roman and told him so. The vision explained also that Romulus was now to be worshipped as a god under the name of Quirinus. So Romulus became a sort of semi-human Mars, and was honored as a second god of war. * & {\s § As º y & XA º Ns WC Sº ſº 2A }) < § tºº | Vº º * º ------ - - º * - - º - - --~~ º ºº: - -- - - º º - ºº: - THE GRAvrº or the Horatii and Curiatii Chapter XXVIII THE EARLY KINGS AND THEIR OVERTHROW S. EVEN kings reigned in the early days over the City of the º Seven Hills, counting Romulus as the first. Of these rulers it is noteworthy that no one was the direct de- scendant, or what we should consider the legitimate suc- cessor, of the preceding. The earlier ones are repre- sented as having been freely chosen by the people. You remember that the death of the Sabine king left Romulus alone upon the throne of the dual city. After Romulus died it was agreed that a Sabine should be king; but to make the choice equitable, he was to be selected by the Romans. They chose Numa Pompilius, a man of peace, a sage and a philosopher. He was one of the disciples of Pythagoras, the Greek philosopher of whom you heard as teaching and ruling at this time among the Greek cities in Italy. The temple of Janus was never opened during Numa's reign, that is to say, there was no war. As a consequence, the city throve might- ily, and grew great and strong and rich. The people no longer lived wholly within the walls, on the summits of the two steep hills. Farms and villas spread over the surrounding plains. The shepherds of Romulus, half-barbaric nomads, whose herds in time of peril could all be driven within the city walls for safety, had become civilized agriculturists, with permanent homes and with crops which, as they must remain upon the ground, were not so easily protected. The pacific wisdom of Numa succeeded, therefore, to the fierce valor of Romulus. Numa's wisdom, however, was not all his own. He was a hand- 3O2 The Story of the Greatest Nations some youth, beloved for his beauty by the nymph Egeria, a goddess of the woods. Or let us say, following the obvious allegory, the beauty of this peace- ful, flower-blooming Rome charmed Nature itself, and Nature guided and pro- tected it. Numa often visited Egeria in her cavern, and brought to the city her coun- sels for his people. Once when men doubted whether this invisible Egeria really came to help him, he invited them all to a banquet and set before them the plainest food, in wooden dishes. “This,” he said, “is all I have to give you of my own.” Then, while they dined grumblingly, he suddenly cried out, “Now Egeria is come to visit me !” and at once the food before them became rich and magnificent, and the wooden dishes changed to gold and silver. After that no man questioned the friendship of the goddess. Numa was the law-giver of Rome. He aimed to break up the threefold tribal division which separated the nation into the Ramnes or people of Ro- mulus, the Titienses or people of Tatius, king of the Sabines, and the Luceres, a minor race, probably the aboriginal people of the land. To make these tribes forget their ancient antagonism, the king divided the people into guilds accord- ing to their occupation, and decreed that men should be referred to not as members of their tribe, but of their guild. Numa also established the religious customs of the land, and regulated the rights and duties of the priesthood. The pontifices or main priests were to offer sacrifices to the gods. The augurs were to read omens, and thus interpret the future and the will of the gods. The vestal virgins were to watch and keep always alight the sacred fire which burned before the altars. The religion seems at this time to have been a worship of the productive powers of Nature, fitting to an agricultural people. All their gods had more or less to do with farm life. Saturn, the chief god, was the maker of all peaceful and useful inventions. He taught men to gather their grain, mow their hay, and trim their fruit-trees. There was a great festival held at har- vest time in honor of Ceres, the goddess of harvests. Numa sought also to teach the people the worship of the goddess Fides or Faith, that is, he tried to make them honorable and faithful; and ever afterward the Romans were par- ticularly proud of possessing this quality. It was their boast that they never broke their plighted word. The one building that we are told Numa erected is his temple to Fides. After Numa's death it was the turn of the Sabines to choose a king from among the Romans. They conferred the honor on Tullus Hostilius, who proved a warlike king and also a most generous one. Instead of building him- self fine palaces, he lived as simply as any of his subjects, distributing almost all his property among the poor. Rome—The Early Kings 3O3 Under him another race descended from the Trojan AEneas was added to the many differing peoples that made up Rome. Tullus declared war against Alba Longa, the long, white cliff city, where Romulus and Remus had been born. Realizing that the fierce armies of these two kindred races would almost exterminate each other, their leaders came to an agreement by which the war was to be decided by a combat between six picked warriors, three from each side. The selected champions were typical of the fratricidal character of the war. Three brothers, the Horatii, or members of the family of Horatius, rep- resented Rome, and three brothers, the Curiatii, old friends of their antagonists —one of them about to marry a Horatian maiden—fought for the Albans. In the combat, two of the Romans were killed, while all three of the Curiatii were wounded. The remaining Horatius then displayed the craft which always mingled with the courage of the Romans. He pretended flight. The three wounded men feebly pursued, to complete their victory. They became separated and still further exhausted, whereon the shrewd Roman turned and, meeting them one by one, slew them with ease. As Horatius marched back to the city at the head of a triumphal proces- sion, he was met by his sister, the maid whose betrothed he had just slain. She was weeping; and Horatius, enraged that she thus put her own private grief above the glory he had won for Rome, slew her with the same sword that had just killed her lover. He was tried by law for his crime; but the people insisted that it should be pardoned, because it was committed for “the honor of Rome.” . The victory of Horatius bound the whole Alban nation to become subject allies of Rome; but in the first battle to which they accompanied their new masters, their assistance seemed half-hearted to the Romans. So King Tullus summoned his new allies to hear a speech by him. While they listened un- armed, his troops, taking them by surprise, surrounded them. Their leaders were slain, their city destroyed, and the survivors and their families compelled to settle upon another of the “seven hills.” Thus all the descendants of AEneas were gathered at last into one nation within the walls of Rome. Their continued success caused the Romans to become proud and over- confident; consequently they neglected the worship of the gods. For this they were punished by a dreadful plague. Many died, and King Tullus himself fell into a lingering illness. In his extremity he endeavored to penetrate the sanc- tuaries of the gods, and commune with them personally as the good Numa had done; but when he approached the temple of Jupiter, the lightnings of the god flashed forth and destroyed him. The Romans now chose a Sabine king, and, seeking to return to the happy days of Numa, they crowned his grandson, Ancus Martius. Legend has little 3O4. The Story of the Greatest Nations to say of Ancus. He sought peace, but could not win it. The enemies of Rome were too many and too determined. Perhaps the very concessions of the new king brought war, by making his foes believe him weak. The forced wars of Ancus were, however, successful, and the country of the Latins was added to Rome. Such intervals of quiet as came to the king, he devoted to building. Dykes began to bind the uncertain Tiber to its bed, and shut out its waters from the low valleys between the hills. As we come down from Ancus we begin to catch dim outlines of genuine history. The impossible golden age of brotherly love disappears. The ideal arrangement of the alternate, freely selected kings no longer exists. The sons of Ancus expected to succeed to his throne, and made trouble when they were denied. The crown went to a newcomer in the city, Lucius Tarquinius, or as we would say, Lucius of Tarquinii, the city whence he came to Rome. Tarquinii was in Etruria, the broad land to the north of Rome, of which we shall have much to tell; but the father of Tarquinius was a Greek, who came to Italy from Corinth. By what arts the stranger persuaded the Romans to make him king, we do not know. Many Greeks, with their restless, venturesome natures, their shrewd wit, and higher civilization, must have thus won exalted rank when they went among half-barbaric communities. Perhaps we have here the shadow of a successful plot or rebellion against the old kings. At all events, Tarquin was at first governor of the sons of Ancus and then king in their stead. His reign was splendid and successful. He added much of Etruria, in- cluding his native city, to the Roman domain. Rome was no longer a single city, struggling for existence against the neighboring towns; it was become the centre of a powerful kingdom, stretching far to the north and south. Most of the enormous buildings of ancient Rome which still remain are attributed to Tarquinius. In his old age, King Tarquin had two sons; but feeling that the lads were too young to succeed him, he selected from his servants a youth, Servius Tul- lius, pointed out to him by an omen from the gods. This youth, of unknown origin, Tarquin trained as his confidential assistant. Now we are told that the sons of King Ancus had all these years been hoping to regain their king- dom on the death of Tarquin. Seeing this hope fade with the rising power of Servius, they became desperate and employed assassins who slew Tarquin. Servius immediately took control of affairs. He announced that Tarquin was not killed, but only stunned, and was recovering. The wife and servants of Tarquin said the same. Servius exercised the duties of king, but with the pretence always that Tarquin bade him do so. On every important matter he left the judgment hall and went ostentatiously to consult his wounded master. Rome—Patrician and Plebeian 3 O 5 When at last the true state of things leaked out, Servius was secure upon the throne; the people readily accepted him as their ruler; and the Sons of Ancus abandoned the city in despair. With the reign of Servius a new class division comes into the story. His people are separated into the rich patricians and the poor plebeians. The quar- rels between these two orders make up much of the history of early Rome. The patricians seem to have been the first inhabitants of the city, who alone had the full rights of citizenship, and could vote at the public assemblies. The plebeians were the strangers who, never having been admitted as citizens, did not share in the divisions of the public wealth, which were the spoils of so many successful wars. The plebeians had thus small chance of growing rich. In later years they gradually acquired all the rights of citizens, so that the original distinction between the two classes disappeared. The names, how- ever, continued in use, to signify the rich and the poor. Servius was the “commons’ king.” He had himself, as we have seen, been a servant, and was probably a stranger in the city. Naturally he became the champion of the common people against the nobility. Indeed, the whole story of his coming to the throne is probably a confused recollection of some upris- ing of the lower classes against their masters. Through all his reign he kept changing the old laws, so as to bring more power and privileges to the ple- beians. He encountered determined opposition from the higher classes, espe- cially from the aristocratic priesthood, who declared the omens sent by the gods forbade these changes. Some improvements in the laws were made, however, and more were contemplated. It was even rumored that Servius in- tended to abandon his throne, and make the country a republic, in which all men should be equal. This was more than the haughty patricians could stand; they expected the king to be the chief of their own order, ruling for their good. A plot was formed among them for the murder of the king. In its details it is one of the blackest stories in history; and here at least we may be thankful for leave to doubt the reality of what we tell. Servius Tullius had two daughters, and for his greater safety he had wed- ded them to the sons of King Tarquin, whom he had supplanted. Unfortu- nately for his plans, one of his daughters, Tullia, was as wicked as she was ambitious. She wished to be queen, so she urged her husband to seize the throne, which she told him belonged by right to his family. Failing to drive him to the Crime she contemplated, and seeing that the other brother, Lucius Tarquinius, was a man of her own stamp, she slew her husband and also her sister, the wife of Lucius. Then she and Lucius Tarquinius were wedded and perfected their plot. 2 O 306 The Story of the Greatest Nations Waiting till the king was away and most of the common people far off in the fields, Tarquin suddenly entered the senate house with his followers and seated himself in the king's place. He made a speech calling Servius a “slave and the Son of a slave,” and urging the patrician Senators no longer to submit to him. Many of the senators were already in the plot, while others hesitated to speak for fear of the swords of Tarquin and his party. Meanwhile, a friend had hurried to warn Servius, who strode boldly into the council hall, confronted his antagonist, and commanded him to leave the kingly chair. Tarquin was the younger man; he seized his father-in-law, struggled with him, and hurled him down the stone steps of the building. As Servius staggered to his feet half-stunned, he was set upon and slain at the command of Tarquin. The murderer was hailed as king by the half-terrified, half-approving senate. Meanwhile Tullia, who knew the whole plot, came dashing in her chariot to the Senate house, and entering, was among the first to salute her husband as king. Fearing the impression her appearance might make on the consciences of the senators, Tarquin bade her begone. As she hurried off to spread the news of success among their friends, she came upon the body of her father lying across the narrow street. Her charioteer would have stopped, but she savagely ordered him to drive on. Thus her horses' hoofs mangled the body, and her chariot wheels splashed her father's blood upon her robe. The street was held accursed forever after. The Romans called it “wicked street.” You will see how the legends trace step by step the change from the free election of King Numa to the bloody usurpation of Tarquinius. This King Tarquin is called Superbus, or “the proud,” to distinguish him from the other Lucius Tarquinius, his father. He proved a merciless tyrant. Abolishing the liberal laws of Servius, he ruled without law, relying wholly on the terror in which the people held him. This was satisfactory enough to the patricians at first; but after a while, Tarquin's cruelty was visited not only upon the poor plebeians, but upon the patricians as well. Tarquin was determined that no man should do to him as he had done to Servius. All those who could boast of wealth, or power, or ability, were marked as his victims. Private feuds were stirred to flame by his cunning. Party was incited against party. Senator after senator was slain, and his property taken by the king. The patricians had digged a pit, and now had fallen into it. All Rome groaned under the yoke. Rebellion became only a question of time and opportunity. It was not, however, any crime of King Tarquin him- self, which led directly to his overthrow; but a wicked deed performed by his son, Sextus Tarquin. The king and the army were absent at war, and the younger captains seated in their camp began a jesting discussion as to how, during their absence, their wives might be engaged at home. A wager fol- Rome—Expulsion of Tarquin 307 lowed; and, taking their horses, Sextus Tarquin, his cousin Tarquin Collatinus, and a few others, galloped away to Rome. Bursting suddenly in upon their wives, they discovered one lolling in idleness, another engaged in riotous feast- ing; but when they came to the home of Collatinus, they found his wife Lucrece sitting in simple, matronly dignity among her maidens, spinning. So Colla- tinus won the wager, and rode back to camp among his comrades in high feather. He had no prevision of the sad result. The black heart of Sextus had become inflamed with love for Lucrece. He returned secretly to Rome and embraced her. Feeling herself dishonored by his caresses, she sent for her husband and relatives, told them what had occurred, and stabbed herself to the heart before them all. Among the relatives who stood by, was one Lucius Junius, called Brutus, which meant the dullard. He had been a youth of great brightness and prom- ise; but as he grew up he pretended to become dull and half-witted, hoping thus to save himself and his wealth from King Tarquin, who, as we have seen, maintained his own power by destroying all those who seemed likely to become his rivals. As Brutus stood by the dead body of Lucrece, he knew that his chance had come. Plucking out the bloody dagger from her poor breast, he held it up and swore that never again should a Tarquin or any other be king in Rome. Then, in a brilliant, passionate speech, he called on the husband and the others to join him in his oath. They took it as an omen from the gods, that the dullard had suddenly been inspired, and they swore as he had sworn. Going publicly forth, the party summoned the senators and the people to assemble. Brutus made a speech, and again his eloquence seemed a miracle to all men. Rome pledged itself to his support; and the rebels went boldly to the army of the king, which also espoused their cause. Tarquin the Proud was left a king without a kingdom; and he and his wicked son Sextus fled. Rome had become a republic. Having thus traced the famous and ancient legend of the beginnings of Rome, let us pause a moment to look at the truth, and learn what little is really known of the early city. The traditional date of its founding by Romulus is 753 B.C., and of the expulsion of the Tarquins, 509 B.C. Recent excavations show, however, that a city existed on the spot much earlier than 753. The Tiber seems to have formed the dividing line between two races—the Etrurians to the north, and the Latins to the south. Rome, the city on the Palatine, was probably a frontier fortress erected at a very early date by the Latins to guard against the raids of the Etrurians. This would seem to account for the warlike character of its people and also for its gradual rise to be one of the leading Latin towns, the enemy of the others, and in the end their master. Romulus and 308 The Story of the Greatest Nations Remus are clearly mere eponyms, heroes invented to account for the city's name; but Rome must have passed through some such experiences as the legends suggest. By the latter half of the sixth century B.C. it had become the centre and capital of an important kingdom, ruled probably by Etrurian kings, the Tarquins. These kings possessed a wealth and power which enabled them to erect enormous walls and buildings, whose ruins still remain. The massiveness of these suggests that the kings must have had at their disposal the unpaid labor of thousands of slaves. In no free land are such monuments built, but only under despotisms such as the story of Tarquin the Proud describes. These early structures are easily distinguished from those of later date, be- cause they are built from the coarse, gray stone found on the site of the city itself. When Rome became mistress of the world, her palaces were composed of marble and other costly stones, transported from the distant mountains. The best-preserved and most noted work of the kings is the Cloaca Maxima, or great sewer, which may still be seen where it empties into the Tiber. Its mouth is a great arch, eleven feet in height. Boats sailed through it, and it remained the main sewer of the city for over a thousand years. Recently, by digging far underground, a relic even more ancient has been brought to light. This is nothing less than a remnant of the original wall around the Palatine hill, and must date at least as far back as 750 B. c. In building it, the slopes of the hill were cut away almost perpendicularly, and great blocks of stone were then piled one upon the other, up the sides of this embankment. The top of the hill thus became an unassailable platform, tow- ering a hundred feet above the plain below. From this vantage-ground the inhabitants must have kept watch on the bands of Etrurian raiders, that crossed the Tiber and slipped away southward, to foray in the heart of the Latin land. Then messengers sped from the hill with warnings to the other cities, and the garrison marched down to attack the invaders in the rear. In the time of the first Tarquinius there were at least five of these fortifi- cations rising on five of the seven hills, while unprotected houses filled the narrow valleys between. Servius Tullius is credited with building the great wall which ran across the valleys, connecting hill with hill and making a com- plete circuit within whose bounds lay the whole of Rome. This wall, whose ruins are still fifty feet high and whose protecting ditch was a hundred feet wide and thirty deep, remained the one great defence of the city till eight hun- dred years later, when the Emperor Severus erected on a wider circuit the walls which still surround the city. Before the expulsion of the Tarquins, the centre of Roman defence had shifted from the Palatine to the Capitoline hill. This renowned height, natu- Rome—The Ancient City 309 rally steeper, higher, and more rocky than the Palatine, was made by Roman art a fortress utterly impregnable to assault. Gunpowder was unknown, and starvation was the only weapon the defenders had to fear. It is worth while to keep in mind the location of these places, because be- tween the two hills, in the valley which the Cloaca Maxima had drained, stood the Roman Forum, the broad paved square in which the public assemblies were held, and in which originated most of the famous events of which we are now to tell. - - -- - ºsº sº. *T. º º ºf - - | º º º º | JEWELRY OF ROMAN WOMEN - ----------- - L. --- º - º- --- - - -- - --- INVASION OF THE GAULS Chapter XXIX THE YOUNG REPUBLIC CONQUERS ITALY military power and empire of early Rome. They were not the men to submit tamely to humiliation, and the suddenly created republic, which Brutus and his friends found on their hands, had to face sore dangers. The people chose two Consuls, as they were called, to govern them each year. Brutus and Tarquin Col- latinus were the first of these; but the people so hated the very name of Tarquin that presently they begged Collatinus, for his name's sake, to leave their city. This he did with a long train of his followers and servants. A similar train had doubtless left with the king; and thus the city was weakened by the loss of much of its best fighting stock. Nor were those who remained united in support of the new government. Tarquin had hushed the quarrel between patrician and plebeian by trampling upon them both. Brutus and his next associate, Valerius, upheld the cause of the common people. They restored the liberal laws of Servius, and the old dispute flamed out again. Many of the young nobles began to plot the return of the Tarquins. A con- spiracy was discovered; and to his amazement and everlasting sorrow, Brutus found among the conspirators his own two sons, youths of great promise. With a firm, patriotic heroism, which has preserved his name forever, Brutus condemned his sons to death along with the other traitors, and himself saw the sentence executed upon them. Rome—Wars Against the Tarquins s 3 II Meanwhile the Tarquins had been gathering what forces they could, both from the neighboring cities which had owned their sway, and from the more or less independent nations beyond. For what followed we have no record but the Roman legends; and it must be remembered that the Romans were ever a boastful people. They themselves admit that their city was brought to the verge of ruin. All their war-won territories were lost, and they entered on a grim struggle for mere existence. During a hundred years thereafter Rome was once more a single town, battling in petty strife against its nearest neighbors. Three times the Tarquins stood with an army before the walls of the city. The first time the invaders were defeated in battle; but the hero Brutus was among the slain. The second time it was the great Etrurian king, Lars Por- sena, of Clusium, who took up the Tarquin cause. The story of Porsena is very confused, but two of Rome's most famous legends are built upon it. It was against the army of Porsena that Horatius “kept the bridge.” The foe had come so suddenly and in such overwhelming numbers against Rome, that the only way to check them was to destroy the bridge across the Tiber. Even for this there was scarcely time, so Horatius with two companions stood at the far end of the bridge and held back the whole Etrurian army. Champion after champion came against them and was slain in the “narrow way,” while the bridge was being cut down. When at last it was about to fall, the two comrades of Horatius darted back across it to safety. The hero, though wounded, remained behind to cover their retreat. The crash of the bridge left him alone with the enemy. “Alone stood brave Horatius, but constant still in mind; Thrice thirty thousand foes before, and the broad flood behind. ‘Down with him,' cried false Sextus, with a smile on his pale face. ‘Now yield ye,' cried Lars Porsena. “Now yield ye to our grace.” “Round turned he as not deigning those craven ranks to see; Naught spake he to Lars Porsena, to Sextus naught spake he ; But he saw on Palatinus the white porch of his home; And he spake to the noble river that rolls by the towers of Rome. “‘Oh, Tiber father Tiber 1 to whom the Romans pray, “A Roman's life, a Roman's arms take thou in charge this day !’ So he spake, and speaking sheathed the good sword by his side, And with his harness on his back plunged headlong in the tide.” Of course he escapes in safety; but the vast Etrurian army still threatens Rome, so another hero appears. The brave youth Mucius resolves to save his country single-handed by killing King Porsena. He boldly enters the Etrurian camp, pushes his way to the king's tent, and drives his dagger into the richly dressed lord, he finds seated within. Unluckily this is not Porsena, but only 3 I 2 The Story of the Greatest Nations his secretary. Mucius is seized and brought before the king, who threatens him with torture to make him tell all he knows. To show how little they can force him thus, Mucius plunges his hand into a burning flame, and holds it there till it is consumed to ashes. - This exhibition so impressed Porsena that he bade his guards set the young man free. Mucius thereupon declared that what they could never have won from him by cruelty, they had won by generosity; he would tell what he could. There were three hundred young men in Rome, he said, each as resolute as himself, and all banded together by an oath to slay King Porsena. He himself had failed, but he was the first to try. The other two hundred and ninety- nine were to come. Porsena, staggered by the grim prospect before him, aban- doned the siege, and hurried his army back into Etruria. So much for the legends. As a matter of fact, it seems Porsena, if he did not actually conquer Rome, at least received submission and tribute from the people. What became of the Tarquins in the arrangement is not clear. Per- haps “false Sextus” was never really with Porsena at all. The Latin cities to the south next took up the Tarquin cause. In face of this great danger, the Romans laid aside their regular government, and chose one man as Dictator. That is, he was to have absolute power for six months. The property, and even the life of every Roman was at his command, so that he might concentrate all their force against the foe. At the end of six months, and sooner if he saw fit to lay aside his power, the dictator became a private citizen again; and any man who felt himself wronged might accuse the former ruler as a criminal before the law. Spurius Lartius was the first of these dictators; but it was the second one, Aulus Postumius, who ended the Latian war. A great battle was fought at Lake Regillus. The Latins were completely defeated, Sextus and all the leading Tarquins were slain, and Rome was at last left to the government of her own people; left free to work out her high destiny as a republic. Despite the innumerable conflicts with the neighboring tribes, the gravest danger which threatened Rome was from within, and lay in the quarrels be- tween the patricians and plebeians. The latter were poor and were forced to borrow from the former, who were harsh and exacting to the last degree. If a debtor was unable to pay, his creditor could take the last farthing of his estate, lock him in prison, and sell him and all the members of his family into slavery. Still further, it was provided that the creditors might divide the body of the wretched debtor among themselves, though it is hard to see what they would gain by so doing. It is said that one of the bravest officers in the Roman army, whose praise was in every one's mouth because of his patriotic deeds, broke out of prison ！mxw lv »ovº 11 w Nºwolae taſ-al THE HOME OF SCIPIO AEMILIANUS Stadtawiſłoww Bo H. 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( /ºr/ºu-sws， yr; uºuºv*/ v tao…：) Adoº S, 83 Hilvº 83 H &=ao ĐNIAI 80 |-| __，_| . ---- |- .•ſº：----****|-ſae; -|---：。。。、、。！！！！！！！！：---- ſaeſ：=±√©|- u- > O - 2 Hº- u × -- < > u > < -- ºn- u I- Hº- SBN1aws a Hl. Bo Hlinwa^w º H1 Sasnataw snıyı Nao THE BANQUET OF CRASSU's | - - º º | º --- 310 O L wgSINOHgOS ĐNITT3S.Ndoo wss|N/Sww. Rome—Civic Tumult 3 I 3 and dashed into the Forum. Covered with rags and chains, he proclaimed his wrongs to his amazed listeners. It happened that almost at the same mo- ment the alarm sounded for the approach of the hostile Volsci. The consuls, Appius Claudius, one of the haughtiest and bravest of men, and the popular Servilius, called the people to arms. Sullen and incensed, the plebeians re- fused to enlist and defied their masters. The crisis was so threatening, that the consuls yielded for the moment and promised to right the wrongs of the sufferers, who now marched against the enemy and helped to defeat them. The Senate refused, however, to keep the promises made, and threatened to appoint Appius dictator, that he might be free to carry out his merciless dis position against the malcontents. The following year a dictatorship was pro- claimed, but the choice fell upon a milder man than Appius. The plebeians united and determined to abandon the city, withdrawing to an adjoining eleva- tion known as Mons Sacer (Sacred Mountain), some three miles from the city. They listened to persuasion, however, and returned, and the promises made were this time fulfilled by the Senate (B.C. 494). The plebeians were still the victims of many wrongs, and there could be no lasting peace or security until these were righted. They were shut out from the consulship by law, and now insisted upon the right to elect one from their own order, whose power would thus balance that of the patrician executive. An important change followed, by which two magistrates were chosen from the plebeians and known as “Tribunes of the Plebs.” They were afterward increased to ten in number, and held office for a year, during which period their persons were sacred. Moreover, they could nake ineffective any decree of the Senate which they believed was against the public good by the word Veto (I forbid it). Caius Marcius Coriolanus was among the bravest and proudest of the patri- cians, whose heroism and skill at the capture of Corioli, a city of the Volscians, gave him the title which made him illustrious—the first, indeed, ever borne by a Roman leader from the place he had conquered. He despised the favor of the people, and bore himself so haughtily toward them that despite his bravery, he was disliked and was denied the consulship. This angered him, and in resentment, when the city was suffering from famine and a present of corn came from Sicily, he urged the Senate not to distribute it among the plebeians unless they gave up their tribunes. The people were so exasperated that he would not have lived a moment could they have laid hands on him. The tribunes Summoned him before the Comitia of the Tribes. Coriolanus strode forward, defiant and insulting; his kinsmen and friends pleaded in vain for him, and he was sentenced to banishment. Shakespeare has made him exclaim : “Romans, / banish you /* 3 I 4 The Story of the Greatest Nations He went directly to the Volscians whom he had so recently beaten, and they, appreciating his ability, gave him supreme command of their armies. Decisive success marked every step he took toward Rome. Nothing could check him, and he came resistlessly onward until within five miles of the city, ravaging the lands of the plebeians, but sparing those of the patricians. By this time all was dismay and despair in Rome. Nothing remained but to appeal to the pity of the conqueror, and he seemed to possess little or noth- ing of that quality. The ten leading men of the Senate went out to him and threw themselves on his compassion, but he was as immovable as a rock. The disappointed and sorrowful delegation was followed the next day by the pontiffs, augurs, flamens, and priests who came in their robes of office, praying him to have mercy and spare the city. But he was no more moved than before, and all hope seemed to have departed. A last recourse remained. The next morning the noblest matrons in Rome walked mournfully toward the camp of the man who held their fate in his hands. At their head was Veturia, the aged mother of Coriolanus, and among them Volumnia his wife, leading his little children by the hand. They and the feeble mother entered his tent weeping. The stern warrior looked at them for a moment, and then his self-control gave way. The appeal was one against which he could not close his heart. Tears filled his eyes, and turning to his parent, he said in a broken voice: “Mother, thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son 1" Coriolanus led the Volscians homeward, and some reports represent him as living many years among them, frequently remarking as he passed down the decline of life that “none but an old man can feel how wretched it is to live in a foreign land.” The date of the incident is given as 488 B.C., but it may have been somewhat later. It came about that on one occasion, when Rome was at war with the AEquians, the latter surrounded a Roman camp on the Alban hills. The danger was so imminent that the Senate made haste to select a dictator and chose Lucius Quintius Cincinnatus (458 B.C.), who was a noble that, having tired of popular tumult, had retired to his modest farm. Here the messengers found him ploughing in the field, clad only in his tunic or working garment. Cincin- natus asked his wife to throw over him a toga or mantle, so as to show proper respect to the officers of the commonwealth. Yielding to their urging, he left his plough in the furrow and assumed the command. He chose Lucius Tarqui- tius, the second bravest of the state, as his master of the horse, and the next morning before daybreak was at the Forum levying a new army. Attacking the AEquians in the rear, he hemmed them in and compelled them to “pass under the yoke,” as token of their humiliating surrender. This yoke was formed by fixing two spears upright in the ground, with a third fastened across Rome—Legend of Cincinnatus 3 J 5 them, the contrivance resembling in form the goal used on the modern football field. The Latin for the ceremony is subjugum, from which we have the word subjugate. Cincinnatus entered Rome at the head of his army within twenty- four hours after leaving it, the troops laden with spoils in which the consuls were forbidden to share. After holding his dictatorial powers for only fourteen days, Cincinnatus laid them down and returned to his plough. The reader will not fail to notice the parallel between the course of Cincin- natus and that of our own Washington, who has been called the “Cincinnatus of the West.” The surviving officers of our Revolutionary army in 1783 formed the Society of the Cincinnati, “to perpetuate their friendship, and to raise a fund for relieving the widows and orphans of those who had fallen in the war.” Washington headed the illustrious list and was the President- General to the close of his life. The story of Cincinnatus is a beautiful one, but some of the historians reject it altogether, and it must be remembered that it is supported upon flimsy authority. It will be noted that the plebeians had gained many rights by their con- tinual agitation, but grounds of complaint remained, one of the most oppressive being that there was no regular code of laws in existence. After much debate it was finally decided (B. C. 450) that a Council of Ten, hence called Decemvirs, should be appointed to prepare a code of laws; and meanwhile, all the officers of the government should give up their places and leave the control of the state to the decemvirs. - The decemvirs appointed for the first year seemed to be actuated by a de- sire to meet the expectations of their countrymen. In the course of their term, they promulgated ten tables of laws, framed on the principles of those of Greece. In the second year, several new decemvirs came into power in place of the more moderate members, and two more tables of laws were added which proved anything but satisfactory. The atrocious crime of Appius, one of the officials, roused the people to fury. Virginia was the beautiful daughter of the brave plebeian Virginius, and was betrothed to young Icilius. In order to ob- tain her, Appius persuaded one of his friends to claim her as a slave. Her relatives proved the falsity of the claim; but the diabolical purpose of Appius prevailed, the decemvirs decreeing that the maiden was a slave. Her father thereupon took her aside from the crowd to the booths near the Forum, where with his own hand he struck her dead, as the only means of saving her from her dreadful fate. Then wild with fury, he rushed to the camp of the legions, told what he had done, and persuaded them to hurry back to Rome and occupy their stronghold on the Aventine. They were joined by large numbers of the citi- zens, and, uniting with the Sabines, defied the authority of the decemvirs, who, clearly reading the sentiment against them, resigned their power. Two of 3 I 6 The Story of the Greatest Nations their number, both most worthy men, visited the insurgents and promised them the restoration of the tribunate and the right of appeal. These measures were carried out, and the two were elected to the consulship. But retribution came to the guilty decemvirs. Virginius accused them, Appius was thrown into prison and committed suicide, while most of the others fled. It would seem that everything now ought to have been satisfactory, since the tribunes had been restored and the authority of the Comitia Tributa, or assembly of the tribes, was put on the same footing as that of the Centuries; but there were just causes for discontent among the plebeians, since the choice of the consuls, who were the chief executives, was made from the patricians. While the disputation continued, the Etruscan city of Veii, twelve miles beyond the Tiber, began looming up as a dangerous rival, and against her the Roman forces were mainly arrayed. With intermissions, the war lasted for thirty years, terminating at last in the capture of Veii by the dictator Camillus. Rome now adopted a new and forceful policy for destroying the power of an opponent. It had been the custom of the city to transplant conquered people to itself, but now, and in many cases afterward, bodies of Roman people were transferred to the foreign site and established upon the forfeited lands of the enemy. - e About this time another new feature was introduced which was that of giv- ing pay to the military legions. Hitherto every citizen had been liable to con- scription, but the hard law was softened by confining the campaigns to the spring or summer months, so that the conscript could return home to reap the fields and enjoy the fruits of harvest. This establishment of a regular army was an indispensable step to the grand scheme of conquest which afterward became so marked a feature of the Republic and Empire. To return to the wrangle among the patricians and plebeians; the former proposed (B. c. 444) that a certain number of Military Tribunes should be chosen equally from the two classes and should exercise supreme power. The number was three at first, and was afterward increased to six. Two Censors were also appointed, and as they were chosen exclusively from the patricians, the power of the latter was much increased. The censors had authority to determine the rank of every citizen and to value his taxable property. Still further, although it was decreed that the military tribunes might be chosen from either order, yet the patricians found little difficulty in securing them from among themselves. Thus matters stood until about B. c. 400, when the trouble was removed and the plebeians were freely elected. We have now reached the period (B.C. 390) when Rome received its first great check through the invasion of the Gauls, a mighty people, of whom we shall learn further in our account of France and other early nations. Under Rome—Conquest by the Gauls 3 17 the general name of Gauls may be included the vast mass of the Celtic race which occupied the west of Europe from the Rhine to the Atlantic. This restless people fought for slaves and cattle and gold rather than for territory, and at the time named were pressing upon the Etruscans south and west of the Apennines. They were under the lead of their great chieftain Brennus, which was the title rather than the name of several Gallic princes. Crossing the Apennines, Brennus advanced rapidly through the country of the Sabines, at the head of 70, OOO men, and met the Roman army on the banks of the Allia, some ten or twelve miles from the capital. In the battle which fol- lowed, the Romans were routed, and, had the barbarians promptly followed up their advantage, they could have blotted Rome from the face of the earth. In- stead of doing so, they spent hours in drunken revelry on the battlefield, which interval was employed by the Romans in fortifying the Capitol, to which were removed all the treasures and holy things of the city. The defeat of the Romans had been overwhelming, and it was not long after they had swarmed into the city, before the Gauls rushed in after them. It is said that the proud senators calmly seated themselves in the Forum in their chairs of office, and by their majestic mien overawed for a brief while the Gauls, who paused and looked wonderingly at them. Finally one of the bar- barians reached out his hand to stroke the snowy beard of the venerable Papi- rius, who with flashing eyes struck him to the ground with his ivory-headed staff. Then the Gauls fell upon the senators and ruthlessly slew them all. The city was given over to pillage and fire; the people fled. The vestal virgins bore away the sacred fire from the altar of Vesta, the goddess of the city homes. This flame was considered a symbol of the life of the city, and its extinction would have been a sign that the gods had abandoned Rome to its fate. So it was carefully preserved by its guardians, who escaped down the Tiber secretly in the night. The Capitol alone remained unconquered. The attacks of the Gauls were repulsed, and they resorted to regular siege. Starvation is a foe to which the bravest must sooner or later yield; and, unless something very unexpected intervened, the Capitol was doomed. - One dark night, Pontius Cominius passed silently down the escarpment of the Tarpeian rock, swam the Tiber, and carried to Camillus at Veii the invita- tion of the Romans to come to their rescue. Camillus, as we have learned, had conquered Veii. He had afterward exiled himself there, because of re- sentment over his treatment. He possessed the highest military ability, and was made Dictator several times after the incident we are relating. The faint footmarks left by Pontius Cominius on the face of the cliff were seen by the Gauls, and they naturally decided that the man who made them intended to return, and they could do the same. The place was so strong that the Romans 3.18 The Story of the Greatest Nations had not thought it necessary to crown the rock with a rampart, or even to place a guard there. The Gauls laboriously climbed up like so many phantoms in the gloom of the night, and would have burst into the citadel, unnoticed by man or dog, but the sacred geese in the temple of Juno discovered them, and broke out into vociferous cackling. The defenders leaped to their arms, and led by Manlius, a patrician, assailed their enemies, who were easily tumbled down from their slippery footing and the danger turned aside. This is the famous incident in which it is claimed that the Cackling of a flock of geese saved Rome. Camillus, despite his grievance against his countrymen, lost no time in going to their help. He gathered an army from the remnants of the legions of Allia and the fugitives from the city, and pressed with all speed to the relief of the Capitol. The defenders had already been pushed to such an extremity that they had asked for terms. The Gauls agreed to accept a thousand pounds of gold and retire without doing further harm. The story is that while the half ton of precious metal was being weighed, Brennus flung his sword into the opposite scale, with the insolent exclamation, “Woe to the worsted l’’ Then Camillus suddenly appeared at the head of his warriors, declared the bargain void, because it had been made without his consent, and pursuing the fleeing Gauls, routed or scattered them. This is improbable, but there is no question of the capture of Rome by the Gauls in the year named. Camillus has been called the second founder of Rome. He restrained the inhabitants from abandoning in despair the Smoking ruins and moving in a body to their recent conquest, Veii. He caused the stones of Veii to be re- moved to the site of Rome where the new city was built. But it was all askew, for the streets were narrow and crooked, and the dwelling-houses small. In- stead of building for the future, the afflicted people thought only of their pres- ent WantS. Rome was indeed compelled to pass through “the pangs of transformation,” for hardly had the city been reared, when the patricians again asserted their claims, and, though the twelve tâbles of the law had been reserved from the ruins, they demanded a revival of the fearful severities of the acts governing the debtor and creditor. The plebeians had been reduced to the greatest pov- erty and distress through the Gallic invasions, and the measures insisted upon by the patricians, if carried out, would crush them into abject slavery. It need hardly be said that the quarrel was of the most bitter nature, and it came to a crisis in B. c. 376, when two of the ablest tribunes of the people, Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextus, proposed their plan for the settlement of the troubles. To meet the unbearable political inequality, they demanded that the consuls should be restored as the chief magistrates and that one of the Rome—Democracy Established 3 I 9 two annually chosen should always be a plebeian. To abolish the grinding poverty of the plebeians, the new plan provided that the interest already paid on debts should be deducted from the principal, and the remainder of the debt should be paid in three years; that the public lands, hitherto held almost en- tirely by the rich, should be redistributed so that no person should have more than about three hundred acres, the remainder to be divided in small portions among the plebeians. The Licinian Rogations, or new plan of constitution, was fiercely fought by the patricians, but the plebeians were equally resolute, and their tribunes pre- vented the election of officers and military levies. The patricians were help. less, and, in B.C. 367, the plan as outlined became Roman law. Lucius Sextus was elected consul the following year, and all the other offices, of whatever nature, were thrown open to the plebeians, and perfect political equality was at last established in Rome. The aristocratic republic that lasted for a cen- tury and a half after the expulsion of the kings, had now become a truly demo- cratic republic or government by the people. In tracing the history of the greatest nation of ancient times, we must bear several leading facts in mind. We have learned that it began as a kingdom, which was overthrown in B.C. 509, when the Republic was born, in the very midst of enemies, as may be said who were continually clawing at its life. The crisis came in B.C. 390, with the Gallic invasion, when having overcome its external enemies, the Republic in B.C. 367 conquered its domestic foes, and Rome stood forth a young giant, strong, self-confident, and in sturdy health. Down to the middle of the fourth century B. C., the Romans were a small nation, their territory consisting of only a few townships on the Tiber, and the adult Roman citizens numbering hardly 300,000. They were environed by a number of similar petty nationalities. Rome gradually towered far above them all. The struggle for existence had been won, and she now entered upon the next great step in her remarkable history: this was the war for dominion. Nations, like individuals, in order to accomplish definite results, must have what is termed in homely language “elbow room.” Rome could never meas- ure up to the full grandeur of her mission until she conquered her neighbors and brought them under her sway. She now began the wars which opened the way for a career whose equal is not recorded in the annals of the world. These pages would become tedious, if devoted merely to the record of that warfare, which one can almost fancy was the normal condition of mankind in most of the ages since creation. The heart wearies over the endless story of sieges, battles, bloodshed, cruelty, wrong, treachery, and suffering, nor is it our purpose to dwell upon the series of wars which form so marked a part of the 32O The Story of the Greatest Nations early history of Rome. Still we must have a general knowledge of them in order to understand the events that follow. The “Latin wars” and the “Samnite wars” are the names by which the various struggles are usually distinguished. They were complicated and jum- bled with one another, and kept the Romans well occupied down to B. c. 29O. The Latin wars established the supremacy of Rome over the other Latian cities. The decisive battle of these wars took place on the slope of Mount Vesuvius. Sacrifices were made by the Roman priests before the hostile armies met, and from the entrails of the slain bullock the augurs foretold that a general would perish on one side, an army on the other. The Roman general Decius Mus thereupon determined to give himself to be the sacrifice demanded. The priests dictated to him the proper ceremonial. Having called on each god separately, and upon all together to grant him his prayer, he said, “I now on behalf of the Commonwealth of the people of Rome devote the armies of our enemy along with myself to the gods of the dead, and to the grave.” Wrapped in his toga as though already dead, he mounted his horse, dashed furiously amid the ranks of the foe, and was slain. - Their religious faith taught the Roman soldiers that their lives were now secure, and their enemies doomed. They rushed into the opening made by Decius, with an impetuosity not to be resisted. The battle became a butchery. The Latins sought safety in flight; but scarce one in four of them escaped. The Latin confederacy was broken up forever, and its people became subject to Rome. - In the Samnite wars the question at issue was whether Rome or the Sam- nites, the hardy mountaineers of the Apennines, should rule the whole Italian peninsula. The struggle was not decided in favor of Rome until 290 B.C.; and immediately after the Samnites became the allies of the Greek king Pyrrhus, who came to help the Greek colonies of Italy against the overshadowing power of “the barbarians of the Tiber.” The war with Pyrrhus began with the battle of Pandosia (280 B.C.), in which the troops of elephants employed by Pyrrhus terrified and stampeded the Romans, who did not know what they were. Pyrrhus was successful again the following year, but at such a cost that he uttered the oft-quoted exclamation, “Another such victory and I am undone !” He now left Italy for Sicily, but soon returned and renewed the contest, only to be utterly routed at Beneventum. in B.C. 274. In this last famous battle the Roman leader was the consul Curius Dentatus, of whom the story is told that once when he had defeated the Samnites, they sent an embassy seeking to bribe him with a large sum of money. The ambas- sadors found him at a meal consisting solely of boiled turnips, and Dentatus Rome–War with Pyrrhus 32 I asked them what a man who lived as they saw he preferred to do, could need of money. He thought it more glorious, he said, to conquer those who had it, and thus prove himself their superior. Pyrrhus retired to Greece, and the Greek colonies in Italy yielded to the sovereignty of Rome. By the close of the year B.C. 272 Rome was supreme master of the whole Italian peninsula, from the Tuscan Sea to the Adriatic, and from the southern boundary of Cisalpine Gaul to the Straits of Sicily. Thus she had laid, broad and sure, the foundation of her future grandeur, but before she could enter upon the next great step in her career, she must weld the newly won nations into a single unified whole. The Roman territory proper included the body of free inhabitants of the thirty-three tribes, north and south of the Tiber, together with a large number of persons in other parts of Italy who had received the rights of Roman citizenship. The real governing power was the Roman people or populus Romanus, but in addition there were the /talians and the Latins. The former belonged to the allied or dependent Italian states, and there was little or no interference with their laws, offices, and municipal arrangements. They did not have the Roman franchise, and therefore could take no part in the political affairs of the Republic. The Latins belonged to cities which had what was termed the “Latin franchise,” so called because it was conferred first upon the cities of Latium. It gave partial but not full Roman citizenship to the possessor. Rome displayed wisdom by leaving the local governments to themselves, holding her sovereignty by three distinct rights reserved to herself: That of making peace or declaring war; of receiving embassies; and of coining money. Politically she showed far greater wisdom than Greece. * | º-fu Lºžº | º#%g: 'II - º tº Fºº, - Asſº'ſ Nºſſº (ºlº Nº. Kºsºvº º º s &º: º A. º - - sº º sºlº AN EARLY Romax GALLEY - §§§ ooººooººo . o ºººoºº. % - Nº. - -E= - - --~~ - == --- Tº->= . - __- - - - Ø 2. o_lºo §§: - - jº cººrºo - --~~~~~ --~~ - QNº.2 ºv- tº: - =-T == º: - –– | º- o ;-o -: - : - - º - º - - T- - - - & *- - --- º - º - - - º - *Sºzºº º --- º 2 tº - - - - o o o o - o o - - - - - o - - - - ~ - --- - cºcºnocºcºcº cºwoº ovoo ovoo c cºſºvo Cºſs - - - - ~ ~ - - RUINS OF THE ANCIENT ROMAN AQUEDUCTS -- - o - - Chapter XXX CONQUEST BEYOND ITALY, ROME AND CARTHAGE O doubt you have often noticed on your map of Africa the collection of countries in the northern part known under |3 the general name of “The Barbary States.” From the - $7% one now called Tunis projects a peninsula into a small - & bay of the Mediterranean Sea. It was on this penin- §sº sula that Carthage, the great Phoenician city of antiq- uity, stood. Its origin is unknown, though, as we have learned, it is attributed by legend to Dido, Queen of Tyre. It was probably an offshoot of that “mother city," and was older than Rome itself. In its palmy days its population numbered about three-quarters of a million, mainly Phoenician and Libyan in descent. The territory of the Carthaginians in the middle of the fifth century B.C. extended southward to Lake Triton, east- ward to the Greek city of Cyrene, and westward to the present Bona. Carthage was a great maritime power which extended its settlements and conquests to the other coasts of the Mediter- ranean. In the sixth century B. C., the Carthaginians were masters of Sardinia and began to strive for the control of Sicily. Hanno founded colonies on the west coast of Africa beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, and Himlico visited the coasts of Spain and Gaul. Commercial enterprise gave Carthage her great- ness, for she was the common carrier of the trade of the vast population along the coasts of the mighty inland sea. Her relations with the Greeks, the Phoenicians, and the Egyptians were wholly commercial, and her treaties with Rome—Growth of Carthage 323 Rome were based on the principle of political non-interference. She estab- lished trade along the coasts of Northern Africa, of Spain, of Sardinia, and of Corsica. Through the Phocaeans of Massilia, she reached the Swarming pop- ulation of Transalpine Gaul; she worked the iron mines of Ilva, the silver mines of the Balearic Isles, and the gold mines of Spain, trading with the Britons for tin and with the Frisians and Cimbri for amber. When she found her establishments in danger, she protected them with fortresses. Abundantly supplied with money, she had no trouble in enlisting what mer- cenaries she needed, and these included Libyans and Moors from Africa, Span- iards, Gauls, Greeks, and also Italians, who were trained under her own officers and disciplined into the best of soldiers. Now here was Rome, which had brought all of Italy under subjection, and was beginning to look out over the adjoining world for more territory to Con- quer. Just across from Sicily loomed the mighty city of Carthage, energetic, enterprising, and ambitious, with a mind to encroach upon the possessions of Rome. The two were rivals, and nothing was more certain than that in the near future they would come into Titanic collision. The first false step was made by Carthage when she undertook to possess herself of the Greek colonies on the coast of Sicily. She held back for a long time, but when Pyrrhus made his attack on the Romans, the longed-for opening seemed to present itself. Upon the Carthaginians moving against Sicily, Pyrrhus came back to the island to protect the Sicilians. Meeting with no substantial success, however, he withdrew from the island. Naturally Rome watched the movements of Carthage with a jealous eye. The Greek cities were closely connected with the Greek subjects of Rome in Southern Italy, while the Carthaginians had large possessions in the island. For several centuries the Greeks had been the dominant power there, owning such flourishing cities as Messana, Syracuse, Catana, Egesta, Panormus, and Lilybaeum, each independent but all loosely bound together for mutual pro- tection. These cities were rich, but effeminate, and with no sturdy self-re- liance. Hence they called upon Pyrrhus, when threatened by the Carthaginians. They were sure to become the victims of the first strong power that attacked them. There were also Italians in Sicily. They were mainly adventurers and rob- bers, the refuse of the great armies of the peninsula; but they had seized many of the formidable places on the island and threatened to oust the more peaceful Greeks. This state of affairs brought about the clash between Rome and Car- thage, which, as I have said, was certain to come. The Mamertines were a body of Campanian mercenaries, who seized the town of Messana on the Sicilian Straits. Only a short time before, the Romans 324 The Story of the Greatest Nations had destroyed just such a band of adventurers, that had taken possession of Rhegium on the other shore. The Mamertines, finding themselves in danger of destruction by the combined Carthaginians and Syracusans, applied to the Romans for protection. They were simply brigands, but they sent envoys to Rome with the proposal to place the city under her protection. The Senate was eager to accept the offer, since it gave the pretext she was seeking for an attack upon the Carthaginians, but the case was so flagrant that that body shrank from Stultifying itself, and turned the question over to the assembly of the people, which declared in favor of the measure, nor can it be believed that the Senate was sorry to give its assent. Messana was at that time the most important city in all Sicily, as the port of passage from Calabria, and was a convenient point for the landing of Roman troops from the continent. It was ordered that a military force should be sent across the strait to the assistance of the Mamertines, who were in danger of attack at that very time by Hiero, king of Syracuse. This was in B.C. 264. The Romans found that the Carthaginian fleet had blocked the passage against their expedition, and they had no marine with which to assail the powerful ships of Carthage. The few vessels they were able to bring together from their Greek subjects in the south of Italy could do nothing; and the Carthaginian admiral scornfully sent word to the Romans that they must not seek to meddle with the sea, even to the extent of washing their hands in it, without first ob- taining his permission. While the Carthaginian leader was arranging terms of a treaty with Claudius, the Roman tribune, the latter seized him, and he agreed to surrender the citadel as the price of his release. A troop of Romans was admitted, and thus Messana passed under the dominion of Rome. The Carthaginians were so incensed with their general that they condemned him to death by torture, and united with Hiero in laying siege to Syracuse, while, under the pretence that they dared not trust the Italian mercenaries whom they had hired, they massacred them all. The vigilance of their fleet, however, failed to prevent the Romans from landing enough troops to keep possession of the town. Hiero was defeated and driven back to Syracuse, while the Carthaginians found refuge in Africa. An army of Romans remained through the following year in Sicily, and gained possession of a large number of towns. Hiero was so alarmed by the success of the Romans that he hastened to send back his prisoners, and to propose the payment of tribute and the forma- tion of an alliance. - Thus it was that the first Punic War (Punica from Paezzi, the Latin form of Phaemicians) began in B.C. 264. The submission of King Hiero brought peace to his corner of the island; for the Romans let him alone and prosecuted their operations in other directions against Carthage. The important city of Agri- Rome—Building of the Navy 32.5 gentum on the southern coast was besieged by them for a long time, during which they were obliged to depend for their supplies on the loyalty of the ruler of Syracuse, who never once failed them. One of the most remarkable features of this first Punic War was the amaz- ing development of the Roman navy. At the beginning, they had no fleet at all, but one day a storm flung a Carthaginian quinquereme, as it was termed, on the beach of Latium; and it was seized upon as a model. Workmen began plying their axes in the forests; timbers were sawn and hewn into shape; and two months after the discovery of the wreck, Rome had launched a hundred galleys and crews were trained in their management. Now this was wonderful work, but you need not be reminded that the art of navigation and of naval tactics, even as crudely understood in those days, could not be acquired in the short period taken to build the boats. We know that the Carthaginians were masters of the ancient art, and would eagerly welcome a battle with their enemies on the sea. The Roman levies, therefore, were taught not to try to outsail or outmanoeuvre the Carthaginians, but to await their attack coolly, and, when they were near enough, to drop frames of timber from their own decks to those of their foes, and use them as drawbridges in boarding. This was not fighting according to regular tactics, but it worked to perfection. The as- tounded Carthaginians were utterly bewildered and routed, and lost thousands of men and half their fleet, the rest fleeing in headlong panic to Sardinia. This great sea-fight of Mylae was fought in B. C. 260. It was the first naval triumph of the Romans and of the highest importance, since it gave them a confidence on the water that was fully warranted by their subsequent exploits. In the first Punic War, however, they suffered about as many defeats as their enemies. The campaigns in Sicily were made up also of successes and defeats. The Carthaginians were driven from those parts of the island lying nearest the con- tinent, but they retained strong positions on the western side, where they could readily keep open their communications with Africa. The brilliant success at Mylae led the Romans to put forth such prodigious efforts in the building of ships, that the expedition which sailed from the shores of Italy in B.C. 256 is said to have numbered 330 vessels, carrying IOO,OOO sailors and 40, OOO legionaries. Off the headland of Ecnomus, not distant from Agrigentum, it met a fleet still larger, which it defeated with severe loss. The remainder of the Carthaginian ships sailed back to their own shores, whither they were followed by the victorious armaments of Rome, who were emboldened to attack the enemy in his own country. Regulus was the name of the general who thus “carried the war into Africa.” His advance was cautious. Africa was a ferra incognita to the Romans, and they dreaded its fabled monsters more than they did the Carthaginians. Had 326 The Story of the Greatest Nations the Roman discipline been less stern, the soldiers would have refused to set foot in the country, but, a beginning being once made, they pressed on with steady success. The army under Regulus captured so many prisoners and ac- cumulated such an immense mass of plunder that the Senate, upon the general's assurance that he had shut up the Carthaginians within their city, recalled one- half of his force. Full of confidence because of his repeated successes, Regulus next captured Tunis, where an immense number of the enemy were slain. But now the Car- thaginians resorted to the wise recourse of calling in the aid of Xanthippus, a Spartan general of courage and genius. He brought the Romans to battle at disadvantage and not only worsted them, but took Regulus himself and a large number of his men prisoners (B.C. 255). Xanthippus was splendidly rewarded, and he returned home. The story of Regulus from this time forward is a favorite one with the Roman poets and historians, who tell how, after being held a prisoner for five years, he was sent to Rome by the Carthaginians to solicit peace, because of their numerous reverses. He was on parole and went in the company of the Punic envoys, on the pledge that if he failed to obtain the terms proposed, he was to return and suffer the penalty of death. It is said that at first Regulus refused to enter the capital because he was no longer a Roman citizen; but his scruples being overcome he appeared before the Senate, and, when questioned, declined to give his opinion of the proposals he brought. But he was commanded to do so, whereupon he earnestly prayed his countrymen not to agree to the terms submitted by Carthage. His eloquence won them over, and then, with characteristic Roman integrity, he refused to break his parole, even declining to see his family, and returned to Carthage, where, as he anticipated, he was put to death. The method used is said to have been that of placing him in a barrel filled with nails projecting inward, and rolling him about until he died. The best authorities believe this horrible story was an invention of the Romans to excuse their own atrocities to Carthaginian prison- ers, though it is hardly to be doubted that Regulus actually suffered death for his patriotic fortitude. The final victory of the Romans at the AEgates Islands made them masters of the situation, and led the Carthaginians to seek peace in B.C. 24.I. By the terms which closed the first Punic War, the Carthaginians were required to evacuate Sicily and the adjacent islands, to pay a large indemnity, and to recog- nize the independence of Hiero, king of Syracuse. The war had lasted twenty- four years, and, according to Polybius the historian, cost Carthage five hundred and Rome seven hundred galleys; but Rome had gained an immense prestige and had taken the first step that was to win for her the proud title of Mistress of the World. Rome–Conquest of the Islands 327 It should be noted that that part of Sicily which was wrested from the Car- thaginians was now organized into a province, this being the commencement of the new system which Rome adopted, of the institution of provincial govern- ment in her possessions outside of Italy. An immense advantage was held by Rome over Carthage from the first: this lay in the difference of their system or policy toward their conquered subjects. The Romans associated them in their own enterprises on equal terms, not only paying for their services, but sharing the booty obtained, and allowing them to retain their own laws, customs, and national identity. The system, in brief, was similar in the main to that which has made England the greatest colonizing Power of modern times. But while those who fought beside the Romans were her allies, the soldiers of the Car- thaginians were simply servants who risked their lives for wages. As a con- sequence, Carthage soon became involved in a desperate struggle with her own mercenary forces, who were not put down till after several years of bloody warfare. A specially shrewd law was made by the Romans regarding Sicily. The citizens were given permission to sell all the land they chose, but never to one another; it must always be to Roman purchasers. The Romans thus came gradually and peacefully into possession of most of the island. Ere long, Sar- dinia and Corsica were also subdued, though considerable fighting was neces- sary. The islands were formed into another province, administered by a Roman officer under the name of praetor. Thus the system of provincial gov- ernment was fairly established. Having won prestige on the sea, Rome was now ready to extend her do- minions across the water in almost any direction. Her coasts on the Adriatic were harried by the piratical hordes on the opposite shore of Illyria. It was a hard task to root out these marauders, and, in doing so, Rome could not avoid colliding with more than one established power on the continent, but her gen- erals acted with prudence and wisdom. Western Greece, as well as Italy, was pestered by the buccaneers of the Adriatic, and the Greeks were glad indeed to see the vigor of the young Republic turned against them. Greece in her grati- tude hailed Rome as her ally, and invited her to take part in the Hellenic festival of the Isthmian games. The equally grateful Athenians presented to the Romans the franchise of their city, and offered them admission to the Eleusinian mysteries, the sacred rites with which the annual festival of Ceres was celebrated at Eleusis. The eyes of the Romans were next turned northward with the thought of carrying their dominion to the Alps. The Gauls still occupied the entire valley of the Po and the ridges of the northern Apennines. We have learned of their desolating campaign southward, when they captured and burned Rome. They 328 The Story of the Greatest Nations were as fierce and wild as ever, though too wise to molest again the growing power they had once harassed. They were quite willing to leave the Romans alone, so long as they were left alone themselves, which was precisely what the Romans did not intend to allow. Had not the Gauls been wrangling with one another, it is more than likely they would have struck Rome when she needed all her energies to combat the Carthaginians; but they were dangerous neighbors, and Rome concluded that the best way to avert an attack from them was by making the first assault. The preparations were thorough, the legions being sent to the front and an im- mense reserve formed. Every city was ordered to place itself in a state of de- fence, and to lay up a stock of supplies, while the clever agents of Rome won over a number of auxiliaries to threaten the Cisalpine territory in the event of the Gauls leaving it. The Gauls saw what was coming, and decided to advance from their own country and invade that of their enemies; but, for the reason named, were compelled at the outset to leave a large force at home. This prevented sending an army into Roman territory strong enough to defeat that which it was cer- tain to encounter; for it must be remembered that Rome at that time had within her dominions 350,000 men capable of bearing arms. The Gaulish army pushed itself between two Roman armies on the right and left, passed through the Apennines, and moved down into the valley of the Arno. It was soon attacked by a Roman force, which was routed and would have been destroyed but for the arrival of the second army, before which the Gauls, laden with plunder, retreated. They eluded the pursuit of the two armies, and had reached a point near the mouth of the Arno, when unexpect- edly they were assailed by a third Roman force, which had landed at Pisa on its return from Sardinia. They made a brave defence, but were overwhelmed. The tide of Gaulish invasion having been rolled back, the war was trans- ferred to Gaul, where it raged for three years. The chief interest of this struggle lies in the character and exploits of several of the Roman leaders. The idol of the people was C. Flaminius, because of his opposition to the ruling aristocracy of the city, and his unselfish friendship for the poorer classes, whose favor gave him the command of one of the consular armies. He showed his natural strength of mind by his contempt for many of the superstitions which were universal among his countrymen. The Senate, jealous of his successes, sent him letters ordering him to refrain from a battle, on account of the omens which were declared unfavorable. Flaminius refused to open the letters till after he had won a victory, when he read them with ceremony to his soldiers, naïvely remarking that it was then too late to obey the orders. His campaign was crowned with successive triumphs, and when he went home, laden with Rome—The Military Roads 329 spoils, he demanded his right of a triumphal reception. The piqued Senate denied him the well-earned honor, and then the Assembly, headed by the tribunes, voted him full honors. The enduring fame of Flaminius, however, rests upon his construction of the Flaminian Way, the great road of northern Italy, which gave free com- munication with the recently conquered Gaulish provinces. It was built by Flaminius during his censorship (B.C. 22O). Beginning at Rome, it followed the course of the Tiber till it reached Narni, where it turned off in a north- easterly direction and came to the foot of the Apennines at Forum Flaminii; then crossing the central ridge of the Apennines, it again took a northerly direction to the Adriatic, whence it followed the coast to Rimini, where its name ceased, but the Via AEmilia was a continuation of it. The whole length of the road proper was about 220 miles, and remains of it are still to be seen. The Appian Way antedated this great work, for it was built in part at least by Appius Claudius Caecas, when he was Censor in B.C. 3 I 3. It is the oldest and most famous of all the Roman roads; it led from the Porta Campana at Rome in a southerly direction to Capua, and subsequently it was extended to Brun- dusium. It had a fine foundation, from which all the loose soil had been re- moved, and above this were various strata cemented with lime; and lastly came the pavement, composed of large hexagonal blocks of stone consisting mainly of basaltic lava, and jointed together with great exactness, SO as to appear One Smooth mass. Remains of the Appian Way are still visible, especially at Terracina. The building of the military roads consolidated the conquest of the Cisal- pine. Colonies were planted at Placentia and Cremona, after which the Romans entered the peninsula of Istria and thus gained access to the regions beyond the Adriatic. M. Claudius Marcellus was another hero of this epoch, and served as consul in the year B. c. 222. He belonged to an eminent plebeian family, and in his decisive victory over the Insubrians in Cisalpine Gaul, he slew with his own hand their king, whose spoils he dedicated to Jupiter, and was honored with a triumph. This was the third and last time in Roman history on which the spolia opima, or prize of prizes, was offered to the gods, and it was the highest distinction that a Roman could attain. We shall have something more to tell concerning this great man. The Carthaginians had been too deeply wronged by the Romans ever to forgive them, and from the day the first Punic War ended they began studying how best they could be revenged. One of the foremost advocates of war was the powerful Barcine family, whose head, Hamilcar Barca, had performed brilliant service in the first war. His bitterest enemy at home was Hanno, the leader of the aristocratic faction. Thwarted by him, Hamilcar turned his at- 33O The Story of the Greatest Nations tention to Spain as being the best vantage-ground for operations against the Romans. His idea was correct, for Spain was rich in gold mines, and her sparse population were rugged mountaineers, who made the best kind of soldiers. A well-known anecdote illustrates Hamilcar's deadly enmity toward Rome. When he crossed into Spain in B.C. 235, he took with him his son Hannibal, only nine years old. He made the lad swear with his hand upon the altar that he would ever be the foe of the Romans, and well he kept the vow. Hamilcar met with a number of notable successes, and then fell in battle, whereon the people compelled the appointment of his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, to complete his undertakings. Hasdrubal was more of a statesman than a soldier, and was doing much to bring an end to the domestic feuds of the Spaniards, and persuade them to accept the rule of Carthage, when the Romans, under a threat of renewing the war against Carthage, compelled him to sign a compact by which the advance of his countrymen should stop at the Ebro. Hasdrubal was assassinated in B.C. 22 I, by a Gaulish slave, whose master he had slain, and the command of the Carthaginian army devolved upon young Hannibal, now twenty-six years old, and one of the greatest military geniuses that ever lived. Knowing something of his skill, young as he was, the Romans saw that a new danger threatened them. They were on the point of beginning their final Operations against Illyria, when the people of Saguntum, the last in- dependent Spanish city within the line of the Ebro, appealed to them for pro- tection against the attacks of Hannibal. The Romans sent ambassadors to the latter, reminding him of the treaty made with his father, and warning him that under no circumstances must he attack an ally of Rome. But this warning fell upon deaf ears, and while the Romans were advancing into Illyria, Hannibal marched against Saguntum. * The siege of this city was attended by one of the most remarkable occur- rences in historical annals. Hannibal, as we have learned, ranks among the greatest of all military geniuses, and he laid siege to the place in B.C. 218, at the head of an army of I 50,000 men; but the months passed and he was unable to compel its surrender. Nearly a year went by before the Saguntines were re- duced to the last extremity of starvation. Everything that could answer for food was gone, and famine stalked in the streets. In this woful extremity, the inhabitants brought all their treasures to the Square and heaped them in a great pile, around which the gaunt women and children were gathered. Then the men went forth in their last despairing, desperate attempt to beat back the enemy. They failed and were cut down to the last one, whereupon the women set fire to the huge pile, and, casting themselves and their children into the flames, also perished. It was this awful tragedy that brought about the Second Punic War. SCIP10 VICTORIOUS AT NEW CARTHAGE Chapter XXXI THE FALL OF CARTHAGE ANNIBAL had shown his contempt for Rome, which he hated with unquenchable fierceness, and Rome could ill abide the insult. She sent envoys to Car- thage to complain of the act of her daring general. The Carthaginians temporized, but in the end ac- cepted the situation and braced themselves against the shock of the consequences. There was no hesitation on the part of Hannibal. jº Before Rome could recall her legions from other quarters, he º º -- crossed the Ebro with an army of 90,000 foot and 12,000 §§ * horse, accompanied by about two-score elephants. The time º was the early summer of B.C. 218, and the march of Soo miles *: led through hostile tribes, whom it was necessary to cow into º: subjection, and thus compel them to furnish contributions to § the invaders. When he reached the foot of the Pyrenees, Hannibal left a force of Io, Ooo under the command of his brother Hasdrubal (this name was a common one among the Carthaginians, and it will be recalled that it was also borne by a brother-in-law of Hannibal). A number of Spanish auxiliaries were also dismissed, so that when Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees near the Mediterranean coast he was at the head of only 50,000 foot and 9, ooo horse. He was on the direct road through France to Italy, when the alarming news reached Rome that, instead of waiting to be at- tacked outside of their territory, Hannibal was heading straight for it. Previous to this, the Romans had collected their usual consular armies, one 3.32 The Story of the Greatest Nations of which, under P. Cornelius Scipio, was to act in Spain against Hannibal, while the other, under Sempronius, was equipped in Sicily for operations in Africa. The unexpected movements of Hannibal compelled a change in the plan of the campaign. Scipio had not yet embarked for Spain, and was ordered to sail for the coast of Gaul at Massalia, a loyal ally of the Republic, and there stop Hannibal's advance. When he reached the point, he learned that Hannibal had crossed the Rhone the day before. The plan of this military genius was to avoid battle with his adversaries until after his entrance into Italian territory, where he hoped to set an uprising on foot that would add heavily to his strength as well as his prestige. It is difficult at this distance of time to comprehend everything done by Hannibal, but the results he accomplished leave no doubt of his consummate ability as a military leader. Scipio did not attempt to follow him into the Alps, but took the lower and much easier route into Italy, so as to meet him when he entered the valley of the Po. It was late in autumn (B.C. 218), and the Alpine passes were encumbered with snow, the paths hidden, and scant food and shelter were to be found in the mountains. The passage of the Alps under these circumstances was one of the most memorable exploits of which we have record. The route taken is believed to have been that known as the passage of the Little St. Bernard, which had been often used by travellers and bodies of men, but never before at so late a season in the year, nor in the face of an enemy. It was a tremen- dous task, and, when at last the army issued from the terrible wastes and poured into the sunny valleys of the Cisalpine, thirty of the elephants and 30, Ooo of the soldiers were left behind frozen like so many blocks of ice. The Carthaginian army was reduced to 20,000 men and 6,000 horse. Perhaps worse than all was the refusal of the expected allies to rally to Hannibal's standard. A few auxiliaries were gained by playing the hostile chiefs against one another, but their force was insignificant. The Romans were waiting on the banks of the Po, and the shrewd Gauls held off until sure of being on the winning side. The Romans were fully roused to their danger. Sempronius was recalled from his expedition against Carthage; but the larger part of Scipio's army was kept in Spain, with a view, no doubt, of cutting off the supplies of Hannibal. The Carthaginians, now ready for battle, advanced almost to Ticinus, on the left bank of the Po, where they encountered the van of the Roman army which meant to oppose them. It may be said that Hannibal had risked all upon the single cast of the die, for such was the meaning of the impending struggle. He could never recover from a defeat at this stage of his daring enterprise, while a victory would add Rome—Hannibal in Italy 333 immensely to his strength. The affair was no more than a skirmish, but the advantage was with the Carthaginians, and the retreat of Scipio behind the Po gave to the invaders all the advantages of a great triumph. They were imme- diately joined by 2,000 Gauls from the Roman camp; and more recruits poured in daily, all eager to strike a blow against the hated Romans. Since Scipio had destroyed the bridge behind him, Hannibal was forced to find a suitable ford over the Po, and two days after the battle he drew up in front of the main army of the Romans. There were probably 40,000 men on each side. Scipio was wounded, and the command was with Sempronius, who was eager to distinguish himself. The combat was a fair match of ability be- tween the respective commanders, and Hannibal won, driving his enemies before him in headlong confusion into the new colony of Placentia. Scipio withdrew to Ariminum on the upper coast, while Sempronius crossed the Ap- ennines into Etruria, the Cisalpine country thus falling wholly into the hands of the invaders. Early in the following year, Hannibal passed through the Apennines to the valley of the lower Arno, where the dampness of the soil caused much suffer- ing among the men, and the commander himself lost an eye from overwork and illness. The Romans still kept a large force in Spain, but two armies were placed under the command of the consuls, one remaining within its quarters at Ariminum, the other at Arretium, and each afraid to venture out to meet the invader. These consuls were Cn. Servilius, popular with the Senate, but of no special military ability, and the other C. Flaminius, of whom we have already learned considerable, and who was greatly liked by the people, but not by the nobles. Hannibal used all his art to draw these leaders into an engagement, but they were too wary, so he boldly left his strongholds behind and plunged into the heart of Italy, where his soldiers were sure of securing the richest booty. He carried on the war with fiendish ferocity, sparing nothing except as a mat- ter of policy, and he seemed never to forget his oath to refuse all quarter to a Roman. These outrages at last roused Flaminius to follow and attack Hannibal. He came up with the marauders at Lake Trasimenus, where Hannibal gave another proof of his wonderful military genius. He completely outmanoeuvred Flaminius, cut the main army to pieces, killed the Consul, and as usual mas- sacred his captives without mercy. The news of the disaster awoke Rome to its peril. The best consul had been slain and his army destroyed, while the other was trembling behind the walls of Ariminum, two hundred miles away, his army dispirited, and the victor between him and Rome. In the crisis, the Senate appointed Q. Fabius Maxi- 334 The Story of the Greatest Nations mus to be Dictator. An army of four legions (from about 4,000 to 6,000 men each) was quickly raised, and Fabius started in quest of Hannibal wherever he might be found. º Many expected Hannibal to lay siege to Rome, but he was too wise to at- tempt a task which could not possibly meet with success. Those whom he had counted upon as allies were backward, the city was strongly fortified, and the legions of Servilius might at any time rally and attack him in the rear. Al- though he had defeated the Romans three times, his plight was almost as bad as theirs. His efforts to stir up strife among the Greek population of Southern Italy failed, for, despite their grievances against Rome, the Greeks looked with horror upon the Carthaginians, while they felt that there was a certain tie be- tween themselves and the Romans. In other words, it was another illustration of the truth that blood is thicker than water. Fabius saw the fatal miscalculation of Hannibal, and used it to the best ad- vantage. The plan he followed was to rob the country around the hostile camp of supplies, to harass his enemy in every possible way, but to avoid a decisive engagement. This method of conducting warfare has ever since been known as “Fabian tactics,” and is rarely popular among the unfortunate people whose leaders find themselves under the necessity of employing it. Certainly the system was odious to the Romans, who were compelled to stand idle while the invaders ravaged their homes and property. Fabius firmly restrained them, however, till Hannibal was revelling in the very garden of Campania, the valley of the Vulturnus, when the Romans began closing upon him and the brave Carthaginian seemed to have been entangled in a trap. When escape looked absolutely impossible—as it would have been with any other leader—Hannibal resorted to his famous stratagem of driving the cattle among the hills at night with flaring torches tied to their horns, thus distracting the attention of the enemy and opening the way for the escape of his army. The success of this ingenious trick exhausted the patience of the Romans with the dilatory tactics of Fabius, who was replaced by two consuls, Paulus AEmilius, who was inclined to the policy of Fabius, and Terentius Varro, who represented the headlong impatience of the people. The two were placed at the head of an army of 80,000 men and 6,000 horse, each alternating daily with the other in the command. With the chiefs holding diametrically oppo- site views and continually exchanging places, it is impossible to conceive of a more absurd and inevitably fatal arrangement. - Hannibal was followed to the field of Cannae, on the borders of Apulia, where he had chosen his own position, which could not have been more favor- able. On the day of the battle (B. c. 216), Varro was in command. Although the Roman army was double in numbers to the Carthaginian, yet the cavalry of Rome—Hannibal Threatens the City 33.5 the latter were the superior, and the broad plain gave admirable scope for their operations. In the midst of the fighting, a strong detachment of Hannibal's Numidian horse galloped to the enemy, as if to join them, and were welcomed as recruits; but the movement was a trick of Hannibal, who had sent them for- ward to attack the Romans in the rear, and at the right moment they did so. Blindly confident, Varro attempted to surround the enemy, and soon awoke to the astounding fact that his own army was surrounded. The defeat of the Romans was of the most crushing nature, and the loss due to the furious energy of the cavalry was appalling. The Roman historians admit it was 45,000, while Polybius gave the total at 70,000. Among the slain were the consul AEmilius, twenty-one tribunes, eighty senators, and knights beyond estimate. The defeat of Cannae seemed to sound the death-knell of Rome, for nothing like it had ever occurred. But the battle-field was two hundred miles from the city, and the route led through mountains and across rivers and among an unfriendly population, while Rome was as strongly fortified as ever. Hannibal knew the tragedy of Brennus could not be repeated, and he gave his principal efforts for the time to stirring up discontent among the Greeks, the Campanians, and the different people in Southern Italy, waiting meanwhile for reinforcements from Carthage, which he was confident would soon reach him. Finding their capital in no immediate danger, the Romans devoted them- selves with their usual energy to the raising of new legions, and when these were equipped they were placed under the command of Varro, the man who had suffered the disgraceful rout at Cannae, the explanation of his appointment being that he was the favorite of the Senate. No movements of importance took place in Italy during the remainder of the year, but the tremendous contest between Rome and Carthage was carried on elsewhere. Scipio in Spain attained many notable successes. He drove the Carthaginians across the Ebro and recaptured the fortresses that had been taken from the Saguntines. In B.C. 212, however, he was defeated and slain by Hasdrubal, the brother whom Hannibal had left in Spain. In this victory the Carthaginians were mainly successful because of the fiery valor of Masinissa, who led their cavalry. Masinissa was the young king of Numidia in Africa; he was in love with Sophonisba, daughter of Hasdrubal, and had therefore a Special stimulus to gratify his chief. But his hopes were disappointed. Polit- ical expediency led Hasdrubal to give his daughter to another African king, Syphax, the neighbor and foe of the young lover. Thereupon Masinissa, with all his splendid cavalry, went over to the Romans. The whole situation in Spain changed. The greatest of all the Scipios, he who later was to conquer Hannibal, was sent out to retrieve the fortunes of his 336 The Story of the Greatest Nations family and his country. His military genius, combined with the headlong valor of Masinissa, proved more than a match for Hasdrubal. . The first operations of Scipio were against the powerful Spanish city of New Carthage. This he captured after a long siege. The inhabitants were treated with a clemency that made them loyal friends to Rome. The prisoners were sent to their homes without ransom. One beautiful maiden, we are told, had been assigned to Scipio as his special share of the spoils. Observing her Sad, he inquired the reason and learned she was betrothed to a young native chief. Sending for the lover, he restored the maiden to him with all honor, and himself supervised the wedding. Throughout Spain the people could not but compare Scipio's constant generosity with the harshness of the Cartha- ginians. It was this even more than his military genius that won the land for him. He conquered the hearts of the people. Rome was also fortunate in Sicily, where she had striven so many times be- fore. The venerable King Hiero of Syracuse remained faithful to the Romans, though his son Gero attempted without success to draw the city to the side of Carthage. When Hiero died, however, Syracuse swung over to the Cartha- ginians, who, counting upon, the severe blow it would prove to the Romans, diverted to Sardinia the supplies which Mago was about to send to his brother Hannibal. This led the Sardinians to revolt against Rome, and Philip, or Philippus, a degenerate king of Macedonia, promised to send a large army to help Hannibal. Both plans failed. The force which reached Sardinia was de- stroyed by the praetor Manlius, and Philip was so sluggish that the Romans landed an army ahead of him which defeated his movements. Marcellus had become consul for the third time, and was given the work of reducing Syracuse, which labor brings forward a man in whom every one is interested. This was Archimedes, who was born in Syracuse, B. C. 287, and was said to have been a relation of King Hiero, though he devoted his whole attention to science. No mathematician of ancient times equalled him, and he was the only one who contributed anything satisfactory to the theory of mechanics and hydrostatics. Hiero had employed a goldsmith to make him a crown of pure gold, but suspecting that it contained alloy, he asked Archimedes to ascertain whether such was the fact. The problem perplexed the mathematician for a time, but one day, while in his bath, the solution flashed upon him. He was so overjoyed that, without waiting to don his clothing, he rushed homeward shouting, “Eureka! Eureka! (“I have found it! / /ave found it / "). He had recognized the fact that the level of water in a vessel rises when a solid body is immersed in it, and that the liquid mounts in exact proportion to the volume or size of the solid introduced. The weight of the crown had been right; the thieves were clever enough to see to that. But they had substituted 1906 NOW 8 DEFENCE OF THE CIMBRIAN WOMEN AT VERCELLAE º º E - E. CLEOPATRA BROUGHT BEFORE CAESAR tawow olwr Aww St. H. SıHolae vinnns~ _º ſae · ± =№！ ſ！§§§§|- ---- ſ. - - - 2 º H. 2 o u > O O u - o H. > u al- > O a- u o - ~ ºrd - O H. < - u º u -- Hº- 18 noo Saevaelva osno uv aewStavo |- … -- |- （ ）ſ \，\！ ~ |- }）~ GENERALS OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC º º - ". º | | T º Tº º v Naev Nw wou a HL. NI LH-01--nºnna v ſºº | |-， |（ Rome—Death of Archimedes 337 for some of the gold cheaper and lighter metals; and they had been obliged to use more of these, to get the proper weight. So the volume of the crown was too great, and when Archimedes plunged it into the water the liquid rose too high ; thus the cheat was proven. Among the many inventions credited to Archimedes are the endless screw and the water-screw, in the latter of which the water is made to ascend by its own gravity. During the siege of Syracuse, he exerted his wonderful ingenu- ity in its defence; but while Polybius, Livy, and Plutarch speak with amaze- ment of the machines he employed, they fail to mention the common story that he set fire to the enemy's ships by means of mirrors. When the city fell, tradi- tion says Archimedes was sitting so deep in thought over a number of geomet- rical figures before him, that he knew nothing of the assault. The Roman general had given special orders to save the valuable life of the philosopher. A soldier, bursting in on him, demanded if he was Archimedes; but the sage only called out to the intruder to be careful not to destroy the figures he had drawn, and the warrior cut him down. In accordance with the wishes of Archi- medes, a cylinder inclosing a sphere was engraved upon his tombstone, in com- memnoration of his discovery of the relation between these solids—the discov- ery being one upon which he placed great value. Let us now return to the operations of Hannibal. He had been driven from the plains of Cannae by the tactics of Fabius, but his success enabled him to select Capua as his headquarters. There he and his soldiers surrendered them- selves to the charms of a balmy climate and luxurious living, while awaiting the arrival of his brother Mago from Africa or Hasdrubal from Spain; but neither came, and the people around him, instead of flocking to his aid, showed a hostile disposition. He therefore roused himself and set out to reduce the strong places in his neighborhood. He suffered numerous repulses and was deserted by a large body of Spanish foot and Numidian horse, but even with his reduced forces he accomplished wonders. In the same year (B. c. 212) that Syracuse fell into the hands of the Romans, he captured Tarentum, and, pushing north- ward, advanced so near to Rome that he was in plain sight from the walls. Half of the Romans who were besieging Capua hastened to the defence of the city, and Hannibal dared not make an attack. It may be doubted whether he had any thought of assaulting the city from the first. He fell back, and Capua was soon after taken by the besieging Romans, who showed the inhabitants no mercy, because they had been conquered before, treated generously, and then, when the chance offered, went over to the side of the invader. Seventy of its senators were executed ; three hundred of its foremost citizens thrown into chains, and the remainder sold into slavery. The tide had turned, and other Roman successes followed the fall of Capua 22 338 The Story of the Greatest Nations (B.C. 2 II). A treaty assured the AEtolians against the attacks of Philip of Macedonia, and Rome secured a base for aggressions on the eastern shore of the Adriatic. The following year Laevinus, who had become consul, captured Agrigentum, the last Carthaginian stronghold in Sicily, and Scipio had reduced Spain. Terms of friendship were renewed with Ptolemy the Egyptian, and in B.C. 209 the Romans captured Tarentum, which was so abominated that 30,000 of the inhabitants were sold into slavery. The situation of Hannibal was steadily growing worse, and his brother Hasdrubal decided to abandon Spain and go to his relief. The march was long, and had to be a circuitous one to escape the Roman forces that were on the watch to head him off. He entered Italy at the head of a large and powerful army. Driving the Roman generals before him, he crossed the great plain of the Cisalpine and moved along the line of the upper coast, in the attempt to make a junction with Hannibal in the south. To C. Claudius Nero, the consul chosen by the patricians, was assigned the task of holding Hannibal in check in Brutium, while M. Livius, the representative consul of the plebeians, was ordered to check the advance of Hasdrubal, with his new invaders. He was unable to do this, and they pressed steadily on till they arrived in front of the camp of Livius before the walls of Sena. Hannibal as yet knew nothing of the arrival of his brother, who now sent horsemen to him with the news, but they fell into the hands of Nero, and the letters they bore explained all the plans to the Roman general, who hitherto had been as ignorant of them as Hannibal himself. It will be understood that the news was of the highest importance, and Nero acted promptly. After a feint to deceive Hannibal, he hurriedly advanced northward with a portion of his army, and, as soon as he joined Livius, urged him to make immediate attack. Hasdrubal had been quick to note the arrival of the reinforcements and had fallen back, but was surprised by a flank attack of Nero, totally routed, and killed (B.C. 207). Wheeling about, Nero moved swiftly toward Hannibal. The latter still had no knowledge of the arrival of his brother from Spain. Hardly had Nero appeared, when a soldier flung the head of a man into the Carthaginian lines. When it was picked up and exam- ined, it was recognized as that of Hasdrubal. * It was the beginning of the end. Hannibal must have seen that sooner or later he would be obliged to withdraw from Italy; but he held his ground at the extremity of the peninsula for a long time, and it is not impossible that he might have stayed indefinitely, had not the Romans made a radical change in their policy. It was decided by the Senate, in B.C. 205, in answer to the ur- gent insistence of Publius Scipio, who had made himself master of Spain, that an army should be sent against Carthage, while Hannibal was still in Italy. º Rome—Scipio Defeats Hannibal 339 This would be “carrying the war into Africa,” of which we often hear in these days. Scipio was highly educated, refined, possessed of consummate military ge- nius, and so popular, not only with his own countrymen, but with others, that it was said of him that wherever he set foot he could have established himself as king. The Senate did not consent to his plan of invading Africa until he threatened to appeal to the people, who would not have been denied. Scipio landed in Africa in B.C. 204, and laid siege to Utica, but was unsuccessful and suffered the loss of his fleet. - With the story of this campaign is interwoven one of the most pathetic ro- mances in history. You will recall Masinissa, the young African king, who had joined Scipio in Spain to revenge the giving of his beloved Sophonisba to his rival, Syphax. Syphax was still an ally of the Carthaginians; Masinissa therefore clung to the Romans, and united his forces once more with those of Scipio. Their combined armies overthrew those of Syphax and the Cartha- ginians. Masinissa was given charge of the pursuit, and followed Syphax re- lentlessly for fifteen days, overtook him, completely overthrew him in a second bloody battle, and seized his royal city. In the palace of the captured city, met the conqueror and the queen. There old love flamed up anew. Syphax was by this time a prisoner doomed to a Roman dungeon, so Masinissa wedded the queen. Their happiness, however, was of short duration; Sophonisba was of the race of Hannibal, Rome's ablest and most inveterate foes, and Rome claimed her as a prisoner. Masinissa pleaded all his services, but the envoys were inflexible. The daughter of Hasdrubal must march captive in a Roman triumph, and then languish in a Roman dungeon. Masinissa knew there was but one way of escape, and himself gave to his bride the cup of poison which she calmly drank, and died. After the defeat of Syphax, the Carthaginian Senate, alive to its peril, re- called Hannibal from Italy, and he sailed from Crotona in the autumn of B.C. 2O3, under the protection of an armistice. He did not land at Carthage, but at Leptis, and many months passed before a battle took place. This was fought on the plain of Zama in the autumn of B.C. 202, and was of the most decisive character. Scipio and Hannibal were pitted against each other, but the soldiers under the Roman were immensely the superior of the Carthaginians, who were totally routed and Hannibal himself was put to flight. Scipio—known there- after as Scipio Africanus—on his return to Rome was honored with the most magnificent triumph ever seen in the capital. Scipio proved his real greatness by his moderation and generosity. Car- thage lay at the feet of the conqueror, and the chiefs of the legions vehemently insisted that it should be utterly destroyed, but Scipio refused to permit this. 34 O The Story of the Greatest Nations & nor would he demand the delivery of Hannibal himself. Carthage was allowed to retain her laws at home and to continue to rule her countries in Africa; yet she was compelled to pay dearly for her defeat. She had to surrender all her ships except ten, all her munitions of war, and agree to make no war even in Africa, without the consent of Rome. These terms, if hard, were exceedingly mild, compared with many others imposed in similar cases, and as nothing to the bitter cup which Carthage was yet destined to drink to the dregs. Hannibal execrated Rome as bitterly as ever, and he began plans for another and far better prepared campaign in Italy. He brought about a number of constitutional reforms in Carthage, but he had jealous enemies, and they accused him to the Romans of stirring up Antiochus III. of Syria to revolt. When the Roman ambassadors came to Carthage, Hannibal fled to the court of Antiochus at Ephesus. At the conclusion of the war which followed, one of the condi- tions of peace was the requirement by Rome of the surrender of the illustrious Carthaginian ; but, expecting such a demand, Hannibal had fled to Prusias, king of Bithynia, for whom he gained a naval victory over the king of Pergamum. Finally, he was peremptorily demanded by the Romans. Expecting this also, Hannibal was always prepared with a bottle of poison, which he now drank, and thus closed his extraordinary career. There is a story that when Hannibal was spending his exile in Syria and Bithynia, Scipio had to go into exile also for a time; and the two made their home in Ephesus, where they spent many hours together in friendly conversa- tion. Naturally the principal subject of these talks were the campaigns in which they had confronted each other, and in which Scipio had finally proved the victor. One day as they sat thus together, the Roman asked Hannibal whom he thought to be the greatest general. “Alexander,” was the prompt reply; “because with a small body of men he defeated immense armies and overran a great part of the world.” “Whom do you rank next?” “Pyrrhus, for he first taught the method of forming a camp to the best advantage.” “And whom do you place next to those 2 ” asked Scipio. “Myself,” replied Hannibal. Scipio smiled and mildly inquired, “Where, then, would you have placed yourself if you had conquered me 2" “Above Alexander,” was the bold answer of the Carthaginian; “above Pyrrhus and above all other generals.” - Rome steadily advanced her dominion. While the second Punic War was going on, King Philippus, of Macedon, as related in our history of Greece, made a treaty with Hannibal, which embroiled him with Rome. She sent an army Rome—Destruction of Carthage 34 I against Philip, and in the hostilities that followed some of the Greek states sided with Rome and some with Macedon. It has been shown that in the battle of Cynocephalae, fought in Thessaly, in B.C. 197, the power of Macedon was broken and Philip was forced to become a dependent ally of Rome. In B.c. I68 the Macedonians were utterly crushed at Pydna, and in B. c. 146 Corinth was taken and burned. All resistance to the triumphant Romans ceased, and Greece became the Roman province of Achaia. The third Punic War began in B.C. I.49 and was waged in brutal wantonness by Rome. Carthage had become her dependent ally, though left free in its internal government; but there was a party in Rome bent on humiliating it to the very dust. The leader was Porcius Cato, the censor, and master of the Roman Senate. He became such a monomaniac that every speech he made, no matter to what he referred, closed with the impressive exclamation, Delenda est Carthago /—“Carthage must be destroyed l’” The fateful words fell upon willing ears, but the aged Cato died before the awful blow was struck against the helpless city. The Carthaginians made every submission, giving up their arms, their ships, their munitions of war, and they went so far as to offer to surrender their own government and become subjects of Rome. But the cause of Rome's hatred was her fear and jealousy of her rival. Carthage had once threatened the very existence of Rome, when the African armies were led by a military genius. True, Hannibal was dead, but who should say that one as great as he would not rise up to take his place 2 Carthage still contained three-quarters of a million of people; and so long as she was allowed to exist, she would be a menace to Rome. It was decreed, there- fore, that the city should be razed and the people be sent to dwell inland. And then, realizing that their destruction had been determined upon, the inhabitants resolved in the desperation of despair to die rather than submit to the ferocious mandate. The siege of Carthage was conducted by P. Scipio AEmilianus, and lasted for four years. The harrowing story makes one shudder even after the lapse of more than twenty centuries. The city had no ships, no allies, and only a few crude weapons, but the women gave their tresses for bowstrings, and they and the men shrank from no sacrifice or suffering. When the loss of the citadel of Byrsa and the defeat of the Punic general (another Hasdrubal) rendered all resistance useless, the gaunt defenders still manned the walls. The fighting was kept up for six days in the streets, and then for more than two weeks fire raged, until the proud city that had stood for seven hundred years was turned to Smouldering embers and ashes. º ޺ nºviº ZºSººs -- º - - %; º § jº º - º - º º º § º º ğ THE CAPITOLINE EIILL Chapter XXXII ROME CONQUERS THE WORLD AND GROWS CORRUPT ET us note the tremendous strides that Rome was making in acquiring dominion. She was now mistress of Greece and of Carthage, the East and the South. Spain still defied her authority and kept her arms at bay for some years. She advanced step by step, how- ever, though the Lusitanians, on the western shores of the peninsula, produced a great leader whose name will always stand out among the brightest on the pages of the early history of that ancient land. Viriathus, origi- nally a guerilla chief, put forth his utmost efforts to check the Romans in their attempt to conquer his country. By an act of atrocious treachery, the Roman general Galba succeeded in de- stroying a large body of the natives. A few escaped, among them Viriathus, who was so incensed by the treachery that he roused his countrymen to undying hostility against the invaders. For a time he and his band kept among the inaccessible moun- tains and harassed the enemy by sudden, swift raids. In B. c. 147 he felt strong enough to give battle to the Romans, and inflicted on them a severe defeat. Throughout the following two years he continually repeated his victories; but in B. c. 144 a large Roman army drove him back into his native fastnesses. He rallied, and the force sent against him was utterly crushed at the “Hill of Venus.” In B. c. 141, Viriathus was once more successful, and the whole Roman army was surrounded in a mountain pass and compelled to surrender. He showed mag- Rome—Conquest of Spain 343 nanimity in his triumph, allowing his captives to go away unharmed on condi- tion of the recognition of the independence of the Lusitanians. These terms were accepted, but in B.C. I.4O, Caepio having been appointed to command in Spain, treacherously and suddenly renewed the war. Fearing from the past that his arms would not succeed, he bribed a number of Lusitanian envoys who had been sent to him to propose peace, and they murdered their hero while he lay asleep in his tent. No one was fitted to take his place, and, though the brave struggle was continued for a number of years, it was hopeless. Spain became, like so many other countries, a province of Rome (B.C. 133). Some of the inhabitants were taken to the capital behind the conqueror's chariot, but most of them were sold as slaves; and Numantia, which had bravely withstood a long siege, was so completely razed that it is almost impossible to trace its ruins to-day. Thus the power of Rome was supreme in the four principal peninsulas which project into the Mediterranean, and among the chief islands. When the period of conquest was opened in B. C. 266, the Roman dominion was confined to the single peninsula of Italy. When it closed in B. c. 133, Rome was su- preme over the whole of Southern Europe, from the straits of Constantinople to the Atlantic, over the principal Mediterranean islands, over Carthage in North Africa, and over Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria in the East. Rome was able to retain her hold upon these distant provinces because of her wisdom in governing them. In many districts the inhabitants found their condition more tranquil, more secure, and more pleasant than when distracted by the petty rivalries of their own chiefs. All these conquered provinces were allowed to retain their native religion, laws, habits, and peculiarities; but each was governed by a military president sent from Rome, with his staff of officials. The people had to pay large taxes; and these were farmed out by the censors to Roman citizens, who were known as Publicans, and who settled in the re- spective districts where their interests lay. Thus Rome was the great heart whose pulsations were felt to the remotest point of the immense organization. These vast successes led her to regard her mission as that of conquest, in- stead of civilization. The work of the Romans was to rule, not to 771struct man- kind. If there was security in some of her provinces, there was none the less tyranny and oppression, for the policy often acted on was that, by robbing and impoverishing the conquered, they would be shorn of the means of future revolt. Now there were two distinct effects produced upon the Romans themselves by their conquests, and while one was perhaps good, the other was bad. The spoliation of the provinces poured an enormous stream of treasures into Rome. Among them were many of the choicest works of art in Greece, which could not fail to exert, in a greater or lesser degree, a refining influence upon the 344 The Story of the Greatest Nations spoilers, for the very perfection of these immortal products of almost divine genius commanded the reverence of the most degraded. The veins winding inward from the remote provinces brought the scholars, rhetoricians, tragedians, and philosophers to the great heart, whose throbbings did not send them out again. Hundreds of Greek tutors, philosophers, and schoolmasters made their home in Rome, where their services were bought by the patricians, sometimes at an immense price. Thus it may be repeated that, to a certain extent while Greece was conquered by the might of Rome, yet in an intellectual sense she conquered her master. Of course among the Romans there was no lack of native literary power, but they needed stimulus to awaken them to action and development. This they received from the Greek literary culture that flowed all around them. While the flowering of the Augustan age was still a century away, yet there rose a number of writers of unquestioned ability. The unbounded wealth which poured in also enabled Rome to carry out a series of magnificent public improvements. Italy was welded together by numerous military roads, so finely built that many remain to this day. The Tiber was spanned by excellent bridges of stone, the city was sewered, and the streets paved. Of the two new aqueducts, the Marcian, built in B.C. I.44, cost $IO,OOO,OOO. The ordinary clock, or time-piece, of course was unknown till centuries afterward, but in B. C. I 59 the consuls set up a public clepsydra or water-clock, so that for the first time all might learn the exact hour of the day or night. Thus gorgeous benefits accrued to Rome through her far-reaching con quests; but it cannot be doubted that even greater evils also resulted. The brilliant culture of Greece was crimsoned with impurity. The rugged virtues of the Romans were corrupted; love of luxury rooted out the once Spartan-like simplicity; physical strength collapsed before flabby degeneracy; marriage was openly scoffed at ; even the old Roman faith, in which there was nothing of Christianity, lost its grip upon the people, and it was said that when two augurs, the pretended prophets of the faith, met on the street they could not avoid laughing in each other's faces. There is no decay so shrivelling, so deadly, and so fearful as moral decay. It is the sure precursor of death. As Rome soared aloft like the imperial eagle toward the mid-day sun, the venomous serpent was twisted about its neck, and burying its fangs in its vitals. The political system of Rome grew to be as rotten as that of the purlieus of the worst-governed city of modern times. Bribery was open; the slave-trade was extended to meet the demands of the extensive planters. Syria and the interior of Asia Minor were swept back and forth by the ferocious traders, who hustled their droves of wailing wretches Rome—The Mother of the Gracchi 345 into the Italian peninsula until, a century and a half before the Christian era, their number was more than double that of the freemen. The doom of the mightiest city the world ever knew was as plainly written as was that of Baby- lon by the handwriting on the wall at the impious feast of Belshazzar. The name Gracchus is such an honored one in Roman history that you will be interested in a brief account of the illustrious members of the family. Ti- berius Sempronius Gracchus, who was consul in B.C. 238, did superb work in the military operations in Corsica and Sardinia, while another of the same name distinguished himself in the second Punic War, and for his success in opposing Hannibal received the consulship in B.C. 2 I 5, and again in 2 I 3, only to lose his life after many victories, in battle with Mago, the brother of Hannibal, per- haps through treachery. Hannibal honored him with a splendid funeral, as the one Roman whom he held in admiration. There were several other Gracchi of lesser note, till we reach another Ti- berius Sempronius, who was born about B. C. 2 IO, and for many years was one of the foremost citizens of Rome. He served as tribune, aedile, praetor, twice as consul, as censor, and was one of the most distinguished of military leaders. He brought about a number of excellent constitutional changes, and marrying Cornelia, a daughter of Scipio Africanus, became the father of twelve children, nine of whom died in youth. It is of two of his sons, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and Caius Sempro- nius Gracchus, that we have now to speak. Their father having passed away while they were very young, they were educated with great care and gentle wisdom by their mother. She told them that she wanted the world to remem- ber her, not as the daughter of Scipio, but as the “mother of the Gracchi.” On one occasion a lady of rank had boastfully displayed all her jewelry, and suggested that Cornelia should in turn display hers. The wise mother drew her two young sons toward her, saying, “These are my jewels.” It is not to be wondered at that the lads grew to be noble and high-minded as well as ambitious men. Their sister became the wife of the second Scipio Africanus, and with him the elder lad, Tiberius Sempronius, served, and was present at the capture of Carthage. He is said to have been the first Roman to scale the walls of the doomed city. When he was with the army in Spain, the Numantines, remembering the good faith of his father forty years before, refused to treat with any one but him. It was because of their admiration for his character that they spared a Roman army of 20,000 men who were at their mercy. The aristocratic senate in Rome repudiated the treaty, and the result has already been told. Observation and inquiry impressed the young quaestor with the sad condi- tion of the whole of Italy. The Roman magnates lived in luxury and sloth in 346 The Story of the Greatest Nations the cities, while their estates were cultivated by slaves. These were Thracians, Africans, or Iberians in Etruria, which once furnished powerful armies to the Republic. The old law of Licinius, that possession of the land should be lim- ited to a certain extent, had become dead; and nearly everywhere the immense estates had fallen into the possession of a few, who drove away the free culti- vators of the soil and gave it over to the wretched bands of foreign laborers. These facts caused Tiberius Gracchus gloomy reflections. “Not long ago,” he said to himself, “Italy could arm 700,000 foot-soldiers and mount 70,000 cavaliers. All were disciplined, and all were freemen; but suppose another Hannibal should strike at her, what resources has she to parry the blow or to strike back? Should the Italian tribes rise up on their mistress, how can she control them 2 What can she do if one of her generals marches her own legions against her ? Ah the glory, the power, the might of Rome have be- come an empty shadow.” The disease demanded heroic treatment. There was but one solution of the problem, and that could scarce be made a peaceable one. The system of so- ciety must be wholly overturned. The only aristocracy in Rome was the one founded on wealth. No longer were there any patricians or plebeians, but the two great divisions, the rich and the poor, the worst division conceivable. Corrupt to the core, the hordes in the city lived in noisy idleness by selling their votes to the highest bidder. The destruction of the Republic was as near as it was certain, unless the drastic remedy was applied with merciless rigor. Tiberius Gracchus proposed a land or agrarian law, which was in effect a revival of the Licinian law, and which limited the amount of public land that could be held by one person to something less than 300 acres. The vast area which this would leave vacant was to be distributed among the poor in the form of small homesteads. He allowed some additional land to proprietors who had children, and devised a plan for indemnifying those that were to be de- prived at once of their actual occupations. As may be supposed, the aristocracy immediately raised a furious protest, and the debates were bitter to the last degree. Now, it was Roman law that no proposal could become legal unless all the tribunes agreed to it. The aris- tocracy induced one of the tribunes to interfere by veto. Tiberius was so en- raged that he appealed to the assembly of the tribes, and a decree was passed turning the obnoxious tribune out of office after which the law was passed. Then Tiberius, his brother Caius, and his father-in-law, Appius Claudius, were nominated triumvirs for carrying the proposed law into effect. Face to face with the momentous question, the aristocrats determined to prevent the election of these men by force; learning which, Gracchus bade his friends to arm themselves with staves. Seeing this, some of the people asked Rome—Fall of Tiberius Gracchus 347 Gracchus the meaning of it. He raised his hand to his head to signify that his life was in danger. Several of his enemies ran to the Senate, exclaiming that he demanded a crown. Scipio Nasica, a leading noble, urged the consul Scaevola to kill Gracchus, but seeing him hesitate, he sprang forward himself, flinging the skirt of his toga over his own head, as if about to perform a sacrifice, and shouted to the citizens to revenge themselves upon the traitor. Instantly a furious riot started, in which several were killed. Tiberius, seeing his friends defeated, ran to the temple of Jupiter for refuge, but the priests shut the doors in his face. His foot struck a dead body, and while in the act of recovering himself, one of his associate tribunes stretched him on the ground with a fearful blow of his club. As he lay, he was beaten to death, and with him perished three hun- dred of his supporters. The bodies were dragged to the bank of the Tiber and flung into the water. Thus, in the year B.C. I.33, the era of civil strife opened in Rome. In the midst of the clamor, Scipio AEmilianus came back victorious from Nu- mantia. When he was told of the death of his brother-in-law, he declared that the fate was deserved. Scipio was now the foremost man in Rome. Though belonging to the aristocracy, he was more moderate than they, and did nothing except to obstruct the carrying out of the measures he disliked. Soon the opening of war with the Illyrians gave excuse for suspending the further exe- cution of the hated law until a more tranquil season. Rome had dignified her subject states in Italy with the name of allies, and followed the policy of entrusting the affairs in those states to the control of the aristocratic party in each. So the chiefs of Samnium and Campania were as anxious as the aristocrats in Rome for the defeat of the new law; but they were angrily disgusted to see the freedmen or former slaves of the Romans elevated to citizenship, while they themselves were not allowed to vote. They determined to secure the citizenship, and chose Scipio as their champion in. bringing this about. He had been twice consul, and now the people, wearied of the continual turmoil, wished him to become Dictator. Momentous questions were at issue, and Scipio retired to his chamber to meditate upon the words he would speak on the morrow to the citizens; but, when morning came he was found dead, and the mystery of his taking off was never explained. No wound was discovered on his body, but his slaves said that his house had been entered at night and the crime committed by persons unknown to them. Some accused the mother of the Gracchi, and Some the wife of Scipio, but the Senate pressed no inquiry and thereby drew suspicion of guilty knowledge to that assemblage itself. The loss of their champion threw the Italians into consternation. One of 348 The Story of the Greatest Nations their captains, Perpena, had gained Roman citizenship and finally been elected consul. His people were steadily working their way to the franchise, but the Senate now ordered their expulsion from the city. Then the leaders of the popular party made common cause with the Italians. Caius Gracchus, the younger brother of him who had been slain eight years before, claimed and obtained the tribuneship, and then took up his dead brother's work. Fulvius, being elected consul, assisted him by introducing measures to further their policy; but the Senate managed to have the consul removed to the command of an army, while Caius was sent to an official post in Sardinia. The object of all this was so plain that the Italians were exasperated. One of their little commonwealths in its desperation flew to arms, but was put down with such harshness (B. c. 125) that the Italians remained cowed for years. The nobles thought they saw their opportunity for crushing Caius, and im- peached him on the charge of inciting the insurrection. But they had over- stepped themselves; the impeachment failed and he was elected tribune. He threw all his energies into carrying out the policy of his brother. Indeed, he went further, for he aimed at the full reconstruction of the whole Roman sys- tem of government. With all his unquestioned patriotism, it cannot be doubted that Caius was strongly stirred by ambition and the feeling of revenge. Octavius, the tribune who had interfered with his brother's action, was threat- ened with proscription from office, and another, who had persecuted his brother's adherents, was in such danger of impeachment that he was frightened into vol- untary exile. The course of Caius now made him the idol of the people. He confirmed the principles of his brother's agrarian law; had corn regularly distributed among the poorer classes; caused taxes to be laid on different articles of lux- ury; supplied the soldiers gratuitously with clothing, which formerly they had to provide for themselves; planted colonies for the immediate relief of those who had been waiting long for the promised division of lands, and gave employ- ment to hundreds in the construction of roads and bridges. A revolution, which Caius was determined to bring about, was that of grant- ing full admission to the Latins and Italians to the right of suffrage. His mar- tyr brother had held the same wish, but the prejudices of the populace would not permit the measure to be carried to success, since it threatened to derive them of some of the gratuities that now fell to their share. The Italians were hungry for the public lands, for the assignment of land as colonists, and for a share in the honors of the city, and the offices in the provinces. The nobles saw all this and became more alarmed, for Caius seemed never to rest content with what he had accomplished, but was resolved to spur forward till a complete revolution was established. This fear became fierce in- Rome—Defeat of the Democracy 34.9 dignation when he proposed and carried through a bill for founding colonies in the very cities that had been the most dangerous rivals of Rome. Thus he tried to restore the political importance of Capua and Tarentum in Italy, as well as to plant a colony of plebeians amid the ruins of Carthage—a project sufficient almost to make Cato turn in his grave. - In his ardor, Caius left the city upon this business, having been unwise enough to divest himself of his tribuneship before going. His absence gave his enemies the opportunity which they were not slow to improve. Their most de- termined leader Opimius was appointed to the consulship, so that Caius upon his return found himself deprived of the protection which no one needed more than he. He was insulted, and when his friends would have interfered the Senate was hurriedly called together, declared the state in danger, and made Opimius virtually Dictator for the time. This was the “bell of revolution,” and both sides caught up arms and rushed at each other. Opimius and his partisans had had more time in which to per- fect their plans, and, being the more powerful, Scattered the party of Caius. Three thousand were slain in headlong flight. Caius sought refuge on the hill of the Aventine, but was driven out and ran across a bridge over the Tiber. He plunged into the woods on the other side, but his enemies pursued him re- lentlessly, and they pressed him so hard that his escape was soon cut off. All through his peril he was attended by a faithful slave, whom he now ordered to give him the fatal blow, which he saw must come. The slave obeyed, and afterward slew himself (B.C. I2 I). Caius was declared a rebel, his estates were confiscated, and his widow was deprived of her dowry. The time soon came when the people awoke to the hor- ror of what they had allowed to be done. They erected statues to the memory of the two murdered brothers, and declared sacred every spot where their blood had stained the earth. Yet, for all practical purposes, the success of the nobles was complete; and, that they so considered it, was shown by the triumph which they celebrated. Their friends were assured that all the acts of the Gracchi would be reversed, and the former balance of political power restored, in which of course the whole advantage would be on the side of the nobles and aristocracy. The Sempro- nian laws were abolished one after another, or so modified that their effective- ness was taken away. The long delay in carrying out the agrarian laws, and their imperfect execution, had caused the people to lose faith in them, while the distribution of provisions among the poorer classes went a long way to Satisfy them, and make them content to live in idleness in the city, in preference to going out in the country and tilling the land, even though it belonged to them. 35O The Story of the Greatest Nations The result of the free distribution of provisions which Caius himself had brought about was thus another illustration of the harm that is done by indis- criminate charity. But for such distribution, thousands of men would have be- come industrious husbandmen and laborers. As it was, they were transformed into so many dangerous vagrants. While thus corrupting the commons, the Senators had themselves grown equally corrupt. Never has there been an age when bribery and dishonor were more openly displayed. An instance of this is the Senate's treatment of the kings of Numidia in Africa, the grandsons of Massinissa. One of these, Jugurtha, was illegitimate, but he seized the kingdom and defeated the lawful heir, Adherbal, who fled to Rome for assistance. The able Jugurtha had learned the power of a bribe, and the gold which his envoys carried to the Roman Senate did effective work. The commissioners who examined the matter divided Numidia between the rival claimants. Even with this Jugurtha was dissatisfied, so he again attacked Adherbal, took him prisoner, and put him to a cruel death. Then the Romans, glad of the excuse for interfering, ordered that Numidia should be occupied by a consular army. Again Jugurtha used his gold, and the expedition made such dishonorable terms that Memmius rose in the Senate and denounced in burning words the venality of some of its members. Jugurtha was summoned to Rome, being guaranteed safe-conduct, but was ordered to give the names of the men who had accepted his bribes. He obeyed the summons, and seemed to be ready to do all that was demanded of him, but with characteristic cunning contrived to have an- other tribune interpose in the proceedings against him. He was allowed to go. home, and it is said that as he passed out of the gates he exclaimed : “O venal city as soon as a purchaser can be found, thou art destined to fall.” Behind Jugurtha tramped a Roman army. The consul Albinus did nothing decisive, and when he returned to Rome to hold the comitia, or public assembly for electing officers, he left the army in command of his brother Aulus, who was defeated by Jugurtha and his soldiers compelled to pass under the yoke. The angered Senate disavowed the surrender, and sent, Albinus back to renew the war. The senators demanded the prosecution of the members who had ac- cepted the bribes of Jugurtha. AEmilius Scaurus, one of the most eminent of the nobles, was the centre of general suspicion, and undoubtedly he was among the most guilty; but, with a cunning which has often been imitated since, he contrived to have himself made chairman of the investigating com- mittee, and in this position presided at the condemnation of four consuls. & º tºº- º ſº º ºf º - ". Sº - º º º 5% * * Nº ſº. º º º *- - º s | s : "…” - 7//N 3. +& - - - w ºº: - - º - º %3. 3| Wºº. 3. ×) -- º º - §º º s - ſº ſ -čk. - ſº a A ſº \ | º - | º … N Z * º 3. º ºs- º," " ~ º º - º (S \\ º º º ſº ºsºkºrºſ. ; - s *. - ~ ſ SS º - 4. º º - º - º #ºj DEFEAT OF THE TEUTONES Chapter XXXIII BARBARIAN INVASION AND CIVIL WAR ºn the midst of the furious wrangling in Rome, a thrill of alarm was caused in the year B.C. I 13, by news that the barbaric races of the Cimbri and Teutones were moving southward from central Germany, with the intention of passing through the Alps, which towered like a wall between Italy and the northern wilderness. A formidable army interposed against the barbarians, and the Roman general Carbo made such threats that they retired, though they repulsed a treacherous attack by Carbo with great loss. Other Roman forces were sent into Trans- alpine Gaul, and they gradually pushed forward, till the Republic's dominion was established from the Alps to the Rhone. This work, however, was tremendous, and accompanied by many defeats. Four armies were beaten in succession, and had the Cimbri and Teutones united and pressed southward, they must have overrun Italy and secured a success hardly second to that of the Gauls. But the barbarians were divided, and the Roman Senate was rousing to a sense of its own folly and weakness. More manly counsels were followed. The first step must be to crush Jugurtha, Q. Caecilius Metellus was sent to supersede Albinus in the war against the Afri- can king; and no better choice could have been made. The integrity and honor of Metellus were so marked in an age where those qualities were wo- fully lacking, that once when he submitted his accounts to the judges, in an- swer to the charge of malversation, they refused to look at the documents. 352 The Story of the Greatest Nations They would not permit his name to be sullied by even the appearance of Suspicion. Associated with Metellus was a young man destined to win a unique glory for himself, since he rose from the humblest to the highest station in the Re- public, and made a record which in many respects was never surpassed. This man was Caius Marius. He is said to have been an ordinary laborer in his youth, but he enlisted in the army and speedily attracted attention by his cour- age and skill. His services under Scipio before Numantia won the admiration of that general, who prophesied a brilliant future for him. This roused the ambition of the young Italian, who entered politics, and, in B. C. I I 9, was elected tribune. He was the ardent champion of the plebeians, and therefore was intensely hated by the nobles. His marriage with the distinguished family of the Caesars (his wife being the aunt of Julius Caesar) gave him an interest in the nobility, despite his natural tastes and instincts. He was one of the most valuable aids to Metellus in his successful campaign, and gained the love of the soldiers by laboring with them in the trenches and sharing all their pri- vations. Metellus sneered at the political aspirations of his lieutenant, because of his humble birth, but, despite the opposition of the aristocracy, Marius was unexpectedly elected to the consulship. As consul he was assigned to com- mand the attack on Numidia, in defiance of the Senate, who wished to prolong the command of Metellus. Marius, in still further opposition to all traditions, enlisted his soldiers from the rabble and beggars of the city. This was against the rule which forbade any one to bear arms who had not a stake in the welfare of the Republic, but Marius welcomed all who flocked to his standard, drawn by the hope of plunder, and proud of the low-born origin of their leader. Metellus was prosecuting his war against Jugurtha, when news reached him that he had been superseded by Marius. He returned to Rome in anger, which was only partially soothed by the triumph granted him, without his having done anything specially to earn it. Marius added to his laurels by his conduct of the war in Numidia. He captured stronghold after stronghold, but was baffled by the scorching desert to which Jugurtha withdrew, when hard pressed, and from which he dashed forth upon sudden raids that were of the most exasperating nature. Finally, Jugur- tha was captured, without doubt through betrayal, and carried loaded with chains to Rome, where his fate was more cruel than he deserved. He was kept for two years to grace the triumphs of his conquerors, and finally thrown into the prison under the Capitol, where he lay dying for days with cold and hunger. The capture of Jugurtha closed the war in Numidia, which had lasted from B.c. I I I to IOG. Marius returned to Rome in IO4 to claim his triumph, and to find that the honors of the consulship had been given him during his absence. Rome—Marius Defeats the Barbarians 353 The vast hordes of the Cimbri had continued their plundering to the westward, but threatened to come back and burst through the Alps to gather the richer spoils that awaited them in Italy. Since the loss of her armies in that quarter, Rome had refrained from active operations, most of the inhabitants fleeing to the cities for shelter. Their helplessness was intolerably galling to the Ro- mans, who clamored for Marius to lead their avenging forces. The nobles dared not oppose, and he was raised again to the consulship and given the con- duct of the war. He was elected for the third, fourth, and fifth time in the fol- lowing years, for all felt he was the only man who could save the Republic. The recruits of Marius were raw and needed long and rigid training. He made his camp near the mouth of the Rhone, and would not allow his men to meet the enemy until they had undergone a long system of preparation. In the end, the barbarians began a hostile movement. The Cimbri proposed to flank the Alps and swarm into Italy through the Tyrol, while the Teutones were to crush the resistance of Marius and double the southern extremity of the mountains, where they touch the Mediterranean, after which the two armies were to meet at a point on the Po. The Romans divided their legions to meet this attack. Marius was to hold his post in the Transalpine Province, while his colleague Catulus was to lead a second consular army to check the Cimbri. Marius restrained the impatience of his men, and refused all efforts of his enemies to draw him out into the plain. At last they gave over the attempt and determined to leave him in the rear. The hideous warriors by the thousands defiled past his camp, many derisively offering to take any messages which they might wish delivered to their families in Italy. Marius grimly waited till the horde had gone by, when he broke camp and followed them. The barbarians were so confident and eager to attack him that he had only to choose his own ground. The spot selected was near Aquae Sex- tiae—the modern Aix—in Provence, where for nearly three days raged one of the greatest battles of ancient times. The invaders were destroyed. The loss of the barbarians was, according to some authorities, IOO,OOO, while other his- torians make the number still greater. The other Roman general Catulus was not equal to the task required of him. His men were panic-stricken at the approach of the Savage Cimbri, and fled in headlong haste, with Catulus himself in the lead. Marius checked their flight, effected a junction of the two armies, and stopped the enemy on the further side of the Po. When at last the barbarians were forced to battle, it was only to suffer annihilation. When the men had been defeated, the women were attacked, and after a grim resistance from the shelter of their wagons the survivors slew themselves and their children. The whole nation perished. 23 3.54 The Story of the Greatest Nations This second famous fight was at Vercellae to the west of Milan. It was really won mainly by Sulla, of whom we shall hear more, but it was natural that the people should give the glory to Marius, who had gained so many previous triumphs. -- Troublous times had come to Rome. The condition of the slaves in Italy was unendurable. Driven to desperation, they had started fierce revolts, that were put down with merciless brutality, thousands of lives being sacrificed. Some of these uprisings took place while Marius was absent in Gaul, and the Romans grew alarmed for their own safety. In the year following his return, he was raised to the consulship for the sixth time. He was now filled with a consuming ambition and lent himself to the clamors of the popular faction, which was bent on reviving the agrarian demands of the Gracchi. Despite his repeated elevation to the consulship, Marius was a failure in the important labor he had now to perform. In political matters, he lacked steadi- ness, courage, and persuasive argument; his policy offended many of his adher- ents. He heaped rewards upon the Italians and by that course filled the Roman commons with jealousy. In one instance, he conferred citizenship on a thou- sand veterans from Camerinum. The act was illegal and added to his unpopu- larity. To offset this he had numerous grants of land made to distinguished soldiers, on the ground that the territory in the Transalpine Province had been lost to the native population and reconquered by the Romans, who had the right to dispose of it as they pleased. Violence accompanied the measure, and Ma- rius held aloof, supporting neither side. With the tribune Saturninus at their head, the populace drove their opponents out of the Forum ; the venerable gen- eral Metellus was so grossly insulted by Saturninus that he retired into voluntary exile. Saturninus soon offered himself for re-election, and in his arrogance caused one of his adversaries to be assassinated in the Forum. Then he seized the Capitol; the state was declared to be in danger, and Marius was called upon to save it. He besieged Saturninus, and, by cutting off the water-pipes, com- pelled him to surrender, which he did under the pledge of safety. The exas perated people, however, would not be restrained, and slew the marplot. Violence, anarchy, and bloodshed followed. In the year B. c. 90, the Social War, between the Romans and their Italian subjects, commenced and lasted through three campaigns. It is useless to give the long list of engagements, in which the victories, if the Roman historians are to be trusted, were almost uni- formly on the side of their countrymen. In the midst of these alleged victories, the Romans empowered the consul Caesar to offer such cities as had remained faithful the citizenship which they had refused to their adversaries. Marius was not entrusted with any important command in this war, perhaps because his sentiments were too similar to those of the enemy, but he had able repre- Rome—Rise of Sulla 3.5 5 sentatives. Two years after the offer named, it was extended to all the Ital- ians, every one of whom, if he chose to come to Rome and claim the franchise within sixty days, was to receive it. The thirty-five tribes already existing were increased by ten, but the offer itself was not very generally accepted, because of the ceremonies required, which could only take place in the capital. The distant citizen did not think the reward worth the trouble it cost. The full franchise, however, was given in special instances to different states in Spain, Gaul, and Africa, while the Latin franchise, which brought a certain advantage to the Roman, was bestowed even more widely, the entire nation of Transalpine Gauls receiving it. It was this liberal policy that un- doubtedly saved Rome for the time from the ruin that impended over her. We have now come to an important epoch, and it is necessary to pause for a moment to glance at the history of the ablest Roman, from the time of the younger Scipio until the appearance of Julius Caesar. This was L. Cornelius Sulla, surnamed by himself Felix. He was born in B. c. 138. Mention has been already made of him, when he was elected quaestor, or state treasurer, and sent to Africa with the cavalry that Marius needed for the prosecution of the Jugurthine war. He rapidly gained a fine reputation, and it was he who se- cured the surrender of Jugurtha, whom he took in chains to Rome. Marius already showed jealousy over the distinction acquired by his subordinate, and the feeling afterward intensified into a resentment bordering on insanity. After his victory at Vercellae Sulla lived quietly in Rome for several years, until in B.C. 93 he stood for the praetorship, and won it by the plentiful use of money. The smouldering animosity between him and Marius would have burst forth in B. c. 91, but for the breaking out of the Social War, which caused the burial of all quarrels until the common danger was settled. In this war, the services of Sulla far outweighed those of Marius and intensified the enmity of that general. Now it must be remembered that these two men represented different fac- tions, which had long been warring against each other. You have learned of the humble origin of Marius, who was a plebeian, rough, impatient, irascible, and ignorant; Sulla was a patrician, subtle, wise, and highly educated. At the close of the Social War, Sulla was not quite fifty years old, while Marius was about seventy. Sulla was trained in all the Grecian accomplishments at which Marius sneered ; he spoke and wrote Greek and was proud of his connection with the illustrious house of the Cornelii. The personality of great men is always interesting, and it may be said of Sulla that the historians represent him as addicted to debauchery and degraded associates. He had bright blue eyes, but his complexion was coarse and blotched, and the Greeks compared it to a mulberry sprinkled with meal. 356 The Story of the Greatest Nations While there is no act of kindliness recorded of him, and his manners were haughty and morose, he would shed tears over a story of suffering or sorrow. The nobles did not like him personally, but accepted him as their champion, for the reason that no one else could be secured who compared with him in ability. If Marius hated Sulla with an insane fierceness, the latter held much the same sentiment toward Marius, though his feelings were under better control. Marius in the course of his campaigns carelessly left many tempting opportuni- ties, which his younger rival was quick to seize and turn to the best account. - Mithridates, king of Pontus, was a bold, and able soldier, who formed a grand plan of uniting the Asiatic states and Greece in a formidable conspiracy against the Roman dominion. His generals repeatedly defeated the Asiatic levies of the Romans, and he took possession of Bithynia, Cappadocia, Phrygia, and the Roman possessions in Asia Minor. By his orders, an appalling mas- sacre of the Romans in the East took place, during which, in B.C. 88, eighty thousand were slain in a single day. He sent three powerful armies to assist the Greeks in their rebellion. Sulla was consul when it became necessary to select a general to conduct the campaign against Mithridates. Sulla's claim to the position was therefore highest, but the thought that it would go to him was wormwood and gall to the aged Marius. He hurried from his retreat in Campania, and tried to convince the young soldiers in the Campus that he was still able to run, wrestle, and swim with the best of them; but his efforts were pitiful failures, and he was advised to return to his home and give place to a younger and better man. To his unbearable chagrin the Senate declared that younger and better man to be Sulla. This was the time that Marius might better have died, but it was his mis- fortune as it has been that of many great men, like Miltiades, Themistocles, and others, to live long enough to shame the glory and brilliancy of his earlier years. Brooding over his treatment, Marius determined to commit treason to further his own ambition. Aided by demagogues, he started an agitation against the Senate and army, and secured his nomination to the command of the forces in the East in place of Sulla. But Sulla was still in Italy, and, at the head of six legions, he marched upon Rome. He was not expected, and the insurgents dissolved like snow in the Sun upon the appearance of the army, while Marius was barely able to effect his escape from the city. Sulla displayed his wise cunning by calling the people together the next day in the Forum, where he explained that a faction had obliged him to use force, and having taken arms, he would not lay them down till the power of the Senate was secured against mobs. He abrogated the enactments of Marius and his friends in favor of the Italians and the commons of the city, and repealed Rome—Flight of Marius 357 the provision of the constitution which gave the force of law to the resolutions of the people alone. Thus, while Marius had gone to one extreme, Sulla went to the other. A price had been set upon the head of Marius, who was straining every nerve to prevent any of his enemies winning the reward. The romantic adven- tures which befell him are told by Plutarch, who says he first retired to a pri- vate farm at Solnium on the Latian coast, but, learning that he was unsafe, hur- ried to Ostia, hoping to embark on a vessel kept waiting there for him. He hid in a wagon under a load of beans, and finally made his escape in a trading vessel bound for Libya. The agonies of sea-sickness compelled him to land near Circeii, where he wandered in the pine groves of that lonely coast, keep- ing up the spirits of his companions by repeating the prodigies that had fore- told his greatness. This was followed by numerous adventures, until, in the last extremity, he hid himself among the reeds at the mouth of the marshy Liris, where he was discovered and dragged from his dismal retreat. He was thrown into prison at Minturnae, and the magistrate determined to put him to death and claim the reward. But when the slave, sent to despatch him, stepped into the gloom of the prison, he declared that he saw a vivid light issue from the captive's eyes, while an awful voice demanded: “Wretch dare you slay Caius Marius 2 ” The slave and the magistrate were terrified and released their prisoner, who succeeded at last in reaching the coast of Africa. Even there he was not allowed to rest. He was discovered seated amid the ruins of Carthage, comparing his fallen greatness to that of the city. The Roman governor Com- manded him to “move on,” and he took temporary refuge on an island of the COaSt. Meanwhile there was turbulence in Rome. The Samnites rose in revolt, and drew thousands of slaves and robbers to their standard. Metellus Pius, who was entrusted with repressing this new social war, could not force the in- surgents to a decisive battle. A second Roman army, under Pompeius Strabo, was still at Picenum, and the Senate sent the late consul Pompeius Rufus to take command of the legions. There was not money to pay the soldiers, and a mutiny broke out in which Rufus was killed. Strabo, who was suspected of inciting the revolt, now appeared and restored order, but did not inquire into or punish any one for the crime. No sooner had Sulla left for Asia, than Cinna the demagogue rushed to the front. He was consul, and announced himself as the restorer of the ancient order of things, demanding the recall of Marius and the exiles, and the full emancipation of Italy. Octavius, his colleague in the consulship, some of the tribunes, and a large number of citizens rallied and drove Cinna out of the city. He had counted upon the help of Strabo, but that general was not yet ready to act. 358 The Story of the Greatest Nations It was a time when no respect was paid to law, and Cinna was deprived of his consulship and L. Merula appointed in his place. Cinna fled into Cam- pania, where he made the people believe he had suffered in their behalf, and soon collected a large number of armed followers, among whom were many ex- iles of the Marian party, and Samnites and Lucanians, the open enemies of the Republic. News of these doings was carried to Marius, wandering hither and thither in danger of capture and death, and he finally threaded his way through the ambuscades of his innumerable enemies and threw himself on the coast of Etruria, where he was joined by hundreds of slaves and others. With a force increasing as he advanced, he moved upon Rome from the north, while Cinna came from the south, and two of his generals threatened from other directions, so that Rome was surrounded by four of her own rebellious armies, with the warlike Samnites as their allies. In the fearful extremity, the Senate turned to Metellus, and ordered him to make peace with the Samnites on whatever terms he could obtain. The con- ditions proposed by the foe were so intolerable that Metellus indignantly broke off the negotiation. Leaving a small force to watch the enemy, he made all haste to return and guard the city. The detachment left behind was quickly overpowered, and the Samnites rushed toward Rome, fiercely bent on its destruction. Reduced to the last pitiful extremity, the Senate begged the mutinous Strabo to help them, trying to win his services by promises and flatteries; but he was dallying with the Marians. In the midst of his hesitation mutiny broke out in his own camp, and he would have been killed but for the devotion of his son Pompeius, who was greatly liked by the soldiers. A pestilence suddenly appeared, carrying off many in the armies and in the city. Strabo died either from the pestilence, or from a stroke of lightning, or from assassination, for each of these causes was assigned, and the last is the most reasonable. All hope being gone, the Senate sent to Cinna to arrange terms, and when these were refused, to beg him to extend mercy. The scenes that followed are terrifying and shocking to the last degree (B.C. 86). Picture the merciless Cinna, Seated in his magistrate's chair, with Marius, shaggy, unshorn, squalid and terrible in his grim triumph, standing beside him, the two waiting to de- cide the fate of their hapless victims. The victors had promised to spare the life of Octavius, and he, relying upon this pledge, refused to make his escape. When he came forward, he was seized in his robes of office. His head was cut off and by the orders of Cinna suspended from the rostra or stage of the Forum, the first time the barbarous exhibition was made, though it took place many times afterward. Then followed a massacre in which the mangled heads of the senators were Rome—Sulla Conquers the East 359 displayed in the Forum, and the bodies of the knights and others were cast out for burial. Among the slain were many of the noblest citizens of Rome. At last Cinna and Marius saw fit to check the horrible carnage, and steps were taken to restore order. They did not deign to call the assembly of the tribes, but nominated themselves to the highest magistracy. Marius became consul for the seventh time. He had reached the summit of his ambition, but he was old and his health was broken. He wished to leave his colleague to preside in the city, while he assumed the chief military command and wrested from Sulla the direction of affairs in the East. Soon after he fell ill, and taking to his bed remained a week, when he was found dead. The presumption is fair that the gloomy, lonely old man, who had long outlived his usefulness, took his life with his own hand. Cinna next chose as his colleague Valerius Flaccus, who set himself vigor- ously to work to carry out the pledges made to the allies. The ten Italian tribes were suppressed, and the new citizens enrolled among the thirty-five tribes of the city; but the Samnites, the Lucanians, and others scornfully re- fused to accept the privilege. A proclamation was made adjusting all debts by the payment of one-fourth of them. Then Flaccus put himself at the head of the legions intended for the Pontic War, and proceeded to the East to meet. the movements of Sulla. - Meanwhile, Mithridates had gained a series of brilliant successes. He captured Bithynia and Cappadocia, and then, crossing the AEgean Sea, received the submission of its islands, while his fleet took Athens with its harbor and all the naval equipments. He was generally welcomed as a deliverer, and the danger to Rome was of the gravest nature, when Sulla landed on the eastern shore of the Adriatic. This general was at the head of five legions, whom he encouraged to plun- der and devastate to the fullest extent. He laid siege to Athens, and finally reduced it by breaking through the long walls of Themistocles. Many of the citizens are said to have escaped by lowering themselves from the walls at night. Sulla gave unrestrained license to his troops, and the sacking of the once proud capital was marked by fearful excesses. The Romans next met a vast force of Orientals in the open plain, and routed them in the terrific battle of Chaeronea. Then Flaccus appeared and summoned Sulla to surrender. Before the struggle between them could open, a second armament of Mithridates came within reach. This was disastrously defeated at Orchomenus, and the king of Pontus was compelled to withdraw from Greece. The country was thus left vacant for the struggle between the two Roman armies. A mutiny broke out in that of Flaccus, during which he was assassi- nated. The soldiers selected his successor, and then demanded that, instead of 360 The Story of the Greatest Nations being led against Sulla, they should advance into Asia that they might plunder the provinces. In the fighting which followed, it fell to the lot of Sulla to save Mithridates from capture by the other Romans. This gave to Sulla the power of making his own terms with the king of Pontus, who surrendered Bithynia and Cappadocia and the Roman province of Asia, with most of his fleet and treasures, whereupon he was admitted as an ally of the Republic. Then Sulla turned upon the other Roman army; but, instead of fighting the soldiers, he bribed them to leave the standards of their commander, who in his extremity fell upon his own sword and perished. The eyes of Sulla were upon Rome, from which news had been brought to him of the success of Cinna and his savage partisans. He hurried thither, arriving in Italy in B.C. 83. He gave out that on his arrival with his thirty thousand veterans he would punish the foes of the Republic and not forget his own enemies. This was a terrifying warning, for the triumph of the Marians had filled half of the Senate with their partisans. Cinna and Carbo, the suc- cessor of Flaccus, prepared themselves for the struggle, but the Italian levies refused to join them. Cinna led a body of troops across the Adriatic, and then some of his own mutineers slew him. Carbo raged like a wounded lion in Rome, where he hurled many of his enemies from the Tarpeian Rock and drove the tribunes from the city. By this time, Sulla had landed with five legions in Italy. He defeated one enemy after another, until, through long and desperate fighting, he entered Rome in triumph. Then, with a cruelty as fiend- ish as that of Cinna and Marius, he carried out his threat of revenging himself upon the foes of himself and the Republic. Day after day, the lists of pro- scribed ones were published, and the victims fell as swiftly as they did centu- ries later in France during the hideous Reign of Terror. The inhuman mis- creants even refused to let the body of Marius rest in peace, but dug it from its sepulchre on the banks of the Anio, and flung it into the stream. One of the dead warrior's relatives was captured, and instead of being decently killed was tortured to death. We weary of the carnival of violence and crime, and close the record with a curious incident. Among the Romans was a youth of eighteen, a gay, roystering fellow, who was related by blood to Marius and by marriage to Cinna. His easy good- nature made him popular with all his acquaintances, and Sulla promised to spare him on condition that he should repudiate his wife. The young man re- fused and fled into the Sabine mountains. The assassins hurried after him, like so many bloodhounds, while his friends in Rome pleaded for his pardon. Finally Sulla consented to spare him. “But beware,” he added; “in that young trifier there is more than one Marius.” Well might he utter the excla- mation, for the youth to whom he referred was Julius Caesar. | | | | | | | | | | | NOV 8 1906 CAESAR CROSSING THE RUBICON < -1 – > - < > O -- < z ºn H. z < I O -- u > ~ < z o < I. H. -- +. O º º ºn- .. |:- THE ROMANS PASS UNDER THE YOKE SNOS SIH OL AO83 w 9 N1Snae sºn Lnnaeae （'：|× ſae ae s - § - - 5. > ~ - O u- 2. - > o -- u I- Hº- º ºg - "/ º | ". - º | \ º, IA SAL AR PH OM MPEY FR PO OF T GH FL 3WO8 Awſ 8.138 OL w 13d&w_L ĐNI LdWEL SENIºws 3.Hl. - - - --- --- º º º Rome—Sulla the Fortunate 361 It was inevitable that from this anarchy, rioting, fire, blood, death, and utter wretchedness, a Dictator should spring forth. Sulla was declared Dictator for an unlimited term in B. c. 81. He undertook the reconstruction of the govern- ment, but the obstacles and difficulties were innumerable, and his own vehement temper prevented a successful management of many of the delicate questions that came before him. He was the Red Terror, at the mention of whose name the bravest blanched, since he held in his hands the issues of life and death, and no one dared thwart his ferocious will. He carried his ends by his own resist- less personality, and when he looked upon what he conceived to be the full fruition of all his grand schemes, he declared himself the favorite of Fortune, which was the only divinity he acknowledged. Then when his despotism was absolute, he suddenly resigned the dictatorship in B.C. 79. No doubt the cause of this was the breaking down of his strength. He had been a furious debauchee for years, and he now abandoned himself to the grossest vices and indulgences, until his body became a mass of loathsome disease, and he breathed his last in the year following his abdication. The wretch was honored with a magnificent funeral, and on the monument was engraved the following epitaph, written by himself: “I am Sulla the Fortunate, who in the course of my life have surpassed both friends and enemies; the former by the good, the latter by the evil, I have done them.” -- º -- ºtº- -- # | º - - º --- - - wº III. - †. º | ſº º - - - * – --- lºſſ." SENATORS SEERING PEACE WITH SULLA *Nº. - A | - : ºlº | - - º - -- º - º º: a - - - ºf ººº. - ºº: ººººººº. - F- º- - --~~~~~~ º º --- - 3. - - [- Divitiacus BEFoRE CAESAR Chapter XXXIV POLITICAL INTRIGUE POMPEY AND CAESAR † OMAN history had now reached a period when the grand days of the Republic were gone out in darkness, when patriotism vanished, and there was simply a struggle among a few ambitious men as to who should attain su- preme power. These men were the leaders of warring mobs, which might number five, ten, fifty, or a hundred thousand rioters, but they were mobs none the less, and most of them were swayed by the basest passions. Wo- ful indeed was the condition of the country that had once been the grandest in the whole world. When a republic falls into the throes of anarchy, this one result is almost inevitable: as in the case of Sulla, some man strides forth with the ability to gain the upper hand and seize the supreme control. The people weary of the horrors of civil strife, and welcome their master as their deliverer. The question in Rome now was only, who this man should be. After the death of Sulla, the foremost leader of the aristocratic party was Cneus Pompeius, who afterward gained the title of Magnus or “the Great.” He began his military career at the age of seventeen under his father, Strabo, whom he saved, as we have seen, from his mutinous soldiers. At that early age, Pompey gave proof of remarkable valor and energy. His father died in 1.c. 87, and the son narrowly escaped death at the hands of the Marian party when they were in power. Upon the return of Sulla from Greece to Italy, Pompey hastened into Pice- º - - º |zºº : -} --º Rome—Successes of Pompey 363 num, where he possessed large estates and had considerable influence. He raised three legions, with which he drove the Marians out of the district and effected a junction with Sulla. His prudence and valor throughout the re- mainder of the war were so marked that, on the restoration of peace in Italy, he was entrusted with the work of stamping out the fires kindled by the Marian factions in Sicily and Africa. He performed this task so well that, on his re- turn to Rome, he secured the name of Magnus, and a triumph unprecedented in the case of one who had not yet held any public office. The next exploit of Pompey was the conquest of the followers of Lepidus, whom he drove out of Italy, and the extinction of the Marian party in Spain, where they were under the leadership of the valiant Sertorius. Having been absent from Italy for five or six years, Pompey came back in time to overthrow the remnants of the army of Spartacus, the leader of a band of gladiators, who with a large force of insurgents kept the country in a turmoil from B. c. 73 to 7 I. These exploits made Pompey the idol of the people, by whom he was elected to the consulship in the year B.C. 70. He was not of legal age, but the Senate removed the bar, well aware of the danger of refusing to do so. At the end of his year in office, he retired to private life, but was soon called upon to exterminate a band of pirates which infested the Mediterranean with their headquarters in Cilicia, Asia Minor. In the space of three months, he cleaned out the pests, root and branch. Meanwhile, Mithridates had again launched his grand scheme of conquering the Eastern Roman provinces, and the most natural act of the Senate was to send Pompey thither to suppress this dangerous enemy. The war lasted throughout B. C. 66–64, and ended in a splendid triumph for Pompey, who crushed Mithridates and his son-in-law Tigranes, conquered Phoenicia, turned Syria into a Roman province, and cap- tured Jerusalem. Mithridates, one of the most accomplished of Orientals (it was said he could speak with perfect fluency twenty-five languages and dia- lects), committed suicide. Returning to Italy, Pompey disbanded his army and entered Rome in triumph for the third time in B.C. 61. Now, soon after the death of Sulla, the warring elements in Rome gradually crystallized into four distinct factions, which may be thus described: The oligarchical faction was composed of the few families whose chiefs con- trolled the Senate and thus in reality governed the Republic. At the head of this faction was Pompey, though some of the members had come to look upon him with distrust, and, while he was absent in Asia its representatives were the coldly honorable Cato and Marcus Tullius Cicero, who had reached the proud rank of the greatest orator in Rome. He was given to boasting, and was very vain, but his patriotism and virtue were never stained. - Another aristocratic faction was composed of the Senators who sought to 364 - The Story of the Greatest Nations regain the power thus usurped by a few of their colleagues. The leader of this party was Marcus Licinius Crassus, whose father and brother had been exe- cuted by the Marians, while he himself had narrowly escaped because of his youth. He afterward joined Sulla and distinguished himself in the battle against the Samnites at the gates of Rome. He was made consul in the year B.C. 70 with Pompey, but he hated him and was his bitter rival. Crassus was the richest of the Roman citizens, as proof of which he gave a feast during his consulate to IO,OOO people, and distributed a provision of corn for three months. Plutarch estimates his wealth at more than $8,000,000, while others make it still higher. It was his riches rather than his ability that gave him influence. The Marian faction embraced all the common people who had suffered at the hands of Sulla and were eager for the chance to strike a blow for them- selves. The leader of this party was Caius Julius Caesar, whose transcendent ability was destined to make him the “foremost man of the world.” As you will recall, he was gay and riotous in his youth, was a nephew of Marius, and belonged to an old patrician family. It was his own ambition that led him to take up the cause of the people. Caesar was born on the 12th of July, B.C. IOO, and was the son of a Roman praetor of the same name. It will be recalled that Caius Marius married his aunt, while Caesar himself in 83 B.C. married Cor- nelia, daughter of Cinna. We remember how narrowly he escaped with his life from Sulla. As it was, he was robbed of his property and rank, and wisely went abroad to Asia, not returning to Rome until he heard of the death of Sulla. The military faction was made up of the old officers of Sulla, who, having squandered the fortunes gained by plunder under him, were now waiting for some revolution that would allow them to regain what they had lost. They were adventurers and soldiers of fortune who knew not the meaning of patriot- ism or unselfishness, but were ready to cast their swords on the side that offered the surest gain. Their leader was Catiline, formerly one of the ablest and most cruel of Sulla's officers. He was eight years older than Caesar. His full name was Lucius Sergius Catilina. He was descended from an impoverished patrician family and seemed to be intended by nature for a successful master of crime; his body was capable of bearing any amount of fatigue and hardship, and he had no moral scruples whatever. No crime can be conceived which he would not willingly commit to further his own ends. Naturally his adherents were mainly debauched young patricians and broken-down military men, who differed from him only in the degree of ability. Bearing these distinctions in mind, let us trace the events that follow. In B.C. 68, Catiline was elected praetor; the next year governor of Africa, and in the following year he wished to stand for the consulship, but was disqualified Rome—Conspiracy of Catiline 365 because of charges of maladministration in his province. Catiline was bur- dened by enormous debts, and, with his moral recklessness, he saw his only hope in setting a revolution on foot, trusting to his skill to place himself on top in the overturning of the government. He, therefore, entered into a conspiracy with a number of young nobles, as abandoned as himself, but the plot was re- vealed to Cicero by the mistress of one of the conspirators. The first blow was to have been Cicero's assassination in the Campus Martius, but he was kept informed of every step in the conspiracy, and with little trouble frustrated the design. Defeat for the moment did not affect the diabolical purpose of Catiline. He called his confederates together on the night of November 6 (B.C. 63), and explained to them the new plan he had formed for the assassination of Cicero; for bringing up the Tuscan army which he had seduced from its allegiance, and which was under Manlius at the encampment of Faesulae; for setting fire to Rome and slaying all such senators and citizens as they disliked. Here was as devilish a plot as was ever evolved by the brain of man; but on the same night that Catiline explained the particulars to his brother conspira- tors, the details were laid before Cicero as well. When the assassins came to his house under pretence of making a call, he was prepared and repulsed them. Two days later, Catiline had the insolence to appear in the Senate. Cicero, who had just received news that the insurrection had begun in Etruria, launched his celebrated invective against the arch conspirator which, opened with the words: Quousque tandemn abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra 2 (“How long now, Catiline, will you abuse our patience?”) The miscreant was incapable of shame through the exposure of perfidy, but he was astounded by the intimate knowledge the orator showed of his plot. He made an attempt at reply, but it was so bungling that his words were drowned in cries of execration. Muttering curses, he flung himself out of the Senate and fled from Rome during the night. He and Manlius were denounced as traitors, an army under the consul, Antonius, was sent against them, and the conspirators who remained in Rome were arrested and executed. The upris- ings in different parts of Italy were suppressed, and many who had flocked to the camp in Etruria left when they learned what had taken place in Rome. Catiline retired to Pistoria in Etruria, in January B.C. 62, where he met the forces under Antonius and fought with the most desperate courage, only to be defeated and slain. Had Pompey been able to measure up to his opportunity, he could have easily placed himself at the head of affairs on his return from the East, but he lacked the capacity, and his former supporters in the oligarchic party distrusted him. When the Senate, under the lead of Cato, refused to ratify his measures 366 The Story of the Greatest Nations in Asia, he joined the opposition and was thus brought in touch with Caesar. The two leaders compared views and found that on almost all points they were in agreement. Naturally they decided to unite their forces. To cement the union as closely as possible, Caesar gave his only daughter Julia in marriage to - Pompey. Then the far-seeing Caesar convinced his friend that the wisest step they could take was to admit Crassus to their political partnership. This was done, and, in the year B.C. 60, was formed the historical coalition known as the “First Triumvirate.” Its object, or rather the object of Pompey and Caesar, was to defeat the senatorial faction in every possible way, and to secure the supreme power for themselves. It cannot be doubted that the mighty genius of Caesar saw the future with a vastly clearer vision than did Pompey, his intimate associate. Caesar was al- ready aiming at the single-handed mastery of Rome, and he required no one to point out the several steps he needed to take in order to reach the exalted summit. The three chiefs had pledged themselves not to speak or act except with a view to the common interest of all, yet not one of them could have been sincere. Each was looking for the first place in the commonwealth, for each believed it was due him, Pompey because of his services, Crassus because of his wealth which might at the proper time buy it, and Caesar because he knew that his genius could command it. - Aided by a wealthy candidate, Lucceius, Caesar was able to carry his elec- tion to the consulship (B.C. 59), in the face of the violent opposition of the nobles. In this new and important office, he cultivated the good-will of the people, and, against the efforts of the other faction, brought about the enact- ment of an agrarian law, which included an assignment of lands to the Pom- peian veterans. He had proclaimed himself the friend of the provinces, and did not forget his promises. His first consulship was a stormy one; civil fac- tion ran high. The power of Cato and his party was broken. Cicero abandoned political life and retired to his country villa to engage in the literary work by which he is remembered. Many sighed with relief when Caesar's year of office drew to a close. But he had taken no false step, and every rival had yielded to him. He saw in the confusion of affairs, in the corruption of the people, and in the weakness of the Senate, the speedy numbering of the days of the free state. Pompey was fretting and waiting for the Senate to place its power in his hands as Dictator. Caesar knew that if he was ever to attain Supreme rule he must seize it for himself. And how was this to be done? It would be suicide for him to attempt it amid the warring factions at home. He must leave Rome, and, in the field of foreign adventure and conquest, gather the laurels that in due time would en- able him to return to the city and demand the prize of the conqueror. He had Rome—Caesar Conquers Gaul 367 the example of Alexander before him, and it shone forth as his guiding star. His generous nature leads us to believe that he had absolute faith in the bene- fits which he would thus be able to bestow upon his country. The Senate gave him an insignificant mission near home, but the people set aside the decree, and offered him the provinces of Cisalpine and Illyricum for five years, with an army of three legions. The threatened disturbances in those regions called for a strong hand to repress them, and, to use a modern vulgar- ism, the “pull” of Caesar induced the Senate not only to consent to the assign- ment, but to add to it the Transalpine Province. ” It was in the spring of B.C. 58 that Caesar entered Gaul, and for nine years he turned all his energies to conquering the tribes from the Rhone to the Seine, the Rhine and the Atlantic. The opportunity was a golden one, for it gave full play to his military genius, and promised to exalt his reputation far above that of Crassus and Pompey, who were to be compared with him. Caesar's first campaign was directed against the Helvetii, whom he disas- trously defeated near Autun, then known as Bibracte. Out of 368,OOO foes only I Io,000 were left, whom he bade return home and till their lands. By this time the attention of all Gaul was centred upon the terrible con- queror who had burst upon them with his invincible legions. Divitiaéus, an AEduan chief, begged his help, which being granted, Caesar became involved a second time in a war with a German prince, who was overthrown. Two impor- tant campaigns being successfully concluded, Caesar and his army went into winter quarters. The following year (B.C. 57) brought the Belgic war. Sev- eral tribes were so frightened by the successes of the Roman arms, that they formed an alliance against the invaders, only to be defeated one after the other. . Upon the receipt of the news of these triumphs, the Roman Senate decreed a thanksgiving of fifteen days, an honor never before received by any general. The following winter and spring were spent by Caesar in Lucca, where he dis- pensed a lavish hospitality, and indulged in dissipation and debauchery that were anything but creditable to him. The fires of insurrection again broke out, this time among the Veneti in the northwest of Gaul. Caesar laid his plans with matchless skill and carried them to perfect success. The Veneti were crushed, and nearly all the rest of the Gallic tribes forced into submission. Caesar wintered in the present district of Normandy, having completed the conquest of Gaul in three campaigns. In the year following (B.C. 55), Pompey went to Spain, Crassus to Syria, and Caesar's provincial government was extended five years. His next campaign was against two German tribes, who were preparing to enter Gaul, and it proved as successful as the others had been. The barbarians were pursued pell-mell across the Rhine, where the Romans spent eighteen days in plunder- 368 The Story of the Greatest Nations ing the district of the Sigambri. Caesar then invaded Britain, landing in the face of the desperate opposition of the wild natives. He remained in the island, however, only a short time, and then returned to Gaul. The Roman Senate were so amazed and delighted by his successes in regions where their arms had never before penetrated, that they accorded him a second public thanksgiving—this time of twenty days. Caesar's next campaign was opened by a second invasion of Britain, where, as we shall learn in our history of that country, he received anything but a “hospitable” reception. A drought caused such a scarcity of corn that he was obliged to winter his army in divisions. The scattering of his forces encour- aged the Gauls to attempt to regain their independence, and an insurrection broke out in the northeast, which was successful at first, but in the end was crushed, and Caesar wintered on the site of Amiens, so as to be within striking distance of the malcontents. The sixth campaign (B.C. 53) was devoted mainly to crushing a second in- surrection among the Gauls. All this time Caesar kept in close touch with his friends in Rome. He returned frequently to Northern Italy, so as to be ready to hurry to the city when the right hour should come, and all the signs pointed to its being close at hand. In the weak government, the increasing anarchy, and the poisoning corruption, he must have seen the rapid drawing near of the time when he was to take the decisive step that was to bring him irretrievable ruin, or glory such as never before had come to any man. But at this crisis the roseate sky was darkened by a cloud which threatened to eclipse his dreams of greatness. Under the lead of Vercingetorix, a warrior of immense vigor and ability, a tremendous rebellion broke out all through Gaul. The startling news came to Caesar in the dead of winter. He saw on the instant that he must preserve his army and crush his enemy, or all would be lost. Turning his eyes away from Rome, he began with the utmost vigor to collect his scattered legions, and then led them through the mountains of Au- vergne, where the snow was six feet deep, and rushed like a cyclone among the Arverni, who, terrified at his unexpected appearance, sent in all haste to their chief Vercingetorix to come to their help. This was what Caesar desired, for it would bring the formidable leader be- fore him, and the ability of the two commanders would be pitted against each other. Once Caesar himself was defeated, but with surpassing skill he outgen- eralled his adversary and finally shut him up in Alesia (Alise in Burgundy). where, despite the harassments of 3OO,OOO infantry, who tried in vain to break through the Roman lines, Vercingetorix was compelled to capitulate. Many of the tribes then submitted, and Caesar wisely determined to winter among the vanquished. Again the Senate voted him a great thanksgiving. Rome—Defeat of Crassus 369 The following year (B. c. 51) he completed the conquest of the tribes which still held out. In addition, he reduced the whole of Aquitania, and passed the winter of his eighth campaign at Nemetocenna in Belgium. He treated the Gallic princes with generosity and kindness, and won the good-will of the com- mon people by sparing them the imposition of further taxes. As for his sol- diers, they would have gladly marched to the ends of the earth under the lead- ership of their idolized commander. Leaving out all consideration of the wonderful brilliancy of Caesar's cam- paigns in Gaul, during the nine years he was there, it cannot be doubted that his influence in the capital was much greater than if he had remained in the city. He was able to keep out of many petty disputes, which would have in- jured him, and was free to plan the measures looking to his great final triumph. He had loyal adherents, who were eager to do his will, and, as has been shown, he kept in close touch with the politics of the city. He intrigued, schemed, and moulded men and events to his will, and with powerful enemies as well as friends in the city, his ascendancy steadily grew. His sun rose higher and higher. It was in the nature of things that Crassus and Pompey, the remaining mem- bers of the Triumvirate or political partnership, should be jealous of Caesar's growing strength. One hope of his enemies had been that a man so addicted to excesses would succumb to the rigors of campaigning in the fearful winters among the mountains of Gaul. But he did not. He who had been looked upon as a frail gallant was heard of as climbing the wildest regions on foot through deep snows and arctic weather; as swimming rivers, riding his horse without a bridle, and sleeping amid the sleet and storms of the dismal morasses. If sometimes he was carried on a litter, it was only to husband his strength; he maintained an enormous correspondence and read and wrote on a variety of abstruse subjects. His life seemed to be an illustration of the power of the mind to rise superior to the weakness of the body. But what were Pompey and Crassus doing to press their own interests throughout those years 2 Pompey as proconsul of Spain was made governor of six legions. This was his desire, for he was a fine soldier, and saw the means of furthering his ambition in his chosen field. He, however, remained in Italy and was allowed to act through his lieutenants. While he claimed this as a merit, it was displeasing to many, because it violated an ancient usage. More- over, it elevated him for the time above either of his colleagues and was a step toward monarchy. He devoted the remainder of his consulship to planning legislation that would please the people and hush the murmurs of Cato and others in the Senate. He tried by every means at his command––though with slight success—to win back the popularity that had gradually drifted away from him. 24 370 The Story of the Greatest Nations Crassus, also eager for fame, overstepped the laws, and seized upon his province before the termination of his consulship. It was Syria, and he boasted that from it he would reach the farthest limits of the East. Pompey was will- ing he should make the effort, and Caesar encouraged him to do so. Still vaunting, Crassus arrived at the seat of his government, and directed the move- ments of his troops toward the Euphrates. The Parthians at that time were the most powerful nation in the East, their realm extending from the Caspian to the Persian Gulf, and they were a brave and warlike people. Orodes, their king, did not oppose the passage of the Euphrates by the Romans. Several towns were captured and garrisoned, and then Crassus withdrew to spend the winter in Syria, and prepare for more important conquests. In order to obtain the means, he robbed the holy temples, and was tauntingly asked by the Par- thians whether his acts were meant as a declaration of war, or whether he was engaged on a private speculation of his own. Crassus replied that he would answer the question in their capital. The Parthian envoy smiled, and, holding out his hands, said that hair would grow on their palms before the Romans should ever set eyes on Seleucia. This grim self-confidence of the Parthians impressed the Roman soldiers, but Crassus sneered, and, with a blind reliance on his own ability, disregarded the advice of his ally, the king of Armenia, as to the right course to follow. He marched straight across the desert. His guide purposely misled him, and, when the Romans were inextricably caught, slipped off and joined the Par- thians. Several days later the exhausted army of Crassus reached a stream where they found the enemy awaiting them. His officers urged Crassus to extend his lines to prevent the Parthian cavalry from outflanking them; but Crassus would not do this, and formed his men in a solid square, which was utterly useless against the assault of the light Parthian cavalry and the clouds of arrows that darkened the air. Crassus ordered his son to charge and disperse their assail- ants. The youth at the head of a strong force pressed forward, but was soon cut off from the legions and overpowered. His captors displayed his head on a pike in full view of the Romans, who made a brave defence, though they suf- fered severe losses, until darkness brought a lull. Then a retreat was ordered, and the exhausted legions, their ranks dreadfully thinned, staggered back tow- ard their most advanced outposts, which they managed to reach. But they felt unsafe even there, and a disorganized flight followed, with the Parthians relent- lessly pressing them. Crassus was finally brought to bay and ordered to sur- render. He did not wish to do so, for he distrusted his enemies, but his un- disciplined soldiers compelled him to submit, since the Parthians promised the fairest terms; but in the ceremonies accompanying the surrender, Crassus and Rome—Political Anarchy 37 I his officers were attacked and all slain. Such was the end of the wealthiest member of the celebrated Triumvirate. His expedition had proven a failure of the most disgraceful nature. Ten thousand Romans were captured and twenty thousand had perished. The captives were so well treated that most of them settled in Parthia. - The amazing successes of Caesar and the turbulence in Rome prevented the excitement which the news of the death of Crassus and the overthrow of his expedition would have caused under other circumstances. Matters in the city steadily went from bad to worse, until the best men came to despair of the Republic and to see that their only hope was in a dictatorship. The year B.C. 53 opened with an interregnum which lasted for six months. Bribery was so open and shameless that the Senate and tribunes, who had still a sense of honor left, combined and prevented any elections whatever, so that at the beginning of the year no consuls had been elected. After a time, Cato became alarmed and persuaded Pompey to order an election. This was done; but the same state of affairs occurred the next year, and it was suspected that Pompey him- self was the cause of it. Rioting and bloodshed followed, and a savage affray took place betwen Milo, who demanded one of the consulships, and Clodius, who had been tribune and obtained Cicero's banishment. The two men met on the highway, and the quarrel began between their servants. Clodius was wounded and took refuge in a wayside tavern, where he was furiously attacked by Milo and killed. After the body had lain by the roadside for a time, it was picked up by a friend and carried into the city, where it lay exposed to the gaze of the multitude, who worked themselves into irrestrainable fury at the sight. They wrenched loose the benches and tore the books and papers from the curia, where the Senate was accustomed to assemble; they set fire to the pile, which consumed the remains of Clodius and burned several buildings. The homes of a number of nobles were attacked, and a Savage mob assailed that of Milo, who, however, was prepared and repelled his assailants. Such an incident vividly shows the frightful state of Rome at that time. Cicero, in despair, left the city, where the tribunals were corrupt or cowardly and from which law, order, and security had disappeared. Even Cato, though he did not lose courage, believed the evil day had come when they must look to a single man to save them from ruin. “It is better to choose him now,” he said, “when we are free to fix upon the best one, than to wait for the tyrant whom anarchy may impose upon us.” There really was no choice, and Pompey was begged by the Senate to be- come sole consul. This was practically making him Dictator, though he dared not directly assume the title, which had been made odious by the tyranny of Marius and Sulla. Pompey promised to govern in the interests of the people, f 372 The Story of the Greatest Nations and took Cato as his adviser. A colossal task was before him, for disorder, corruption, extravagance, and lawlessness were everywhere. He entered upon his duties as sole consul at the close of February, B.C. 52. Almost his first act was to throw aside all pretence of alliance with Caesar, and to devote himself wholly to the aims of the oligarchic party. He surrendered Milo to the incensed populace, and although Milo was defended by the eloquence of Cicero, he was sentenced to banishment. Something like tranquillity reigned for a time, since the people could not forget the military qualities of their ruler, who knew how to be severe when his will was thwarted. But if Pompey was a soldier, he was nothing more. He failed to measure up to the demands of his position. He could not think out any distinctive or far-reaching measures for the relief of the people, while he had a way of violating the law in his own person, that was fatal to the respect in which all laws should be held. Pompey retained the sole consulship for six months, when he caused his father-in-law, Metellus Scipio, to become his associate. On the whole, he had done good service, for order prevailed in the city, and corruption, if not extin- guished, was compelled to hide its head. Before quitting the office, he had the consulship conferred upon Servius Sulpicius, a noble of exalted character, and upon Marcellus, an aristocrat of the most rabid kind, and the mere creature of Pompey. This happened directly after Caesar had crushed Vercingetorix, and the Senate had decreed a thanksgiving of twenty days in honor of the conqueror. In spite of this, Marcellus demanded the recall of Caesar, and was backed by the aristocratic faction, who felt secure of Pompey's support whenever it should be needed. Cicero, the most prudent counsellor of the party, was silenced by sending him to the distant government of Cilicia. Cato thundered against Caesar. Marcellus, the bitter enemy of Caesar, continued to cry for his recall. But Pompey hesitated, as he always did when confronted by a grave political problem. Instead of going to his province, he remained in command of his legions, even at the gates of Rome. In a daze of doubt and bewilderment as to what he ought to do, he went to his villas and shut himself from the leaders of his party. Finally he decreed that the matter should be postponed for six months. By this he merely added to the anger of Caesar, offended many in the Senate, and gave Caesar time for preparation. Some attribute Pompey's course to an attack of sickness, which at one time threatened a fatal termination, and roused the sympathy of the Italians, so warmly shown in prayers for his recov- ery, that when he regained his health he was blindly infatuated with his popu- larity—which was only superficial—among his countrymen, and believed they were ready to support him to the extreme of his most ambitious designs. Thus, in the year B.C. 50, Caesar was able to take up his residence in Cisal- Rome–Pompey Made Dictator 373 pine Gaul, with the three hundred tribes beyond the Alps not only conquered and pacified, but personally attached to him. He now offered himself for elec- tion to the consulship. The mere suing for this office required that he should relinquish command of his army, although, if he refrained from his suit, his term would not expire until the close of the following year. The friends of Caesar, however, demanded that if he were compelled to sur- render command of his legions, Pompey should be required to do the same, and end his proconsulship in Spain. The Senate refused to agree to this, and instead passed a decree that if Caesar did not disband his army by a certain day he was to be regarded as the enemy of the Republic, and punished as such. The decree had the ring of open defiance. The dignity of the con- sulship, if once attained, would have held Caesar safe from attack; but if he now obeyed orders and came to Rome as a private citizen, unsupported by his army, it was but too evident that he would be sacrificed to the vengeance of his enemies. Some senators, with the consul Marcellus at their head, sought Pompey in his villa and fairly thrust a sword into his hand, bidding him take command of all the troops in Italy and defend the Republic. In this they exceeded their legal authority; but legal authority had sunk into contempt. The long game of diplomacy which Pompey and Caesar had been playing was clearly at an end. Pompey was Dictator; Caesar had either to yield himself a victim to his enemies or to stand forth in open defiance. - * = , Tº TTTET` ROMAN CHARIOT C.ESAR’s LEgions Crossing the ALPS Chapter XXXV CAESAR DEFEATS POMPEY_END OF THE REPUBLIC. been done. He was expecting it, and had laid his plans. He had only one legion of soldiers with him at Ravenna, but before them he laid his peril, declar- ing that the time had come to appeal to arms. He possessed the magnetic art of drawing his soldiers to him with the fervor shown centuries later by the troops of Napoleon Bonaparte in the zenith of his success. In all Caesar's campaigns he had never confronted a mutiny. He knew his men would stand by him to the death. Most of them were provincials or foreigners, who cared a thousand-fold more for their leader than for the country whose nominal soldiers they Were. Caesar sent forward some cohorts to the river Rubicon, about twenty miles distant, forming the frontier of his province. He followed them the same evening. The crossing of this stream into Italy would be a declaration of war against the Republic. It is said that when Caesar reached the bank, and realized the momentous im- portance of the step, he hesitated for a long time. At last, his resolution was formed, and, exclaiming, “The die is cast !” he plunged into the river and made his way to the other shore. Now that the irrevocable step had been taken, there was no thought of turning back. The fight between him and the Republic had opened, and could not stop till one was the victor and the other was in the dust. Reaching Ari- Rome—Caesar’s Rebellion 375 minum, a few miles away, Caesar sent back orders calling for the advance of all his armies. Three legions were stationed at Narbo to watch the forces of Pom- pey in Spain, while the rest were to come to him with all possible speed. His whole invading strength for the time did not number more than 6,000 men, hardly a third of those at the disposal of Pompey, who could perhaps have over- whelmed him by a vigorous attack. But when the news of the crossing of the Rubicon reached Rome, Pompey quaked with fear, for neither he nor his gov- ernment had dreamed of such a daring act. Pompey hurried away through the Southern gate of the city, shouting for all good citizens to follow. Thousands streamed along the Appian Way, angered less against the man from whom they were fleeing than the one who had made their flight necessary. Meanwhile, Caesar steadily advanced toward Rome. He was welcomed by the various towns, and the road to the city lay open. But, learning that his adversaries were crossing from Capua to the northern coast, he swung to the left, passed through Picenum, captured Cingulum and Asculum, and then boldly attacked the strong central position of Corfinium. This point the brave Domi- tius insisted should not be abandoned, and, gathering a few troops, he demanded of Pompey that he should bring up the rest of the army. Pompey refused and continued his flight. Domitius was determined to stand a siege, when his plan was overthrown by a most unexpected and significant occurrence. Hardly had the invading army appeared, when the defenders not only sur-. rendered without striking a blow, but delivered Domitius himself into the hands of the conqueror. Caesar was as much astonished as his men, but he could not fail to read the meaning of the act. It was the prestige of his name, with which that of no other man could be compared. It had been the invari- able custom in the civil wars for no mercy to be shown by the Roman captor to the Roman prisoner. But Caesar, for the first time, granted Domitius his life and his freedom, and he displayed the same generous forbearance in subsequent instances. It could not be expected of the officers that they would join the forces of Caesar, but the soldiers did so with ardor. Recruits continually flocked to his standard, and he found his troops rapidly increasing as he ad- vanced. All this time, Pompey was issuing fierce proclamations, warning all that he would treat even neutrals as enemies of the Republic; but the fulminations were received with contempt. He led the consuls and magistrates to the port of Brundisium, where he had collected a number of transports, and several legions, which immediately set sail for Greece. Caesar, hurried from Corfinium, but had no ships; and the vessels from Greece returning carried away Pompey and the remainder of his army. Sixty days sufficed to make Caesar master of all Italy. The campaign was 376 The Story of the Greatest Nations one of the swiftest in history. Pompey retreated or rather fled in disgraceful panic, heedless of the demands of his officers and men that he should stop and fight, and refusing to reveal his plans, if indeed he had any. When at last he stepped on board his vessel at Brundisium, thousands yielded to their disgust and homesickness, and turned back toward Rome. They feared some huge treachery on the part of Pompey, and preferred to entrust themselves to the generosity of Caesar rather than to Pompey's ferocious whims. Among those who thus returned to Rome were many of the best citizens, while the spend- thrifts and adventurers clung to Pompey in the hope that the tide of war would turn sooner or later and their fortunes mend. By and by, it became clear that Pompey intended to summon the servile people of the East to trample under foot the liberties of Western Europe. It was to be an exterminating war against Italy and against Rome. He had cor- rupted many of the nobles and consuls. Cicero said: “He left the city, not because he could not defend it; and Italy, not as driven out of it; but this was his design from the first, to move every land and sea, to call to arms the kings of the barbarians, to lead Savage nations into Italy, not as captives, but as conquerors. He is determined to reign like Sulla, as a king over his sub- jects; and many there are who applaud this atrocious design.” - Caesar entered Rome unattended, assuring the people that they had no pil- .lage or punishment to fear from him. He arranged to reward his soldiers to the extent of about $80 apiece, with $12 to every citizen. For his own needs, he made no requisition except the treasure hoarded in the temple of Saturn, under the Capitol. A curse had been declared against any one who should use it except to repel a Gallic invasion. When the tribune Metellus forbade Caesar to touch it, he thrust him aside with the words: “The fear of a Gallic invasion is gone forever; I have subdued the Gauls.” Rome was of necessity placed under military control. In these times, we should say that martial law was proclaimed. The granaries upon which the city depended for its daily food—Sardinia, Sicily, and Africa—were all in the power of Pompey's forces, and Caesar lost no time in setting out to recover those provinces. The Sardinians received with open arms the legion sent thither; and Cato, who was holding Sicily for Pompey, left there the moment danger appeared. Caesar placed Italy under the command of Antonius and Rome in charge of AEmilius Lepidus, and started for Spain. The armies there must have fallen readily before the great leader, had he not been checked by the defection of Massilia, where Domitius, who had escaped from Italy, had roused the people. Caesar, unwilling to delay, left a large part of his forces to blockade the place, and began his Spanish campaign with only three legions. Rome—Caesar made Dictator 377 These came face to face with the enemy at Ilerda. Caught between the waters of two suddenly flooded rivers, with the bridges washed away and nearly all his provisions gone, Caesar's situation was so critical that his enemies ex- ulted over what seemed his inevitable destruction. But by means of light boats, constructed of wicker frames, and covered with leather or oiled cloth, he kept open his communications, secured food for his men, and finally brought the two armies once more in front of each other. Then took place another of the impressive scenes already mentioned. After a parley, the Pompeian forces deliberately passed over to the side of Caesar. Thus it may be said Spain had conquered itself. Massilia was still in re- volt, but the inhabitants, shut up within the walls, were in sore straits. They, too, hastened to surrender to Caesar, confident of generous treatment. Domi- tius managed to escape and joined his friends at Epirus. Massilia was permit- ted to retain her independence, but she never recovered her former importance. All danger from the west being thus ended, Caesar could give his undivided attention to Pompey. While at Massilia, he was notified that the people in Rome had declared him Dictator. In the hurly-burly many of the prescribed forms for the confer- ring of this office were necessarily omitted, but it was justified under the stress of necessity. This was mainly due to the distressful condition of the people caused by the exorbitant usury charged by the money-lenders. Thousands of citizens were ground to the very dust by their debts, and it was absolutely nec- essary that something should be done to relieve the intolerable burdens. Now, there could be none toward whom the debtors and repudiators would more natu- rally turn with confidence than Caesar. He had inherited through Marius a connection with the party opposed to the wealthy and the nobles; he had known by experience what it was to suffer from crushing debt, and his private con- duct had been anything but a model for the youths of Rome. What then could induce him to refuse the prompt relief which only he could give 2 But to their amazement he resolutely refused to grant their demands. As Dictator, he could do without question whatever he thought proper or right, but no appeal could persuade him to resort to confiscation. He selected arbi- ters for the valuation of debtors' property and compelled its sale, only stipulat- ing that the creditors should yield their claims to excessive interest. All this being done, he gave great help to the bankrupts by distributing land among them, and by giving corn to the poorer classes. Caesar held the dictatorship for just eleven days, but, before resigning it, he presided at the comitia of the tribes and caused himself to be nominated consul for the year B.C. 48, with Servilius Isauricus as his associate. This was effected with due formality, as was the case with the other magistracies conferred upon 378 The Story of the Greatest Nations his friends. Even the Senate, or such of it as remained, joined in approving these elections. Caesar was now the legally appointed general and champion of Rome. Pompey, with his threatening body of troops in Greece, was become the rebel. The Eastern potentates still regarded Pompey as the greatest of living generals, and they began rallying to his cause. He ordered them to meet him at Thessalonica, and there gathered the monarchs of Galatia, of Thrace, of Cilicia, of Cappadocia, and of Commagene, besides others of less impor- tance. These forces, with their horsemen, bowmen, and slingers, were his allies, his main body consisting of five Roman legions taken with him from Italy, besides four others called from the Eastern provinces. Two more were expected under C. Metellus Scipio from Syria. This made nine legions, whose numbers must have exceeded 40,000 men, which was more than doubled by his cavalry and auxiliaries. It should be remembered, however, that most of the allies were raw levies, who needed disciplining and moulding into effective shape; and indeed this was also true of a number of the legionaries themselves. Another serious hindrance to Pompey was the divided counsels of his party. He had many of the leaders of the Senate in his camp, where also were Cato and Cicero, and there was continual wrangling over the plans of the campaign. Naturally vacillating himself, Pompey was made more so by this lamentable state of affairs. Nevertheless, the motley horde converged to the coast of Epirus, where months were spent in preparations for the decisive struggle. On the other hand, Caesar, while unable to marshal an army of half the size of the enemy, commanded veterans. Every one of them was accustomed to hardships, privations, and fighting, and all were devotedly attached to the man in whose genius they held the most implicit faith. This confidence filled every one, from the officers to the lowest private, and it made the legions so many veritable thunderbolts of war. It was at the close of the year B. C. 49, that Caesar arrived at Brundisium, with his seven legions, numbering about I 5,OOO men, and some 600 horse. The first division was taken across the Adriatic on his transports, but on their return to bring the remaining troops they were intercepted and many destroyed by Pompey's fleet of 500 galleys. This compelled Caesar to remain compara- tively idle until a second convoy could be equipped, which brought over the remaining legions. It is said that, in making the passage himself, Caesar was caught in a violent tempest, and observing the white-faced pilot trembling with fear, he said sternly to him : “Fear not; you carry Caesar and his fortunes.” Pompey was blind to the favors that fortune threw in his way. The trans- ports were driven so far from their course, that Caesar's troops were landed a hundred miles from the point where their chief was awaiting them. This, Rome—Battle of Pharsalia 379 placed Pompey directly between them, and it would have been easy for him to overwhelm each division in turn, but he remained idle, while Caesar brought the two forces together. Caesar then interposed his whole army between his foes and their base of supplies at Dyrrhachium, and held them to the position they had taken on the promontory of Petra. The good anchorage below and the fleet at his command enabled Pompey to secure the supplies he needed, and he improved the period of inaction by training and drilling his raw soldiers. Caesar carefully drew his lines around Petra. With his army so much the inferior, and the sea open to Pompey, this action gained little except to add to the morale of his own indomitable soldiers. But it brought recruits to his ranks, and he cut off his adversary's supply of fresh water. Pompey did not dare venture on an open attack, but landed a strong force in the rear of the be- siegers, who were thrown into confusion and might have been crushed, had Pom- pey possessed half the ability of his opponent, but he suspected a feint upon Caesar's part, and recalled his troops before they could strike a blow. Caesar now left the seaboard and passed into Macedonia and Thessaly, where he combined his detachments for the camapign in the open country. Pompey broke up at Petra, and also marched into Macedonia, but he was too late to overtake his rival, who had reached the valley of the Peneus in Thes- saly. Goaded by the taunts of his followers, Pompey advanced southward from Larissa in search of his enemies, who were posted on the bank of the Enipeus. At last the two armies were in front of each other, and began intrenching with a space of about four miles between. The elevation on which stood Phar- salia, now known as Fersala, was the most conspicuous object in the neighbor- hood, and therefore gave its name to the battle which followed. Pompey refused for a long time to meet his opponent, but was driven to do so by a threatened flank movement, which endangered his communications. The respective forces are given at 22,OOO infantry, 1,000 cavalry, and a few irregular battalions on the side of Caesar, and a legionary force of 40,000 men, with 7,OOO horse and an immense horde of auxiliaries, on the part of Pompey. The sun was almost directly overhead on August 9, B.C. 48, when the Pom- peians issued from their camp and took position on the plain, with a stream on their right. Caesar, his eyes flashing with the light of battle, pressed confi- dently forward, with his cavalry thrust out obliquely on his right, to prevent his being outflanked, while the other flank was protected by the stream. The front line was ordered to charge, and obeyed with its usual impetuosity. The Pom- peians were directed to stand still and await the coming of their foes, who would be partially exhausted from their long and hard run; but they halted when almost within reach, recovered their wind, and dashed forward again with renewed vigor. The Pompeian cavalry had also charged, but the German 38o The Story of the Greatest Nations horse were not shaken. Far inferior in number, they had picked men among the animals, who fought bravely on foot, and fell slowly back in good order, till they reached the reserve of six cohorts. Observing that the knights and senators of the Pompeian party were clad in full armor, the officers of the Caesarians ordered their men to aim all their blows at their faces. Before this fierce assault, these defenders soon broke their ranks, and were tumbled back upon their own lines. The Pompeian infantry stood their ground, but, on the breaking of the Pompeian cavalry as described, Caesar brought up his reserves and charged both on the front and flank. By his orders, the assaults of his men were directed at the Romans opposed to them, and no heed was given to the allies, but when he saw the fortune of the day was with him, he commanded his troops to spare the Romans, and devote their energies to the annihilation of the foreigners. The slaughter among these was fearful: the overthrow of the Pompeians was complete, and Pompey himself, when he saw the rout, leaped upon his horse and galloped in headlong haste from his camp. The victory at Pharsalia left Caesar the foremost man in the Roman world, and therefore is ranked as one of the decisive battles of history. The blind confidence of the Pompeians is shown by the fact that they had made no provisions for disaster. No place had been appointed for a rallying point, the fleet was far away and the forces scattered; and yet, with all that, if the fragments were brought together they could still be made very formidable. But neither heart nor judgment was left to Pompey. He kept up his flight through Larissa, and gained the Thessalian Coast at the mouth of the Peneus, where he and several of his officers went on board a merchant vessel, which carried them to Lesbos, whither his wife Cornelia had been taken. Leaving that port, the ship coasted Asia and picked up more fugitives, and it can be understood how earnestly they consulted together over their future movements. Different plans were proposed, and it was finally agreed to seek an asylum in Egypt, whose boy-king Ptolemaeus owed gratitude to the Senate, and who it was believed would welcome them into his wealthy kingdom, which was almost inaccessible to an enemy without a fleet. When Pompey arrived at Pelusium, he was accompanied by about 2,OOO men. The situation in Egypt at that time was peculiar. By the will of Ptol- emy Auletes, the late king, his daughter Cleopatra was to marry her young brother Ptolemy Dionysus, and to reign jointly with him, under the guardian- ship of a council of state. But Cleopatra, the “ Serpent of the Nile,” had been driven from court by an intrigue, and Egypt was governed in the name of the young king by the chamberlain Pothinus, the general Achillas, and the precep- tor Theodotus. The resentful Cleopatra threatened to invade the country with Rome—Death of Pompey 381 a force, and the troops of the king were drawn up on the eastern frontier to oppose her. The body of men brought by Pompey was comparatively insigni- ficant in numbers, but they probably would have brought success to whichever side of the contestants they assisted. The royal council discussed Pompey's claims to their hospitality and finally decided to reject the dangerous alliance, for they were not only confident of success without his aid, but saw how embar- rassing the obligation for such aid would become to them. It was all-important, however, to prevent Pompey from going to the help of Cleopatra's party, and to check him a crime was committed. The refusal of the royal council was concealed from Pompey, and he was asked to come alone in a vessel to the presence of the king. Without hesitation, he accepted the invitation and seated himself in the boat. Soon after, Septimius, a Roman centurion, who was behind him, struck him down, and he was speedily killed by Achillas. His head was cut off and carried ashore, but the body, which was flung overboard, was washed upon the beach, where a freedman of the Romans wrapped it about with his cloak, and, gathering some dry wreckage, burned it on the rude pyre. The ashes were laid in the sand, and over them was placed a stone, on which was scrawled with charcoal the name “Magnus.” Such was the end of Pompey, not yet three-score years old, who had been consul three times, who had gained three triumphs over as many continents, whose procon- sulate had embraced in alternation the East and the West, who might have been Dictator, and who could have seized the empire. Caesar never failed to follow up an advantage. He left a detachment to watch Cato, who still commanded in Illyricum, and he ordered another to com- plete the subjection of Greece. Then, with a single legion and a squadron of horse, he pressed the pursuit of Pompey, following the route around the Med- iterranean, since the sea was closed against him. From the coast of Syria he reached Alexandria with thirty-five vessels and 4,000 men. Pompey had been slain only a few days before, and the head of the miserable victim was brought to Caesar as a present. He turned from it with horror, and ordered fitting burial to be given the remains. The arrival of the great Roman with his armed force frightened the advisers of the king. There were several collisions between their soldiers and the Romans, and Caesar, who was in need of funds, insisted upon the payment of money due him from the king. Pothinus dallied in the hope of gaining time in which to overpower his unwelcome visitors; and thereon Caesar seized the per- son of the king and held him as a hostage for the satisfaction of his claim. It was at this juncture that the beautiful Cleopatra visited Caesar to urge her demands for justice. She dared not place herself within the power of Pothinus, so passed through the ranks of the Egyptian army wrapped in a roll 382 The Story of the Greatest Nations of carpet and borne on the shoulder of a sturdy slave. Thus hidden she was carried into Caesar's apartment, and appeared suddenly before him, ready for the conquest of the conqueror. Caesar was completely bewitched by the fasci- nating woman, and became her champion and lover. He ordered the king to share his power with her; Pothinus was seized and executed, but Achillas, es- caping to his soldiers, summoned them to arms. The populace responded, and Caesar was shut up in a quarter of the city, where, by damming the canals that were supplied from the Nile, his supply of water was cut off. To keep open his way of retreat by the sea, Caesar seized and set fire to the Egyptian fleet. The fire spread to the city and inflicted a loss which subsequent ages could never repair, for it was on this occasion that the great Alexandrian library was probably consumed, with its 400,000 precious volumes. The situation of Caesar and his men was desperate. He was surrounded by a turbulent and hostile population, and the only water to be obtained was by sinking pits in the sand, whence the brackish fluid added to rather than de- creased, the thirst. He made an attempt to capture the isle of Pharos which commanded the harbor, but was repulsed, and saved himself by swimming. The legend says he carried his Commentaries in one hand as he forced his way through the water. Hoping to bring the struggle to an end, he restored the young king to his subjects, but soon afterward Caesar's reinforcements arrived on the frontier, captured Pelusium, and, when they crossed the Nile, he charged out of the cantonments, attacked the royal forces, and defeated them, the king losing his life in the river. - This disaster broke the spirits of the Egyptians, and they made no resist- ance to the enthronement of Cleopatra. Following the strange custom of her country, she was married to a still younger brother than her former consort. Her sister Arsinoe, who had inspired the revolt against her, was surrendered to be carried to Rome as a captive. Caesar had thus gained a footing in the wealthiest kingdom in the world, and he remained for three months, held by two powerful motives—the recruit- ing of his finances and the enjoyment of the society of the woman whose won- derful fascination has made her name known to subsequent generations. As to which of these motives was the stronger, historians have disagreed, but the majority believe it was the witchery of the “Serpent of the Nile.” Be that as it may, it must be conceded that Caesar ran little or no risk in dallying with his fortunes; for Pompey was dead, his adherents scattered, and no name had the power of his own with which to conjure in distant Rome. By way of a diversion, he marched into Pontus, where Pharnaces, son of Mithridates, had attacked his neighbors, who applied to Caesar for assistance. He left Alexandria in April, B.C. 47, and, landing at Tarsus, crossed Cilicia Rome—End of the Republic 383 and Cappadocia and routed the barbarian host at Zela in Pontus. Pharnaces was killed and the war was over in less than a week. It was this campaign which Caesar described in the briefest despatch ever penned : “ Veni, widi, vici ’’ (“I came, I saw, I conquered ”). The enemies of Caesar did not dare to raise a hand in Rome, and in Octo- ber, B.C. 48, he was created Dictator for the second time, with the powers of the tribunate decreed to him for life. Ingenuity was exhausted in preparing new honors for him, but there was turbulence in the city, mainly owing to the indecision of the dissolute M. Antonius, whom Caesar had appointed as his lieu- tenant there. The Dictator himself arrived in Rome in September, B.C. 47. His course was marked by the same generous statesmanship that always guided him. The only estates confiscated were those of the men who remained in arms against him. Among them was the property of Pompey, whose sons were still in the hostile camp. Caesar smoothed and restrained the vehemence of his own supporters, gave Antonius to understand what course he must fol- low, and appointed two consuls to serve for the remainder of the year. For the year following, he nominated himself for the third time, and also Lepidus. He heaped honors and offices upon his friends, and gorged the populace with largesses. The Pompeian forces that escaped from Pharsalia had made their way to the Roman province in Africa, Cato reaching there by a famous march through lion-haunted deserts. So long as this nest of conspirators was left to hatch plots, so long must there be a certain degree of danger to Caesar and his schemes. He, therefore, determined to destroy them. Among the leaders of the republicans was the head of the ancient race of Scipio, and, in the course of the year B. C. 47, the forces assembled at Utica, his headquarters, reached the grand total of ten legions, with the promise of more reinforcements, in which were included I2O elephants. There was still much wrangling and jealousy on the part of the leaders, but all seemed to be confident of final victory, and they often argued and quarrelled over the division of the prodigious spoils which none doubted would soon fall into their hands. Early in the year B. c. 46, the expected enemy appeared off the coast and summoned the republicans to surrender to “Caesar the imperator.” The reply was that there was no imperator there but Scipio, and the envoy was put to death as a deserter. Shortly after, Caesar landed, fortified his position with five legions, and then formed alliances among the Mauritanians and secured a diversion of the Numidians. On the 4th of April, the armies met on the field of Thapsus. Even Caesar could not restrain the ardor of his men, and, placing himself at their head, he charged upon the enemy. The terrified elephants wheeled about and trampled 384 The Story of the Greatest Nations under foot the ranks they had been placed to cover, until officers and men fled in irrestrainable panic. Scipio escaped from the field by sea, but was overtaken and killed, or, some say, killed himself. Cato called his officers together at Utica, explained the situation, and allowed them to decide between flight and surrender. The knights and senators preferred to defend themselves, but the people insisted upon surrender. Soon afterward, it was learned that Caesar was approaching, and Cato ordered the gates to be closed, except the one that led to the shore. He urged all who wished to flee to lose no time in taking to the ships; but he sent away his associates, leaving it clear that he intended to remain. That night, as he lay alone upon his bed, he drove his own sword into his stomach. He did not die immediately, but refused to allow his at- tendants, who rushed to the room, to do anything to save him. When Caesar learned of Cato's death, he expressed his sorrow at being robbed of the pleasure of pardoning him. Caesar came back to Rome after the battle of Thapsus, master of the Roman dominion. 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There was no honor too exalted for him. A Supplication, or thanksgiving of forty days, had been ordered when he stepped foot once more in Italy, at the close of July, B.C. 46. His statue was erected in the Capitol, and another bore the ful- some inscription, “Caesar the demigod.” His image was to be carried in the procession of the gods, and a golden chair was provided for him in the Senate house. The month Quintilis had its name changed to Julius, which we still retain as July. While he was not king in name he was in substance, for no mon- arch could have been more absolute. He was made Dictator for ten years, which was soon changed to perpetual Dictator, and he was hailed as Imperator for life. This title was one that was given under the Republic to a victorious general (for the word means Com- mander), but it was always laid aside at the close of the military command. By clipping the word /m/erator, it will be seen that it readily becomes Emperor 25 386 The Story of the Greatest Nations Moreover, he was invested for three years without a colleague with the functions of the censorship, the title being the Guardianship of Manners, carry- ing with it the authority to revise, as he saw fit, the lists of the knights and senators. To him the people surrendered their right of election, and the Sen- ate that of administration. In the latter body, he was to seat himself between the consuls and first give his opinion, after which, as may be supposed, that of the consuls was of no weight at all, since they dared not oppose him and their support was unnecessary. He had not forgotten the vanities of youth when he used to spend hours before the mirror in curling his locks, for now that he had grown bald about the temples, he wreathed them with the laurel, which not only hid the lack of hair, but was a badge of martial greatness. He wore no beard, and, despite his foppish weaknesses, he welcomed the title of “Father of his Country,” fit only to come from the hearts of a free people. Caesar celebrated four triumphs—that over the Gauls, over Ptolemaeus, over Pharnaces, and over Juba, who had brought the reinforcements of elephants and light cavalry to Scipio at Thapsis, but he declined a triumph for Pharsalia it. self. He gave a banquet at which were seated fully 60, OOO people, who were afterward entertained with shows, the circus and the theatre. The combats of wild beasts and gladiators surpassed anything of the kind ever seen before. When at last the magnificent ceremonies were over, Caesar once more left Rome to suppress in Spain the last resistance of the republicans. There Cnaeus, the eldest son of Pompey, had rallied a motley force, and baffled the generals sent against him, until Caesar lost patience and went thither to conduct the campaign for himself. It lasted for several months, and his situa- tion at one time looked hopeless, but, with his matchless ability, he finally gained the crowning victory at Munda on March 17, B.C. 45. On that day of desolation, 30,000 of the vanquished perished. Cnaeus extricated himself from the whirlpool of death, gained the coast, and put to sea, but was identified when he made a landing, and killed. Caesar remained for some time in Spain, arranging affairs, and returned to Rome in September, when the fresh triumph over the Iberians was celebrated, followed by the usual games and festivals which delighted the people. At the theatres, plays were presented in different languages, for the entertainment of the numerous nationalities in the city, which included ambassadors from the Moors, the Numidians, the Gauls, the Iberians, the Britons, the Armenians, the Germans, and the Scythians. And, perhaps greatest of all, came Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, crown in hand, to lay her treasures at the feet of her royal lover and preserver. Amid these bewildering flatteries and honors, which would have turned the head of any man, it is to the credit of Caesar that no person was made to feel the weight of his resentment. Others with less power Rome—Caesar's Reforms 387 had waded in massacre, but his clemency amazed his friends as much as his enemies. His worshippers had removed the statues of Sulla and Pompey, but he caused them to be restored to their places among those of the grandest champions of the Republic. “I will not,” he declared in one of his speeches, “renew the massacres of Sulla and Marius, the very remembrance of which is shocking to me. Now that my enemies are subdued, I will lay aside the sword, and endeavor solely by my good offices to gain over those who continue to hate me.” - Now Julius Caesar was one of the clearest-sighted men that ever grasped the reins of power. Nothing was plainer to him than that the old political system of Rome was hopelessly shattered. It was equally clear that security and prosperity could be obtained only through the firm and just rule of a single man. Such a man must be a genius of statesmanship, as well as invincible in war, and to whom could such transcendant ability be ascribed with more pro- priety than to Julius Caesar 2 He had obtained power by overriding the laws, but such is the necessity of all revolutions, and having secured that power, he was determined to use it for the good of the people. He laid the foundations broad and strong. He pro- moted distinguished and trustworthy foreigners to places of dignity in the city; Gauls and others were introduced into the Senate; whole classes of useful sub- jects, such as those of the medical profession, were admitted to the franchise, and colonies were planted at Carthage and Corinth. An elaborate geographical survey was made of the immense regions in his dominion, and a most important project undertaken was the Condensation and arrangement into a compact code of the thousands of fragments of the old Roman laws. This work had been dreamed of by Cicero and others, who were forced to believe it an impossible task, but Caesar set about it with such practical sense and system that it assur- edly would have been completed, had his life been spared to the usual limit. As it was, six centuries had to elapse before the glory of the work was earned by Justinian the imperial legislator. One notable achievement was the reform of the calendar. The Roman year had been calculated on the basis of 354 days, with the intercalation or insertion every second year of a month of twenty-two and twenty-three days respectively; but another day had been added to the 354, so as to secure an odd or fortunate number, to meet which an intricate process, which only the scholars understood, was brought into use. The jumble became intolerable. Caesar was a good astronomer, and with the aid of Sosigenes, the most eminent in the science, the Julian calendar was devised. This is still known by that name, and makes each year to consist of 365 days, with an additional day added to every fourth or leap year. Even this is not mathematically exact; and the slight 388 The Story of the Greatest Nations error, in the course of centuries, grew into an importance which required the correction made by Pope Gregory XIII., and put into effect in Rome, October 5–15, 1582. By this Gregorian calendar leap year is omitted at the close of each century whose figures are not divisible by 400. Thus it will be remem- bered that the year 1900 was not a leap year. - Spain, Portugal, and a part of Italy adopted the Gregorian calendar with Rome; France, in December, I 582, and the Catholic states of Germany in I 583. In Scotland it was adopted on January I, 16OO ; and in the Prot- estant states of Germany in 17OO. England and Ireland and the English colo- nies, however, kept the Julian calendar until 1752, when the change was made. Russia alone has retained the Julian system, its dates being now thirteen days behind ours. - Julius Caesar was undoubtedly one of the greatest geniuses that ever lived. No general ever surpassed him in ability; he was a statesman, an orator, a mathematician, a historian, an architect, a jurist, and was pre-eminent in each capacity. His personality was impressive. Tall and dignified of presence, with a fair complexion and keen, expressive black eyes, he never wore a beard, and, as he grew bald, he showed that care for his looks which was almost a passion with him from youth. He wore, as we have stated, a laurel chaplet, which hid his baldness and was at the same time a badge of his military great- ness. He was well worthy of the line applied to him by Shakespeare, “The foremost man of all the world.” Many of the designs of this remarkable genius were never carried to com- pletion, for the reason that his life was cut off in its prime and before he had time to do more than form the far-reaching plans. His Scheme of extending the pomoerium of the city was completed by his successor. Other plans of his were even further delayed. Many years passed before the Pomptine marshes were drained. His scheme of changing the course of the Tiber, so as to en- large the Campus Martius, was never followed out, nor did he cut through the Isthmus of Corinth. He shone as a leader among the intellectual men of his time. While he was modest and affable in his intercourse, none talked or wrote better than he. His “Commentaries,” despite the great length of some of the sentences, remains as a monument of his extraordinary skill as a historian and writer. He was abstemious among the free livers, and Cato has said of him that, of all the revo- lutionists of his day, he alone took up his task with perfect soberness at all times. In this respect he was a marked contrast to Alexander. Moreover, it is impossible to study the character of the man without giving him credit for nobility of purpose. He judged rightly, when he felt that the Rome—Caesar Refuses the Crown 389 only safety of Rome lay in its government by a wise, firm, and discreet ruler, and certainly there was none in that age who so fully met the requirements of the position as himself. The blot upon the character of Caesar is that he ac- cepted the blind, sacrilegious idolatry of his people without protest, and that his private life was scandalous. He openly declared his unbelief in immortal- ity, and lived defiantly with Cleopatra as his wife, though he never made her such. But worldly ambition is never satisfied, and grows by what it feeds on. He became restless. The stirring excitements of military life and the incentive to put forth his best exertions were lacking, and the fact oppressed him. He became haughty and capricious, and, like Napoleon at St. Helena, dreamed of the glories of his past campaigns and longed to engage in more. Brooding over all this, he formed the plan of crushing the Parthians, conquering the barbarians of the North, and then attacking the Germans in the rear. In the closing months of the year B.C. 45, he ordered his legions to cross the Adriatic and meet at Illyricum, where he would speedily join them. He expected to be absent for a long time from Rome, and arranged for the succession of chief magistrates for the following two years. He entered on his fifth consulship on the 1st of January, B. C. 44, M. Antonius being his colleague. At that time, Caius Octavius, the eighteen-year son of Caesar's sister, was in camp at Apollonia, receiving instructions in war from the ablest teachers. He showed great ability, but was of delicate health. Caesar let it be known that he intended to make Octavius his son by adoption, and to bequeath to him all those dignities which the Senate had declared hereditary in his family. It was about this time that the title of £ing became associated with the name of Caesar. His flatterers suggested it, and his enemies urged it upon him, thereby hoping to make him unpopular. One morning, it was found that some person, either a friend or enemy, had attached a laurel and a kingly dia- dem to the statue of Caesar before the rostra. As soon as the tribunes saw it, they tore it down, the populace applauding. Caesar joined in the applause, though one cannot help suspecting the genuineness of his feelings. Some time later, when returning from a festival, a number of men had been hired to hail him as king. There could be no mistaking the angry disapproval, and the listening imperator exclaimed indignantly, “I am no king, but Caesar.” On the 15th of February, while he was seated in his gilded chair before the rostra to preside over a festival, his faithful ally Antonius, now consul, approached and offered him a diadem, saying it was the gift of the Roman people. Faint applause followed, but when Caesar thrust the diadem from him, the acclama- tions were enthusiastic. Then Antonius, fresh from a religious ceremony and thus expressing sacred authority, presented it a second time. The clear-headed 390 The Story of the Greatest Nations * ruler had been quick to read the signs, and with considerable heat he replied, “I am not king; the only king of the Romans is Jupiter,” whereupon he ordered the diadem to be removed and suspended in the temple in the Capitol. Human nature has been the same in all ages, and no man can rise to exalted position without incurring the deadly envy of those who have failed to keep pace with him. There were many such in Rome. They met in secret, whispered and plotted, and finally formed a conspiracy for taking the life of the imperator. The persons concerned in this hideous crime were sixty or eighty in number, and among them were many who had received marked favors at the hands of Caesar and professed the warmest devotion to him. The leader was Caius Longinus Cassius, who had lately been appointed praetor. At the breaking out of the civil war, he had sided with Pompey, but was pardoned by Caesar, and besides being made praetor was promised the governorship of Syria in the following year. The more favors he received, the more malignant he seemed to become in his hatred of the benefactor. Associated with him were Decimus Brutus, Trebonius, Casca, Cimber and more, all of whom were under deep obligations to Caesar for numerous favors. These men knew they were taking frightful risks, for the crime they con- templated would shake Rome to its centre and resound through the coming ages. They needed a strong name to help them through, and fixed upon Marcus Junius Brutus, who had also been a partisan of Pompey, but made his submis- sion to Caesar after the battle of Pharsalia, and in the following year was ap- pointed governor of Cisalpine Gaul. Brutus was a nephew of Cato, and claimed to trace his descent from a son of the famous Brutus who had founded the Re- public, and whose other sons had perished by the axe of the executioner. His descendant was now made vain by the many favors shown him by Caesar, who one day remarked that, of all Romans, Brutus was the most worthy to succeed him. Brutus accepted this as earnest, and it was easy for the conspirators by appealing to this, to procure his consent to become their leader in the dark counsels they often held together. Caesar received hints of what was going on. He had dismissed the guard appointed for him, and was, therefore, continually exposed to treacherous at- tack. When his friends remonstrated because of the fearless way in which he walked through the streets, he replied that it was better to die and have done with it, than to live in continual fear of dying. He scorned to take the least precautions, and since he had almost completed his preparations for leaving on his campaigns, his enemies determined to wait no longer. The Senate was convened for the Ides of March, the 15th day of the month, and it was agreed that on that day he should be struck down as he entered the Curia, Caesar is said to have shown some hesitation, due to the many warnings he Rome—Murder of Caesar 39 I had received, but he naturally shrank from appearing timid. He determined to go. On the way along the Forum to the theatre of Pompey, in the Cam- pus, several persons pressed near to warn him of his peril. One man hastily shoved a paper into his hand and begged him to read it without an instant's delay. He paid no heed, but held the roll, when he reached the Senate House remarking with a smile to the augur Spurinna, “The Ides of March have come.” “Yes,” replied the other, “but they are not yet passed.” As he entered the hall, his enemies kept near him so as to hold his friends at a distance. Caesar advanced to his seat, when Cimber immediately ap- proached with a petition for the pardon of his brother. The others, as agreed upon, joined in the prayer with much importunity, seizing his hands and even attempting to embrace him. Caesar gently repelled their attentions, but they persisted, and Cimber caught hold of his toga with both hands and snatched it over his arms. Then Casca, who was behind him, drew a dagger from under his cloak and reaching forward struck at Caesar, but in the flurry merely grazed his shoulder. Caesar saw the blow, and tried to seize the hilt of the dagger with one hand. Then Casca uttered the signal that had been agreed upon. This was the cry “Help!” Immediately the others swarmed forward, pushing and striving to get closer to their victim, and all striking vicious blows, even though a number were not within reach of him. Caesar defended himself as best he could, and wounded one of his assailants with his stylus; but when he recognized the gleaming face of Brutus among the panting countenances and saw the upraised steel in his hand, as he fought to get near enough to strike, he exclaimed, “What thou too, Brutus !” (“Ft tu, Brute / "), and, drawing his robe over his face, made no further resistance. The assassins plunged their weapons into his body again and again, until at last, bleeding from twenty- three wounds, he sank down and breathed out his life at the feet of the statue of Pompey. The awful crime was completed, and the assassins, flinging their gowns over their left arms, as shields, and brandishing aloft their dripping daggers in their right hands, marched out of the Curia to the Forum, calling aloud that they had killed a tyrant, and displaying a liberty cap on the head of a spear. The multitude were dazed and stupefied for the moment, but the signs were so Ominous that the conspirators hunted out a place of refuge in the temple of Jupiter, on the Capitol. In this place they were joined by others, and among them Cicero, who, though he had nothing to do with the conspiracy, did not condemn it, and ad- vised that the Senate should be called together at once. Brutus was distrust- ful and determined to make another appeal to the populace. He entered the Forum the next day, and his speech was listened to coldly, even if with respect. 392 The Story of the Greatest Nations When, however, others followed in the same strain, the hearers broke out with such violence that the republicans were driven back to their quarters. Meanwhile the consul Antonius had been active. He communicated secretly with Calpurnia, the widow of Caesar, who seems to have been a woman of little force of character, and secured possession of her husband's immense treasures and also his will. Assisted by his two brothers—one of whom was a tribune and the other a praetor—Antonius opened, as consul, the national coffers in the temple of Ops, and drawing a large sum, secured the promise of support from Lepidus, who had been leader of the army during Caesar's absence in Spain, and was his colleague in the consulate B.C. 46. Lepidus was weak of character, lacking both military ability and statesmanship. Antonius, as the minister and favorite of Caesar, was looked upon by many as his natural successor. Cicero alone opposed the conspirators' negotiations with him, for, though a brave man, Antonius was dissipated to the last degree. He was agreed upon as the proper man to act, and it was arranged that he should convene the Senate on March 17th. He selected as a place for the meeting the temple of Tellus, near the Forum, and filled it with armed sol- diers. Since the assassins were afraid to leave the Capitol, the discussion took place in their absence. The majority favored declaring Caesar a tyrant, but Antonius pointed out that this would invalidate all his acts and appointments. While the discussion was going on, Antonius went out and entered the Forum. He was received with acclamations, and Cicero showed that the only dignified course that could relieve them from their embarrassment was an amnesty which should confirm every acquired right and leave the deed of the conspirators to the judgment of posterity. Cicero carried his point, and by his eloquence the next day he calmed the populace, who invited the conspirators to descend from the Capitol, Lepidus and Antonius sending their children as hostages, and one entertained Brutus and the other Cassius at Supper. The following morning all parties met in the Curia, and Caesar's assignment of provinces was confirmed. To Trebonius went Asia, to Cimber Bithynia, and to Decimus the Cisalpine, while Mace- donia was to go to Brutus, and Syria to Cassius, when their terms of office at home expired. Caesar was dead but not buried. Inasmuch as his acts were valid, his will had to be accepted and his remains honored with a public funeral. Antony read to the people the last testament of their idol, by which it appeared that the youthful Octavius had been adopted as his son; that the Roman people had been endowed with his gardens on the bank of the Tiber, and he had bequeathed some twelve dollars to every citizen. This liberality roused all to fury, which was kindled to the ungovernable Rome–Rebellion at Caesar's Funeral 393 point by the funeral oration of Mark Antony. The body was laid out on a couch of gold and ivory, on a shrine gleaming with gold and erected before the rostra. At the head was hung the toga in which Caesar had been slain, show- ing the rents made by the daggers of the assassins. The mangled remains were concealed, but in their place was displayed a waxen figure, which faith- fully showed every one of the three-and-twenty wounds. When the people were swept by grief and indignation, Mark Antony stepped forward, as the chief magistrate of the Republic. He did this with marvellous dramatic power. Then pointing to the bleeding corpse, and striding toward the Capitol, he proclaimed in a thrilling voice: “I at least am prepared to keep my vow to avenge the victim I could not save' " The people were now beyond restraint, as the orator intended they should be. They would not allow the body to be carried outside of the city, but in- sisted that it should be burned within the walls. Benches, tables, and chairs were torn up and heaped before the pontiff's dwelling in the Forum, and the body placed upon it. The torch was applied by two youths, girt with swords and javelin in hand, while the people flung on more fuel, wherever it could be gathered, the veterans adding their arms, the matrons their ornaments, and the children their trinkets. It was a touching fact that among the most grief- stricken of the mourners were Gauls, Iberians, Africans, and Orientals, all of whom had loved Caesar with no less fervency than did his own countrymen. Caesar had been the friend and champion of the common people. Attack- ing him unawares, his enemies had struck the fragile, human life from his body. Yet so great had been the spirit of the man, so enormous his influence, that even that dead body was sufficient to defeat the conspirators. The sud- den, unquenchable rebellion that sprang up round his corpse, was Caesar's last and greatest triumph. -T. - - - *ill till utilillai Tº 1 -- --- --- --- _--_-la- º ------- tºº Rºjº º ºr ºn tº TT I III. Tº "[TT * ºne....…lºſ --~~ - -- º *-i- Fº - Sºº º-". º - º - - Fºr º - - - …” - | º º º-ºliº º M- - º º - - ºr, Pº 1. - - | º º º - º Nº. º --- sº º º º º - & º ºw [...: N Sº - & º º º º Sº % º Fº º: jº -- ſº W. Nº. º --~~ - - º-º- * º --~~~ - t º º: Sºº-ºº-ºº: £º - - sº & Tºlſº ºººººººººººººººº- - - - - §: || || | 'Nº. º §§º º, §l º ºus º wº RS - \º "I ſº º Rº º ſº, ºf º'-º', 'lº "º "º -º- - - - º - - - 4. ºw - - -- - - - -- - *----- E-ZE, - ſº Tºſſ. ANTIQUE BAS-RELIEF of Romax VICTORY IN GAUL - in º |- RECENT ExcAvATIONS Show ING THE FORUM Row ANUM Chapter XXXVII ANTONY AND OCTAVIUS–ROME BECOMES AN EMPIRE O orator had ever attained more perfect success than did Mark Antony in that celebrated speech over Caesar's body. The frenzied people rushed like madmen through the streets, with blazing brands, determined to set fire to the houses of the conspirators and slay the inmates. The blind attacks were repulsed for the time, but Brutus and Cassius and their associates made haste to get out of the city. Had the incensed populace been able to lay hands upon them, they would have been torn limb from limb. Ah, but Mark Antony was sly He interfered and stopped the disorder, and then set himself to win the good will of the Senate, which was needed to carry out his plans. He secured the passage of a resolution abolishing the office of Dictator, and it was never revived; and then, with a stern hand, he put down the rioting which broke out in many quarters. He even visited Brutus and Cassius in their hiding, and offered to guarantee their safety, but they wisely declined to enter the city. Their praetorial office required them to reside in Rome, but he obtained for the two a charge for supplying provisions which would justify their absence. In return Antony asked one small favor: since he, too, was in danger, he asked the Senate to grant him an armed body-guard. The Senate promptly did so, and he as promptly raised it to six thousand men and thus made himself safe. Antony was for the moment as much Dictator as Caesar had ever been. He secured the sanction of the Senate, not only for all the imperator had done, but for all that he might have planned to do. Having won over the secretary Rome—Antony in Power 395 of the deceased, and secured all his papers, Antony carried out what schemes he liked, and when he lacked authority for them, he, with the help of the secretary, forged Caesar's authority. It is unnecessary to say that with such boundless facilities at command, he did not neglect to “feather his own nest,” and to secure enough funds to bribe senators, officers, and tributary provinces. He did not hesitate to break the engagements he had made with the conspir- ators, by taking from Brutus and Cassius the governments that had been promised them, and seizing Macedonia with the legions Caesar had ordered to assemble at Apollonia. Beholding all this, Cicero sadly murmured : “The tyrant is dead, but the tyranny still lives.” Now, you will remember that Octavius, the young nephew of Caesar, was at Apollonia preparing himself for the campaign in which he had expected to take part. When he learned the particulars of his uncle's assassination, and the letters from his mother made known that he was the heir to all that had been left, he was thrilled by the ambition that sprang to life within him, and deter- mined to return to Rome in the face of every danger. His friends tried to dis- suade him, but he had the fervent devotion of the soldiers, who burned to avenge the murder of their idolized chief. Nothing could restrain the young man's resolution, and, when he landed on the coast of Apulia, copies of the will and the decrees of the Senate were shown to him. He immediately assumed the title of Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, and offered himself before the troops at Brundisium as the adopted son of the great imperator. He was received with the wildest demonstrations, and the veterans who crowded around drew their swords and clamored to be led against. all who dared to oppose the will of him who, being dead, yet spoke in the same trumpet tones as of yore. Octavius, in spite of his years, was prudent, even while impetuous. In- stead of appealing to force he addressed the Senate in temperate language, claiming that, as a private citizen, he had the right to the inheritance left him by Caesar. On his way to Rome, he visited the despondent Cicero, who was staying near Cumae, and succeeded in convincing the orator of his loyal and wise views. Octavius entered Rome in April, and, despite the remonstrance of his mother and stepfather, went before the praetor and declared himself the son and heir of the Dictator. Mounting the tribune, he addressed the people, pledging to pay the sums bequeathed to them by his illustrious parent. He made many friends and won over a large number of enemies. Antony had no fear at first of this stripling, but the news that reached him led him to return to Rome about the middle of May. When he and Octavius met, the latter pro- fessed friendship for him, but at the same time upbraided the consul for his failure to punish the assassins. Then the daring youth demanded the treasures 396 - The Story of the Greatest Nations of his father; Antony replied that they had all been spent; that it was public money, and that the will under which Octavius claimed the funds would have been set aside by the Senate, but for the interference of Antony. Octavius now sold the remnant of Caesar's effects, all of his own, and bor- rowed from friends sufficient with which to pay every obligation of his father. Naturally the people were grateful, and the popularity of the young man rapidly increased. Antony saw that the most foolish thing he could do was to despise this competitor, who had won the affection of his countrymen. At the same time, the conduct of the conspirators was timid. Cicero at- tended their conferences and strove to animate them with his hopefulness. Brutus resolved to quit Italy and like Cassius summon the patriots to arms in Greece and Macedonia. Cicero entered Rome and was delighted with the warmth of his reception. The day after his arrival, Antony convened the Senate. Cicero was afraid to appear, and Antony made a bitter attack on him. Stung by the insult, he came before the Senate and made a terrific assault upon the tyrant's policy. The several speeches which Cicero uttered against the consul in the course of the following month are known by the name of Philip- pics, in allusion to the harangues of Demosthenes against the tyrant of Mace- don. Octavius let the two wrangle, while he carefully undermined the strength of Antony. The latter fled from Rome and raised the standard of civil war. There was promise of the most sanguinary struggles between the leaders and their partisans, when Octavius awoke to the fact that his own safety depended upon his coming to an understanding with Antony. Word was sent to Antony by the young man that he had no wish to injure him, and Octavius refrained from preventing the junction of the consul's forces with Lepidus in the Transalpine. This gave to Antony a force of more than twenty legions, while Octavius, with less than half as many, and in the face of the prohibition of the Senate, marched his troops to the gates of Rome. Then the people elected him to the consulship. He cited the murderers of Caesar to appear before the tri- bunals, and in their absence judgment was passed upon them. Octavius was now in a position to treat with Mark Antony on equal terms. As an entering wedge, he caused the Senate to repeal the decrees against him and Lepidus. This was in the latter part of September, and, about a month later, Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus held their memorable meeting on a small island in the Rhenus, and not far from Benonia. They parleyed during three days, when an agreement was reached by which Octavius was to resign the consulship in favor of Ventidius, an officer of Antony's army, and the three chiefs should associate themselves together under a second Triumvirate, for the establishment of the commonwealth. They were to rule the city, the con- suls, and the laws, claiming the consular power in common, with the right of Rome—The Second Triumvirate 397 appointing all the magistrates. Whatever they decreed should be binding without first obtaining the consent of the Senate or the people. This Second Triumvirate, formed in B.C. 43, also divided among its members the provinces around Italy. Antony was to have the two Gauls; Lepidus the Spains, with the Narbonensis, while Octavius secured Africa and the islands. Italy, the heart of empire, they were to retain in common, while the division of the eastern provinces was postponed until after Brutus and Cassius should be driven out of them. Octavius and Antony, with twenty legions each, were to take charge of the conduct of the war, while Lepidus remained to protect their in- terests in Rome. Having formed their far-reaching scheme, the three agreed that the first necessary precaution was to leave no enemies in their rear. All from whom danger threatened must be crushed beyond the possibility of doing harm. Oc- tavius, Antony, and Lepidus entered the city on three successive days, each at the head of a single legion. The troops occupied the temples and towers and their banners waved from the Forum. The farce of a plebiscitum was gone through, and on November 28th the Triumvirate was proclaimed. Instead of a massacre like Sulla's, they decreed a formal proscription. Each man had his list of chief citizens before him, and, sitting down, picked out the names of those whose deaths would give him special happiness. Now, since every one was certain to want the sacrifice of the relatives of the others, they made a ghastly agreement among themselves to the effect that each, by giving up a relative, would be entitled to proscribe a kinsman of his colleagues. As a result, among the first names on the fatal list were a brother of Lepidus, an uncle of Antony, and a cousin of Octavius. The scenes that followed were too dreadful for description. It is recorded that three hundred Senators, two thousand knights, and many thousands of citizens were put to death. Many escaped by fleeing to Macedonia and others to Africa, while more found refuge on the vessels of Sextus Pompeius that were cruising off Africa. Some bought their lives with bribes. Antony demanded the death of Cicero, whose blistering philippics still rankled in his memory, and Octavius, to his eternal shame, consented. Cicero was staying at the time with his brother at his Tusculan villa. As soon as they heard of the proscription, they fled to Astura, another villa, on a small isl- and off the coast of Antium, whither they intended to embark for Macedonia. In the pursuit the brother was overtaken and killed, but Cicero gained the sea, set sail, and landed several times, distressed in body and mind and caring little what became of him. The last time he went ashore near Formiae, he was warned of the danger of delay. “Let me die here, in my fatherland,” he said mournfully, but his slaves placed the man, who was suffer- 398 The Story of the Greatest Nations ing great bodily pain, upon a litter, and moved as rapidly as they could toward the sea-coast. Hardly had they left the house, when an officer, whose life Cicero had once saved, appeared and pounded on the door. A man pointed out the course taken by the fugitives, and he and his small force ran after them. Cicero saw them coming up and noted that they were in less number than his own party, who prepared to defend him. - But he would not permit it. He ordered the slaves to set down the litter, and, fixing his eyes calmly on his enemies, he bared his throat to their swords. Many of the spectators covered their faces with their hands, and the leader hesitated and bungled, until at last he pulled himself together and then all was quickly over. The head of the orator was sent as a gracious present to Antony, whose wife Fulvia, remembering how nearly she and her husband had been overthrown by that bitter tongue, thrust long pins through it, taunting the dead man and crying that she had given the final answer to his orations. The Second Triumvirate had crushed its enemies at home; it had still to destroy the republican forces. Brutus and Cassius, knowing they could not sustain themselves in Italy, had retired to the East. When Brutus appeared before Athens, the citizens erected his statue by the side of those of Harmo- dius and Aristogiton, and many of the younger men enlisted in his ranks. Horace, the future poet, was made a tribune, and numerous veterans also joined the patriot forces. The kings and rulers of Macedonia were quick to declare themselves on the same side, one of the adherents being a brother of Antony. Cassius had gone to his promised government of Syria, where he was held in high esteem, because of the courage he had displayed in the conquest of the Parthians, after the fall of Crassus. He devastated the country and then pre- pared to pass over into Macedonia. The legend is that Brutus, watching in his tent at night, saw a fearful apparition, which being addressed replied: “I am thy evil spirit; thou shalt see me again at Philippi.” When he and Cassius encamped on an eminence, twelve miles east of Philippi, their forces numbered probably IOO,OOO men. Those which Octavius and Antony brought against them were fewer, but in a better state of discipline. In the battle Brutus op- posed Octavius; Cassius, Antony. Octavius was ill, and at the first shock his division yielded, but Antony was successful. Cassius fell back, and was left almost alone and unaware of the success of his colleague. Observing a body of horsemen approaching, he was panic-stricken, and, believing them the enemy, threw himself on the sword of a freedman and died. The messenger sent by Brutus with news of his triumph, arrived just a moment too late. It was a drawn battle, and each side withdrew, glad of a respite. Brutus found it difficult to hold his legions in hand, and, yielding to his Rome—Antony and Cleopatra 399 impatience, he renewed the battle twenty days later on the same field. The fight was well contested, but the Caesarians under Octavius broke the ranks of their enemies, and attacked them in their camp. Brutus held an anxious position throughout the night on a neighboring hill. When daylight came, his remain- ing men refused to renew the fight, and in despair he ended his life with his own sword. The remnant of the shattered republican armies was carried off by the fleet which had attended their movements. The decisive victory having been gained, the victors made a new partition of the spoils. Octavius took Spain and Numidia; Antony, Gaul beyond the Alps; and Lepidus the province of Africa. But the division was hardly made when the possessors began to quarrel over it. Lepidus was feeble, and of such insignificance that his share was soon taken from him, after which nothing was more certain than that Octavius and Antony would soon come to strife over their portions, and each would intrigue against the other. Octavius was still suffering in health, and chose to seek repose by returning to the balmy climate of Italy, and undertaking the task of placing the veterans on the estates of the natives. The gross Antony stayed in the East, indulging in the lowest dissi- pation. He ordered Cleopatra to meet him at Cilicia, on a charge of intrigue with his enemy Cassius. It is said that the wit and piquancy of this remarkable woman were more effective than her dazzling beauty, and none knew better how to use her gifts than she. Sailing for Tarsus, she glided up the Cydnus in a gilded vessel, with purple sails and silver oars, to the sound of flutes and pipes. Under an awning, Spangled with gold, she reclined in the garb of Venus, sur- rounded by Cupids, Graces, and Nereids, while Antony appeared in the charac- ter of Bacchus. Impressed by her splendid equipage, he invited her to land and sit at his banquet, but with the air of a queen she summoned him to at- tend upon her. That meeting sealed his fate. He was utterly enthralled. Under the spell of the arch temptress, he forgot wife, Rome, and every duty, and only asked the bliss of becoming her slave and adorer; and, inasmuch as that was the object for which she played from the beginning, she made sure of retaining her sway over him. In the middle of the summer B.C. 36, Antony had gathered IOO,000 men on the Euphrates with the intention of completing the conquest of the Parthians. His alliance with Cleopatra had delayed him so long, that he advanced too rapidly, and, on reaching Praaspa, three hundred miles beyond the Tigris, he found himself without any artillery with which to conduct a siege. He, there- fore, settled to an attempt at the reduction of the city by blockade, but the Parthian horsemen cut off his supplies and a number of his Armenian 4.OO The Story of the Greatest Nations allies deserted. This compelled him to retreat, and for twenty-seven days his men were subjected to incredible sufferings. Not until they had crossed the Araxes did the Parthians cease their attacks. Antony still hurried his wearied soldiers, intent only on rejoining Cleopatra at the earliest moment. She had come to Syria to meet him, and, caring nothing for honor or duty, he returned with her to the dissipations of the Egyptian capital, not hesitating in his shamelessness to announce his recent campaign as a victory. It suited Octa- vius to maintain the appearance at least of friendship, and he did not dispute the claim. Antony's second wife, the faithful Octavia, hoping to save her husband from the thraldom of Cleopatra, obtained the consent of her brother Octavius to rejoin Antony. He had returned to Syria, and was preparing for a new ex- pedition, when he learned that his wife had arrived in Athens. He sent her orders to come no further. She could not mistake the meaning of the mes- sage, but asked leave to send forward the presents she brought with her, which consisted of clothing for the soldiers, money, and equipments, including 2,000 picked men as a body-guard for the imperator. Then the “Serpent of the Nile” exerted all her devilish arts, and the fool Antony fled with her to Alex- andria. Octavia, with the serene dignity of wounded womanhood, resigned her unworthy husband to the fate which he richly deserved. Some modern courts have illustrated the depths of debauchery of which men and women are capable, but none have surpassed the court of Cleopatra, whose dominion over Mark Antony was so complete that he seemed unable to live except in her presence. It was as if nature had displayed the utmost achievements of which she is capable in the creation of this woman. While her portraits do not show a superlative degree of beauty, yet she must have pos- sessed it to a remarkable extent, and her magnetism of manner was resistless. She was a fascinating singer and musician, spoke several languages, and was past-mistress in all the arts and artifices of her sex. None knew better how to capture and to retain her dominion over such a coarse wretch as Antony. What strange stories have come down to us of that extraordinary couple ! When he dropped a line into the water, trained divers by her orders slipped unperceived underneath and fastened live fish to the hook; she dissolved a pearl of princely value in a cup of vinegar, and drank it to his health. The rumors of these orgies caused resentment in Rome, where the tact and wisdom of Octavius steadily added to his popularity. One of the chief Sup- porters of Antony became so nauseated that he appeared in the Senate and openly declared his abhorrence of his late master. Then he went to Octavius and revealed the testament of Antony, which reeked with treason. It declared the child of Cleopatra and Caesar the heir of the Dictator, and ratified Antony's Rome—Battle of Actium 4O1 drunken gifts of provinces to favorites, finally directing that his body should be entombed with Cleopatra's in the mausoleum of the Ptolemies. All this hid- eous wickedness being known, every one was ready to believe the story that Antony when drunk had given his pledge to Cleopatra to sacrifice the West to her ambition and to remove to Alexandria the government of the world. Octavius, while refraining from declaring Antony a public enemy, pro- claimed war against Egypt, and did not renew the terms of the Triumvirate which had expired, but directed the Senate to annul the appointment of Antony as consul, assuming it himself at the opening of B.C. 3 I. Antony still had friends, and they now begged him to wrench himself free from Cleopatra. He replied by divorcing his legitimate wife, thus breaking the last legal tie that bound him to his country. He could not wholly close his eyes to his peril, however, and showed some of his old-time vigor in prepar- ing to resist Octavius, who was equally energetic in preparations against him. The forces of Antony are given at IOO,OOO infantry and I2, OOO horse, while his fleet numbered 500 large war-galleys. Octavius had 20,000 less, and only I 5o smaller vessels, which on that account were more manageable. The deser- tion of many of his troops awakened distrust in the mind of Antony, who be- came suspicious of Cleopatra herself and compelled her to taste all viands be- fore he partook of them. At last the two great armies gathered in front of each other on the shores of the gulf of Ambracia, the narrow channel between being occupied by the fleet of Antony. This field of war was ill-chosen, for it was confined and unhealthful, and Antony wished to remove his forces to the plains of Thessaly; but Cleopatra, fearing for her own way of retreat, dissuaded him. Distrusting the issue of the battle, he secretly prepared to lead his fleet into the open waters of the Leucadian bay, so as to break through the enemy's line, and escape to Egypt, leaving the army to do the best it could to retreat into Asia. The wind was so high for several days that the rough waters would not per- mit the ships of either side to move; but it fell, and, on September 20, B.C. 3 I, at noon, while the galleys of Antony lay becalmed at the entrance to the strait, a gentle breeze sprang up, so that the immense armament moved out to Sea. It immediately became apparent that the ships were greatly handicapped by their bulkiness, which held them from moving with the nimbleness of their op- ponents. They hurled huge stones from their wooden towers and reached out enormous iron claws to grapple their assailants, which dodged and eluded them like a party of hounds in front of a wounded bear. How curiously the account of this naval battle reads when compared with one of our modern contests on the water | The Caesarean rowers shot forward and backed with great agility, 4O2 The Story of the Greatest Nations or swept away the banks of the enemy's oars, under cover of showers of arrows, circling about the awkward masses and helping one another against boarding or grappling. It was a school of whales fighting sharks, but the result was inde- cisive, for although the whales were wounded, the sharks did not disable them. Then suddenly took place a shameful thing. Cleopatra's galley, anchored in the rear, hoisted its sails and sped away, followed by the Egyptian Squadron of sixty barks. Antony caught sight of the signal, and, leaping into a boat, was rowed rapidly in their wake. Many of the crews, enraged at the desertion, tore down their turrets, flung them into the sea to lighten their craft, and has- tened after him, but enough remained to put up a brave fight. Then the Caesareans, unable otherwise to destroy them, hurled blazing torches among the ships, which, catching fire, burned to the water's edge, and sank one after the other. Thus ended the great sea-fight of Actium. Three hundred galleys fell into the victor's hands, but the army on shore was still unharmed. It was not until its commander abandoned it and sought the camp of Octavius, that the legions surrendered. Antony and Cleopatra had fled in the same vessel. Proceeding direct to Alexandria, she sailed into the harbor, her galley decked with laurels through fear of a revolt of the people. Antony had remained at Paraetonium to demand the surrender of the small Roman garrison stationed there, but was repulsed, and learned of the fate of his army at Actium. In his despair, he was ready to kill himself, but his attendants prevented and took him to Alexandria, where he found Cleopatra preparing for defence. Defections broke out on every hand, and she proposed to fly into far-away Arabia. She commenced the transport of her galleys from the Nile to the Red Sea, but some were destroyed by the barbarians on the coast, and she abandoned the project. Then the distracted woman thought she could seek a refuge in Spain and raise a revolt against Oc- tavius. This wild scheme was also given up, and Antony shut himself up in a tower on the sea-coast; but Cleopatra was not ready to yield, and showed her boy dressed as a man to the people that they might feel they were governed by him and not by a woman. e Still hopelessly captivated, Antony sneaked back to his royal mistress, and the two plunged into reckless orgies till the moment should come for both to die together. It is said that at this time the woman made many careful ex- periments of the different kinds of poison on slaves and criminals, and was finally convinced that the bite of an asp afforded the most painless method of taking one's departure from life. - Meanwhile, she and Antony applied to Octavius for clemency. He dis- dained to make any answer to Antony, but told Cleopatra that if she would kill or drive away her paramour, he would grant her reasonable terms. Octavius Rome—Death of Antony and Cleopatra 4O3 was playing with his victims like a cat with mice. He meant to have her kingdom, but was determined to carry the detested woman herself to Rome and exhibit her in his triumph. Cunning agents of his suggested to her that Oc- tavius was still a young man, and she no doubt could exert the same power over him that had taken Antony captive. It was not strange that she should believe this, for her past experience warranted such belief. She encouraged Antony to prepare for the last struggle, and all the time was secretly contriving to dis- arm and betray him. The forces of Octavius drew nearer. Pelusium was cap- tured, but Antony gained the advantage in a skirmish before the walls of Alex- andria, and was on the point of seizing the moment for a flight to sea, when he saw his own vessels, won away by Cleopatra, pass over to the enemy. Almost at the same moment, his cohorts, seduced by the same treachery, deserted him. Cleopatra had shut herself up in a tower, built for her mausoleum, but fear- ing that the man whom she had ruined would do her violence, had word sent to him that she had committed suicide. This was the final blow to Antony, who with the aid of his freedman Eros inflicted a mortal wound upon himself. Im- mediately after, he learned that he had been tricked, and that the queen was unharmed. He caused himself to be carried to the foot of the tower, where, with the assistance of two women, her only attendants, he was drawn up, and breathed his last in her arms. By this time, Octavius had entered Alexandria and sent an officer to bring Cleopatra to him. She refused to admit the messenger, but he scaled the tower undiscovered and entered. She snatched up a poniard to strike herself, but the man caught her arm and assured her that his master would treat her kindly. She listened for some minutes, and then allowed herself to be led to the palace, where she resumed her state, and was recognized as a sovereign by her victor. Then Octavius called upon her. Never in all her wonderful experience did she so exert herself to capture one of the sterner sex; but Octavius had nerved himself for the meeting, and for the first time the charmer found she had no power to charm. He talked with coolness and self-possession, demanded that she should give him a list of her treasures, and then, bidding her to be of good heart, left her. * Cleopatra was chagrined at her failure, but she did not despair, till she learned that Octavius was determined to take her as a captive to Rome. She then retired to the mausoleum where the body of Antony still lay, crowned the tomb with flowers, and was found the next morning dead on her couch, her two women attendants expiring at her side. Although the common account makes Cleopatra die of the bite of an asp, brought to her in a basket of figs, the truth concerning her end will never be known with certainty. As we have learned in Egypt's story, there were no wounds discovered on her body, and it may be 4.O4. The Story of the Greatest Nations that she perished from some self-administered subtle poison. At the triumph of Octavius, her image was carried on a bier, the arms encircled by two ser- pents, and this aided the popular rumor as to the means of her death. The child which she had borne to Julius Caesar was put to death by Octavius, who could brook the existence of no such dangerous rival, but the children of An- tony were spared, though deprived of the royal succession. The dynasty of the Ptolemies ended, and Egypt became a Roman province (B.C. 30). The death of Antony closes the dreadful period of civil strife. The com- monwealth was exhausted and Octavius was supreme. With masterly ability, he regulated his new province, and then made his tour through the Eastern dominions, dispossessing his enemies and rewarding his allies and friends. When everything was settled, he went to Samos, where he spent the winter in pleasant retirement. He reached Rome in the middle of the summer of B.C. 29, and was received with acclamations of joy. With a wisdom worthy of his adopted father, he recognized the authority of the Senate and claimed to have wielded delegated powers only. He had laid aside the functions of the Trium- virate, and it was as a simple consul, commissioned by the state, that he had conquered at Actium and won the province of Egypt, while his achievements in Greece and Asia still awaited confirmation by the Senate. So modest and loyal did his conduct appear, that his popularity was like that of the great im- perator whose name he inherited. To him was awarded the glory of a triple triumph, at the conclusion of which, according to the laws of the free state, he as imperator must disband his army, but he overcame the necessity by allowing the subservient Senate to give him the permanent title of Imperator, as it had been conferred upon Julius Caesar, and to prefix it to his name. He was thus made lifelong commander of the national forces. This accomplished the all-important result of securing to him the support of the army, which was the real strength of the country. He acknowledged the Senate as the representative of the public will, but caused himself to be vested with the powers of the censorship, which, you will remem- ber, gave him authority to revise the list of senators. This right he exercised with discretion and wisdom. It will be recalled that Julius Caesar degraded the body by adding to it many men of low degree, including obnoxious foreigners. Octavius restored the old number of six hundred, and kept strictly to the re- quirement of property qualification. He placed himself at the head as Prin- ceps, which, while it implied, no substantial power, was looked upon as the highest honorary office. This civic dignity was always held for life. While he was thus gathering these powers to himself, he prudently waived all formal recognition of his sovereign status. He refrained from reviving the dictatorship, and permitted no one to hail him with the title of “King.” Still Rome–Octavius Establishes the Empire 4O 5 he craved a title, and consulted with his trusted friends. Some suggested the name of Quirinus or Romulus, but the one was a god and the other had perhaps been slain as a tyrant. Finally the name “Augustus’’ was proposed, and it seemed to “fit” the requirements exactly. It had not been borne by a pre- vious ruler, but as an adjective it possessed a noble meaning. The rites of the temples and their gods were “august,” and the word itself came from “augu- ries” by which the divine will was revealed. And so the name of Octavius was dropped, and the lord of Rome stood forth as Augustus Caesar. This man was thirty-six years old when he became master of the Roman world, though there was no open establishment of a monarchical government. He aimed to maintain, so far as possible, the old law, to defend his country from foreign aggressions, and to make it as truly great as was within the com- pass of human endeavor. The example of Julius Caesar was ever before him, and, since the first Caesar had been assassinated for grasping at the name of king, the second avoided his error. Remembering, too, that the great impe- rator lightly regarded religion, Augustus strove to revive the faith of Rome. The decaying temples were repaired, the priesthoods renewed, and the earlier usages of the Republic restored. Augustus did not allow his impulses to lead him astray. He saw with vivid clearness, and the grandest political work ever accomplished by a single man was his, in the establishment of the Roman Empire. In reflecting upon the ease with which the Romans “passed under the yoke,” as may be said, it must be remembered that they had been carried close to the verge of exhaustion by the century of civil strife. Many of the nobler families of Rome had been nearly or quite wiped out, and the survivors were weary of the seemingly endless warring of factions. So many mongrels had mixed their blood with that of the Romans that the pure strain was vitiated. In short, the people were in just the mood, and just the condition, just the epoch had arrived when they needed a single, stern ruler. And since that must be, it was surely fortunate that their sovereign should be Augustus. He is described as a model in his personal traits and habits. He avoided the personal familiarity with which Julius Caesar was accustomed to address his legionaries. The elder loved to speak of his soldiers as “comrades,” the younger referred to them as his “soldiers” only. While he encouraged the magnificence of his nobles, his own life was of striking simplicity. His home on the Palatine Hill was modest in size and in ornament. While his dress was that of a plain senator, he took no little pride in calling attention to the fact that it was woven by his wife and the maidens in her apartment. When he walked the streets, it was as a private citizen, with only the ordinary retinue of attendants. If he met an acquaintance, he saluted him courteously, taking him ( 406 The Story of the Greatest Nations by the hand or leaning on his shoulder, in a way that was pleasing to every one to whom he showed the delicate attention. He willingly responded to the summons to attend as a witness the suits in which any of his friends engaged, and on occasions of domestic interest he appeared at their houses. He was abstemious in eating and drinking, and was said to have been the last to arrive at the table and the first to leave. He had few guests, and they were generally selected for their social qualities. The discreditable stories sometimes told of him referred to his earlier years, when his habits were open to criticism. One striking fact regarding the reign of Augustus was the friendship which he secured from the poets. It was Horace who taught others to accept the new order of things with contentment, while Virgil wreathed the empire of the Caesars in the halo of a legendary but glorious antiquity. The ºneid proved that Octavius was a direct descendant of the goddess Venus and a worthy rival of Hercules. Thus spake the giants among the poets, but there were minor singers as well, who called upon their countrymen to remember in their prayers him who had restored order and brought universal felicity. The citizens were urged in the temples and in their own homes to thank the gods for all their prosperity, and to join with the gods themselves the hallowed name of Æneas, the patron of the Julian race. Then, too, when they rose from their evening meal, the last duty of the day was to call with a libation for a blessing on themselves and on Augustus, whom they called “the father of his country.” No prouder title than this could be conferred upon any Roman. It had been associated in private with their hero, and finally the Senate, echoing the voice of the nation, conferred it on him publicly and with all solemnity. That he was deeply touched was shown in his tremulous response: “Conscript fathers, my wishes are now fulfilled, my vows are accomplished. I have nothing more to ask of the Immortals, but that I may retain to my dying day the unanimous approval you now bestow upon me." º N - - - § º, CoINS Struck BY ANTony AND CLEOPATRA º º As A º * A º º º º -- TY: - ". * . ºn ºn º - º º ºº: º: - - º º º - ºš 7% ޺ºººººººººººººººº. Nºſſº" Žſ. W &\lſº ºil- N N | - ºillº. *** * º º º Tº: º ſ - º - - - - - - º †. # N !" - º - !. º | --~~~ º #º % fºllº | sº || º || || | - -In wº TZZºº º 2-º-º: - º/|||||||ſ||\%. As % ºf ºſſº &M Y#7 º º/, || | || || º will º *… ºl, ºf Żºłºś. Romans Burning A GERMAN WILLAGE CHAPTER XXXVIII “THE GRANDEUR THAT WAS ROME '' whole peninsula from the Alps to the Messina Strait, was divided into eleven regions, governed directly by the praetor of the city. The rest of the empire was apportioned between the emperor and the Senate. The extent of the great territory may be given as follows: The boundary on the north was the British Channel, the North Sea, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Black Sea; on the east, the Euphrates and the Desert of Syria; on the south the Great Sahara of Africa; and on the west the Atlantic Ocean. From east to west the extent of this domain was about 2,700 miles, with an average breadth of 1,000 miles. It embraced the modern countries of France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Western Holland, Rhenish Prussia, portions of Baden, Wurtemberg and Bavaria, all of Switzerland, Italy, the Tyrol, Austria proper, Western Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, Servia, Turkey in Europe, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Idumaea, Egypt, the Cyre- naica, Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria, and most of Morocco. Outside of Italy, the empire was divided into twenty-seven provinces, of which the Western numbered fourteen; the Eastern, eight; and the Southern, five. Within this area were three distinct civilizations: the Zatºn, which em- braced the countries from the Atlantic to the Adriatic; the Greek, from the Adriatic to Mount Taurus; and the Oriental, around Egypt and the Euphrates. The empire was admirably policed. Peace was so clearly to the interest of the people of the inland shores that the Mediterranean provinces held scarcely 408 The Story of the Greatest Nations the shadow of a garrison. Each state and town could be trusted to govern it- self. There were hardly even defenders of Italy and Rome. Augustus' per- sonal safety was confided to a few body-guards, though during the reign of his successor the battalions were gathered in camp at the gates of the city. The legions forming the standing army of the empire were placed on the frontiers or among the restless provinces. There were three legions in the Spanish peninsula, eight on the banks of the Rhine, two in Africa, two in Egypt, four on the line of the Euphrates, four on the Danube, while two were held in re- serve in Dalmatia, where in a contingency they could be readily summoned to Rome. Each of these twenty-five legions contained 6, IOO foot and 720 horse, with little variation in their strength for the following three hundred years. The entire military force of the empire, including the cohorts in the capital, was about 350,000 men. Within this mighty area there were, during the age of Augustus, probably one hundred millions of human beings, of whom one-half were in a condition of slavery. Of the remainder, only a small proportion were Roman citizens, living in Italy, enjoying political independence and having a share in the gov- ernment. The different lands and their inhabitants were governed by Roman legates, half of whom were appointed by Augustus and the other half by the Senate, and they held supreme military command. Following the wise cus- tom which prevailed from the first, the provinces were allowed to have their own municipal constitutions and officers. * Throughout the district of Latin civilization, embracing the peninsula of Italy and all Western Europe, as well as the North African provinces, the Latin language took firm root, and the whole civilization became Roman. Greek civilization included Greece and all those regions of Europe and Asia which had been Hellenized by Grecian colonists or by the Macedonian conquerors. Politically their condition was changed, but they remained Greek in language, manners, and customs. Oriental civilization prevailed in all the Eastern provinces, particularly Egypt and Syria. The people there retained their own languages and religious ideas, and never became Latinized. Augustus was the first ruler to appoint a regular and permanent naval force. Three powerful armaments were maintained, and, although we have no account of their taking part in regular warfare, they policed the seas, drove away pirates, secured the free carriage of grain from the provinces to Rome, and convoyed the vessels that brought tribute from the East or the West. s Rome was the metropolis of the Roman Empire, and at the height of its prosperity probably contained a population of more than two millions. The circumference of that portion inclosed by walls was about twenty miles, but NOV 8 1906 THE GEESE SAVE ROME T - º: º º: ºl- < O H. < ºn E - u º H. iº. - " | | | | l º - * Nº. VESPASIAN PLANNING THE COLosseum º *(* - |- * - -- º º º º º º * . - - - º º º º - -- º º --- | º - º * * RULERS OF THE EARLY EMPIRE VITELLIUS TORN BY THE MOB - - - Sadod a H1 do SS38. Luo： Anaeva a Hlºon:abwv LNIws | - |M|| Z & 92 Zºº” & 2^ - º #" ANTONY OFFERING TO CROWN CatsAR Rome—Splendor of the City 4O9 there were numerous populous suburbs. The walls were pierced for thirty gates. Under Augustus Rome grew into a magnificent city, and he was able to boast that he found it brick and left it marble. Among the most notable buildings was the Colosseum, as the ruins of the Flavian Amphitheatre are called. It could seat IOO, OOO spectators, while the Circus Maximus, which was reserved for races, shows, and public games, ac- commodated 200,000 persons. The Emperor erected theaters and public baths, as did his successors, as if to lead the people to forget in their enjoy- ments the loss of their liberty. We have learned of the Forum, which stood in the valley between the Pala- tine and Capitoline hills. It was the great market and place for public assem- bly, and was early decorated with statues of illustrious citizens, which were probably of wood rather than stone. The Comitium was an open platform raised a few steps above the Forum, and, being a mecting-place of the patri- cians, was furnished with a hall or curia. Opposite to this upon a platform was the rostrum or pulpit from which the orators addressed the patricians. The Forum was surrounded with temples, public offices, and halls for the adminis- tration of justice. There too was the famous Temple of Janus, built of bronze by the earliest kings, when the custom was established of closing its gates dur- ing peace, but so continuous were the wars of the Romans that during a period of eight centuries the gates were shut only three times. - The Campus Martius was the favorite exercise-ground of the young nobles; on it the elections of magistrates, reviews of troops, and the registration of citi- zens were held. It was surrounded by a number of fine residences, with orna- mental trees and shrubs planted in different parts, and provided with porticoes so that the exercises could be continued in bad weather. The Pantheon is the only ancient edifice in Rome that has been perfectly preserved, being now known as the Church of Santa Maria Rotonda. It was erected by Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus. It is lighted through one aperture, in the centre of the magnificent dome, and was dedicated to all the gods. g The aqueducts of Rome were among its most remarkable structures. Pure water was brought from great distances through these channels, that were sup- ported by massive arches, some of them more than a hundred feet high. Under the different emperors, twenty of these prodigious structures were raised, and they brought to the city an abundance of the purest water for all purposes. Innumerable fountains were thus supplied, many being of great architectural beauty. The imperial city became in many respects the grandest exhibition the world has ever known of the genius and enterprise of man. Nowhere else 4. I O The Story of the Greatest Nations were constructed such immense circuses. These were seven in number, and in addition there were two amphitheatres, five regular theatres, and four hundred and twenty temples. The public baths numbered sixteen, were built of marble, and were the perfection of convenience and luxury, while to these were to be added the triumphal arches, obelisks, public halls, columns, porticoes, and palaces without number. - Speaking now for the whole period of the Empire, let us give some attention to the Roman manners and customs, the account of which we gather from Col- lier's “Domestic Life in Imperial Rome.” The best-known garment of the Romans was the toga, made of pure white wool, and in its shape resembling the segment of a circle. Narrow at first, it was folded so that one arm rested in it as in a sling, but afterward it was draped in broad, flowing folds round the breast and left arm, leaving the right nearly bare. In later times it was not worn on the street, its place being taken by a mantle of warm colored cloth, called the Žal/iu/z or /acerma, but it continued to be the Roman full dress, and when the emperor visited the theatre, all present were expected to wear it. No Roman covered his head, except when on a journey, or when he wished to escape notice, at which times he wore a dark-colored hood, that was fastened to the lacerna. When in the house, solea were strapped to the bare feet, but outside, the calceus, closely resembling our shoe, was worn. Every Roman of rank wore on the fourth finger of the left hand a massive signet-ring, while the fops loaded every finger with jewels. The dress of the Roman women consisted of three parts, –an inner tunic, the stola, and the palla. The stola was the distinctive dress of Roman matrons, and was a tunic with short sleeves, girt round the waist, and ending in a deep. flounce which swept the instep. The palla was a gay-colored mantle that was worn out-of-doors. It was often bright-blue, sprinkled with golden stars. The most brilliant colors were chosen, so that it will be seen that an assembly of Roman belles in full dress, gleaming with scarlet and yellow, purple and pale green, made a picture whose beauty is not surpassed in our own times. The hair was encircled with a garland of roses, fastened with a gold pin, and pearls and gold adorned the neck and arms. The chief food of the early Romans was bread and pot herbs; but as pros- perity increased, they lost their abstemious habits, and every species of luxury was introduced. When the days of the decline came, the ambition and enjoy- ment of the rulers, nobles, and wealthy citizens was to gormandize on the rich- est of viands and the choicest of wines, and there is no surer sign of the decay of a nation or people than when they yield to such gross indulgences. As with us, the Roman meals were three daily. The ſentaculum was taken Rome—Customs of the People 4 II soon after rising, and consisted of bread, dried grapes or olives, cheese, and per- haps milk and eggs. The prandium was the midday meal, when the Roman partook of fish, eggs, and dishes cold, or warmed up from the Supper of the night before. Wine was generally drunk, though sparingly. The cana was the principal meal of the day, and corresponded to our modern dinner. Instead of opening with Soup as is our custom, eggs, fish, and light vegetables, such as lettuces and radishes, served with palatable sauces, were first eaten and were intended to whet the appetite for what followed. This consisted of the be- wildering courses, known as fercula, which, among other delicacies, included fish, turbot, sturgeon and red mullet, peacock, pheasant, woodcock, thrush, and the fig-pecker. Venison was popular, and young pork a favorite. When the feaster was through with these, he tackled the dessert of pastry and fruit. At the table, the Romans did not seat themselves as we do, but low couches were arranged in the form tric/inium, which made three sides of a square, the open space being left for the convenience of the slaves in removing the dishes. The middle bench was the place of honor. Afterward, round tables came into fashion and the semicircular couches were used. Table-cloths were not em- ployed, but each guest brought a linen bib or napkin, called 7/eap/a, which he wore over the breast. Knives and forks were unknown, their place being taken by two kinds of spoon,-one, cochlear, Small and pointed at the end of the handle; the other, lingula, larger and of no clearly defined shape. Modern usage has greatly improved on the oil lamps that were used at the late meals. Like the table utensils, they were of fine material and beautiful pattern, but the thick Smoke blackened the wall and ceiling, and the pungent oil soaked the table. During the feast short dresses of bright material were worn instead of the toga. Chaplets were handed round before the drinking began, and were made of roses, myrtle, violets, ivy, and sometimes parsley. The hair of the guests was anointed with fragrant unguents by the slaves, before these chaplets were put on. The drink was mainly wine. Previous to being brought on the table, this was strained through a metal sieve or linen bag filled with snow, and was known as black or white, according to its color. The Falernian, of which we often read, and which was celebrated by Horace, was of a bright amber tint. The diners also drank mulsum, a mixture of new wine with honey, and calda, made of warm water, wine, and spice. The Romans were fond of their baths. In the rugged days, nothing suited them better than a cold plunge in the Tiber, which tingled the blood and braced the iron muscles, but this gave place under the Empire to the luxurious System of warm and vapor bathing, sometimes repeated six or eight times a day, with greatly enervating results. The bathers spent hours lolling in the baths and gossiping to their hearts' content. 4 I 2 The Story of the Greatest Nations The Romans found their amusements in the theatre, with its comedies and tragedies, the circus, and the amphitheatre. At the circus, which was really a race-course, they made bets on their favorite horses or charioteers, while in the amphitheatre they revelled in the bloody combats of the gladiators, of which we shall learn more hereafter. - The Roman books were rolls of papyrus, or parchment, written upon with a reed pen, dipped in sepia or lamp-black. The edges were rubbed smooth and blackened; the back of the sheet was often stained yellow, while the ends of the stick on which it was rolled were adorned with knobs of ivory or gilt wood. From the form of the book we have the word volume, meaning “a roll.” Letters were etched with a sharp-pointed iron, called a stylus, on thin wooden tablets coated with wax, and from the instrument employed, we have our word style. The letters were then tied up with a linen thread, the knot being sealed with wax and stamped with a ring. There were three forms of marriage, of which the highest was called comfar- reaſio. The bride attired in a white robe with purple fringe, and covered with a brilliant yellow veil, was escorted by torchlight to her future home. A cake was carried in front of her, and she bore a distaff and a spindle with wool. When she reached the flower-wreathed portal, she was lifted over the threshold that she might not risk a stumble, which was an omen of evil. Next, her hus- band brought fire and water, which she touched, and then, seated on a sheep- skin, she received the keys of the house, the ceremony closing with a marriage Supper. The household work was done by slaves. They were few at first, but, as time passed, it was thought a disgrace for a citizen not to have a slave for every separate kind of work. Thus one managed the purse, another the cellar, an- other the bedrooms, another the kitchen, while there were slaves to attend their masters when they walked abroad. The wealthiest Romans had their readers, Secretaries, and physicians, and for amusement there were musicians, dancers, buffoons, and idiots. In the slave-market the unfortunate were bought and sold like cattle, but the beautiful females were disposed of privately and brought prices which often reached several thousand dollars. The principal apartments of a first-class Roman house were on the ground- floor. Passing through the unroofed vestibule, generally between rows of pleasing statues, one entered the dwelling through a doorway ornamented with ivory, tortoise-shell, and gold, looking down on the word Salve (welcome) worked in mosaic marble. He then passed into the atrium, or large central reception-room, which was separated from its wings by lines of pillars. Here were placed the ancestral images and the family fireplace, dedicated to the Lares or tutelar deities of the house. Beyond lay a large saloon called the Rome—Early Writers 4 I 3 petrisyle, whose floor was usually a mosaic of colored marble, tiles, or glass, with the walls covered or painted, with gilt and colored stucco-work on the ceilings and with the window-frames filled with talc or glass. There were bright gardens on the roof, and within the house would be found ivory bed- steads, with quilts of purple and gold; tables of rare and precious wood; side- boards of gold and silver, bearing plate, amber vases, beakers of Corinthian bronze, and exquisitely beautiful glass vessels from Alexandria. You will bear in mind that these descriptions apply only to the homes of the wealthy, who, with all their extravagance and luxury, lacked many of the comforts found to-day in the humblest modern homes. It followed that the poorer Romans had even less in the way of convenience, and were obliged to get on as best they could. It was not until the time of Augustus that the literature of Rome became really noteworthy. He gave the Empire the peace and settled condition which enable literature to flourish. A brilliant galaxy of writers consequently gath- ered round him, and his reign constitutes the world-famous “Augustan age" of literature. Ennius, called the father of Roman poetry, had lived over a century and a half before, and marks the beginning of Latin literature. He was a native of Calabria, enjoyed the esteem of the most eminent men, among them Scipio Africanus, and attained the honor of Roman citizenship. His poems were highly regarded by Cicero, Horace, and Virgil, and his memory was lovingly cherished by his countrymen. Plautus was a contemporary of Ennius, and a great comic poet. He pro- duced numerous plays, a few of which have descended to us. His work was immensely popular, for he displayed liveliness, humor, rapid action, and great skill in the construction of his plots. His plays have served as models in some respects for Shakespeare, Molière, Dryden, Addison, and others. Terentius, the most famous of the comic poets, was a native of Carthage, but was purchased by a Roman Senator, who manumitted him because of his handsome person, winning ways, and remarkable talents. His first play was immediately successful, and the author became a favorite among the leading citizens of Rome, and an intimate of the younger Scipio. Six of his comedies have come down to us, and they possess great educational value, for they share with the works of Cicero and Caesar the honor of being written in the purest Latin. Cato the elder, or Cato the Censor, as he is called to distinguish him from Cato of Utica, was elected consul, and displayed such remarkable genius in quelling an insurrection in Spain (B.C. 206) that he was honored with a tri- umph. In B.C. I 84, he was elected censor, and was so rigid in the discharge of 4 I 4 The Story of the Greatest Nations his duties that the epithet Censorius was applied to him as his surname. He was fanatical in his views, but displayed the highest moral heroism in combat- ing the evils around him. You will remember that it was he who ended every address in the Senate with the exclamation that Carthage must be destroyed. His implacable enmity was caused by what he conceived to be an insult put upon him in the year B.C. I75, when he was sent to Carthage to negotiate con- cerning the differences between the Carthaginians and the Numidian king, Ma- sinissa. In his eightieth year his second wife bore him a son, who became the grandfather of Cato of Utica. The elder was the author of a number of liter- ary works, but unfortunately his greatest historical production, the “Origines,” has been lost, though there have been preserved many fragments of his orations. These writers with Cicero constitute the entire list of illustrious literary Romans previous to the “Augustan age.” Returning to that brilliant period we encounter Virgil, Horace, Sallust, Catullus, and a score of others. Virgil ranks second only to Homer as an epic poet. He was born on Octo- ber I 5th, B.C. 70, at Andes, a village not far from Mantua. The last and great- est of his works is the “AEneid,” which occupied the latter years of his life. Meeting Augustus at Athens on his triumphal return from the East, the poet was persuaded to go back to Rome with him, but he was seized with illness on the road and died in his fifty-second year. Horace was born in a part of the modern kingdom of Naples, on the 8th of December, B. c. 65. We have learned that when Brutus went to Greece he made Horace a tribune, and he served with the republicans until the “end of all things ’’ came at Philippi, when he made his submission and returned to Rome. Highly accomplished in Greek and Roman literature, he set his genius to the mastering of two great tasks,—the naturalization in Latin of the Greek lyric spirit and the perfect development of the old Roman satire. He attained an artistic success in both objects, and became one of the most influential writ- ers of the world, who will be recognized as such throughout all coming gener- ations. He became the friend of Virgil, and, while still a young man, was introduced to the great Etruscan noble Maecenas, the intimate friend of Au- gustus, who endowed him with an estate and honored and encouraged him in every possible way. Horace showed a manly gratitude, and complimented the Emperor on those features of his reign which were worthy. Horace was the author of numerous Odes, satires, poems, and epistles, and was witty, good- natured, and one of the most vivacious of song-writers. Sallust was born B.C. 86 in the Sabine country, and, though a plebeian, rose to distincton, first as a quaestor and afterward as a tribune of the people. His private life was immoral. He was a devoted friend of Caesar, who in B. c. 47 made him a praetor-elect and thus restored him to the rank of which he had Rome—The Augustan Age 4. I 5 been deprived. The following year he was made governor of Numidia, where he ruled badly and greatly oppressed the people. The immense fortune which he dishonestly acquired enabled him to retire from political life, and devote his whole time to literary work. His reputation rests upon his historical produc- tions, the principal of which were his history of the conspiracy of Catiline and the Jugurthine War. His writings are powerful and animated, and the speeches which he puts into the mouths of his chief characters are strong and effective. He was the first Roman to write what is now accepted as history. Lucretius was born in the opening years of the first century before Christ, but comparatively nothing is known of his personal history, one account making him die of poison swallowed because of his infatuation with a woman. The great work on which his fame rests is the “De Rerum Natură,” a philo- sophical didactic poem in six books. His great aim was to free his countrymen from the trammels of superstition. “Regarded merely as a literary compo- sition, the work named stands unrivalled among didactic poems. The clearness and fulness with which the most minute facts of physical science, and the most subtle philosophical speculations, are unfolded and explained; the life and in- terest which are thrown into discussions in themselves repulsive to the bulk of mankind; the beauty, richness, and variety of the episodes which are interwoven with the subject-matter of the poem, combined with the majestic verse in which the whole is clothed, render the ‘De Rerum Waturá,' as a work of art, one of the most perfect which antiquity has bequeathed to us.” Catullus was born at Verona, B.C. 87. His father was an intimate friend of Julius Caesar, but the son wrote Savage attacks upon the great politician. His poems are one hundred and sixteen in number, chiefly consisting of lyrics and epigrams, and have been justly admired for their exquisite grace and beauty of style, though many are tainted with gross indecency. He was equally suc- cessful in the higher style of writing, especially in his odes, of which only four have been preserved. He resided in his country villa, surrounded by aristo- cratic friends, and was one of the staunchest supporters of the Senatorial party. Of the life of Livy, the renowned historian, we know little except that he was born early in the latter half of the century before Christ. He lived to his eightieth year, and, having been born under the Republic, died under the Em- peror Tiberius. The great history by which he is remembered was probably written shortly before the birth of the Saviour. His fame was such that a Spaniard travelled from Gades to Rome to see him. His work ranks as one of the masterpieces of human composition. Originally, his Roman history was comprised in one hundred and forty-two books, divided into decades, but only thirty books and a part of five more exist. “In classing Livy in his proper place among the greatest historians of the * 416 The Story of the Greatest Nations ancient and modern world, we must not think of him as a critical or antiquarian writer—a writer of scrupulousky calm judgment and diligent research. He is pre-eminently a man of beautiful genius, with an unrivalled talent for narration, who takes up the history of his country in the spirit of an artist, and makes a free use of the materials lying handiest, for the creation of a work full of grace, color, harmony, and a dignified ease. Professor Ramsay has remarked, that he , treats the old tribunes just as if they were on a level with the demagogues of the worst period; and Niebuhr censures the errors of the same kind into which his Pompeian and aristocratic prepossessions betray him. But this tendency, if it was ever harmful, is harmless now, and was closely connected with that love of ancient Roman institutions and ancient Roman times which at once inspired his genius, and was a part of it. And the value of his history is incal- culable, even in the mutilated state in which we have it, as a picture of what the great Roman traditions were to the Romans in their most cultivated period.” Ovid was born B.C. 43, at Sulmo, in the country of the Peligni. Although he was educated for the law, his poetical genius drew him aside. Acquiring considerable property through the death of his father, he went to Athens and mastered the Greek language. He was gay, indolent, and licentious, and, prob- ably because of his disgraceful intrigues, he was ordered by the emperor to leave Rome in the year A.D. 9, for Tomi, near the delta of the Danube and on the limit of the Empire. Augustus refused to shorten his term of exile, and Ovid died in the lonely place in his sixtieth year. It was there that he com- posed most of his poems to while away the dismal hours. He possessed a masterly style of composition, a vigorous fancy, a fine eye for color, a very musical versification, and, despite an occasional Slovenliness of style, he has been a favorite of the poets from the time of Milton to the present. A large number of his works have come down to us, but more have been lost, the one best known to antiquity being his tragedy “ Medea.” Other famous writers follow, after the Augustan age. Pliny the Elder was born in the north of Italy in A. D. 23. He went to Rome when quite young, and his high birth and ample means secured him every advantage in education and advancement. He served in Germany as the commander of a troop of cav- alry, but spent the greater part of the reign of Nero in authorship, producing a number of miscellaneous works. In the year 79, he was stationed off Misenum, in command of the Roman fleet, when the great eruption of Vesuvius occurred which buried Herculaneum and Pompeii. Eager to examine the phenomenon more closely, he landed at Stabiae, and was suffocated by the noxious fumes. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, attributed this misfortune to his corpulent and asthmatic habit, since none of his companions perished. Of Pliny's numerous works, only his “Historia Naturalis” has come down to us. It has Rome–Later Writers 4 I 7 many faults, lacking scientific merit and philosophical arrangement, but it is a monument of industry and research, and supplies us with details on a variety of subjects which could be obtained in no other way. * - - Juvenal, the satirist, was a native of Aquinum, a Volscian town. The date of his birth is unknown, but he wrote during the time of Domitian (81–96 A.D.) and lived many years later. The sixteen of his satires which still survive hold the first rank in satirical literature, and are invaluable as pictures of the Roman life of the Empire. Tacitus is remembered as receiving marks of favor from the emperors Ves- pasian, Titus, and Domitian, but there is no record of the date and place of his birth, nor of the time of his death, which was in the early part of the second century. He was one of the greatest of historians. In love of truth and in- tegrity of purpose none surpassed him, and he possessed a remarkable concise- ness of phrase and the power of saying much and implying more in one or two strokes of expression. - - 27 ANCIENT CAMEO REPRESENTING THE APOTHEosis or AUGUSTUS º º º | º & - º - -w |ſ. | º º º |º º | º ***". º | * - º - -> º - - - º ººººººl!" º º | - -- - - - - Tº -- - -- - º | -- - - --- --ºn- º º |\º - | A- - --- º º . - - º - --- º Spoils or JERusAlext-From THE Column of TRAJAN Chapter XXXIX THE EMPERORS PERIOD OF POWER - º gºy far the most impressive event of the reign of Augustus º sº sº was the birth of the Saviour at the little village of Beth- º § * lehem, in Judea, -an event that marked the most mo- gº tºº/, #|) º - - - - - - Gºlº | §: mentous crisis in the spiritual history of the world. # - º). Although early tradition assigned this to the year 75.3 ºn 1- gy/|| of Rome, it really occurred four years earlier, as has - ſºlº - - - - º); #5 been explained in the Introduction. This human appear- O-ºſ- - - & º º: ance of Christ took place at the time when there was º general peace throughout the earth, and was, therefore, in accordance with Scripture prophecy. The government of Au- gustus was tranquil, and there were no civil wars, though there may have been some unrest on the frontiers. There was, indeed, only one serious war during the forty years of Augustus' supreme power. This was with the Germans, the wild tribes which Caesar had defeated. They had never been fully subdued, and in the year B.C. 9 they rose in sudden rebellion under their chief Hermann, or, as the Romans called him, Arminius. The \) three Roman legions along the Rhine were commanded by Varus, who proved both reckless and incompetent. He marched his entire force into the wild German forests where they were surrounded by the rebels, and, after three days of savage fighting, exterminated. Great was the conster- nation at Rome. Augustus beat his head against the wall, crying, “Varus, Varus, give me back my legions.” The people feared the Germans would imitate the ancient Gauls and make a terrible raid upon Rome. But the Ger- Rome–Reign of Tiberius 4. 19 mans were busy quarrelling among themselves; fresh legions were hastily raised, and the danger passed away. Augustus died in A.D. I.4, and was succeeded by his step-son, Tiberius Claudius Nero, known as Tiberius, who was born B. c. 42. Jesus Christ was crucified in the nineteenth year of this reign. It was at Antioch, in Syria, where Saul and Barnabas taught the faith, that the believers first received the name of “Christians.” Then began those wonderful missionary journeys of the Apostles, which carried the gospel through Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, and Rome became the capital of Christendom. Silently but irresistibly the true faith spread, first among the Jews, then among the Greeks, or eastern, and the Latin, or western, Gentiles, until it became the one true and accepted re- ligion throughout the civilized world. When Tiberius ascended the throne, his manliness and moderation gave promise of a prosperous reign, but he was jealous from the first of his popular nephew Germanicus, who was intrusted with important commands in Dalmatia and Pannonia, and raised to the consulate before he was thirty years of age. Two years later he repressed a terrible revolt of the Germanic legions, who wished to Salute him as emperor. In a campaign against the Germans, he ousted Hermann their chief, A. D. 16, recaptured the eagles lost by Varus, and earned for himself the surname of Germanzicus. Tiberius summoned him home, and he returned as a victorious general. The Senate awarded him a magnificent triumph, in which Thusnelda, wife of Arminius, preceded his car with her children. Germanicus died in A.D. 19, from poison, as he declared, and then Tiberius revealed himself as moody and irresolute, with scarcely a trace of affection or sympatthy. He became a tyrant. The number and amount of taxes were increased, all power was taken from the people and Senate. Prosecutions for high treason were based on mere words or even looks that gave displeasure to the Emperor, who found thus a convenient method of ridding himself of those who displeased him. As years advanced, he abandoned the real government of the empire to AElius Sejanus, commander of the Praetorian Guards, and wallowed in licentious excesses at his villa in Capri, until, worn out by debauchery, he ended his infamous life in the year 37, his death being hastened either by poison or suffocation. There were many Roman emperors whose history is not worth the telling. Some held the throne but a short time, and others played an insignificant part in the annals of the Empire. We add the list, with the dates of their reigns, and in the following pages will recall the most important events connected with their rule. Caius Caesar, or Caligula, as he is more generally known, was in his twenty- 42O The Story of the Greatest Nations fifth year when he became emperor. He was suspected of helping the death of Tiberius, who had appointed him his heir. He was another of the diabolical miscreants produced by licentiousness and debauchery. It took him just one year to expend the three million dollars left by Tiberius, and he confiscated and murdered and banished until it is only charitable to believe he was afflicted with insanity. He enlivened his feasts by having those whom he disliked tortured in his presence, and once expressed the wish that all the Roman people had but one neck that he might decapitate Rome at a single blow. He stabled his favorite horse in the palace, fed him at a marble manger with gilded oats (how disgusted the animal must have been l), and afterward raised him to the consulship. As a climax to his foolery, he declared himself a god and had temples erected and sacrifices offered to his family. The people stood all this and much more with incredible patience, but finally formed a con- spiracy and removed him by assassination from the earth which he had cumbered too long. Claudius I., fortunately for himself, was suspected of imbecility, else Ca- ligula would have “removed ” him. As it was, he might have done well had he not in A.D. 42, when terrified by hearing of a conspiracy against his life, aban. doned himself wholly to the will of his ferocious wife Messalina, who robbed and slew with a mercilessness worthy of the former emperor. Abroad, however, the Roman armies were victorious, Mauritania became a Roman province, progress was made in Germany, and the conquest of Britain was begun. The experience of Claudius in the matrimonial line was discouraging. Messalina was executed for her crimes, after which he married Agrippina, who poisoned him in 54, so as to make sure of the succession of her son Nero. After the death of Claudius, he was deified, though the sacrilege surely could not have benefited him much. And now comes another of those infamous wretches, with which an all-wise Ruler finds it expedient to chastise mankind at certain intervals. This was Nero, whose full name was Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus. He be- gan his reign well, and but for the baleful influence of his mother, Agrippina, might have continued in the good way, under the tutelage of Seneca the phi- losopher. He soon yielded, however, to temptation or to his natural in- clinations, and plunged headlong into tyranny, extravagance, and every species of debauchery that human ingenuity could devise. Falling out with his mother, he caused her to be assassinated to please one of his mistresses, the wife of Otho, afterward emperor. To marry this woman Nero had put to death his own wife; now his mother followed, and the servile Senate actually issued an address congratulating the matricide on her death. The rebellion which broke out in Britain under Queen Boadicea was Sup- Rome—Atrocities of Nero 42 I pressed in 61, but the war against the Parthians the next year was unsuccess- ful. In July, 64, occurred the great conflagration in Rome, by which two- thirds of the city was reduced to ashes. It is recorded that while the conflagration was raging, Nero watched it from a turret in his palace, singing verses to the music of his lyre, and it is the general belief that it was his hand that kindled the flames. Sated with every known indulgence, he had set out to discover some new kind of enjoyment. Could his guilt have been established, the populace would have wreaked quick vengeance upon him. The cowardly miscreant was scared, and strove to turn aside the suspicion whose whispers had reached his ears. He traversed the stricken streets with hypocritical expressions of sympathy, and gave away all the money he could steal to help the sufferers; but seeing the necessity of directing distrust toward some one, he cunningly chose the new sect known as Christians, who had become numerous and active in Rome. Scores were ar- rested, and he condemned them to be burned. Many were wrapped in pitched cloth and set up in his own gardens, which were illuminated by the awful hu- man “torches.” It was not the Emperor's pity, but that of the refuse of the city, which finally brought the horrible spectacles to an end. Among the vic- tims of these tortures were probably St. Paul, St. Peter, and Seneca. Nero was guilty of atrocities that cannot even be hinted at. Suspecting Seneca and the poet Lucian of conspiring against him, he took the lives of both. One day, because he felt out of sorts, he kicked his wife to death. Being re- fused by another lady, he had her slain by way of teaching her a lesson, and then secured another wife by killing an obstinate husband. The blow which brought Nero low, came from an unexpected quarter. In the year 68, the Gallic and Spanish legions revolted, and the Praetorian Guards followed, all animated by the purpose of making Galba, one of their command- ers, Emperor. Their approach to the city heartened the Senate and terrified Nero, whose frame shivered and whose teeth rattled with terror. He fled at night to the villa of one of his freedmen, learning which the Senate proclaimed him a public enemy. Being warned that his death by torture had been ordered, and hearing the sound of the approaching hoof-beats of the guard, he at last mustered enough courage to place a sword to his breast and order his slave to drive it home. Galba entered Rome on January Ist, 69, and was accepted as Emperor with the right to assume the title of Caesar. He was a simple soldier and nothing more. Among those who accompanied him was Otho, whom Nero had robbed of his wife. He found the troops discontented with Galba's parsimony and strict discipline, and succeeded in working them up to the point of revolt, when Galba was slain and Otho succeeded him. 422 The Story of the Greatest Nations His reign, however, was to be brief, for Vitellius had been proclaimed Em- peror by his troops almost on the same day that Galba reached Rome. This was in Gaul, and came about because, through his liberality, he had made him- self extremely popular with the soldiers. He was drunk all the way to Rome, whither most of his military supporters had preceded him. Arrived there, hav- ing routed the forces of Otho on the road, his first act was to deify Nero. After that sacrilege, there was nothing too base for him, and he became such a vile debauchee that he was unable even to act the tyrant. The administration was mostly in the hands of the freedman Asiaticus, though P. Sabinus, brother of Vespasian, was high in authority. Their government was marked by moder- ation. The legions of Pannonia and Illyricum proclaimed Vespasian Emperor, and advanced into Italy under Antonius Primus. Several battles were fought, and Rome was desolated by violence and bloodshed, till the troops of Primus entered the city. Vitellius was found wandering about his palace in a state of drunken terror, and when he appeared on the streets was pounded to death by the angry mob. His head was carried about Rome, and his body thrown into the Tiber. Vespasian had left his son Titus to prosecute the siege of Jerusalem, and was joyfully received in Rome, where he set vigorously to work in restoring order. He was a fine soldier, held the troops under firm discipline, improved the finances, co-operated with the Senate, and, best of all, set a good example by his own conduct to his subjects. He was simple in his habits, indifferent to flattery, good-humored and easy of access. Although parsimonious in his private life, he was lavish in embellishing the city with public works, and was a liberal patron of the arts and sciences. He reigned ten years, and died in the sixty-ninth year of his age. Titus was the eldest son of Vespasian, and through his careful training had become an accomplished scholar and an adept in manly exercises. He was an admirable soldier, and the task which his father left him, of prosecuting the siege of Jerusalem, had been carried through with success. His victory caused the utmost joy in Rome, when the news reached the city. He laid the trophies of victory at his father's feet, and the two were given the honor (A.D. 71) of a joint triumph. Becoming the colleague of his parent in the Empire, Titus made an unfavorable impression by his immoral and cruel conduct. He caused persons whom he suspected of enmity to be put to death, and his liaison with Berenice, daughter of Herod Agrippa, gave great offence to the Romans. When, however, Titus became emperor, he agreeably disappointed every one. He immediately stopped all persecutions for treasonable words and looks; repaired the ancient and venerated structures of Rome; built new ones, among them the Colosseum and the baths which bear his name, and delighted the Rome—Herculaneum and Pompeii 423 populace by games which lasted one hundred days. The splendid beneficence of his reign was sorely needed, for in 79 occurred the appalling eruption of Vesuvius which destroyed Herculaneum and Pompeii and many other towns and villages. Herculaneum stood in the Campagna, close to the Bay of Naples. It is not known when it was founded, but its inhabitants took an active part in the social and civil wars of Rome. It was completely buried under a shower of ashes, over which a stream of lava flowed and afterward hardened. The con- figuration of the coast was so changed that the city was entirely lost for sixteen centuries, when an accident led to the discovery of its ruins in 1713. Twenty- five years later a systematic course of excavation was begun. The interesting relics of antiquity, so far as they were capable of removal, were taken to Na- ples, and are now deposited, along with other relics from Pompeii, in a large museum attached to the royal palace. They include not only frescoes, statues, and works of art, but articles of household furniture, such as tripods, lamps, chandeliers, basins, mirrors, musical or surgical instruments, and even cooking utensils. Excavations have been resumed of late years with the most interesting results. Pompeii was about twelve miles southeast from Naples, in the plain at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, and was one of the fashionable provincial cities of the Roman Empire. Though most of the citizens escaped during the incessant bombardment of lava stones, a large number must have perished, as is proved by the finding of the skeletons of soldiers on guard, and citizens apparently overtaken by death in the midst of their usual employments. As in the case of Herculaneum, the discovery of Pompeii in 1750 was accidental, but the ex- cavations have brought to light a living picture of a Roman city more than eighteen hundred years ago, with all its departments of domestic and public life, the worship of the gods, the shows of the arena, architecture, painting, and sculpture, and in short all the appliances of comfort and luxury as they existed in a wealthy community of those remote days. The year following the destruction of these cities, a three-days’ fire in Rome reduced to ashes the Capitol, Augustus' library, Pompey's theatre, and numerous houses, while on the heels of the conflagration came a dreadful pesti- lence. Titus did everything in his power for the homeless sufferers, even to the despoiling of his palaces of their ornaments to obtain money, and he Schemed and planned to find occupation for them. He became the idol of his subjects, the “love and delight of the human race,” but at the beginning of the third year of his reign he suddenly fell ill and died, September 13th, 81, his younger brother Domitian being suspected by some of having poisoned him. Be that as it may, Domitian came to the throne in 81, and ruled till 96. At first, he passed many good laws, governed the provinces carefully, and ad- 424 The Story of the Greatest Nations ministered justice, but the failure of his campaigns against the Dacians and the Marcomanni (87) soured his whole nature. He became ferocious in his suspicions, jealousy, and hatred; and through murder and banishment, it is said, deprived Rome of nearly all of the citizens conspicuous for their learning, talent, or wealth. He held the army to him by greatly increasing its pay, and won the favor of the people by extravagant gifts and gladiatorial games and shows, in some of which he took part. His cruelties finally became so intoler- able that his wife Domitia joined in a conspiracy against him, and he perished from the dagger on the 18th of September, 96. The Senate immediately elected M. Nerva as his successor, though he was past three-score years of age. He had twice held the honor of the consulship before his election, and displayed great wisdom and moderation. The taxes were lessened, and the administration of justice improved, but his advanced age rendered him unable to repress the insolence of the Praetorian Guards, and he adopted M. Ulpius Trajanus, known as Trajan, who succeeded him on his death, January 27th, 98. Trajan began his administration by the usual largess to the soldiers, extend- ing the same to the Roman citizens and their families, and he made large pro- vision out of the imperial treasury for the upbringing of the children of poor freemen in Rome and other Italian towns. It was in the year IOI that Rome beheld, for the first time, its Emperor leading forth its legions in person upon their career of conquest. Trajan then set out on his first campaign against the Dacians, who had compelled Rome since the time of Domitian to pay them tribute. The struggle was long and severe, but was completely successful (IO4–105), and Dacia became a royal province. This was the first conquest since the death of Augustus, and was celebrated on Trajan's return to Rome by a triumph and splendid games which lasted for four months. Trajan's appetite for foreign conquest was whetted by his success, and in IO6 he again set out for the East. Landing in Syria, he moved northward, receiving the submission of numerous princes on the way, and occupying Ar- menia, which he made a province of the Empire. Though he was busy for the succeeding seven years, we have no clear record of what he did. Once more he went to Syria in II 5, his objective point being the Parthian empire. Its capital hardly offered the semblance of resistance, and he descended the Tigris subduing the tribes on both banks, and being the first and only Roman general to navigate the Persian Gulf. When he returned, he found it necessary to re-conquer Mesopotamia, North Syria, and Arabia, and he did it more thor- oughly than before. By this time he was in a sad bodily condition from dropsy and paralysis, and, while on the return to Italy, died at Selinus, in Cilicia, in August, I I 7. Rome—Hadrian Limits the Empire 4.25 Although so much of Trajan's reign was taken up with his military cam- paigns, his administration of civil affairs was admirable. Equal justice was secured to all; the imperial finances were greatly improved, and peculation on the part of public officers was severely punished. One of the fads of the Ro- man emperors was the improvement and beautifying of Rome, and none did more thorough work in that respect than Trajan. The Empire was traversed in all directions by military routes; canals and bridges were built, new towns arose, the Via Appia was restored, the Pontine Marshes partially drained, the “Forum Trajani ’’ erected, and the harbor of Civita Vecchia constructed. A striking proof of the sincerity of this Emperor's labors to improve the condition of his subjects was shown in the wish, which it became the fashion formally to utter, on the accession of each of his successors: “May he be happier than Augustus, better than Trajan.” Trajan died childless, and his successor was P. AElius Hadrianus, or Ha- drian, the son of Trajan's cousin. He had not only displayed great ability in the various high offices he filled, but he was a favorite of the empress. Trajan had the right to name his heir, and when the empress announced that it was Hadrian, the citizens and Senate accepted him without murmur. The Empire at this time was in a critical condition. There were insurrec- tions in Egypt, Palestine, and Syria; the barbarian hordes were swarming into Moesia in the east and Muritania in the west, and the turbulent Parthians had once more asserted their independence and administered several defeats to the imperial forces. Looking calmly at the situation which confronted him, Hadrian was con- vinced that a peaceful policy was the true one. He decided to limit the Roman boundaries in the East, and concluded a peace with the Parthians by which he surrendered all the country beyond the Euphrates to them. Return- ing to Rome in I I 8, he treated the people liberally, but suppressed with re- lentless severity a patrician conspiracy against his life. He then, by means of large gifts, induced the Roxolani, who are the modern Russians, to retire from Moesia which they had invaded. - The year I 19 saw the beginning of Hadrian's remarkable journey, most of which he is said to have performed on foot. He visited Gaul, Germany, Britain, Spain, Mauritania, Egypt, Greece, and Asia Minor. In Britain, he built the wall which extends from the Solway to the Tyne, and did not return to Rome until after seven years, when he received the title of Pater Patriae. He was so fond of the city of Athens that he spent the years I 32 and I 33 there. Making another visit to Syria, he came back to Italy, and passed the remainder of his life around Rome, dying July IOth, I 38, at Baiae. The vigor and thoroughness with which Hadrian reorganized and disciplined 426 The Story of the Greatest Nations the army remove all thought that his peaceful policy was attributable to fear or weakness. He did more than any emperor to consolidate the monarchical system of Rome. He divided Italy into four parts, each under a consul, to whom was entrusted the administration of justice. Among the numerous splendid edifices he erected was the mausoleum called the Moles Hadriani, the AElian bridge leading to it, and the splendid villa at Tibur. He also laid the foundation of several cities, the most important of which was Adrianopolis. He placed a high value on Greek literature, and was a lover and patron of the fine arts. Hadrian adopted as his heir T. Aurelius Antoninus, of excellent abilities and in middle life. Him Hadrian required to select two heirs, M. Annius, his own sister's son, and Lucius Verus, the child of his late comrade. Anto- ninus Pius (the Senate having added the latter name) had served Hadrian as proconsul in Asia, where the gentle wisdom of his rule gave him a higher reputation than any of his predecessors. He inherited great wealth and made one of the best emperors who ever ruled imperial Rome. He was simple, tem- perate, and kind, his highest object being that of benefiting his people, who looked up to him as in the truest sense the father of his country. His mild hand partly stayed the persecution of the Christians which was continued dur- ing his reign. Fond of peace, the only important war in which he engaged was against Britain, where the Roman power was extended. He also built a wall between the Forth and the Clyde, as a check against the predatory tribes of the north. He was so widely known for his integrity and justice that he was often employed to arbitrate in the affairs of foreign states. To his wis- dom, kindness, and unvarying courtesy was due the freedom of his vast empire from insurrections, violence, conspiracies, and bloodshed. It may be said in brief that he furnished a model for those who came after him, though, sad to say, few were able to measure up to his splendid standard. He died in 161, and was succeeded by Marcus Annius, called Aurelius, who, as we have learned, had been selected as his heir at the command of Hadrian. Aurelius had been made consul in 140, and, up to his accession to the throne, he discharged the duties with faithfulness and ability. He and the Emperor had been the closest of friends. Aurelius, on becoming Emperor, showed his chivalry of character by voluntarily sharing the government with young Lucius Verus, who from that time bore the title of Lucius Aurelius Verus. Such a ruler as Aurelius was sure to win the respect and love of his subjects, but Lucius, when sent to take part in the Parthian War, remained in Antioch, sunk in debasing pleasures, leaving his officers to prosecute the strug- gle, and at the close he returned home and enjoyed the triumph to which he had no claim. The troops brought a pestilence, which, together with appalling Rome—Government of Marcus Aurelius 427 inundations and earthquakes, laid much of the city in ruins, and destroyed the granaries where the Supplies of corn were kept. A formidable insurrection had long been fomenting in the German provinces; the Britons were on the point of revolt, and the Catti (the Suevi of Julius Caesar, who lived in the coun- try nearly corresponding to the present Hesse) were ready to devastate the Rhenish provinces. The manifold calamities that had fallen and still threatened to fall so terri- fied the Romans that, to allay them, Marcus determined to go forth to war him- self. For a time Marcus and Lucius were completely successful. The Mar. Comanni and the other rebellious tribes, living between Illyria and the sources of the Danube, were compelled to sue for peace in 168, the year preceding the death of Lucius. The contest was renewed in 170, and, with little intermis- sion, lasted throughout the life of the Emperor. Marcus carried on the cam- paign with amazing vigor and skill, and nearly annihilated the Marcomanni and the Jazyges. Connected with this war was a victory so unprecedented that some histo- rians accept it as a miracle. According to Dion Cassius, the Romans were perishing of thirst and heat, on a Summer day in 174, when, without warning, the flaming sky was darkened by a black cloud from which the cooling rain descended in torrents. The feverish soldiers abandoned themselves to the life- giving draughts, when the barbarians assailed them with furious energy, and assuredly would have annihilated them, had not a storm of hail and fire de- scended upon the assailants alone, and scattered them in headlong terror. So profound indeed was the dread inspired that the Germanic tribes hastened from all directions to make their submission and to beg for mercy." - This astounding occurrence could hardly be believed were it not established by every soldier of a large army, and by Aurelius himself, who was incapable of falsehood. It certainly was one of the strangest incidents in history. At this juncture, a new outbreak occurred in the East, brought about by the shocking treachery of the Emperor's own wife. This wicked woman urged to rebellion the governor, Avidius Cassius, a descendant of the Cassius who had slain Caesar. The Emperor, though in poor health, was obliged to leave Pan- nonia with the least possible delay. Cassius seized the whole of Asia Minor, but was slain by his own soldiers. Marcus Aurelius expressed his sorrow that the fates had thus deprived him of the happiness of pardoning the man who had conspired against his happiness. He exhibited the same magnanimity on his arrival in the East, where he refused to read the papers of Cassius, and or- dered them to be burned, so that he might not be led to suspect any one of being a traitor. He treated the provinces with such gentleness that he won their love and disarmed them of all enmity. While he was thus engaged, 428 The Story of the Greatest Nations his disloyal wife died in an obscure village, and the husband paid her every honor. On his way back to Rome, he visited Lower Egypt and Greece, and by his noble efforts in behalf of his subjects won their profound gratitude. In Athens he founded chairs of philosophy for each of the four chief sects—Pla- tonic, Stoic, Peripatetic, and Epicurean. Reaching Italy, he celebrated his bloodless triumph on the 23d of December, 176. Fresh disturbances having broken out in Germany, he went thither in the following autumn and was again successful. But his weak constitution by this time was shattered by the hard ships, sufferings, and anxiety he had borne so long. He died either at Vienna or at Sirmium, on March 17th, 180. JUPITER BRINGING RAIN TO THE ROMAN ARMY º º º § -º-º-º: Sºº º $º: º º º * lººr. *_*. º - - -- - Sº - - - - - --------- - - - £3. Giºcºciº-ecº-EEEEEEEEEE EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE3 VICTORY OF CONSTANTINE OVER MAXENTIUS Chapter XL THE GROWTH OF CHRISTIANITY 㺠ITH all that has been said of that extraordinary man and -- emperor, Marcus Aurelius, justice requires mention of a feature of his character which the reader probably has not suspected,—that is, his hostility to Christianity. He was a persecutor of the new religion, and must have known of the cruelties perpetrated upon the be- lievers. There have been many explanations of his course, the generally accepted one being that he was led astray by evil counsellors, but the more probable cause is that he was actuated by his earnestness in the heathen faith of his ancestors, and the belief that the new doctrine threatened to undermine the Empire itself. He did not comprehend the religion of gentleness and love, and thought it his duty to extirpate the dangerous sect. The words of John Stuart Mill on this point are worthy of quota- tion: “If ever any one possessed of power had grounds for thinking him- self the best and most enlightened among his contemporaries, it was the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Absolutely monarch of the whole civilized world, he preserved through life not only the most unblemished justice, but, what was less to be ex- pected from his stoical breeding, the tenderest heart. The few failings which are to be attributed to him were all on the side of indulgence; while his writings, the highest ethical product of the ancient mind, differ scarcely perceptibly, if they differ at all, from the most characteristic teachings of Christ. This man, a better Christian, in all but the dogmatic sense of the word, than almost any of 430 The Story of the Greatest Nations the ostensibly Christian Sovereigns who have since reigned, persecuted Chris- tianity. Placed at the summit of all the previous attainments of humanity, with an open, unfettered intellect, and a character which led him, of himself, to embody in his moral writings the Christian ideal, he yet failed to see Chris- tianity was to be a good and not an evil in the world, with his duties to which he was so deeply penetrated. Existing society he knew to be in a deplorable state. But such as it was, he saw, or thought he saw, that it was held to- gether, and prevented from being worse, by belief and reverence of the received divinities. As a ruler of mankind, he deemed it his duty not to suffer society to fall in pieces, and saw not how, if its existing ties were removed, any others could be formed which would again knit it together. The new religion aimed openly at dissolving these ties; unless, therefore, it was his duty to adopt that religion, it seemed to be his duty to put it down. Inasmuch, then, as the the- ology of Christianity did not appear to him true, or of divine origin; inasmuch as this strange history of a crucified God was not credible to him, and a sys- tem which purported to rest entirely upon a foundation to him so wholly unbe- lievable, could not be foreseen by him to be that renovating agency which, after all abatements, it has in fact proved to be; the gentlest and most amiable of philosophers and rulers, under a solemn sense of duty, authorized the persecu- tion of Christianity. To my mind, this is one of the most tragical facts in all history. It is a bitter thought, how different a thing the Christianity of the world might have been if the Christian faith had been adopted as the religion of the Empire, under the auspices of Marcus Aurelius, instead of those of Con- stantine. But it would be equally unjust to him, and false to truth, to deny, that no one plea which can be urged for punishing anti-christian teaching was wanting to Marcus Aurelius for punishing, as he did, the propagation of Chris- tianity. No Christian more firmly believes that atheism is false, and tends to the dissolution of society, than Marcus Aurelius believed the same things of Christianity; he who, of all men then living, might have been thought the most capable of appreciating it. Unless any one who approves of punishment for the promulgation of opinions, flatters himself that he is a wiser and better man than Marcus Aurelius—more deeply versed in the wisdom of his time— more elevated in his intellect above it—more earnest in his search for truth— let him abstain from that assumption of the joint infallibility of himself and the multitude, which the great Aurelius made with so unfortunate a result.” The foregoing extract may introduce one of the most important facts con- nected with the history of the Roman Empire: that is, the spread of Chris- tianity within its confines. The variety of peoples had a variety of religions, but all, with the exception of the Jews, were pagans and polytheists, or believers in many gods. Such was the spiritual state of the myriads of human beings, Rome—Persecution of Christianity 431 when Christ was born in an obscure corner of the dominion of Augustus, and when the seed was sown whose harvest no man could foresee or dream of in his wildest imaginings. - The propagation of the new faith was marked by ferocious persecutions. We have learned of the first one, which was that by the fiendish Nero, who aimed to turn suspicion against the Christians as the incendiaries of Rome, in order to hide his own guilt. Tacitus, the great Roman historian, who was born under Nero, says of this diabolical infamy: “Some were nailed on crosses, others sewn up in the skins of wild beasts and exposed to the fury of dogs; others again smeared over with combustible materials were used as torches to iſiuminate the darkness of the night. The gardens of Nero were destined for the melancholy spectacle, which was accompanied with a horse-race, and honored with the presence of the Emperor, who mingled with the populace in the dress and attitude of a charioteer.” Now it may be asked why the Romans, who permitted innumerable religions to flourish within their Empire, concentrated their furious persecutions upon the Christians. The main cause was the proselyting ardor of the Christians them- selves. The believer in that faith was taught as one of its basic duties that he must not selfishly absorb it unto himself, but do all he could to persuade his brethren to share it with him. Its very nature, therefore, made it aggressive, while the numerous pagan faiths were passive. Christianity did what no other faith did. It boldly taught that all the gods of the Romans were false, and that it was a sin to bow down to them. Not only that, but it did its utmost to lead all others to think the same. The early Christians held their meetings secretly and at night, and this was looked upon with disfavor by the authorities, who saw the germs of danger in the practice. But, as has been said, the blood of the martyrs was the seed of the church, and as we progress in the history of the Roman Empire, this truth will manifest itself again and again. The reader has gone sufficiently far through these pages to note another fact: the real power of the Empire lay in the soldiery who stood behind the throne. We have learned of the insolence of the Praetorian Guards, who dared to insult an emperor to his face, and who did not hesitate to make and unmake sovereigns at will, with the Senate always ready to record and accept the decree of the soldiers. Inasmuch as each new ruler signalized his accession to the throne by distributing largesses, it followed that the more emperors there were, the greater would be the gifts distributed. So the troops became addicted to deposing emperors and selecting new ones. The man fixed upon for the purple was usually a favorite general, and as there were plenty of them, it followed that Rome sometimes had several emperors at the same time. No man dared aspire to the crown without the backing of the soldiers. 4.32 The Story of the Greatest Nations The only accession of territory by Rome during the first century of the Christian era was Britain. In the words of Gibbon : “After a war of about forty years, undertaken by the most stupid (Claudius), maintained by the most dissolute (Nero), and terminated by the most timid (Domitian) of all the em- perors, the greater part of the island of Britain submitted to the Roman yoke.” We remember the addition of the province of Dacia by Trajan in the early part of the second century. - One cruel amusement of the Romans was their gladiatorial fights, which date from their earliest history. The popularity of these increased, till the time came when magistrates, public officers, and candidates for the popular. suffrage gave shows to the people, which consisted mainly of the bloody and generally fatal encounters; but no earlier leaders equalled the emperors in pro- viding the people with the fearful exhibitions. In one given by Julius Caesar, three hundred and twenty couples engaged in combat. In the terrific display offered by Trajan, lasting one hundred and twenty-three days, ten thousand gladiators were exhibited at once, and two thousand fought with and killed one another, or contended with wild beasts for the amusement of the seventy thou- sand spectators in the Colosseum, who included every grade of Society from the highest to the lowest. - Sinewy, athletic slaves were brought from all parts of the dominions and trained for the combats, as horses have been trained in later times for races. There were so many gladiators during the conspiracy of Catiline that they were deemed dangerous to the public safety, and the proposal was made to distribute them among the different garrisons. The exhibitions became so numerous that efforts were made to limit the number of gladiators. Cicero advocated a law forbidding any one giving a show for one or two years before becoming a can. didate for public office, and Augustus prohibited more than two shows a year, or the giving of one by a person worth less than twenty thousand dollars; but the passion was so strong that it was impossible to keep the terrible exhibitions within moderate limits. A gladiatorial show was announced by pictures and show-bills, after the fashion of modern theatrical plays. All the trained contestants were sworn to fight to the death, and the display of cowardice was followed by fatal tortures. The fighting at first was with wooden swords, which soon gave place to steel weapons. When one of the combatants had disarmed his opponent, he placed his foot on his body, and looked at the Emperor, if present, or to the people, for the signal of life or death. If they raised their thumbs, he was spared; if they turned them down, he was slain. The gladiator who conquered was re- warded with a palm and in some cases with his freedom. At first the glad- iators were slaves, but afterward freemen and even knights entered the arena. SSB 13 Haeo ua taſ-11 bwll'ins. Noo snl.nl www. tuosintºſ， º ae aeq （cobi ºnqºſraedoo W. º \ W lº -- º - CHRISTIAN FUGITIVES FROM THE HUns CARACALLA's ENTRANCE INTO ALEXANDRIA | | | | | | | ZENOBLA IN THE TRIUMPH OF AURELIAN waelºdo3：10 ±0 || Swae LSv T + H_L |- ， · ：M --★ → ALBOIN's ENTRANCE INTO PAvia > ~ u - < - ~ O -- u I u- o - o H. O - - - ºn u c. u I H. rasov Nv_1Snonºv a 1-a_1. |× |- O83010 ao dva H = H_1 H_1|^w ºi Annae * || | | | Rome—Decline of the Empire 4.33 In the time of Nero senators and knights fought, and under Domitian women appeared as combatants. The gladiatorial contests were prohibited by Con- tantine in 325, but it was not till nearly two centuries later, under Theodoric, that they were finally abolished. . The decline of the mighty Empire was thus begun through the sapping of Roman manliness; the process continued to the final crash. Commodus (180– 192) was the legitimate son and heir of Marcus Aurelius, and under him the worst days of Caligula and Nero were revived. He brought the Macedonian war, inherited from his father, to an end by a dishonorable peace, and aban- doned himself to the most degrading debauchery. Seven hundred and fifty times he posed as a gladiator in the arena. He had arranged to enter a spe- cially splendid festival as a gladiator on the Ist of January, I 93, but was mur- dered the night preceding, and the Senate by resolution declared his memory dishonored. The honorable and vigorous Senator P. Helvidius Pertinax spent three months in bringing order out of chaos. His ability made him feared by the Praetorians, and they murdered him. They then openly offered the empire to the highest bidder, and set a pretender on the throne. At the same time three other claimants were advanced by three other bodies of troops. L. Septimius Severus (193–2 II), commander on the Danube, was the first to enter Rome, where by his energy and address he won over the Senate. It required four years of vigorous fighting to dispose of his competitors, and he then became supreme. The Parthians having supported one of his opponents, he waged successful war against them and succeeded even in gaining a new province in Mesopotamia. He was finally compelled to take the field against the turbulent tribes of Britain, and died at the present city of York in Febru- ary, 2 II. M. Aurelius Antoninus Caracalla (21 1–217), son of Severus, was another miscreant, who, impatient to obtain the throne, made an attempt on his father's life. He lost no time in killing his brother and fellow-emperor Geta, with all who supported him, twenty thousand in number. He found means for his extravagance and excesses, in robbing his subjects. A monument of his lav- ishness as a builder is the immense ruins of the famous “Baths of Caracalla,” in Rome. An important political act of his reign was the bestowment of Roman citizenship on all municipalities of the Empire, a step necessary in order to obtain new taxes for filling his treasury. He showed feebleness in his wars on the frontiers of the Rhine and the Danube, and against the Parthians. He showed his savage cruelty at Alexandria in Egypt. He had entered that city in triumphal procession; but in the midst of all the pomp the “Emperor of the World’’ fell back in his chariot and slumbered in drunken stupor. The young men of the city laughed and made a jest of this, whereon Caracalla 28 434 The Story of the Greatest Nations sent his troops out through the streets for six successive days on a general II] a SS2UCITC. While engaged in a last campaign against Parthia, he was murdered by order of Macrinus, his prefect of the guard, who wore the purple for a brief while, until the Syrian troops raised to the throne Elagabulus, who was a distant relative of the house of Severus, and only fourteen years old. The soldiers endured this degenerate youth for nearly four years, and then murdered him and his mother. Alexander Severus (222–235), a cousin of the wretch who had been mur- dered, was too young to carry on the government alone, and it remained for the time in the hands of his grandmother, Maesa. The young Emperor meant well, but was too weak by nature to impress himself upon those troublous times. His wars brought no credit to the Roman Empire, and he vainly combated the assaults on the Roman possessions in Asia made by the new Persian empire. Equally fruitless were his campaigns against the Germans, which he next un- dertook. His attempts at discipline angered the legions, and when Maximinus, a popular general, presented himself as a rival emperor, the soldiers slew Alexander and went over to Maximinus in a body. Thus passed away the last of the descendants of Severus, and the decline of the Empire grew more rapid. Rome became the scene of anarchy, violence, and bloodshed, for the struggle was fierce and continuous among those bitten with the madness of ruthless ambition. Our list contains the names of all these imperators, some of whom held their power for only a few weeks or months. Gordianus (238–244), prosecuted a successful campaign against the Persians, and compelled them to give back Mesopotamia, but he was slain before the close of the war by his prefect of the guards, Philippus (244-249), who fell in battle with a rival, Decius. Valerian (253–26O) braced all his energies against the tide that was sweep- ing everything to destruction, but was unable to stay it, and was carried with the resistless current. The territory between the Limes and Rhine was lost; the Saxons plundered the coasts; the Goths were edging into Greece; the Franks and Alemanni tramped through Gaul, and Valerian himself was taken prisoner by the Persians and died in captivity. Claudius II. (268-270) started well, but had only fairly done so when he died. Aurelian (270–275), a famous general, roused the hope of his countrymen by his skill and patriotism. He repelled the Alemanni and Goths, and restored for a brief while the unity of the Empire. He conquered a Gallic usurper and destroyed Zenobia's kingdom of Palmyra. Zenobia was a beautiful Arab queen. Her husband founded an empire in the Asian deserts, and defeated both the Persians and the Romans. After his death Zenobia maintained and Rome—Diocletian Divides the Empire 435 even increased the power of her empire. Great men rallied round her, and for a moment it seemed that Rome had found a rival. Aurelian, however, besieged and mastered her capital after a struggle heroic on both sides; and the proud and beautiful queen was led as his captive in a Roman triumph. Aurelian's home government was firm and wise, and the circumvallation of Rome, still largely preserved, is a monument of his public spirit and enterprise. While fighting against the Persians, he was murdered near Byzantium in 275. Probus (276–282) was, like Aurelian, of Illyrian descent, and was com- mander of the Syrian troops. He displayed brilliant ability in driving back the Germans, and restored the old frontier of the Limes. He was wise in inducing thousands of Germans to settle on Roman soil, where they were encouraged in vine-growing and the tillage of the land. He also took many of them into the army, and treated the Senate with consideration, but he was doomed to share the fate of so many of his predecessors, for the soldiers, angered by his goodness and strictness, put him to death. From the swirl of strife and blood- shed finally emerged Diocletian (284–305), who introduces a new era in the history of the monarchy. - The first years of his administration were so disturbed by the aggressions of the barbarians that he took a colleague, Maximian, who, under the title of Augustus, became joint emperor in 286. Diocletian retained for himself the government of the eastern empire and gave the western to Maximian, but the attacks became more threatening and Diocletian divided the kingdom again. In 292, Constantius Chlorus and Galerius were proclaimed as Caesars, and the fourfold partition was appropriated as follows: Diocletian the East, with Nico- media as his seat of government; Maximian, Italy and Africa, with Milan as his residence; Constantius, Britain, Gaul, and Spain, with Treves as his capital; Galerius, Illyricum and the valley of the Danube, with Sirmium as his head- quarters. Diocletian seldom took the field, so that most of the fighting fell to his colleagues. Among the reconquests was that of Britain, which in 296 was restored to the Empire. In addition; the Persians were defeated and com- pelled to submit in 298, and the northern barbarians were driven beyond the frontiers. Diocletian's tempestuous rule lasted for twenty-one years, when he abdicated his throne, forcing his colleague Maximian, much against his will, to do the same at Milan. Two years before his abdication, he was instigated by his colleague Galerius, his son-in-law, to that bloody persecution of the Chris- tians which has made his rule memorable in history. The Emperor issued an edict commanding all Christian churches to be de- molished, all copies of the sacred Scriptures to be burned, and every Christian to be degraded from honor and rank. Hardly had this proclamation been posted up, when a Christian noble stepped forward and tore it down. He made 436 The Story of the Greatest Nations no attempt to conceal his act, and being arrested was roasted to death. A fire broke out in the palace, but, since it was quickly extinguished, there is cause for belief that it was kindled to furnish a pretext for persecuting the Chris- tians. They suffered every conceivable torture, and the flames of persecution raged everywhere in the Empire except in Gaul, Britain, and Spain, where Con- stantius ruled. Diocletian and Maximian abdicating as we have shown, Ga- lerius gave unrestrained indulgence to his infernal hatred of the Christians. “With little rest, for eight years,” says a writer, “the whip and the rack, the tigers, the hooks of steel, and the red-hot beds continued to do their deadly work. And then in 3 I I, when life was fading from his dying eye, Galerius published an edict permitting Christians to worship God in their own way.” Christianity from its divine nature is deathless, and no persecution or human enmity can stay its advances. Galerius, its fiendish foe, was dead, and now came the wonderful occurrence of a Roman Emperor professing Christian- ity. While Constantine Chlorus was fighting in Britain, he died, and the sol- diers proclaimed his son Constantine Emperor. This was easy enough, and in accordance with the usual fashion, but the first step the new Emperor had to take by way of self-preservation was to overcome five rivals. In the prosecution of this stupendous task, he was on his way in 312 to at- tack his rival Maxentius near Rome, when, so he declared, he saw with his own eyes the form of a flaming cross in the heavens, standing out above the sun and inscribed with the words: In hoc vince—By this conquer. In the battle which shortly followed, Maxentius was overthrown, and like Saul of Tarsus, who saw the great light on the way to Damascus, Constantine resolved to ac- cept the new faith and become a Christian. It is said by the early church historians that on the night following this vision, the Saviour appeared to Constantine in a dream, and commanded him to frame a similar standard, and to march under it with the assurance of victory. Thus originated the famous Labarum, or standard of the cross, displayed by the Christian emperors in their campaigns. The X in the top of the Labarum represents the cross, and is the initial of the Greek word for Christ. While the personal conduct of Constantine in many instances was shock- ingly contrary to the spirit of Christianity, for he was cruel and licentious, it cannot be denied that he dealt prodigious blows in favor of the new faith. His first act was the issuance of the Edict of Milan, which brought peace to the sorely harried Christian church. In 324, he defeated the last of his rivals, and made Christianity the religion of the state. He sent out circular letters to his subjects, whom he exhorted to embrace the divine truth of Christianity. His example could not fail to have tremendous influence, and thousands did as he asked them. It is estimated that during his reign a twentieth part of the Rome—Constantine Establishes Christianity 437 population were professing Christians. Instead of persecuting paganism in its turn, Constantine assailed it with ridicule and neglect. With the public money he repaired the old churches and built new ones, so that it came about that in all the leading cities the strange sight was presented of the pagan temples being surpassed in splendor by the new places of worship. The Christian clergy were no longer required to pay taxes, and Sunday was proclaimed a day of rest. Finally, Constantine removed the seat of government to Byzantium, which henceforth became known as Constantinople, in his honor, and was es- sentially a Christian city. A notable result of the crushing of political aspiration had been the turning of the thoughts of the ablest intellects to the grand problems of the Christian faith. The theological writers, both in Latin and Greek, are known as the “Christian Fathers,” the principal of whom were as follows: Tertullian, the son of a proconsular centurion, was born in Carthage in 16O. He was brought up a heathen, but was converted by a Christian wife. He possessed a fine education, and was well versed in Roman law, in ancient phi- losophy, history, and poetry; but he was bigoted and uncharitable, with a strong inclination to asceticism. His writings were numerous. Neander says of his theology: “In Tertullian we find the first germ of that spirit which afterward appeared with more refinement and purity in Augustine, as from Augustine the scholastic theology proceeded and in him also the Reformation found its point of connection.” His chief work was his “Apologeticus,” written in 198, and urging the right of the Christians to freedom of worship. Origen was born at Alexandria in 185, and has been termed the “father of Biblical criticism and exegesis in Christendom.” When seventeen years old he saw his father die the death of a martyr, and would have willingly shared his parent's fate, had not his mother, who had six younger children dependent upon her, prevented. He was the most rigid of asceticists. He was liberal in his views, and accepted the Christian faith in its fulness only after careful study of all the different religions of which he could gain knowledge. His denial of belief in eternal punishment caused his excommunication, through the efforts of the Bishop of Alexandria; but the churches of the East remained faithful to him, and he kept up constant communication with Palestine, Arabia, Phoenicia, and Achaia. He was obliged to flee several times, and died in 254 at Tyre, from the tortures he had suffered during the Christian persecutions. His tomb remained for centuries near the high altar of the cathedral, until it was destroyed during the Crusades. Origen wrote in Greek, and his essays and sermons numbered thousands, the great bulk of which are lost. The most important that have survived are his two editions of the Old Testament, called respectively “Tetrapla” (four- 438 The Story of the Greatest Nations fold), and “Hexapla” (sixfold). Only a few fragments remain, which have been collected and edited by Montfaucon. Among his other partly extant and partly lost works are “On the Resurrection,” “On Martyrdom,” “Eight Books Against Celsus,” “On Prayer,” besides Epistles, etc. e Cyprian was born in Carthage about the beginning of the third century. He belonged to a distinguished family and taught rhetoric before his conver- sion to Christianity. He was greatly liked because of his benevolence, and his piety was so venerated that he was soon made bishop of his native city. To escape the persecutions of Decius, he fled into the desert in 250, and remained for a year, during which he carried on an extensive correspondence with his clergy. In the persecution under Valerian, he was banished in 257 to Curubis, but having returned to Carthage the following year was beheaded. He was learned, eloquent, but modest and dignified. His writings contain besides eighty-one Epistolæ, or official letters, a number of treatises, the most impor- tant of which is the “Unity of the Church.” Ambrose was born about 34o at Treves, where his father, the Prefect of Gaul, was accustomed to reside. It is said that when an infant lying in his cradle, his nurse was astonished to see a swarm of bees cluster about him and gather over his mouth, without stinging him. This was regarded as a most fortunate omen, and the father anticipated a high destiny for his son. He was excellently educated, and went to Milan to pursue the study of the legal profes- sion. He so distinguished himself that the Emperor Valentinian appointed him prefect of Upper Italy and Milan. His wisdom and kindness attached all to him, so that by both Arians and Catholics he was unanimously called to be Bishop of Milan in 374. He shrank from the dignity and even left the city; but before long he returned, and was baptizéd and consecrated eight days after- ward. The anniversary of this event is still celebrated as a fête by the Catho- lic Church. He won the love and admiration of all by his mildness and gen- tleness, as well as by his unyielding severity toward wickedness in every form. His Christian bravery was shown by his driving the Emperor Theodosius from the door of the church, because of his cruel massacre of the Thessalonians. He excommunicated the Emperor and compelled him to do severe penance for eight months before restoring him to the church. Ambrose died in 397. The “Te Deum Laudamus" and several other works have been attributed to him. He is the patron saint of Milan, and the Ambrosian Library received its name in his honor. Athanasius was born in Alexandria about the year 296. Although only a deacon and but a mere youth when appointed to the first general council of the church at Nice, he attracted great attention by his learning and eloquence. He was still young when elected Patriarch of Alexandria. He was persecuted by Rome—Early Christian Writers 439 the Arians and driven out of Alexandria, then restored only to be driven out again. Once he had to remain hidden for four months in the tomb of his father, but was finally restored to his bishopric, which he held until his death in 373. He was a leading ecclesiastic of the church, able, judicious, wise, perfectly fearless, and though twenty years of his life were spent in exile, his exertions were crowned with complete success. His writings are clear and powerful, and he was the great champion of Trinitarianism, his polemical works relating chiefly to the incarnation of the Saviour and the divinity of the Holy Spirit. Gregory Nazianzen (called also the Theologian, because of his erudition in sacred literature) was born about 329 in Cappadocia, not far from Caesarea. His father, also of the same name, became a Christian, through the instrumen- tality of his wife, and was raised to the dignity of Bishop of Nazianzus. Thus the son grew up in a religious atmosphere. It is a curious coincidence that while studying at Athens he came in intimate contact with Julian, afterward Emperor and known as the Apostate, and from their numerous discussions Gregory predicted no good to him because of his “unsettled and arrogant mind.” Gregory became brilliant in eloquence, philosophy, and sacred liter- ature, and, receiving baptism at the hands of his father, consecrated to God “all his goods, his glory, his health, his tongue, his talents.” In order to be able to devote his years to austere devotion, he retired to a solitary life and took up his abode with Basil in the desert near the river Iris, in Pontus. He was recalled by his father and made priest, but fled, was recalled again, and became assistant to his parent in the ministry and preached to the people. He shrank from a public life, but after the death of his father came back to Con- stantinople, where in a short time his eloquence and erudition led to his ap- pointment as archbishop, which so exasperated the Arians that for a time his life was in danger. Although upheld by the Pope and the Emperor Theodo- sius, Gregory preferred to resign his bishopric voluntarily. He returned to Nazianzus, where after some years of ascetic devotion he died in 389. His ashes were removed to Constantinople, and thence during the Crusades to Rome. He was one of the finest orators and most thoughtful writers of his times. His surviving writings include fifty-three orations, two hundred and forty-two letters, and one hundred and seventy-six poems. John Chrysostom (Golden-mouth), so-called from his eloquence, was born at Antioch in 340, and had the guidance of a noble, pious mother. At an early age he surpassed his teachers in eloquence. He was ordained deacon in 38 I, and presbyter five years later, soon becoming known as the chief orator of the Eastern Church. He bestowed so large a portion of his revenues at Constan- tinople on hospitals and other charities that he was called “John the Almoner.” One of the purest of men himself, he strove to reform the lives of the clergy 44 O The Story of the Greatest Nations and sent missionaries into Persia, Palestine, Scythia, and other lands. His un- ceasing war against vice led to his exile, but he never abated his zeal, no mat- ter where his lot was cast. The Emperor, incensed by the love and sympathy shown for him, ordered his further banishment to a remote tract on the Euxine, whither the old man plodded all alone with his bare head exposed to the burn- ing sun. This cruelty caused his death, and he passed away at Comanum, in Pontus, September 14th, 407, murmuring his gratitude to God with his dying lips. Who would not prefer a thousandfold such a death to that of the proud- est emperor or potentate that ever lived 2 Thomas Aquinas said he would not give Chrysostom's Homily on St. Matthew for the whole city of Paris. The name Chrysostom was not applied to him until after his death. His works are numerous, are in Greek, and consist of Homilies, Commentaries, Epistles, Treatises, and Liturgies. His Homilies are held to be superior to anything of the kind in ancient Christian literature. Jerome was born in 340 in Dalmatia, of parents who were Christians. He was highly educated and exceedingly devout. Retiring to the desert of Chalcis in 374, he spent four years in study and penitential exercises. In 379 he was ordained priest at Antioch, after which he passed three years in close intimacy at Constantinople with Gregory of Nazianzus. Visiting Rome on a mission, in 382, he resided there till 385, as secretary of the Pope. He became very popular because of his eloquence, learning, and sanctity. He fixed his abode in Bethlehem in 396, where he died, September 30, 420. His great work was the translation of the Bible into Latin. He was the author of other religious works, letters, treatises, and commentaries, and was the founder of Monasticism. Augustine was born at Numidia, in Africa, and ranks as the greatest of the Latin fathers. His pious mother carefully instructed him, but he fell a victim to the temptations of Carthage, as he freely confessed, and thereby was caused sorrow all through his life. He went to Rome, followed by the prayers of his devoted mother, and then to Milan, where he fell under the influence of the Saintly Ambrose, who was Bishop of Milan. It was the most fortunate thing that could have happened to Augustine, for after much study and meditation he felt the necessity of a living, personal God and Saviour to rescue him from the condemnation of his own conscience. He was baptized by Ambrose on the 25th of April, 387. Soon after, he set out on his return home. His mother, who was his companion, died happy and grateful because of the salva- tion of her son. Before leaving Italy for Africa he wrote several of his most noted treatises. His inflexible character as a Christian had become fixed, and he devoted his majestic intellect to the propagation of the truths of Christian- ity. He divided his goods among the poor, retired to private life, and com- Rome—Death of Constantine 44. I posed other treatises, which added to his already high reputation. In 391 he was ordained priest, and although busily occupied for the next few years in preaching, he wrote three more works, and in 395 was made colleague with Valerius, Bishop of Hippo. In 397 appeared his “Confessions,” in thirteen books. It is an earnest autobiography of one of the greatest minds the world has ever known. Some of its passages are paralleled nowhere outside the Psalms of David. In 426 he finished his greatest work, “De Civitate Dei,” which, despite some faults of premises and reasoning, has been accepted as one of the most profound and lasting monuments of human genius. He died on August 28, 430, in answer to his own prayer, during the siege of Hippo by the Vandals. No man ever exerted a greater influence over the church than he. Now, while Constantine professed Christianity, it is impossible to believe that his heart was touched by its gentle teachings, for his private conduct was in ferocious contrast to the blessed example of the Fathers, of whom we have been learning. He must have been controlled largely by political and selfish motives. He and Licinius, through the famous edicts of Milan and Nicomedia, simply declared the equality of Christianity with the old state religion. The path of Constantine was crimsoned with blood, for he shrank from no crime against even his nearest relatives, in order that he might accomplish his aims. His father-in-law Maximinus, his brother-in-law Licinius, and the latter's son, fell before him in the struggle for the monarchy, and finally his own son by his first marriage, the worthy Caesar Crispus, because of his popularity, aroused the fatal jealousy of Constantine. This Emperor died, May 22, 337, while making his preparations for a Persian war in Nicomedia. § RN S- º §2. - $2 % - &º 2% & 2}\} & \ ºš . . #: 3: ºßSº K& jºš. º &= Élºgº Vºx ROMANS FIGHTING THE GOTHS gººººººººº. | º –T- - -- ā- º º H | wº º º- º: º - º -: -º | - º s- ºº5 g º 5) S - - º - -- cº- W º º --- - - - 7. --- - º - - º º -- ºw- 3\{3}{3\{3\{3}{3\{3}{3\@@@3\{3\{3\{3\@ SºCº'Cº'Cº'Cº'Cº. \{3) º THE LAST Roy AN EMPEROR SURRENDERING THE CROWN S º US-- Chapter XLI THE BARBARIANS DESTROY THE EMPIRE # E approach the breakdown of Roman power. Constantine --------- had shifted his capital to Constantinople. In the vigor of his career, he had appointed his three sons by his second marriage to be Caesars, and at his death the Empire was apportioned among them. Constantine II. received the West, Constantius, Asia with Egypt, and Constans, Italy and Africa. Almost from the first a furious quarrelling raged among them. Constantine was defeated by Constans and killed at Aquileia in 340. This gave the latter dominance in the Empire, and he gained some creditable successes over the Germans, but he made himself so odious by his arbitrary conduct that his troops slew him and proclaimed as emperor one of his generals, Magnentius, a Frank by birth (350). Magnentius suffered defeat at the hands of Constantius, and in despair slew him- self. Thus Constantius became sole monarch in 353, and reigned until 360. Before leaving the East, he had appointed his cousin Gallus as Caesar, but, suspecting his fidelity, caused him to be murdered in 354. There was urgent need of the presence of the Emperor in the East, and the in- roads of the Germans into Gaul demanded a strong commander in the West. Constantius, therefore, sent his cousin Julianus, brother of the murdered Gallus, into Gaul as Caesar. This was the man of whom we have already learned something, and who figures in history as Julian the Apostate. He was successful against the Alemanni and Franks, and checked the tide of German invasion for several Rome—Julian the Apostate 443 years. Constantius did not do so well in the territory of the Danube, and, be- coming jealous of Julian, ordered him to send him a part of his troops to help in an impending Persian war. These soldiers refused to leave Julian, and pro- claimed him Emperor in Paris. Before Constantius could march to the attack, he died at Cilicia, and Julian became sole Emperor (361–363). He gained the name of the Apostate through his efforts to supplant Christian- ity with paganism. He had been brought up in the former belief, but he aban- doned it; and it is not unlikely that the bloody quarrels of Constantine and other professing Christian leaders had much to do with his contempt for the faith they claimed to follow. How far Julian would have succeeded in his purpose it is impossible to say, had his life been spared, but all his plans came to naught through his death in June, 363. Jovian was the nominee of the army, and, having made a disgraceful peace with the Germans, he retreated and then died in February, 364, whereupon Valentinian I. was elected Emperor, and, at the request of the army, took his brother Flavius Valens to share the throne with him. Valentinian had charge of the West, and reigned from 364 to 375, while Valens, beginning in the same year, held power till 378. Valentinian fought with success against the Alemanni and Sarmatians, and his distinguished general Theodosius, father of the later emperor of that name, held Britain and Africa. Valentinian, dying in the year named, was followed by his two sons Gratian and Valentinian II., the latter still a minor. The former was persuaded by Ambrose, the famous Bishop of Milan, to deprive the pagan worship of the support hitherto received from the state. You have not failed to note the great change through which the Roman Empire had been passing for a long time. The “pangs of transformation ” were protracted through centuries, but they were complete. The Empire con- sisted of Italy and the provinces, and for a time their respective governments were on a different footing. The inhabitants of Italy were Roman citizens, with the provincials under the rule of Roman officials. But there began the formation of a nation of Romans in the provinces through the expedient of in- troducing colonies and of admitting the most deserving of the provincials to the freedom of Rome. Under Caracalla (2 II–217), the distinction between Romans and provincials was wiped out, and Roman citizenship was given to all the free inhabitants of the Empire. By this time, the inhabitants of Gaul, Spain, Northern Africa, and Illyria had become thorough Romans, a proof of which is that several of the later emperors were provincials, as they would have been called at an earlier date. It inevitably followed that when all distinction ceased between Italy and the rest of the Roman Empire, Rome lost its importance as the centre of imperial 444 The Story of the Greatest Nations dominion. You recall the division of the Empire under Diocletian, and the removal of the capital to Byzantium or Constantinople, by Constantine. The pulsations of the great heart at Rome had sent all the blood through the arter- ies into the provinces, where it remained. Theodosius I. (392–395) was the last Emperor who ruled over the whole Roman Empire. He was a great man and a zealous friend of the Christian religion. You have been told of the meekness with which he submitted to the repulse by Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, because of the massacre in Thessalonica. His reign, however, was very brief, for he died in January, 395, at Milan. He left the Empire to his two sons, Honorius ruling in the West, which was the Latin Empire, while Arcadius held sway over the East, which was the Greek or Byzantine Empire. This division was in reality only the continuance or rather completion of what had been done by preceding emperors. There could be no mistaking the signs which foretold the fall of Rome. It has been shown that the Romans had ceased to be a nation, because the nation was absorbed by the Empire. There had been a steady mixture of foreign bloods, until only a mongrel race remained in the ancient city. The sturdy ancient Roman—the perfection of manly vigor and strength—was gone, and in his place remained a debauched, effeminate, luxury-loving people, wholly aban- doned to self-indulgence. If a few exceptions rose here and there, like tower- ing oaks in a decaying forest, the majority were rotten to the core. The em- perors and wealthy classes lived for animal pleasure alone. They were a flabby, Sodden race, oozing with rheum, diseased, debased, and in many in- stances with no more sensibility than the swine wallowing in the gutter. They were not worth saving, and their downfall drew near with the surety of the tread of doom. The death-blow was to be dealt by the northern barbarians—those magnifi- cent specimens of manhood. They were like great bulls, charging with lowered horns, ramming the walls until they trembled; and their savage bellowings made the so-called Romans shake with dread as they braced their decrepit bodies against the tottering gates and vainly tried to hold them shut. The lusty Teutonic or German tribes had lived for centuries among the forests of the North, and gave more than one Roman emperor all he could do to shove them back over the boundaries which they persisted in crossing. In time the question arose whether it was not a wise step to permit these barbar- ians to come into the country and mix with the Romans, who could not fail to be improved by the infusion of so superb a strain. Moreover, these massive neighbors had heard of the new faith—Christianity—and in a crude way ac- cepted its truths. Finally, in the latter half of the fourth century, under the Roman emperor Valens, a large body of Teutons were permitted to make their Rome—The Goths Seize Rome 445 homes within the limits of the Empire. Their dwelling-place north of the Danube is now called Moldavia and Wallachia, and had been the province of Dacia in the time of Trajan, but it was abandoned by the Romans under Aure- lian. These Goths accepted Christianity in the Arian form (Arius held Christ to be inferior to God the Father in dignity and nature), from Bishop Ulfilas, whose translation of the Scriptures into the Gothic tongue is the oldest Teu- tonic writing of which we have knowledge. In the latter part of the fourth century, the Goths became restless under the pressure of the shaggy Huns—Tartars or Kalmucks—who, yielding to that strange impulse known as the “wanderings of nations,” were come out of East- ern Asia, and were pushing their way into Europe. Helpless to hold their own against them, the Goths appealed to the Emperor Galens, then ruling over the East, to allow them to cross to the south side of the Danube, and thus place that river as a barrier between them and their ferocious enemies. The Emperor was suspicious of the fealty of the Goths, and consented only on con- dition that they should surrender their children and weapons. This hard pro- posal was accepted, and the Romans furnished the boats which for days and nights were rowed back and forth, carrying their loads of innocent ones. Then having given them up, the Goths bribed the Roman officers to allow them to keep their arms. Thus, in 376, a million men, women, and slaves crossed one of the natural frontiers of the Empire and settled within its borders. But the Romans counted unwisely upon the forbearance of the Goths, when they treated them with great brutality and left them with no means against starvation. In their desperation, the Goths marshalled their fierce warriors and marched against Constantinople. The angered Roman army met them near Adrianople, and were disastrously defeated, the Emperor losing his life in the battle, which was fought in 378. Then the horde overran the fertile region westward to the borders of Italy and the Adriatic Sea. Theodosius, who well deserved the name of the Great, compelled the Goths to submit and settle down quietly, many of them taking service in the Roman armies. But this did not last long. The sons of Theodosius were weaklings, and, when they divided the Roman Empire between them, the Visigoths or Western Goths rebelled, and elevated their chief Alaric upon their shields, which was their national mode of electing a king. Alaric spread desolation through Greece, conquered the Roman armies there, and sacked their cities. Then he and his Goths hurled themselves upon Italy. They captured and sacked Rome in 4 Io. It was what Pyrrhus and Hannibal, the Greek and the Carthaginian, had failed to do. Until Alaric entered, Rome had not seen a for- eign master within her gates since the time of Brennus, 800 years before. After six days of pillage Alaric withdrew from Rome and ravaged Southern & 446 The Story of the Greatest Nations Italy. His adoring followers looked on him almost as a god. When he died they turned aside the waters of the river Busentinus and buried him on horse- back within its depths. Then the waters were allowed to flow back over the grave, and all the slaves who knew where it lay, were slain, so that he might rest forever undisturbed. 8 The Western Empire was fast crumbling to pieces. Britain was abandoned by the Romans and was soon inundated by the German tribes known as Angles and Saxons. The different Teutonic clans invaded Gaul and from Gaul passed into Spain, which was conquered by Vandals, Sueves, and other German races; while Gaul was overrun by Franks, Burgundians, and Goths, all members of the Teutonic family. Then a host of Vandals under Geiseric crossed from Spain into Africa. Carthage was captured in 439. Thus the most vigorous limbs were lopped off from the decaying trunk. $ Meanwhile, a hideous creature, squat of form, with huge head, broad shoul- ders, gleaming deep-set eyes, emerged from his log hut on the plains of Hun- gary, and set out on his career of conquest and desolation. He was Attila, the Hun, who had murdered his brother rather than permit him to share in his sovereignty over the prodigious hordes of Savages scattered through the north of Asia and Europe. Christendom called him the “Scourge of God,” and his superstitious followers believed he carried a supernatural sword. Under his bloody banner fought the Vandals, Ostrogoths, Gepidae, and many of the Franks. In a short time, he forced his dominion over the people of Germany and Scythia. He ruled from the frontiers of Gaul to those of China. His campaign in 447 in Persia and Armenia was unsuccessful, but he afterward swept through Illyria and desolated the countries between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. At his approach cities were left desolate; the unhappy people fled to crouch in caverns among the woods and cliffs. Starvation was less cruel than the Hun. He gave to all only the choice of annihilation or of following in his train. Theodosius fought three terrific battles with him and was beaten in all. Con- stantinople escaped because the shaggy demons did not know how to besiege the strong fortifications; but Attila wrought his ferocious will in Thrace, Macedon, and Greece, where seventy cities were desolated. Theodosius, after treacherously trying to murder his conqueror, was compelled to cede to him a portion of his territory south of the Danube and to pay him an immense tribute. In 45 I, the Scourge wheeled his horse westward to invade Gaul, but was confronted by Aëtius, leader of the Romans, and Theodoric, king of the Visi- goths. There Tartar despotism and Aryan civilization met in the life-and- death struggle, and the latter triumphed. The Huns were routed on every side, Attila himself narrowly escaping capture or death. If we can trust the older historians, this was the bloodiest battle ever fought in Europe. It took Rome—Invasion of the Huns - 447 place near the site of the present city of Chalons-sur-Marne, and it is said that the dead left on the field numbered from 250,000 to 300,000. Attila was in despair, and, having retired to his camp, collected all the woodcn shields, saddles, and other baggage into an immense funeral pile, de- termined to die in the flames, rather than surrender; but through the advice of Aëtius, the Roman commander, the Huns were allowed to retreat in safety, lest they should gain from despair the strength to conquer. The Scourge recovered his strength in the following year, and again invaded Italy, devastating Aquileia, Milan, Padua, and other cities, and driving the panic-stricken people into the Alps, the Apennines, and the lagoons of the Adriatic, where they founded the city of Venice. Rome was utterly helpless, but was saved through Pope Leo I., who boldly visited the terrible barbarian and by his majestic mien and apostolic majesty terrified him into sparing the city. Attila returned to Hungary, but two years later regained his ruthless courage, and was making preparations for another invasion of Italy, when he burst a blood-vessel and died. What a grim comment on the folly of puny man in arraying himself against the cause of truth and justice Attila boasted that the grass never grew on the spot trodden by the hoof of his horse, but the prick of a pin or the most trifling occurrence has been sufficient many a time to bring the proudest wretch to the dust. The immense empire of the “Scourge of God” immediately crumbled to fragments. Attila had hardly shrunk away from Rome before the imprecations of the Pope, when Geiseric, the Vandal chief of Africa, sailed with his fleet from Carthage and anchored at the mouth of the Tiber. This time Leo could not turn aside the fury of the barbarians. Rome was captured (455), and for two weeks the Vandals and Moors plundered and pillaged and looted, without a gleam of mercy. Scores of ships were laden with captives and treasures, and sailed across the sea to Carthage. The emperors of the West still came and went like a procession of phan- toms. Scan the list and you will find their names, but they were no more than so many figments of sleep, so far as their power went to stay the rush of the Empire to destruction. Finally, the Roman Senate declared that one emperor was enough, and that he should be the Eastern Emperor Zeno, but the govern- ment of Italy was to be trusted to Odoacer, who took the title of Patrician of Italy. This Odoacer had been a bandit among the Noric Alps, and, entering the Roman service, rapidly rose to eminence. He aided Orestes, in 475, in driving the Emperor Julius Nepos from the throne, and conferred on his son Romulus the title of Augustus, which the people in ridicule changed to Augus- tulus. This feeble youth, who, by a strange sarcasm of destiny, bore the names of the founder of Rome and of the Empire, was pensioned off, and, when 448 The Story of the Greatest Nations Odoacer became king, the Senate sent back to Constantinople the tiara and purple, for the Western Empire had passed away forever. The western or Latin provinces of the Roman Empire having dissolved be- fore the onrush of the barbarians, let us now glance at the history of the East- ern Empire, which survived the general wreck for a thousand years, though steadily decaying and going to ruin. The Greek or Byzantine Empire reached its zenith in the sixth century, under Justinian, who reigned from 527 to 565. Although of little military capacity, he had the wisdom to select the ablest generals of the last days of Roman ascendancy, and under their direction, espe- cially that of the distinguished Narses and Belisarius, the Empire was restored, at least so far as outward appearance went, to its ancient limits, and the East and West were reunited under a single rule. His first war, that with Persia, had scarcely been brought to a half-successful conclusion when a revolt took place against him. A rival emperor was elected, and Justinian was so fright- ened that he would have fled but for the vigor and resolution of his wife, Theo- dora. Narses repressed the rising with merciless severity, and it is said that 30, OOO of the insurgents were slain in one day. Belisarius by the force of arms re-annexed the Vandal kingdom of Africa to the Empire; and he and Narses restored the imperial authority in Rome, in Northern Italy, and in a large portion of Spain. One of the remarkable works of Justinian was the renewing and strengthening of the immense line of fortifications along the eastern and southeastern frontier of the Empire. These works of defence and many public buildings in Rome and other cities involved enormous expenditures, but they were ably and honestly carried out. The most famous of his buildings is the great church of St. Sophia in Con- stantinople. But the chief renown of Justinian rests upon his work as a legislator. Di- rectly on his accession, he set to work to collect the vast mass of previous leg- islative enactments which were still in force; and, to make this thorough, he first compiled a code comprising all the constitutions of his predecessors (527– 529). Next the authoritative commentaries of the jurists were harmonized and published under the title of Digesta Pandecta (529–533). The code was re- published in 534, with the addition of Julian's own laws. His third important legal undertaking was the composition of a systematic treatise on the law for the guidance of students and lawyers, which was published shortly before the Digest, under the title of Institutiones (Institutes). All these great works were completed under the guidance and Superintendence of the learned jurist Tribonian. They were originally written in Latin, while the later treatises which Justinian caused to be prepared were in Greek, and bore the name Mo- vellae or “New Works.” This complete system, known as the Civil Law, formed Rome—End of the Western Empire 449 the groundwork of the law of nearly all of the nations of Europe, England being the most notable exception. After the fall of Rome and the collapse of the Western Empire, Odoacer, the Visigothic chief, continued governing, claiming to do so by authority of the Em- peror of the East, but he paid little attention to the Byzantine court at Constan- tinople. Meanwhile, the Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths, had established a kingdom between the Black Sea and the Adriatic, under the rule of their own hero, Theo- doric. The Emperor Zeno commissioned Theodoric to invade Italy and bring that country back into the Empire. With Theodoric went all his people, including women and children and aged men, So that it was another migration of a nation. The campaign against Odoacer lasted for three years, but in 493 he was compelled to come to terms, and soon after was assassinated by his rival. Theodoric distrib- uted one-third of the conquered territory among his soldiers in military tenures, and ordered his men to be kind to the people and to obey the laws. The wise rule of Theodoric brought peace and prosperity to Italy, which continued till his death in 526. Then came turmoil, confusion, bloodshed, and lasting anarchy. It was at this time that Justinian, Emperor of the East, interfered, and the imperial forces under Belisarius captured Rome. Narses, his successor, overthrew the Ostro- gothic power in Italy in 553, in a great battle on the slopes of Mount Vesuvius. The last king of the Goths, Teias, was slain; and his warriors asked permission of the Romans to depart in peace, bearing with them the body of their leader. Narses gladly consented, and the whole nation of Goths marched in a body out of Italy forever. It became a Byzantine province, governed by rulers appointed from Constantinople, with the title of Exarchs of Ravenna. Justinian had been dead only three years, when Italy, still governed by an exarch living at Ravenna, was overrun by the third and last of the Teutonic in- vasions. The Lombards or Longobardi, thus named perhaps from their long beards, came from Central Europe, swarmed through the Alps, and, Sweeping into the valley of the Po, occupied the extensive district still known as Lombardy, with Pavia as its capital. They were cruel in their treatment of the Italians, and committed so many atrocities that a large number of Roman families removed to the islands and lagoons at the head of the Adriatic, where, as we have learned, the foundations of Venice had been laid not long before. F5&F LANDING or The Normans in Sicily Chapter XLII ROME UNDER THE POPES UT of all the hideous turmoil of blood and flame, one power rose indestructible and triumphant. This was Christianity, the single influence that had remained pure and sweet and strong, amid the corruption and decay of the Empire. Awe of this new, strange power of holiness checked even the wildest marauders. Goths and Vandals stayed their swords before the doors of churches. The hand of God became, as it were, visible to save what was left of the world from utter destruction. When Alboin, the first Lombard king, conquered Pavia, he had sworn to slay every person in the city. His horse reared in the gateway of the town, and refused to advance. “It is because of your unchristian oath,” cried his followers; and, awed by the seeming interposition of heaven, Alboin retracted his evil vow. Even the unspeakable horrors that accompanied the sack of cities were lessened by Christianity, since each church became an asylum in which the terrified inhabitants might crouch in safety. All earthly rulers and protectors seemed to have abandoned Rome. Even ner nominal Emperor in Constantinople thought of the city only to rob her of what statues and works of art she still retained. It was then that her bishops stood forth as her defenders. We have seen how Leo checked the ravages of the Huns by the might of his dignity, purity, and mysterious strength, and how he won concessions and partial mercy even from the savage Vandals. Rome—Pope Gregory the Great 4-5 I Other bishops of Rome strove as earnestly as he. The name “papa,” or, as we call it in English, pope, which means father and had once been given freely to all heads of the church, now began to be applied specially to these heroic bishops. - The position of Pope of Rome was not one likely to be sought by ordinary men in those days. It brought with it neither wealth nor ease, but only sor- row and danger. When Gregory I., greatest of all the early popes, was offered the high place, he shrank from it; he begged the people to choose another than he, legend says that he even fled from the city. But the citizens knew their only hope lay in having over them one who was their best and bravest and strongest, so at last Gregory yielded to their prayers. At this time (590–604 A.D.) the Pope had no official position in the govern- ment of the city. The old republican forms were still maintained, as indeed they had been during all the Empire. The city was still nominally governed by the Senate, and two yearly consuls elected by the people. But these men had long sunk to mere figureheads, representing the contemptuous authority of some barbarian chief, or some shadowy Eastern emperor. In time of peril such magistrates were the first to flee, and it was the Christian bishop who came forward to guide and shelter his defenceless flock. & Gregory was himself the son of a Roman senator. He inherited great wealth and high rank, all of which he sacrificed in the cause of the poor. It was in the midst of a deadly plague that the people forced him to become bishop, and of course they were thinking of him only as their “pope,” their father, whose protection they so sorely needed. In this noble work of charity, Gregory's patience and generosity and wisdom proved through all his life un- failing and unbounded. Never did erring and mortal man better deserve the saintship with which he has been crowned. But the papacy brought with it another and wider field of duties, and it was in this that Gregory displayed the wonderful energy, aptness, and success which have won him the unquestioned title of “The Great.” Gregory believed it his duty to watch over Christianity throughout all the earth. He cared nothing for empty titles. Other bishops urged him to assume the name of Universal Bishop, and he refused. But the unending labor, the awful responsibility of the position, he did not refuse. He had accepted them solemnly as his own, when he yielded to his people's cry. In speaking of the supremacy which the bishops of Rome came to hold over other bishops, we approach a question which has been much debated, and which of course it would be impossible to discuss fully in such little space as we have at command. Suffice it to say that, while Rome ruled the world, its bishop had naturally vast influence among his brethren. St. Peter, the leader among 4.52 The Story of the Greatest Nations the apostles, had been the city's first bishop, and his successors claimed to continue his authority. Several of them had vigorously asserted this claim before Gregory's popehood. Bishops of other great cities had at times allowed, at times opposed it. So far as all Western Europe was concerned, Gregory's leadership was taken as a matter of course. In the East the Bishop of Con- stantinople assumed, by authority of the Emperor, the title of Universal Bishop. that Gregory had refused. This rivalry led to nothing more vehement than words. John of Constan- tinople was a student and a man of quiet. Gregory had his hands more than full with his work of supervision in the West. It was under him that Britain was Christianized. Spain was converted from heresy to the orthodox church. His missionaries, fired with his own zeal, penetrated the wilds of Germany and the North. A new and vast impulse was thus given to the spread of Chris- tianity, an impulse which virtually settled the question of headship of the church; for all these newly converted nations looked naturally to Gregory and to Rome. The Lombards at this time were the special fear of Rome. They did not belong to the Orthodox faith, and again and again it seemed certain that they would swarm over Rome, as they had over most of the rest of Italy. But each time Gregory held them back, threatening, praying, and commanding, as occa- sion served. Many of the Lombards were converted. Nevertheless another of their inroads threatened even as Gregory died, exhausted at last, his frail body worn to a shadow with the work and worry of his life. His successors kept up the struggle by the methods he had taught them. The Lombards never did seize Rome; and, after two centuries of effort, it was the popes who brought about the downfall of the Lombard kings. The one strength of the popes in this, as in other contests, was their spiri- tual supremacy and influence, a weapon which time taught them to use in many ways. They employed it here to command the help of Pepin of France. Pepin was a great Frankish noble who ruled his country in the name of a weak and foolish king whom he held a prisoner. Whether through shame or fear, he hesitated to put aside his puppet master. Professing to be troubled in conscience as to his proper course, he appealed to the Pope for advice. The Pope declared that one who ruled in fact should rule in name as well; and Pepin, promptly accepting the verdict, declared himself king. So when another Lombard attack threatened Rome, it was to Pepin that the Pope appealed for help, and the Frankish king led an army into Italy. He easily defeated the Lombards; and he presented to the church the broad territories surrounding Rome, from which he had driven her enemies. These events form an important era in the history of the Roman church. Rome—Rise of the Papal Power 453 The Pope began to exercise a voice in the government of foreign kingdoms. He had made, or helped to make, a king of France. Perhaps more important still, he had become a sovereign in his own right. The lands that Pepin so liberally tossed him formed the nucleus of the “States of the Church,” which remained a more or less independent power in Central Italy until our own times witnessed their extinction, in 1870. The friendship between the Franks and the church continued, though Pepin had died. His son and successor, Charlemagne, also marched an army into Italy at the call of the Pope. With stronger hand than his father, he utterly extin- guished the troublesome Lombard monarchy, and set its ancient iron crown upon his own head. All Northern Italy became part of the vast empire Charlemagne was build- ing; and wherever he conquered a nation, he compelled it to accept Christian- ity. A new Italy, a new Europe, resulted from his labors. Calm succeeded to tempest, order to anarchy. Those wild hordes that had wandered at will over the dead Roman Empire had finally developed into settled nations. Charle- magne brought the confused period of destruction to an end, and set on foot the growth from which our modern Europe was to rise. On Christmas day of the year 800, while Charlemagne was devoutly kneeling at divine service in the church of the Vatican in Rome, the Pope, Leo III., stepping up to him, placed a golden crown upon his head and saluted him as Emperor. All the people around shouted their approval, as had been the custom in the old days when an emperor was chosen; and Charlemagne, accepting the honor, declared himself lord of the “Holy Roman Empire.” It was a fitting culmination, a fitting testimony to the labors of the great king. Note, however, that this was not the old, but distinctly a new empire that was thus brought into existence. Its territory embraced much of Germany which had never been Roman, while Rome itself, instead of being the centre of the new empire, lay at its extreme southern border. The name, too, had been changed by adding to it the word “Holy,” thus stamping its religious and Christian character with the approval of the pope. It was he who, as head of the church, had assumed to re-create a government and an authority that had been extinct for over three centuries. Gradually the pope had thus come to possess a far higher position abroad than in his own city. To the Romans he was merely their own bishop, chosen as they pleased from among themselves, to be liked or disliked, praised or dis- praised, and having no legal authority whatever to govern them. To Franks and Germans the pope was, on the contrary, the source of their religious in- struction, the leader of their faith on earth. When Pope Leo III., fleeing from an insurrection at home, visited Charlemagne, the whole court and army were 4.54 The Story of the Greatest Nations drawn up to receive him. As he approached, every troop fell prostrate to implore his benediction; Charlemagne, advancing with humble salutation, embraced and kissed him. These contradictory facts will, perhaps, explain the decline which appears in the character of the popes. The papacy was no longer the poor and unat- tractive office from whose duties and sufferings Gregory I. had shrunk. It now carried with it the opportunity of wealth for the covetous, of power for the ambitious, of ease for the luxurious. The Roman gentry began to plan and intrigue for the place among themselves. Soon they did not hesitate to fight for it. What could be expected from prelates chosen by such means? Some of them were good and noble men; but others plunged from evil into evil. The future of the church began to look dark indeed. It was in IO45 that this unhappy condition of affairs in Rome came to an end. The lordship of the shadowy “Holy Roman Empire’ had passed from Frankish into German hands, and was held for the moment by Henry III., one of the greatest of German monarchs. He found three, perhaps four, priests in Rome, each claiming to be pope, each supported by his little band of adherents. Henry called a council of the church, deposed all of the papal claimants, and, marching to Rome, set a bishop of his own, a German, on the papal throne. He wisely carried his pope back to Germany with him, since he could not spare an army to remain on guard in turbulent Rome. On the death of his protégé, Henry named a second pope who never left Germany, and then a third, who is known to history as Leo IX. * , Leo was a good and noble man who was determined to be a good and noble pope. He took for adviser an even greater man than he, a young monk named Hildebrand. By Hildebrand's counsel, Leo refused to consider himself pope unless he was chosen by the people of Rome themselves in the old way; and he travelled as a pilgrim to Rome to ask for the election. The people gave it readily enough; doubtless they had no desire for another encounter with Henry's iron hand. So Leo IX, had the advantage of starting with his papacy recognized by all parties and in all lands. The principal evil he set himself to fight was what is called simony, the selling of places in the church. This had become common everywhere, a natu- ral consequence perhaps of the character of some of the late popes, and of the resultant assumption of power by various kings, who had begun to appoint their own bishops as they pleased. A man who bought an abbacy or a bishopric was not necessarily a bad man; but certainly he was likely to think far more of the wealth and power of his place than of its religious duties. Leo called council after council to drive offenders of this sort from the church. The Emperor helped him, and between them they restored the church Rome–Reforms of Hildebrand 45.5 to much of its former dignity and influence—and, let us hope, also to its former purity. It was in Leo's time that the Normans conquered all Southern Italy and the island of Sicily. Their leader was called Robert Guiscard, which means Robert the crafty, or the wizard. The pope led an army against them, but the fierce Normans easily defeated and took him prisoner. The shrewd Robert, however, had no wish to fight the whole German Empire, so he received his distinguished visitor with great reverence, protested his regret at being forced to withstand the holy father in battle, and sent him back to Rome with a train of honorary attendants. In return the cunning Robert persuaded the Pope to confer upon him the right to rule the lands which he had already con- quered with his sword. This spiritually legalizing process the Pope went through readily enough, and the Norman adventurer became Robert, King of Sicily. Leo returned to Rome broken in health, and soon died. The monk Hilde- brand had been the guiding influence of his papacy, and it was Hildebrand who really secured the appointment of the next four short-lived popes. He became known in Rome as the “pope-maker.” The first of the four was appointed by King Henry, but Henry died, leaving his empire to an infant son, Henry IV. The Pope passed away too, and Hildebrand and his Romans immediately re- asserted their old right to elect their own popes. The guardians of young Henry had all they could do to uphold his feeble throne even in Germany. Rome was left to itself. So under one of the new popes, Hildebrand called a council of the church to decide finally just how their head was to be chosen. The original method of selecting all Christian bishops was apparently by the free vote of their peo- ple. Of course the clergy had much influence in this choice. Sometimes the matter was left almost entirely in their hands. Hildebrand and his council decided that it should be so in Rome. They had seen, through two hundred years of crime, the evils of trusting to the people. Hence they fixed their method substantially as it stands to-day. The higher orders of the clergy elected a pope, while the lower orders had a sort of secondary vote. Then the people were allowed to express their approval and so also was the Emperor. One pope was elected by this means, and then Hildebrand himself was chosen in Io/3. It had long been the custom for the elected pope to abandon his own name, and rule under a new or papal one. So Hildebrand becomes known to history as Gregory VII., the greatest of the pontiffs. Next to Charle- magne he is the foremost man of the Middle Ages. His life, his ideas have impressed themselves for centuries, perhaps for all time on the world. As Hildebrand he had practically ruled the religious world 456. The Story of the Greatest Nations for a generation. He had found the church feeble, failing, and sinful; he had made it powerful and respected. As Gregory VII, he was about to claim for it a higher and yet more danger- ous eminence. Henry IV. had proven a weak and vicious prince. Among other things he revived the selling of church positions. For this crime of simony the Pope boldly summoned him to appear before the papal court. The issue between Pope and Emperor was thus brought plainly before all men. We can imagine the amazement of the rough Germans when the full meaning of Pope Gregory's bold summons dawned on them. They had seen Henry III. make and unmake popes at will. Had the pendulum swung so far that a pope could command an emperor 2 . Never has the simple power of righteousness been more impressively shown. Such a summons from a bad pope to a good emperor would have meant nothing. But it came from one of the best of popes, to one of the worst of emperors; and the world, already groaning under Henry's tyranny, watched almost breath- lessly for the result. Which was the stronger, religion or physical force 2 At first Henry ignored the summons. Gregory excommunicated him. This was the most terrible weapon of the church. Theoretically it debarred its victim from all services of the church on earth, and from salvation in heaven. Of course there were plenty of Henry's German bishops ready to serve him on earth, and to guarantee his hereafter. Indeed, he summoned a religious council of his own, which declared the Pope himself deposed and excommunicated in his turn. This sentence Henry swore he would execute as his father had done, by marching an army into Rome and dragging the Pope from his throne. . The boast proved beyond his power to fulfil. Many of his greatest lords abandoned him, moved partly by religion, partly, no doubt, by motives of per- sonal ambition or dislike. The rebellion spread, and Henry seemed likely to prove a king without subjects. The very men who had formed his religious council, seeing whither events were tending, began, one after another, to make the toilsome journey over the Alps to submit themselves to the Pope in Italy, and to obtain his pardon and forgiveness. At last came the oft-narrated climax. Henry himself crossed the moun- tains as a penitent, almost alone, and stood barefooted in the snow, seeking admission to the Pope's presence in the castle of Canossa. Three times the king toiled up the rugged path to the castle gates and waited upon Gregory's will; until at last the Pope admitted him, and removed the excommunication, though declaring that Henry must still stand trial for his crimes. 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N \\\\ºSN º ºğ \ Nº. Żºłº N Y ŻNº. - § º \\\\\\ºſº'ſ * º "WM 2^\ º º ſº º ſ - Hłº | TVº º ſ ºlº ſº. \\\\ºlº º | \\ º |ºl. º \ \\ º º | \ º w º | | \\ º lºs 3. º NS - - º ASSASSINATION OF KING HUMBERT HENRY v. AT CANOSSA THE van DALS IN ROME Rome—Triumph of the Papacy 457 ineffable sorrow, if his was a true heart seeking to regenerate religion on earth ! For never was mockery more hollow. The Pope sat in the strong fortress of Canossa because he dared not trust his own Italians in the plain below. Henry expressed remorse only to save his kingdom, and went away with black hate gnawing in his heart. To one who objected that the Emperor's path to salva- tion had been made too easy, Gregory answered with bitter irony, “Never fear ! He has gone away worse than he came.” It was true. In later years, he managed so far to regain his Supremacy in Germany that he marched an army against Rome. He captured the city, and besieged Gregory in one of its strong towers, the still standing castle of St. Angelo. Henry, however, was obliged to retreat before the Normans of Robert Guiscard, who marched to the relief of the Pope. True to his old craftiness, Guiscard managed to find his profit in the expedition by sacking Rome while he was there. Henry still hovered in the neighborhood, and the Pope was compelled to retire with the Norman troops into Southern Italy, where he died in less than a year (IO85). His last words were, “I have loved justice, and hated iniquity; and for that I die in exile.” Yet his cause triumphed. The pretensions of the popes remained on the high plane where he had placed them. Future emperors acknowledged his claims, at least in part, and for over two centuries thereafter the popes stand out in tremendous political prominence, until their power waned again through new causes of which Gregory and his time knew nothing. Scarce ten years after Gregory's death the church began preaching the cru- sades. These prodigious outbursts of religious enthusiasm carried army after army of Europeans into Asia to wrest Jerusalem, the city of Christ, from its Mahometan conquerors. These armed hosts embraced many races. They were not national but religious; and the popes were recognized as the source and centre of the stupendous movement. Their power vastly increased. A strong pope was indeed the leading man in Europe, and kings and emperors bowed to his commands. The pope generally regarded as representing the height of papal power is Innocent III., who ruled from I 198 to 1216. He interfered in the affairs of Germany and made an emperor. The king of France divorced his wife, and Innocent compelled him to take her back. To do this, he first excommunicated the king, and that failing, he laid an interdict on the whole of France. The interdict forbade all religious services in the land. No one could be baptized, no one could receive holy communion, no one could be buried with the rites of the church. The French people were overwhelmed with terror, and a general outburst of rebellion compelled the king to yield obedience to the Pope. Innocent clashed also with King John of England. John refused to accept 458 - The Story of the Greatest Nations an archbishop whom the Pope sent him. So Innocent excommunicated the king, declared him deposed, and urged the French to invade and capture his kingdom. They were on the point of doing this, when John submitted. In his craven terror, he even went further than was demanded. He resigned his crown absolutely to the church, that he and all his successors might receive it thereafter from the Pope as a free gift. He acknowledged the pontiff as his over-lord, and promised that one-tenth of all the taxes of England should be sent annually to its Roman master. iº In the midst of all this power and triumph Innocent sowed some seeds which had no small part in their destruction. The church had grown through persecutions and martyrdoms; now most unhappily it became persecutor in its turn. We have seen how Innocent turned the crusades from their original purpose by preaching a holy war, or crusade as he called it, against John of England. That crusade had passed off in clouds and vaporings, but another which he started burst into blood and flame. This was directed against the Albigenses of Southern France, a people who differed from the church in cer- tain matters of faith, and were therefore known as heretics. A so-called “holy army’’ assailed the Albigenses, laid waste their lands, stormed their cities, and slew over a million of the wretched people. Innocent also founded the Inquisition, that frightful engine whose cruelty did so much to turn the people of Europe against the Catholic church. In his time originated two great religious orders, or brotherhoods of monks. One of these, the Franciscans, was founded by St. Francis of Assisi, on the basis of universal love, and tenderness toward all living things. Its labors have proved a help and hope and beauty to all the world. The other order, the Dominican, was a sterner body. Into its hands was entrusted the power of compelling people to believe as the church commanded. The Dominicans questioned all suspected persons as to their faith, and, if not satisfied, tortured them in many horrible ways. If the victim persisted in his heretic ideas, he was burned to death. This was the terrible “questioning ” or Inquisition. The plea urged by the church was that men's bodies were valueless as com- pared to their souls, hence any amount of bodily torture was really a kindness, if by it the victim was brought into the true faith. The world had not yet reached that degree of civilization where it realized that men's consciences can- not be forced or controlled, that faith must come from within, not from with- out. The Inquisition added nothing to the power of the church. It won over only the weak and the hypocrites. Strong men learned to hate and defy the torturers. Oppression opened the path to rebellion. º |-- º MA H iſ ºf ºzº Sººn in-- Żëééé <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< FREDERICK BARBARoSSA ENTERING MILAN Chapter XLIII THE CITY REPUBLICS OF MEDIAEVAL ITALY º,0 understand clearly the story of Italy during the Middle Ages, you must think of the country as divided into three parts. In the south lay the kingdom which Robert Guiscard had formed. This sometimes included the great island of Sicily, sometimes not. It passed through many hands, and was known at different times *T*. as the Kingdom of Sicily, that of the Two Sicilies, and that of Naples. In Central Italy lay the “States of the Church "; while the north of the peninsula and the great plain lying between the seas and the Alps was split up into a number of small city states, not unlike those of ancient Greece. The growth and splendor of these cities is one of the most striking features of the Middle Ages. While all the rest of Europe was still sunk in poverty, ignorance, and barbarism, they had grown rich, cultured, and independent. They united in confederacies more powerful than those under Sparta; they ruled empires wider than that of Athens. Most of them had been cities in the old Roman days, and had passed through the same fearful period of fire and desolation. Only their devastation had been even more terrible than that of the capital. The ruins of ancient Rome still tower stupendous among its modern buildings. Few of the north- ern cities retain more than the merest fragments of that mighty architecture. In the days of the first German emperors the population of these cities must have contained a mingling of almost every blood on earth. Lombard and 460 The Story of the Greatest Nations old Roman-Italian were the dominant strains; but the slave system of Rome had brought into Italy the unfortunate of almost every race, who, in the cen- turies of disaster, were blended indiscriminately with their masters. Necessity taught hard lessons to this motley horde. There were no longer vast nations of Goths and Vandals to sweep resistlessly over them; but every petty lord and robber chief continued to prey upon them, until they had learned the lesson of resistance. When they gathered again into cities and surrounded these with walls, they found themselves easily able to beat off the lesser marauders. So the cities grew bigger, the walls stronger, and the people more and more inde- pendent and self-reliant. Four of these towns stood out more prominently than the rest. They were Milan, which was the chief city of Lombardy, the central plain in the north; Venice in the northeast, at the head of the Adriatic; Genoa, occupying a similar position in the northwest on the Mediterranean coast; and Florence, farther south than these, in the peninsula itself, chief city of Tuscany, the ancient land of Etruria. Milan was the first to become famous. Nominally the cities were all sub- ject to the German emperors; practically they governed themselves. Once every twenty years or so a German army climbed laboriously over the Alps, and escorted a new emperor to be crowned at Rome. Then the cities bowed down to him. He helped himself to as much as he could in the way of tribute, kept his rough soldiers as well as he could from doing the same, and marched back again. Many of the cities began to feel that it was time to resist this last and largest of the robber chiefs. In the quarrel between popes and em- perors most of the Italian cities supported the pope. His partisans were known as Guelphs; those of the emperors as Ghibellines. One of the most powerful of the emperors, Frederick Barbarossa, resolved to punish the rebel- lious Guelph cities, and in the year II 54 marched a formidable army into Italy. Some of the smaller Guelph towns submitted to him and begged for mercy; one resisted and was captured; but Milan, the strongest of them all, closed her gates and defied him. His army was wearied with long absence from home, wasted with sickness; and he found himself too weak even to besiege the city. Other cities promptly refused him entrance as Milan had done. Bands of the enemy hovered near, treachery surrounded him, and his retreat into Germany became almost a flight. Great was the triumph of the Guelph towns; bitter the humiliation of the few Ghibellines who had remained faithful to the emperor. Frederick, how- ever, was not a man to be defeated so easily. Four years later he came again with another army, expressly to punish the Milanese. For three years they withstood his attacks with the utmost heroism. City after city submitted, but Rome—Victory of Milan 46 I Milan held out. Frederick's German army faded away as the first had done; but he continued with immovable persistence in Italy, prosecuting the siege with the Ghibelline troops he had gathered there. At length a third German army reached him, and Milan surrendered. After taking possession of the city, Frederick waited a month in solemn deliberation before announcing its fate. Then he commanded the trembling inhabitants to evacuate it and disperse. When the long sad train had passed out, he set his Italian soldiers to destroy the city. The walls were torn down, the houses, palaces, even the churches were demolished, and the entire place levelled with the ground (I 162). Frederick must have intended this as a terrible warning to all other rebel- lious cities. But how often force defeats its own object ' The scattered Milanese became in every town the centres of pity and admiration, the parti- sans and preachers of revolt. Scarce was Frederick's army out of Italy before town after town rose again in rebellion against him. The tyrannical agents he had left in charge were everywhere driven out. A league was formed among the Lombard cities, and the very soldiers who had helped him destroy Milan now agreed among themselves to rebuild it. Their militias gathered on an appointed day at the desolate site, the Milanese themselves returned, and all hands set to work with such a will, that in six weeks a new and equally power- ful Milan had risen on the ruins of the old (I 167). The resolute emperor, being alone in Italy, called a council of his subjects there to support him; but so few of the cities sent delegates that he found himself able to do no more than denounce the rebellious places in a fiery speech, after which he fled back across the Alps for the second time. Another Germany army and then another was raised by him with great exertion. The last one, the sixth which he had led into Italy, met the Milanese in decisive battle on the field of Lignano (I 176). At first the Germans were successful; their charging cavalry had almost reached the carroccio, or sacred car, which bore the standard of Milan. The citizens wavered; but a band of nine hundred: young men, who had formed themselves into the “Company of Death,” knelt on the field, prayed God's help, and then threw themselves with reckless des- peration upon the enemy. The Germans gave way before them, and the Italian army renewed its attack. The victory was complete. Frederick himself fled in disguise, and for a time was mourned by his court as dead. The battle of Lignano broke the power of Frederick and established the lib- erty of the Italian towns. A treaty of peace followed, the first that Europe had seen between a sovereign and his subjects. The towns pledged themselves to pay a small yearly tribute, but beyond that they were free. They governed them- selves, they upheld the pope, and they could make war or peace as pleased them. 462 The Story of the Greatest Nations The Hohenstaufen emperors, as Frederick and his descendants were named, were among Germany's most powerful sovereigns, yet the conquest of Italy proved beyond them. Their struggle against the popes and the Guelphic cities destroyed only themselves. Frederick's grandson, Frederick II., brought him- self to ruin by such a war lasting from 1229 to 1250. Frederick II. was born in Italy and educated there under the great Pope Innocent III. His youth was brilliant and promising. He seems to have had a real regard and even affec- tion for the Italians, and his war with them must be ascribed rather to their arrogance than to his. - From about the year 900, the power and wealth of the Italian cities had been for over three centuries steadily growing. The energy and intellect of their inhabitants made them the centres of manufacture and commerce for most of Europe. With their wealth and their military success increased also their self-confidence and their pride. Frederick was fairly successful in battle against them; but the Pope excom- municated him, friends fell away from him, treachery surrounded him; and at last, worn out in health and spirit, he begged the mercy of the church upon any terms. He offered to lead a crusade to the Holy Land, with the promise that he himself would never return. Before even this submission was accepted by the exacting Pope, Frederick died, a despairing and heartbroken man. The long war brought its punishment upon all alike. It had much to do, though indirectly, with the decay of the papacy; and it precipitated the down- fall of the Italian cities. War, civil war, had become their accustomed state. There were Guelphs and Ghibellines in every city, and although the latter had originally been the Supporters of the Emperor, they proved quite capable of maintaining themselves after his shadowy support had disappeared. Generally speaking, the Ghibellines were the aristocrats, the great lords who sought to rule the country, they cared little whether in the Emperor's name or their own. The Guelphs were the commoners and the lesser nobles, who, too weak to hope to rule themselves, were the more unwilling to be ruled by others. The names, however, had become mere rallying-cries of faction. Men called themselves Guelph or Ghibelline merely because their fathers had done so. There was a Guelph emperor and a Ghibelline pope. On each side were murders, massa- cres, reprisals. The fiery Italians were forever plunging into reckless, head- long contests. Chains and barricades stretched across the streets of every city; and at the war-cry men rushed from their houses to fight, they knew not whom or why. All they cared for was that their factional cry had been raised, their party was in the strife. The long contests had led also to a great change in the methods of war. There were sieges, countermarches, elaborately planned campaigns. War had Rome—Devastation of Italy 463 become an art, and skilled generals were required to conduct it. These ap- peared among the nobility in every city. Once given the command, it was easy for them to clinch their power. They became masters where they had been received as servants. This happened in city after city, the people in many cases yielding their liberty indifferently, even gladly, where it saved them from. the ceaseless turmoil of the days of faction. - These unhappy wars had yet another woful issue. Citizens could no longer sally forth to battle, and return to their work within the week or, the month. Campaigns were perpetual, and skill with weapons was indispensable. A man must give his whole life to war, or hire some one to fight for him. This led to the employment of foreign soldiers, who, flocking from the rougher lands in the north, eagerly sold their swords to wealthy bidders. Formidable bands of these mercenaries were formed. They soon learned their power and made war on their own account, ravaging the lands they had come to protect. The smaller cities were in constant danger from them. One band even attacked Milan, and was driven off only after a pitched battle. The “Great Company,” as one horde called itself, traversed Italy from end to end, pillaging and tortur- ing everywhere. Its leader, a German duke, known as Werner, bore on his breast the motto, “Enemy of God, of pity, and of mercy.” The old awful days of despair and ruin seemed to have come again to scourge the land. Even the pope was not safe from the ferocious marauders. A company of them under the English captain, Sir John Hawkwood, held a pope in ransom for ten thousand crowns. The story is that the prelate sent them word that they should have the ten thousand with his curse or two thousand with his blessing; and they accepted the blessing, though with some grumbling that it came high at the price. Small wonder the popes fled from such a distracted Italy. In 1309 they retired to France to live in quiet at the little city of Avignon. It is impossible for us to judge now of the necessity which may have compelled so radical a change in the papal policy. Of its results, however, we can speak positively. It lost to the popes that high supremacy in European politics which they had held for over two centuries. During the seventy years (1309–1378) that they remained at Avignon, they were more or less dependent on the French mon- archs. Most of the popes elected during this period were French by birth. They were swayed by French ideas. Other nations began to look on them as mere vassals of France, and to resent their interference in other governments. In matters of religion the papal authority remained as yet unquestioned; but in questions of worldly government it was gone forever. Rome, left to its own devices in the pope's absence, became a mere battle- ground between its most prominent families of nobles, the Colonna and the 464 The Story of the Greatest Nations Orsini. They made fortresses of the old ruins. The Colosseum was the stronghold of the Colonna, the Castle of St. Angelo of the Orsini, and from these the opponents Sallied out to fight like ravening wolves in the streets of the unhappy city. One strange, brilliant, fantastic spectacle flashes for a moment amid the gloom. Bulwer has immortalized it in a novel. Cola (N icholas) di Rienzi was a poor Roman, a notary and a student, who, having long dreamed of the an- cient glory of Rome, resolved to restore it. He explained to his friends the story of the ruins and inscriptions that surrounded them. He had allegorical pictures painted on the public walls, and with fierce and vehement oratory he interpreted their meaning. The nobles laughed at him. But suddenly he leaped from words to action, and, Summoning the excited populace around him, drove the nobles from the city. Rome seemed all in an instant to become again a great and glorious republic. Rienzi was its tribune. He defeated the nobles in battle; he invited the other Italian cities to send delegates, and draw up a new scheme for the reunion of Italy under Rome. Many of these dele- gates actually arrived. The fame of the new republic spread far through Europe. In distant Asia Mahometan caliphs offered up prayers against this new danger which seemed to threaten them. • * But it was all a dream. Rienzi was a mere visionary, utterly incapable of filling the high, strange station to which poetic inspiration had raised him. He went on amusing himself with empty pageants. Men fell away from him; he became hard, suspicious, cruel. He drank deeply, became mad perhaps, had himself crowned emperor, and committed a hundred other extravagances. In the end the Colonnas drove him from his palaces, and he was slain with every indignity by the very populace that had upraised him (1354). The republics of Italy were almost at their last gasp. Genoa and Venice survived the rest. This was largely because they were maritime states whose interests abroad had kept them more or less estranged from the Italian civil strife. Genoa became prominent as a naval power as early as the tenth century. So also did its near neighbor and rival, Pisa. The Mahometans had established themselves in the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, from which they ravaged the Italian coasts. This interfered with the commerce of Genoa and Pisa. So the two cities united their navies, and drove the Mahometans from the islands (IO2 I). Corsica became a Genoese province, and Sardinia passed to Pisa. Thus began their maritime empires. But the allies quarrelled; naval battles between them became frequent. At last, in 1284, a newly constructed Pisan fleet paraded before the harbor of the Genoese, and challenged them to come out and fight. The Genoese, being unprepared, offered to accept the challenge Rome—Wars of Genoa and Venice 465 as soon as their ships were ready; but the Pisans sailed scornfully away. The ships of Genoa followed in hot haste, and overtook their rivals at Meloria. A great battle followed. The Pisan fleet was destroyed and the flower of its sea- men, eleven thousand in number, were carried prisoners to Genoa, where they were kept as common laborers. The strength of Pisa was broken. All her possessions passed to her rival, whence arose the Italian saying, “If you want to see Pisa, you must go to Genoa.” The century that followed marked the height of Genoese power. The bulk of trade in the western Mediterranean was hers, most of the islands were her provinces, her colonies dotted the seashore as widely as had those of Carthage. The plains around the distant Black Sea, which had supplied the granaries of Athens, now supplied those of Genoa, and from Genoa, Europe. Her ships bore the crusaders to the Holy Land, and thus earned even there commercial advantages, colonies, and power. She grew to contest with Venice the trade of India and the East. • In this second struggle with a great commercial rival, Genoa seemed for a time likely to be again successful. Her fleet won a great naval battle at Cur- zola in 1298. Seven thousand seamen of Venice were brought captive to Genoa. Among them was that most famous of Venetians, Marco Polo. He had led the van of his country's fleet, and fought desperately. It was in the idle- ness of his Genoese prison that he wrote the fascinating books of travel which have familiarized all the world with his wanderings in China and the Far East. The naval war between the two cities continued at intervals for a century. At last in I 379, the Genoese admiral Pietro Doria defeated the Venetian fleet, and reduced the enemy to such straits that the Venetians sent him a blank sheet of paper and begged him to write on it his own terms. “No,” was the haughty answer, “not till we have bridled those horses of yours on St. Mark's.” The admiral referred to some famous bronze horses on the great Venetian Cathedral, and the ambassadors saw that he meant to enter and seize upon the city itself. So the Venetians determined to resist to the last. Their case seemed hopeless, but by resolute skill and courage they trapped the entire Genoese fleet in the harbor of Chioggia, whence it could not escape, and was starved into surrender. This broke Genoa's power in the East (1379). Genoa's fortunes in the West were unwittingly destroyed by the most famous of all her citizens, Christopher Columbus. By discovering a new world, he disjointed or disturbed all the old lines of traffic. New and more powerful competitors clashed with the Genoese sailors. The ships of Spain and Portugal, England and Holland, brought goods to Europe from the wider re- gions of the great Ocean; and the wealth which had centred itself in Genoa, spread now over these broader lands. 466 The Story of the Greatest Nations Venice had never seemed really a part of Italy. Her career and her for- tunes from the first stood apart from those of the other cities. Her long and brilliant history has, therefore, little place in the story of Italy. It deserves rather to be recounted by itself. Let it suffice here to summarize it very briefly. Even in her foundation, she differed from the other cities, dating, not from the Roman days, but from the centuries of destruction, during which fugitives began to gather on the islands off the coast at the head of the Adriatic. By degrees a city was formed among the islands; and whatever its founders may have known in their former homes, in Venice they had never once to yield themselves to the horrors of sack and conquest. Already in Pepin's time it had become a place powerful enough to defy him. He sent a fleet to attack the city, but the falling tide left his ships stranded and helpless in the mud off the great lagoon, where they were destroyed by the lighter boats of the Vene- tians. The first doge, or duke, of Venice was chosen by the people in 697, and confirmed in his appointment by the Emperor of the East at Constantinople. The relations between Venice and the Eastern Empire continued cordial until the new power had outdistanced the old, and the Overgrown doges laughed at the feeble efforts of the emperors to control them. Venice became the great naval and commercial power of the East. She had commercial stations everywhere. She fought with the important Asiatic city of Tyre, overthrew it and secured its trade, the trade from Persia and India. She turned aside a crusading army from Jerusalem, its destination, and with its help attacked Constantinople. The doge, Dandolo, who led the expedition, was over ninety years old, and the fiery young Emperor of the East, riding down to the shore in martial attire, ridiculed his aged and feeble enemy. But Constantinople was stormed, and much of the Eastern Empire fell into Venetian hands. The doges claimed the Adriatic as a sea belonging solely to their city, and excluded other ships from it. This claim was confirmed by both the popes and the emperors. The city was called the “Queen of the Adriatic,” the “Bride of the Sea”; and every year the doge performed the strange ceremony of sail- ing forth in a splendid ship, dropping a ring into the water, and going through a marriage service to unite the city and Sea. Venice was the bulwark of Europe against the Mahometans. Her fleets contested with them the dominion of the Mediterranean. She won great vic- tories from them, and sustained severe defeats. Yet almost single-handed she maintained her position, and prevented their fanatic hordes from penetrating farther west by sea. The fight which finally broke the naval power of the Mahometans is counted one of the decisive events in the world's history. It Rome—The Last of the Republics 467 is called the battle of Lepanto (1571), and was won mainly by the Venetian ships, though under a Spanish admiral. Twelve thousand Christian slaves were liberated from the captured galleys. The inner state of Venice corresponded but ill with her triumph and mag- nificence abroad. Her republican government became gradually an oligarchy in the hands of a few aristocratic families. While still calling herself a repub- lic, Venice sank under the narrowest and most merciless “ring" of tyranny that ever existed. The doges grew to be mere figureheads, and all real power was lodged in a council consisting at first of ten nobles, and afterward of three. The terrible “Three" held absolute power in their hands. Criminals were not openly tried. They were seized secretly and mysteriously, and brought before the Three, who condemned them, sometimes without a hearing. The noblest and richest Venetians were tortured to force confessions from them. A man might stand one day happy and prosperous among his friends, the next he had disappeared, and no one dared ask whither. Perhaps he never reappeared, perhaps he was seen again on the public scaffold, broken and worn to a skeleton by unnamable tortures. Men were even brought forth gagged to execution, lest they should scream out the horrors which they had endured. Venice was the last existent of the Italian republics—if indeed she can be called a republic. No single tyrant ever rose in the city to overthrow the oli- garchy. Her power and wealth faded, however, when the trade of the world expanded into wider channels, and the broad Atlantic superseded the narrow Mediterranean as the high-road of the world's commerce. She was a mere shadow of herself when the conquering Napoleon entered the city in 1797, and put an end to the “last of the Italian republics." | º ºs - rºsºlº - º Hºlſº - | THE CRUSADERS ATTACKING CONSTANTINOPLE º º --- º --- º º - DEATH or Savoxanola Chapter XLIV THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE º - see-sºº -º-TALY has been the seat of five of the greatest movements in the world's story. Four of these we have shown you, passing like panoramas across the stage. We have traced * the rise and fall of the Roman Republic, with its stern heroism; of the Empire, with its stupendous power and - wealth; of the mystic, religious mastery of the popes; º ** and of the opulent city republics ofcommerce. We have yet to tell you of the fifth movement, the one whose influence º * has perhaps been greatest of all. This is the Renaissance, the º º re-birth or re-awakening of life, of literature, and of art. Start- $ ing in Italy, this movement spread through all Europe. It roused 3 men to think and to invent. It launched science on its splendid 7. !. career. It transformed mediaeval into modern life. - The date generally set for this remarkable outburst is about º 1450. Within the next seventy years, the time allotted to one man's life, there occurred the Protestant Reformation, the dis- covery of America, the invention of printing, the beginning of modern astronomy. There is something impressive in the power of such an age, in its very prodigality of success. Note that not one of these great events was really a new thing—only its success was new. There had been reformers before Luther, but men's sluggish minds had rejected them, and they had failed. America had been discovered, we are told, again and again, by the Norsemen, by Madoc, by St. Brandon; but these wanderers failed to grasp the value of what they had done, and allowed life to creep on, unchanged. The printing-press had been known to the Chinese for ages, but they thought Rome—Growth of Florence 469 of it as a toy, not as an engine to move the world. The Arabs had bungled with the telescope for centuries. Men with seeing eyes were needed to read through the glasses the construction of the universe. That is the real mean- ing of the Renaissance; it is the birth of the seeing eye, of the inquiring, understanding mind. Of course it is not possible to set an exact date as the beginning of such a movement, or to trace with certainty its cause. Perhaps it was the slow natural growth of the human mind; perhaps it was, as some historians have explained it, the chance result of this or that accidental occurrence—perhaps it was the direct gift of God. In describing the Italian part of its growth and glory, we must turn our attention more especially to the cities of Rome and Florence. Historians, seeking for comparisons, have called Venice the Sparta of mediaeval Italy, be- cause of its ever-narrowing oligarchy, which, while it gave vigorous and con- centrated power to the government abroad, crushed individual impulse and aspi- ration at home. Even more aptly is Florence compared to Athens. The government of Florence was extremely democratic; every citizen took part in it, the love of liberty was intense in every breast. Faction and dispute at home paralyzed the energies of the nation abroad; but individual aspiration, individual effort, was encouraged and stimulated to the highest point. Never has any city, except perhaps Athens itself, produced so many truly great men in such rapid succession. Florence, like Athens, was particularly liable to fall under the rule of dema- gogues. One man's power again and again rose above the rest, only to be as often overthrown, until at last the great house of Medici established a more lasting tyranny, and their chief became Duke of Florence and then Grand Duke of Tuscany. The first Florentine citizen to gain world-wide fame was the poet Dante, who is ranked with Homer and Shakespeare among the earth's immortals. It is also in Dante that we can trace the first seeds of the Renaissance. He lived from 1265 to I32 I, in the years when the Guelphic party, having destroyed the Hohenstaufen emperors, was everywhere triumphant. As a lad he was shy and intense, sure to burn out his intensity on whatever life brought him. Thus in Florence he became naturally an ardent patriot. He held offices and strug- gled for reforms. Then, during his absence from the city, there came one of the sudden, common enough, Florentine revolutions. His party, the “White Guelphs,” were driven out by the “Black Guelphs” (1301), and Dante spent the rest of his life wandering through Italy, an exile from his beloved city. He had always been a poet, now he became a prophet as well. His great poem, the “Divine Comedy,” not only sums up all the past and shows Italy as he knew 47O The Story of the Greatest Nations it, its religion, its factions, its beauty, and its crime: the poet's vision looks into the future as well, and foreshadows the growth and change that were about to come. Beatrice, the ideal woman whom Dante loved, is the heroine of his poem. In its three books he tells how he descended into hell (the Inferno), passed through the middle stage of the hereafter (the Purgatorio), and finally is shown by Beatrice heaven itself (the Paradisio). Through these wanderings the writer takes for his guide the great Latin poet Virgil. Something of the spirit of the old Romans flashes through the poem. It was the study of the classic authors, Latin and more especially Greek, that prepared men's minds for the Renaissance. It started with the revival of classic learning. Petrarch (I 3O4–1374), Italy's second great poet, shows this even more plainly. He was an enthusiastic collector of old manuscripts. He wrote in Latin more than in Italian, and expected to be remembered for his Latin works. Trifles which he thought of lesser importance he tossed off in Italian. Yet it is by these trifles, his exquisite little love-sonnets to his lady, Laura, that he is remembered to-day. The father of Petrarch was expelled from Florence at the same time with Dante, and Petrarch was born during the exile. His life covers the time of the popes' residence at Avignon, and it was at their court that he was brought up. He was in Rome as the guest of the Colonnas during Rienzi's time, and was one of the visionary's most delighted supporters. He won enthusiastic praise for his poetry and learning, and was welcomed everywhere. “Princes have lived with me,” he said, “not I with princes.” The proudest moment of his life was probably in Rome in I 34 I. He was crowned with solemn ceremonies specially devised to do him honor, and was declared the “poet laureate,” or laurel-crowned poet, of all Italy. The enthusiasm of such a man for ancient literature naturally directed other men's attention to it. The collection of old manuscripts became a fad. Much that had been lost was found. Much that had been forgotten was re- understood. Men began to realize that life was a pleasant and good and beau- tiful thing in itself. The old nations had found it so. The tendency of one extreme of Christianity had been to represent this life as of no importance; it was a mere passage to the next, and nothing in it was worth a moment's thought. The actual physical joy which the old Greeks had found in mere liv- ing and inhaling the sunshine came like a revolt against all this icy asceti- cism. In his old age Petrarch set himself to studying Greek, that he might read of these things for himself. The third writer of Italy's great trio, Boccaccio (1313–1375), expresses most fully this detail of the Renaissance, its eager comprehension of the deli- ciousness and worth of life itself. Boccaccio was also a Florentine, and though Rome—The Rebuilding of Rome 47 I he wrote both prose and poetry, he is certain to be best remembered by his collection of prose stories, the “Decameron.” In this he catches up all the little popular tales of his time, and narrates them in a style so exquisite that his countrymen have always held him as a model of prose. Boccaccio introduced the regular study of Greek into the Florentine university, and he himself translated for his countrymen the great poems of Homer. Meanwhile art was also blossoming into splendor. The architects of Flor- ence were erecting stately palaces and solemn cathedrals. Her artists with the painter Giotto at their head were decorating the interiors of the great buildings with paintings, and the exteriors with statues. The soaring ambition of the proud city may be read in one of its decrees: “The Republic of Florence, mounting ever above the expectation of the ablest judges, desires that an edifice shall be constructed, so magnificent in its height and beauty as to surpass everything of the kind produced in the time of their greatest power by the Greeks and Romans.” Cosimo di Medici (1389–1464) was the great patron of this growing move- ment. The Florentines had long been the bankers and money-lenders for all Europe; and the Medici were the chief bankers of Florence, merchant princes indeed, whose wealth and sumptuous life have never been surpassed. Cosimo was the first of the Medici to hold supreme power in Florence. Though the forms of the Republic were preserved, he was practically its dictator. Yet so loved was he by the people, so generous in the help he gave to all the awak- ened intellectual life of the time, that the Florentines inscribed on his tomb the honored record, “Father of his Country.” One of the many poor scholars who had found a home and an education with Cosimo became pope at Rome under the name of Nicholas V., and reigned there from 1447 to I 455. Under him the wealth of the church also was de- voted to art and literature. He conceived the idea of making Rome the most beautiful city in the world. His purpose was to impress deeply the pilgrims who flocked to it from all lands, to lead them through its architectural into a comprehension of its spiritual grandeur. To do this he set to work to rebuild almost the entire city. For over a century Rome had been in a state of sad decay. The long absence of the popes at Avignon had left it uncared for and crumbling. Then there had come an unfortunate quarrel in the church, and again, as in the old evil days, there had been two and even three rivals claiming to be pope at the same time. The city left to itself had become a mere nest of thieves and ruins. Nicholas V. gave it once more a splendid start on the upward career which was to make it the beautiful city of to-day. In 1453, the Eastern Empire in Greece was overthrown by the Turks. The result was that Greek scholars with ancient manuscripts flocked into Italy. 472 The Story of the Greatest Nations A tremendous impetus was given to the artistic and literary spirit already existing. The Renaissance rose to its fullest power, and its impulse spread over all Europe. It escaped in other countries, however, the somewhat irre- ligious tone it had begun to take in Italy. Indeed, it seemed to deepen and strengthen the religious fervor among the peoples of the North. In Italy its divorce from religion and all true nobility became marked. Lorenzo the Magnificent (1448–1492) had become the head of the Medicis at Florence, and under him the city acquired splendor indeed. He was the most liberal and generous among the patrons of art. He founded a school for artists, many of whom lived in his palace, He collected a museum of manu- scripts, paintings, and statues. He wrote poetry which his courtiers assured him was superior to that of Dante. But through it all he was reckless, treach- erous, and licentious. Under him Florence forgot her liberty, in the pursuit of pleasure, and grew, like ancient Babylon, into a city of sin. Only one man dared stand face to face with Lorenzo, and tell him the crime he was committing against himself and his city. This was Savonarola, a monk who had come to Florence as a stranger from a little neighboring village. By his piety, his energy, and his eloquence he rose to be head of the monastery of San Marco, and he warned the Florentines in trumpet tones of their fall and degradation. He fancied he saw visions of the woe to fall on Italy. The im- pressionable people gathered in crowds to listen to him ; they reverenced him as a saint, and honored him as a hero. They did everything except follow his advice and reform. Lorenzo himself was impressed by the terrible earnestness and passion of the man. Instead of crushing him as he might easily have done, he sought to make a friend of him. The fierce reformer evaded the luxurious tyrant, and preached more and more bitterly against him. These two were typical of Renaissance and Church, each at its best. Courtiers hinted to the monk that he might be banished. “Tell Lorenzo,” he answered, “that he shall go, but I shall stay.” *. It was like a lightning-flash of that spirit of prophecy which seemed at times to inspire the visionary monk. Lorenzo did go; he died. As he lay in his sudden illness, he would receive the last sacrament and blessing from none of the obsequious priests who surrounded him, but sent for Savonarola. He felt that it was only through such a good man as this, that he could really make his peace with God. “Go back,” said the unrelenting priest, “it is not such as me he wants.” But Lorenzo's messengers came again and again, promising in his name to do whatever Savonarola bade. So the stern monk stood by the dying bed of the “Magnificent.” He demanded that Lorenzo do three things, if he wished the Church's pardon. First he must throw himself wholly on Rome—Death of Savonarola 473 God's mercy, and hope for nothing from his own merits, his fame, and his gen- erosity. The shrewd prince saw readily the right of that, and promised. Next he was to restore all his wealth, so far as possible, to those from whom it had been taken, leaving his descendants only enough to live as ordinary citizens. This, too, he promised, though after long hesitation. Lastly Savonarola de- manded that the prince should set Florence free again, as once she had been. Lorenzo gave no answer, but, turning his back upon the priest, lay silent and still with his face to the wall, until he died—unshriven (1492). - The power which had so twined itself about Lorenzo's heartstrings was lost to his family in spite of him. Florence, stirred to its depths by Savonarola, declared itself a religious republic with God as its head. The Medici were driven out. A day was appointed on which all the people came and laid their “vanities,” their rich apparel, ornaments, and treasures at Savonarola's feet. The world beyond the city gates looked on in wonder. Savonarola began to preach against the sins of other cities, and of the Roman church. Fear took the place of wonder among the evil who were set in high places. But all this self-renunciation was only a passing craze with the frivolous Florentines. They soon tired of these solemn, monkish ways, and sighed for their “vanities” back again. There were tumults; a rebellion was encouraged by a wicked pope, and Savonarola was overthrown. He was tortured and, by public approval, was strangled, and his body burned in the great square of the very city which had hailed him as its prophet. His public career covered, as in the beginning he had foretold it would, just eight years (1490–1498). The wickedness of Italy was growing blacker and more appalling. It had invaded even the papacy. The crime of simony, which Hildebrand had driven from the church, came back in worse forms than ever. Alexander VI., a Span- iard of the family of the Borgias, was perhaps the most wicked of all the popes (1492–1503). His son was the terrible Caesar Borgia, whose name, with that of his sister Lucrece, has become a horror to all succeeding ages. Caesar, with his father's help, set to work to make for himself a kingdom in Italy, deliber- ately murdering all who stood in his way. This was done usually by slow and mysterious poisons. Lucrece was married to three princes in succession, one of whom at least was murdered by her brother to give Lucrece opportunity for a more brilliant match. All Europe trembled before these secret assassins. Caesar Borgia became lord of much territory around Rome. The plans of the wicked father and son seemed approaching assured success, when suddenly the two were stricken down together. Some writers say it was a fever seized them; but the popular legend represents them as caught in their own snare. They had prepared poison for one of their cardinals, and gave it to him at a banquet in his own house. By 474. The Story of the Greatest Nations Some accident, or by the suspicion of their victim, the cups were changed, and the Borgias drank the draught they had themselves mixed. Alexander died a horrible death. Caesar wavered long upon life's edge. Unable to assert him- self, he saw a stranger succeed to his father's place; and he was hurried with all his treasures, like some unclean thing, from the papal palace of the Vatican. When he finally recovered, his power had passed away like a shadow. Alexander was soon followed on the papal throne by Julius II. (1503–1513), who again worked, as Pope Nicholas had done, for the material splendor and adornment of Rome. He had excavations made among the old ruins, and brought to light many of the exquisite statues which had adorned the ancient city. The famous “Apollo Belvedere” was unearthed, and acted like a revela- tion on men's minds. Indeed, it was during the reign of Pope Julius that the artistic side of the Renaissance reached its highest expression. Donatello and Michael-Angelo are the two great names in modern sculp- ture. Both were Florentines. Donatello was the artist who first broke fully from the old, hampering traditions, and started modern sculpture in its great Career. Michael-Angelo Buonarotti (1475–1564) ranks as the greatest of modern sculptors. Even among the ancient Greeks the master Phidias is the only one usually classed above him. But Michael-Angelo was far more than a sculptor. He had the varied, all-pervading power which is one of the most impressive features of the period. Indeed, his extraordinary career is worth dwelling upon, for in his many-sided genius he may be considered the typical figure of the Renaissance. In his youth his talent was discouraged by his father, a poor but proud citi- zen of Florence, who opposed his son's following a profession then considered inferior. But the lad's persistence attracted the attention of the magnificent Lorenzo, who placed him in his school and made him his friend. At Lorenzo's command he made beautiful statues. But Lorenzo died, and the critics of art would enthuse only over ancient work. Michael-Angelo made a beautiful Cupid, buried it, and then sent it all dirty to Rome. Every one was delighted with the supposed antique; and when the artifice was dis- covered, they admitted that a great sculptor had risen in their own day. He worked at Rome, and then again at Florence. Two great pictures were wanted for the walls of the grand Florentine Council Hall. Angelo now stood forth as a painter, and was commissioned to paint one wall, while Leonardo da Vinci, the leading artist of the time, painted the other. A fierce rivalry arose, and Angelo's picture was adjudged the better of the two. Pope Julius called him again to Rome, to beautify that city as architect and sculptor. Then, on a sudden whim, the Pope bade him paint instead of build. Rome—Michael-Angelo and Raphael 475 Angelo pleaded that he was a sculptor, not a painter, and urged his young rival Raphael for the work. But the Pope was obdurate, and Angelo executed the paintings of the wonderful Sistine Chapel. The next Pope set him at sculpture again in Florence, but insisted on his using a certain marble which had to be hauled far, over bad roads. So the great artist turned road-maker, and for eight years that seems to have been his main employment. Then, he became a military engineer, fortified Florence against a terrible siege, and was foremost in his city's defence. On its capture he was forced to flee and hide; but a pardon being assured him, he returned to painting and sculpture. The old cathedral of St. Peter, which had stood for centuries at Rome, was being replaced by the massive structure which towers there to-day. Michael-Angelo was made its architect, and gave himself to the work with religious devotion. It occupied the last twenty years of his long and strenuous life. During this time he turned to poetry as well, and crowned the diversity of his career by writing a series of sonnets which hold no mean place in Italian literature. The three great painters of the age have been mentioned. In the order of their appearance they were Leonardo da Vinci, Michael-Angelo, and Raphael; and they are generally regarded as improving each upon his predecessor. Leon- ardo was, like Michael-Angelo, a man of varied genius: architect, sculptor, painter, and military engineer. His greatest painting is the famous “Last Supper" in Rome. The patronage of dukes and kings led him out of Italy; and he became as much a Frenchman as an Italian. He died at the court of a king of France, legend says, in the monarch's arms. Raphael Santi (1483–I 52O), considered by many the greatest of all painters, lived through a short and calm existence in keeping with the serene tone of his art, and forming a singular contrast to the long and stormy career of his rival, Angelo. Raphael's genius was early recognized; he was called to Rome and became the personal favorite of the two artistic popes, Julius II. and his successor Leo X. He painted for them one splendid picture after another, until his death from fever, at the age of thirty-seven. All Rome mourned him, and his funeral was one of the spectacles of the age. Raphael's second Pope, Leo X., was a Medici. That family had regained their power in Florence, and they seem now to have formed a scheme for wider dominion. They purposed to use the papacy as a means of establishing their power over all Italy. Leo X. was distinguished by all the artistic zeal and much of the irreligion of his family. He was soon succeeded by Clement VII., another Medici, under whom an awful retribution came upon Rome for the wickedness which had been contin. ually growing more horrible within her walls. A German army was formed 476 The Story of the Greatest Nations with the avowed purpose of pillaging the city. It traversed Italy, duke after duke letting it pass by him, or secretly aiding it on its way (1527). Rome offered little resistance. It was stormed and given over to a sacking more dreadful and more complete than it had suffered in the wildest days of the Huns and Vandals. . Clement, securely shut up in his fortress of St. Angelo, went from window to window looking out and wringing his hands. “Oh, my poor people !” he cried, “my poor people!” For seven months the army of brigands camped in the streets, working their hideous will, until even their brutal lust and senseless cruelty and savage avarice were sated. Torture and violation could wring no more money from the broken Romans. Then the Emperor, in whose name this sickening thing had been done, somewhat tardily bestirred himself to repudiate it. He sought peace with the Pope, and Clement, forgetful apparently of the “poor people” in other cities, forgave him on condition that what remained of the army of invasion should be turned against Florence, and used to re-establish there permanently the domin- ion of the Medici. • So Florence, which had been in one of its chronic enthusiasms for liberty. and no Medici, had in its turn to withstand a siege (1529). It was then that Michael-Angelo exerted himself to fortify and entrench his beloved city. There is a high and hopeless heroism about this last Florentine rebellion. The days of Savonarola were recalled, and God was once more declared King of Florence, the question being put to a regular vote in the assembly of citi- zens and carried, some eleven hundred voting for Him, and only eighteen against. The siege was long, but it was pushed with grim resolution, and could have only one termination. Famine and treachery drove the citizens to surrender. The famous Fiorentine Republic came to an end. The city had retained at least the form and officers of a republic, even when the Medici held all real power. Now the old machinery was swept away, the city with its dependent territories was made a duchy, and its tyrant Medici became Dukes of Florence. The fall of these two principal cities is generally accepted as ending the Renaissance in Italy. Its period of greatest splendor and of greatest evil had thus extended from 1453 to I 527. Clement, on his return to power, started what has been called the “counter-reformation" in the Roman church. The church itself struggled to crush the internal evils which were destroying it. By degrees the respect of men returned to better popes, and with it returned something of the church's power. The Northern nations had broken away from it forever; but the Southern ones still clung to the old religious idea for which Rome stood. Within the past century the lasting vitality of this idea has again been strikingly demonstrated. In our world to-day the Roman Cath- Rome—Misery of Italy 477 olic Church is still a vast influence, and many thinkers believe that influence to be upon the increase. From 1527, however, Italy lay helpless beneath the feet of domestic tyrants and foreign kings. Dominion over her varied states shifted with every change of policy in the greater kingdoms to the north. These fought out their bloody feuds upon Italian soil. She became, as she has been called, “the battle- ground of the nations.” Her common people sank into a misery as abject as it seemed hopeless. Pope LEO X. Žižº M º - - - - -- II: BATTLE OF SOLFERINo. Chapter XLV MODERN ITALY *ś tº ºf * HE dream of Italian unity, which had inspired Dante, £º and has swayed every noble Italian since his day, was left for the nineteenth century to realize. In the latter end of the eighteenth century, Italy was divided into about a dozen little states, of which only five had any size or importance. The “Kingdom of Naples” in- cluded Sicily and the south of the peninsula. It was under the rule of an absolute monarch, King Ferdinand, who robbed, tortured, and murdered his subjects with a ferocious cruelty and in a wholesale manner worthy of Nero or Calig- ula. He was assisted by his queen, an Austrian princess, even more bloodthirsty and treacherous than he. The “ States of the Church '' in Central Italy belonged to the pope, but en- joyed a certain amount of liberty and peace under his govern- ment. Most of the north of Italy was subject to Austria, which was by far the greatest power in the land. Austrian dukes or generals ruled in Florence over Tuscany, in Milan over Lombardy, and in other smaller states. In the north- east Venice still retained its freedom as a republic, and governed the surround- ing district of Venetia. In the northwest lay Piedmont, a power the most in- teresting of all, since its rulers were to become the kings of the Italy of to-day. The lords of Piedmont had a threefold dominion. They held Savoy, the French province to the north and west of the Alps. This was their original home, and gave them their earliest title. Through all the Middle Ages they º º Rome–Kings of Sardinia 479 had been known as Dukes of Savoy. Piedmont was added to their domain by slow degrees, some bits by marriage, others by conquest, but most by their own free consent. Many little cities, and even the large one of Nice, had vol- untarily placed themselves under the protection of these strong, just, and humane Dukes of Savoy. Thus all the country of the lower Alps, both in France and Italy, was under their control. The mountain passes were easily defensible by the sturdy natives, so that no army could cross the Alps without Savoy's consent. Its dukes were known to European politics as the door- keepers, the “Janitors of the Alps.” In 1720 the island of Sardinia passed to them by treaty, and it was from this that they took their best-known title, “King of Sardinia.” Piedmont, however, was their main strength. In it lay their capital, Turin. The people respected and trusted them; and these people were a far different race from those of lower Italy. Mountains breed men of courage, loyalty, and strength. Napoleon wrote home to France that one regiment of the Pied- montese was worth all the troops that could be gathered from the remainder of Northern Italy. When Napoleon invaded Italy in 1796 he overthrew all the little govern- ments we have described, and substituted four republics. Later, as his imperial ambition grew, he changed these republics into kingdoms for the members of his family. On his downfall, in 1814, the Powers, endeavoring to rearrange Europe, placed Italy so far as possible under its old sovereigns. Only the republics were destroyed; Venice was given to Austria, and the shadowy remnant of Genoa passed to Piedmont. But this restoration was only superficial. The absolute power of the kings could not thus be handed back to them. The people had tasted freedom, and there were constant plots and uprisings, which no severity could repress. Austria, entrenched in the very heart of the land, stood firmly for absolute monarchy, and lent her troops to the little kings around her. Italy was kept in subjugation by Austrian bayonets, and by those alone. Piedmont's king had been already recognized as representing the cause of Italian freedom. Yet even his subjects in 182 I demanded from him a consti- tution. He tried to temporize with them. As a matter of fact, when the Powers restored his kingdom to him, they suspected his liberal tendencies, and required from him a pledge that he would never grant his people the very thing they were now asking. So what could he do? The revolutionists were sin- cere when they sent him the message: “Our hearts are faithful to our king, but we must save him from perfidious counsels.” His generals assured him that their soldiers would be loyal to him personally, but could be guaranteed no further. He refused to test them by giving the order to fire on the rebels. 48o The Story of the Greatest Nations It would have been easy to summon Austria to his help, but sooner than do so the kindly old king resigned his office. His brother, the next heir, was at a distance. So a young cousin, Charles Albert, was appointed regent till his arrival. Charles immediately granted the constitution. But the new king dashed in breathing fire and fury. He summoned the Austrians to his help, the constitution was promptly revoked, and the people were forced back into subjugation. Young Charles Albert was ordered off to do penance, by fighting in the Austrian army. Its officers greeted him with a shout of ridicule: “Behold the King of Italy | " Yet the taunt came near to being prophecy. Charles lived to have that very title offered him; and it was his son, following out his plans, who actually won the rank. - - In 1831, in default of nearer heirs, Charles Albert was allowed to become Ring of Sardinia and Piedmont, though he, too, was first compelled by Austria to pledge himself against a constitution. Of course the Piedmontese knew nothing of this, and they welcomed his coronation with delight. Secret societies of patriots had spread through all Italy; and at the head of the best known of them was Mazzini, a young Piedmontese. He promptly summoned “Young Italy” to rise against Austria, counting on the help of the new king. But Charles was too shrewd to thrust his head into the jaws of the Austrian lion. He put down the uprising with an iron hand. There were executions and imprisonments, and Mazzini had to flee from Italy. For eighteen years there was no further step to mark outwardly the advance of Italian unity and freedom. Yet it was during those years that its main strength was built up. Charles Albert was educating his people and creating an army. All Europe was advancing along the path of constitutional govern- ment. With the growth of men's minds and hearts, freedom was becoming more and more inevitable, despotism more and more impossible. At last, in 1848, rebellion flamed up all over Europe. In France alone was it completely successful. There a republic was again established. But the Austrian despots had their hands full at home, they had no time to spare for Italy. Charles Albert seized the opportunity to grant his people the long- deferred constitution, and no protest was uttered. The down-trodden states of Central Italy rose one after another against Austria; and Charles, also declaring war upon the common enemy, placed himself at their head. Piedmont, chang- ing her ancient colors, adopted the Italian tri-color, red, white, and green. All Italy seemed burning to march under the flag; and troops came from Rome and even from distant Naples. It was then that the enthusiastic soldiers of- fered Charles the crown of Northern Italy. He refused it till it should be earned. - LOK AND SIGYN Nº Ollºw 3H_L WOH + v[0809 wysłyo do No1Snnºxia 3k+1 8318 S, nºw Havae llw onlaevaea ºx oran ~~~~. ：） -- · 338H1, Nºlla Na^ aHl. THE corona TION OF POPE PLUS X. >- - < E u- o o 2: × co < – u ~ 2. < > > u ºr o H. C > c z > O O - u > C - < º ºr < º Rome—Rebellions of 1848 481 But, alas ! Charles was not a military genius. The Austrian general, Radet- sky, old and skilful, gathered such troops as he could find in Italy. He out- manoeuvred and outfought Charles. There was a Savage battle at Custozza, which gave Milan and Lombardy to the Austrians. The Milanese cried trea- son; though indeed here, as always, the Piedmontese showed themselves the best of the Italian soldiers. Shots were fired at King Charles in Milan; and it was only by the heroism of some of his officers, and the cool valor of his troops, that he was saved from the mob's fury. Still he did not give up hope. “The independence of Italy,” he said, “was the first dream of my youth. It is my dream still; it will be till I die.” The next year another fiercely con- tested battle was fought at Novara on Piedmont's own soil. Charles, hopelessly defeated, sought death upon the field. Not finding it, he abdicated, that his son might sue for the peace he would not ask. As Charles left his native land forever, he declared that wherever any gov- ernment raised the flag of war against Austria, he would be found fighting her as a simple soldier. But he did not live to make good the despairing vaunt; he died within four rhonths, broken-hearted. His power, however, had been left in strong hands. As his eldest son, Vic. tor Emmanuel II., stood in this suddenly acquired responsibility of his new king- ship looking across the bloody field of Novara, amid all the defeat and destruc- tion of his father's plans, he murmured, “Yet Italy shall be.” He marched the shattered army back to Turin. He accepted the hard terms of peace Aus- tria proposed. He accepted the suspicion of his people, their taunts, their bit- terness. Like his father he knew how to bide his time. With Piedmont and the neighboring cities trampled down, rebellion still burned in only two spots in Italy. These were Venice and Rome. Venice made heroic resistance under a splendid leader, Daniel Manin. From August, 1848, to August, I849, she withstood the determined siege of the Austrians. Manin was made Dictator, and every foot of ground was stubbornly contested. It was only when the Venetians stood alone of all Italy, and with starvation actually among them, that they consented to an honorable Capitulation. The resistance in Rome, though briefer, was still more heroic. Mazzini, the leader of the secret societies, had returned to Italy, and with him came an exile even more famous than he. This was Garibaldi, the hero of modern Italy. During his banishment from his native Piedmont, Garibaldi had led a wandering, adventurous life in South America. He had proved himself, by his enthusiasm and high daring, a superb leader of men. After the defeat of Pied. mont, he and Mazzini, holding together a handful of followers, retreated to Rome. f Rome had declared itself a republic. Its Pope, Pius IX., had fled. Maz- 3 I 482 The Story of the Greatest Nations zini was appointed one of a triumvirate to protect the city. They appealed for help to republican France, and a French army was sent to Rome. It was received at first with welcome, then with suspicion. The French general de- clared that he was sent to make peace between the Pope and the triumvirate. But where both parties insisted on their right to rule, no compromise was poss sible. Then the French troops assaulted Rome. They were repulsed with desperate valor by Garibaldi and his men. The Austrians advanced upon Rome. Spain landed troops at Naples to repress the rebellious spirit of Southern Italy, and the forces of the King of Naples also marched toward Rome. Thus three of the great Powers were uniting against the one unfortunate city. Unluckily for him, the King of Naples came first within striking distance. His army numbered ten thousand men. Garibaldi slipped out of Rome with four thousand, and completely de- feated him. The king retreated, but there seemed to be some doubt in his mind as to his defeat. He ordered hymns of victory sung in his churches. So Garibaldi slipped out of Rome again, and this time the King of Naples was fully convinced that he was beaten in the battle of Velletri. He celebrated only the splendid rapidity of his retreat. Unfortunately, France was not so easily disposed of. Her troops drew in close siege around Rome. Mazzini opened negotiations, and a peaceful agree- ment seemed secure; but the French general, smarting under his first defeat, was determined to capture the city. It was bombarded and stormed. For a whole week there was fighting every day. Numbers told; and after a heroic and bloody defence, the republic surrendered. Mazzini had again to leave Italy. Garibaldi, summoning such as cared to follow him, marched out of Rome. He hoped to find somewhere in Italy the flag of freedom still waving, but it had gone down everywhere except in Venice, where they needed not men but food. So he dismissed his despairing band, and himself became a hunted fugitive. After dreadful suffering, he escaped to America, where he lived for some time in the city of New York. The warfare of 1848–1849 was not useless, for it impressed on all the world, and even, it may be, upon Austria, Italy's heroic determination to be free. The Italians themselves learned to moderate their ambitions, to see that a republican Italy was hopeless, and that their one chance of freedom from foreign tyranny lay in the King of Piedmont. He alone had armies which could make a hopeful stand against those of the great Powers; and he alone of all the petty kings and dukes was really Italian. The house of Savoy can trace its Italian ancestry backward for eight centuries, or, according to some authorities, for an even longer time, through the Lombard and Roman periods. Piedmont's new King, Victor Emmanuel, found a most able minister in Rome—The War of 1859 483 Count Cavour, and together, by splendid statesmanship, they built up the power and glory of their little kingdom. It became the recognized champion of all Italians who fled from Austrian tyranny. At last in 1859, Austria, irritated and overbearing, declared war again. This time she found she had more than Piedmont to meet. Cavour had secured the new French Emperor, Napoleon III., as an ally, and French troops fought side by side with the Piedmontese. Volun- teers flocked from all Italy to join them. Garibaldi came back from his exile, and, as general of the volunteer force, swept the Austrians out of the Lombard hills. Victor Emmanuel proved himself, before all men's eyes, a hero in battle. The French Emperor reproved him for his rashness; the French zouaves, wildest and most daring of fighters, elected him a corporal in their ranks. The allies won an important and fiercely contested battle at Magenta. Through that little town the fight raged backward and forward all day long, and by evening ten thousand dead lay in its streets and fields. The battle freed Lombardy, and it was added to Piedmont, the people of Milan celebrating the union with extravagant enthusiasm. One little Italian state after another burst its bonds, and each immediately begged Victor Emmanuel for admission into his kingdom. A second and even more bloody battle was fought at Solferino, in which the Austrians were again compelled to fall back, though fighting stubbornly. Italy was half crazy with delight. She thought her freedom accomplished, the terrible Austrians crushed. But the French Emperor, looking out over the ghastly plain of Solferino, with its twenty-five thousand dead, declared for peace. His announcement came, it would seem, suddenly and unexpectedly to all parties. The Austrians were only too glad to agree. The Italians, with Vic- tor Emmanuel and Cavour at their head, protested excitedly, madly, but in vain. They had to accept the situation. The French Emperor arranged that everything should stand as it was. Lombardy should belong to Piedmont; but Venetia, as yet unconquered, was to remain Austrian, and the states of Central Italy were to go back under their former lords. And in return for the help he had given Italy, and the lands he had turned over to Piedmont, the Emperor demanded for himself the city of Nice and the duchy of Savoy. Victor Emmanuel must have faced the most terrible moment of his life. All his high ambitions were suddenly checked, and Savoy, his own home, the birthplace of his race, was demanded from him. Even the diplomatic Cavour lost his self-control, wanted to defy France as well as Austria, and threw up his office as minister. Garibaldi had learned to admire and love his king, but when he learned that Nice, his birthplace, was to be given up, he cast duty to the winds, and threatened every one indiscriminately. The king alone stood firm, and insisted on agreeing to what he could not help. 484 The Story of the Greatest Nations His two great assistants soon rallied again to his side. Together the three plucked success from the ashes of defeat. The treaty of peace had said that the little states of middle Italy were to take back their old rulers. But who was to compel them to obey They refused positively, and Victor Emmanuel declared as positively that neither France nor Austria should use force upon them. They had appealed to him for protection, and he had promised it. So, after much diplomatic bickering, they were allowed to do as they wished. An election was held, and every little state voted to join itself with Piedmont and Lombardy to form the “Kingdom of Northern Italy.” All Southern Italy was still subject to the King of Naples. It was to be Garibaldi's contribution to the cause of “United Italy.” In two old vessels with something less than a thousand men, he sailed secretly for Sicily. With this famous force, known to history as “the Thousand,” he conquered both Sicily and the mainland. The first battle was the hardest. The Thousand attacked the Neapolitan troops at Calatafimi, stormed the entrenchments, fought their way up a mountain against Overwhelming numbers, and swept the foe from the field. Of all Garibaldi's battles, this was his greatest personal triumph. Nothing but his almost superhuman will, energy, and magnetism carried his exhausted little army through the tremendous task imposed on them. The rest was easy. The Sicilian peasants joined him. The Neapolitan troops were rapidly driven from the island. Garibaldi was made dictator; but be had no intention of stopping here. Gathering what volunteers he could, he crossed to the mainland, and marched against Naples. The Neapolitan army contained, on paper at least, eighty thousand men; Garibaldi had less than five thousand. Every one thought that, despite his heroism, he must fail now, as he had failed twelve years before at Rome. But the Neapolitan troops had little heart in their work, and their fear of Garibaldi and his wild, guerilla fight- ers was almost ludicrous. An army of seven thousand surrendered on being summoned to do so by a single unsupported officer. Garibaldi entered Naples without a battle, and here, too, he was declared dictator. Victor Emmanuel and his great minister were prompt to see that the mo- ment was favorable. To attack Rome itself would have meant war with France, and perhaps Austria as well. But they attacked what was left of the “States of the Church" outside of Rome, defeated the papal army, annexed the territory to their own, and established communication with Garibaldi in the South. - Garibaldi soundly defeated the Neapolitan army, which had at last rallied against him; then he rode north to meet Victor Emmanuel who, almost alone, was riding south to meet him. They found each other on the road, Italy's two heroes, the outlaw and the King. Sitting upon their horses, the two clasped Rome—The Capital of United Italy 485 hands like brothers. Garibaldi saluted his sovereign simply as “King of Italy,” in those words resigning his dictatorship, and proclaiming their united triumph. Victor Emmanuel was no longer King of Piedmont, or of Northern Italy, but of Italy. Venetia and Rome were still outside the pale. So Italy fought Austria again in 1866, and, though defeated in the field, won once more a diplomatic victory. Through the French Emperor's help she secured Venetia. Only Rome remained. All the world recognized the famous old city as the natural capital of united Italy. Twice Garibaldi made sudden, character- istic dashes at the coveted goal, but without success. His government had finally to arrest him, lest he plunge the country into war with France, which, as a Catholic state, was resolute in support of the Pope. French troops pro- tected Rome until 1870, when the disastrous Franco-Prussian war summoned them home to save the wreck of their own country. Then Victor Emmanuel with his troops marched in triumph into what has since been the capital of “United Italy.” His work was accomplished. * & The Pope, Pius IX., ordered his soldiers to resist until a breach was actu- ally made in the walls, when he bade them surrender. Knowing resistance to be useless, he sought thus to save bloodshed; but he wished all the world to see that he had yielded only to force. The Italian Government offered him a large income, and guaranteed his spiritual control, as also his personal security, that of his palaces, and of the Church. But Pius IX. steadily refused to sub- mit to the loss of his temporal power as an Italian prince. He declined all compromise, shut himself up in his splendid palace, the Vatican, and declared himself a prisoner there. He forbade all good Catholics to take part in, or even vote at, the elections of the Italian Government. This attitude the Church has maintained to this day. The Pope is still called “The Prisoner of the Vatican,” and good Catholics are still compelled to leave the government of Italy to their Protestant countrymen. One by one the men who had taken part in the splendid drama of Italian unity died and gave place to a younger generation. Cavour sank under his labors before the goal was reached. Victor Emmanuel died in 1878, mourned by all Italy. The Church continued in opposition to him, until he lay dying, when Pius IX. sent him his blessing, forgiving and loving the man, though still defying the king. The inevitable summons came to the Pope in the same year, and Cardinal Pecci was elected to succeed him as Leo XIII. At the solemn coronation of Leo, it seemed almost as if he would make peace with the government. After receiving the tiara, or triple crown of the papacy, he rose as if to step out from the Vatican and address the people, as former popes had done. But his advisers hurriedly encircled 486 The Story of the Greatest Nations him, and reminded him that he was a prisoner—and a prisoner he has re- mained. Garibaldi, the most picturesque figure of the nineteenth century, died in I881. A national statue was erected to him in 1895, on Mount Janiculum, a hill just outside of Rome, where his defence during the siege of 1848 had been bravest and most successful. King Humbert, Victor Emmanuel's eldest son, succeeded his father on the throne and reigned for twenty-two years. He was a brave and generous, though not a particularly brilliant king. His wife was his cousin, Margherita of Savoy. She was even more popular than her husband, for he is said to have neglected her, and the people sympathized with her unhappiness. The task of Italy, during the generation that has elapsed since her enfran- chisement, has not been an easy one. She had been impoverished by long wars; her people were ignorant, and brutalized by centuries of oppression. They had been taught to hate all law as the seal of tyranny. Their heroes were the free brigands of the mountains. Gradually all of these faults seem to be growing less under the watchful care of the government; but an evil equally serious remains. The Italians are not content with Italy; they keep dreaming of the old days when Rome ruled everywhere. Such an ambition has no place in our modern world, yet it has led Italy into squabbling with her neighbors, maintaining huge armies, building fleets, and trying to plant colo- nies. This has brought grinding taxes on her poor, and military disaster to her soldiers. -> From 1882 to 1896, the government made strenuous efforts to conquer, or in diplomatic language establish a military protectorate over Abyssinia, an African negro kingdom, which has existed since the days of King Solomon. Twice small Italian forces were completely annihilated by overwhelming masses of the tall and muscular Abyssinians. At last an entire Italian army of four- teen thousand men was defeated in a desperate battle at Adowa, in 1896. Six thousand Italians were slain, and twenty-five hundred compelled to surrender to the Abyssinian king, or negus, Menelik. The Italian government wisely submitted to the rebuff, and abandoned its aggressive colonial policy. A treaty of peace was made in August, 1897, between Menelik and the Italian commissioner, Major Nerazzini. It provided for the return of the prisoners, and acknowledged the independence of Abyssinia. On July 29th of the year 1900, King Humbert was assassinated at Monza near Milan, by the anarchist Bresci. The man was an Italian, who had emi- grated to America, had learned his anarchy here, and then returned to Italy with the deliberate purpose of killing the King. Humbert, secure in the affec- tions of his people, strong with the hereditary courage of the house of Savoy, Rome—Assassination of King Humbert 487 was protected by no guards. He rode into Monza from his country villa to distribute the prizes at an athletic meeting. As amid cheering crowds he re- seated himself in his carriage to return home, Bresci shot him. “It is noth- ing,” said the King reassuringly, and sank back unconscious, and dying. The perverted mind of the anarchist seems to have led him to expect praise from the crowd around, but, in their rage at the cold-blooded murder, they almost tore the unfortunate criminal to pieces. Athletes, citizens, and even women, united in battering him to and fro, until he was rescued by the police. Later he committed suicide in prison. s For two days there was no king. Humbert's only son, Victor Emmanuel, a young man scarce thirty, was on the seas, no one knew precisely where. But there was no disorder; Victor Emmanuel was found and promptly took the oath as king, August I I, IQOO, Swearing to uphold the laws and constitution granted by his grandfather, for whom he was named. The new King, unlike most of his race, is physically weak, though mentally he is regarded as a man of ability. His wife is the Princess Helene of Montenegro, to whom he was united in 1896. They have only one daughter, born in 1901, and the heir to the throne is the King's cousin, Emmanuel, Duke of Aosta. The most popu- lar member of the reigning family is the duke's younger brother Victor, Count of Turin. After Adowa he fought a duel with a French prince who had sneered at the Italian army. The Count of Turin has visited this country and is well known here. The year 1901 saw a change in the Italian Government. The conserva- tives were overthrown, and Signor Zanardelli, an old Garibaldian, became prime minister. The followers of Garibaldi have always been bitter against the papacy, and under Zanardelli and his successors the breach between Pope and government may become even more serious than it has been. Pope Leo XIII. died in 1903, and the Bishop of Venice, Giuseppe Sarto, was chosen to succeed him as Pius X. His coronation took place on August 9th, in the basilica of St. Peter's, but as yet he has shown no disposition to alter the policy of his predecessor. - - Italy is strong, however, in the “Triple Alliance,” a political agreement be- tween Germany, Austria, and Italy, which was reestablished in 1902 to guaran- tee the peace of Central Europe. Italy seeming thus secure from war, the quarrel between Pope and King is the only serious menace to her future. How can a government be successful when so large a fraction of its best and ablest subjects persistently refuse to bring their intellect to its aid, or take any share in its support and guidance? If only the disastrous antagonism between church and government can be brought to an end, Italy has every prospect of peace, happiness, and returning prosperity. Christianity Axiid the Ruins or Rome CHRONOLOGY OF ROME AND ITALY ºHE early history of Rome is legendary and the dates con- jectural. B. C. 753–Foundation of the city laid by Romulus. 750–Romans seized the Sabine women and detained them as wives. 747–War with the Sabines, who were incorporated with the Romans as one nation. 710– Numa Pompilius instituted the priesthood, the augurs, and the vestals. 667–The three Horatii, Roman warriors, overcame the three Curiatii, Albans, and united Alba to Rome. 627–Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, built. 615–The Capitol founded. 550–Liberal laws of Servius Tullius. 509 –Tarquinius II, and his family expelled, and royalty abol- ished; the Patricians established an aristocratical common- wealth; Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus first praetors or consuls. 507–War with the Etrurians under Lars Porsena. The Capitol dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus. 501–First dictator Spurius Lartius. 498–Latins conquered at Lake Regillus. 494–Secession of the Plebeians to the Sacred Mount; establishment of tribunes of the Plebeians. 491–Wars with the AEquians and Volscians; exploits and exile of Corio- lanus, who besieged Rome, but retired at the intercession of his mother and wife. 486–5–First agrarian law passed by Spurius Cassius, who was put to death by the Patricians. 458–Victory of Cincinnatus over the AEquians and liberation of the Roman army. 451–448–Appointment and fall of the decemvirs, death of Virginia. 444–Military tribunes first created. 443 –Office of censor instituted. 396–Veii taken by Camillus after ten years' siege. 390–Great victory of the Gauls, who sacked Rome, but were repulsed in an attack on the Capitol; they accepted a heavy ransom and retired. Rome—Chronology 489 389—Rome gradually rebuilt amid great distress and wars with neighboring states. 367—Passage of the Licinian laws. 360—The Gauls defeated in Italy. 365-342—War with the Etruscans, ended by a truce; war with the Latins; league renewed. 343–340–First Samnite war, indecisive. 34I— Mutiny in the army in Campania and rise of the commons in Rome; peace restored by concessions and the general abolition of debts caused by the Gaulish invasion. 339—The Publilian law passed, equalizing Plebeians with the Patricians in political rights. 326 et seq.—The second Samnite war. 3II—War with Etruria. 309—Victories of Q. Fabius Maximus; the Etrurians and Umbrians submitted. 312–308—Appius Claudius Calcus, cen- sor, favored the lower classes; with the public money made a road from Rome to Capua, termed the “Appian Way,” and erected the first aqueduct. 304– 302—Conquest of the AEquians, Marsians, etc. 300–Third Samnite war. 294–290—The Samnites subdued after desperate struggles. 281—The Taren- tines formed a coalition against Rome and invited Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, to join them. 280–Pyrrhus defeated the Romans at Pandosia. 275–Romans defeated Pyrrhus at Beneventum. 272-265—Subjugation of Tarentum, Sam- nium, Bruttium, and their allies. Rome Supreme in Italy (265). 264—24I— First Punic war. 260–First Roman fleet built. Sea fight at Mylae. 255– Regulus put to death at Carthage. 238 et seq.—Corsica and Sardinia an- nexed. 225—Invasion and defeat of the Gauls. 220–Building of the Fla- minian Way. 218–2012–Second Punic war. 216–Battle of Cannae. Rome saved by the adhesion of eighteen colonies, by the free-will offerings of gold, silver, and money from the Senate and the people, and by the defeat of Has- drubal at the Metaurus (207). 212—Syracuse taken by Marcellus. 202— Hannibal defeated by Scipio at Zama. 213–200–The Macedonian wars with Philip begun. I97–His defeat at Cynocephalae. I7I—Third Macedonian war begun. I68—Perseus beaten at Pydna; Macedon annexed. I49–Third Punic war begun. I46—Carthage and Corinth destroyed by the Romans. I53–133–Celtiberian and Numantine wars in Spain. I33–Civil strife begun; Tiberius Gracchus slain. I21—Further agrarian disturbances; Caius Gracchus driven to suicide. III–Ioé–The Jugurthine war. Io9–63—The Mithridatic war. Ioz—Marius defeats the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae. IOI-Marius an- nihilates the Cimbri at Vercellae. Ioo–Julius Caesar born. 90–88—The Social war. 87—Marius driven from Rome by Sulla, returns in triumph and institutes a savage massacre. 82—Sulla defeated Marius; Sanguinary proscrip- tions; declared dictator. 79–Sulla abdicated. 73–71—Revolt of Spartacus and the slaves. 66–Pompey wipes out the Mediterranean pirates. 65–63– Syria conquered by Pompey. 62—The Catiline conspiracy defeated. 60– The First Triumvirate–Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. 58–Caesar's campaigns 49 O The Story of the Greatest Nations in Gaul. 55—Caesar in Britain. 53—Crassus killed by the Parthians. 51– Gaul conquered and made a Roman province. 50—War between Caesar and Pompey. 48—Pompey defeated at Pharsalia. 47—Caesar defeated Pharnaces and wrote home, “Veni, vidi, vici.” 46–Cato killed himself at Utica; end of the Republic. Caesar made dictator. 44—Caesar killed in the Senate house (March I 5). 43—Second Triumvirate–Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus; Cicero killed. 42—Battle of Philippi; Brutus and Cassius defeated, and killed them- selves. 36—Lepidus ejected from the Triumvirate. 32—War between Octa- vius and Antony. 31—Antony overthrown at Actium. 30–Egypt became a Roman province. 27—Octavius made Emperor, as Augustus Caesar. 5—The Empire at peace with all the world; the temple of Janus closed. 4.—Jesus Christ born. (There is an error of over three years in the date commonly used.) A. D. 9—The Germans annihilated the army of Varus; Dalmatia subdued by Tiberius. I4—Augustus succeeded by Tiberius. I'7—Cappadocia became a Roman province. 27—Thrace became a Roman province. 42—Mauretania conquered and divided into two provinces. 48—Lycia made a Roman province. 54—Nero becomes Emperor. 64—Destruction of Rome by fire, said to have been the work of Nero. 65–67–Persecution of Christians; St. Paul, St. Peter, Seneca, and others, put to death by Nero. 68—Nero stabbed himself. 69–Vitellius became ruler, and was mobbed to death. 70–Titus destroyed Jerusalem because of a rebellion. 75—Vespasian founded the Colosseum. 79 —Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii by an eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. Io5—Dacia was made a Roman province, and Arabia Petraea conquered, II5 —Armenia became a province, and the Roman Empire under Trajan reached its widest extent. I31–135––Last rebellion of the Jews, the survivors driven from their country as wanderers over the earth. I61–180—Happy reign of Marcus Aurelius; persecution of the Christians. 215—Caracalla offered the privileges of Roman citizenship to all who would pay for them. 250—Inva- sion of the Goths. 273—Aurelian conquered Zenobia and destroyed Palmyra. 284–Diocletian and Maximian divided the Empire between them. 286—Last and cruelest persecution of the Christians begun under Diocletian. 292—A fourfold division of the Empire was made. 312—The Emperor Constantine was converted to Christianity and did all he could to make it the religion of the Empire. 330—Constantine dedicated Byzantium (Constantinople) as the capital of his Empire, and Rome lost much of its importance. 361-363—Brief reign of Julian the Apostate. 376—The Goths swarmed into the Empire. 379–395—Theodosius I. last Emperor to rule over the whole Roman Empire. 404–Stilicho defeats the Goths under Alaric and celebrates the three hun- dredth and last Roman triumph. 4IO—Rome sacked by Alaric. 412–Death Rome—Chronology 49 I of Alaric. 439—Carthage captured by the Vandals. 451—Invasion of the Huns under Attila, defeated at Chalons. 452—Venice founded by fugitives from Attila. 455—Rome captured and sacked by the Vandals. 476—Romu- lus Augustulus laid the insignia of the Roman Empire at the feet of Odoacer, who assumed the title of King of Italy; end of the Empire. 536—Belisarius captured Rome for Justinian. 553–Narses again captured Rome and annexed it to the Eastern Frmpire. 568–596—Invasion of the Lombards under Alboin ; they conquered Italy. 590–604—Popehood of Gregory I. the Great. 728– Rome became an independent republic under the temporal sovereignty of the Pope. 754—Pepin gave the Pope the Lombard territories around Rome. 774 —Desiderius, the last Lombard king, dethroned by Charlemagne. 800—Charle- magne crowned Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire by Pope Leo III. 896 —Rome captured by the Germans. 962–Otho I. Crowned at Rome, each German emperor henceforth receiving a triple coronation as King of Germany, as King of Italy, and as Emperor of Rome. 997—Venice established her independence from the Eastern Empire and began her career of foreign con- quest. IoI6—Normans invaded Sicily and began its conquest. IO21—The republics of Genoa and Pisa won the islands of Sardinia and Corsica from the Mahometans. IO45—Papal scandals ended by the Emperor Henry III., who appoints a German Pope. IO49–Pope Leo IX. reforms the church. IoSI— The Normans seize Naples. They capture Pope Leo and make friends with him. IoS9—Formal adoption of the method of selecting the popes by vote of cardinals. Io'73–Hildebrand made Pope as Gregory VII. ; he asserts the spiritual supremacy of the Pope over the Emperor. Io'77—The Emperor, Henry IV., comes as a penitent to Gregory at Canossa. IOS4—Henry avenges himself by seizing Rome; Gregory rescued by the Normans. Io&5—Death of Gregory. Io94—Pope Urban II. authorizes the first crusade; the crusades vastly increase the power of the popes. III5—Matilda of Tuscany leaves most of her kingdom to the popes. II24–Venice captures Tyre and secures the trade of the East. II54–Guelph and Ghibelline wars begin. II62—Milan captured and destroyed by Frederick Barbarossa. II67–The cities form the Lombard League and rebuild Milan. II.76—The Milanese defeat Frederick at Lignano. II83–By the Peace of Constance Frederick frees the Italian cities. II98–1216–Height of the papal power under Pope Innocent III. ; he founds the Franciscans and Dominicans. I2O4—Venice conquers Constan- tinople. I229–1250—Wars of Frederick II. with the Italian cities, their tri- umph, and his death. I268–Defeat and execution of Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen emperors. I277–The Visconti become tyrants of Milan; the Italian cities begin sacrificing their liberty for peace; the “free companies” ransack Italy. I282–The “Sicilian Vespers,” a massacre of all the French 492 The Story of the Greatest Nations conquerors in Sicily. I284—The naval power of Pisa destroyed by her rival, Genoa, at Maloria. I298—The Venetians humbled by Genoa in a naval battle at Curzola. I301–Dante exiled from Florence; the first signs of the Renais- sance. I309—The court of the popes removed to Avignon by Pope Clement V. I34I—-Petrarch Crowned as poet-laureate at Rome. I347—Cola di Rienzi holds Rome as a republic during seven months. I354—Rienzi seizes power a second time and is slain by the people. I360—Interest in Greek thought shown by the establishment of a Greek professorship in Florence. 1377–78–The popes return to Rome. I379—Naval power of Genoa crushed by the Vene- tians at Chioggia. I420–64—Cosimo di Medici rules Florence and makes it the centre of the Renaissance. I447–55—Pope Nicholas V. rules Rome and starts its complete reconstruction in architecture and art. I453—The capture of Constantinople by the Turks sends a flood of Greek learning over Italy. I461–77—Venice wars with the Turks, loses much of her power, but checks their advance into Europe. I469–Lorenzo di Medici becomes President of Florence and increases her artistic ascendancy. I490—Savonarola preaches in Florence. I492—Death of Lorenzo; Florence becomes a religious republic under Savonarola; Alexander VI., the wicked Borgia, becomes Pope. I496– Michael Angelo begins work at Rome. I498–Overthrow and death of Savon- arola. I503—Power of the Borgias overthrown by their own poisons; Julius II. becomes Pope. I508–12—Michael-Angelo paints the Sistine Chapel. I508—20—Raphael paints in Rome. I525—Battle of Pavia, Germany defeats France for supremacy in Italy. I527—Rome sacked by a German army. I529. —The Florentine republic crushed, the Medici become Dukes of Florence. 1530–Clement VII. starts the papal reformation. I540—The Jesuit Society founded. I57I —The Turks crushed by Venetian and other ships in the great naval battle of Lepanto. I626—The Cathedral of St. Peter dedicated. I683– 99–The Venetians once more win victories over the Turks in Greece. I720 —The Duke of Savoy made King of Sardinia. I796–Napoleon invades Italy. I797—He overthrows the various kingdoms and forms republics. I805–He changes the republics to kingdoms of his own. I815–The old rulers restored, Austria given the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. I821—The Piedmontese demand a constitution; it is granted by the regent, Charles Albert, but revoked. 1831—Charles Albert becomes King of Sardinia and Piedmont. I831–33– Insurrections of “Young Italy" and other secret societies headed by Mazzini, 1846–Pius IX. is made Pope and displays liberal tendencies. I848—Italians everywhere revolt against Austrian dominion. Piedmont changes her flag to the Italian tricolor, and heads the insurrection; defeated at Custozza. I849– Piedmontese defeated at Novara; Victor Emmanuel made king; Austria every- where triumphant; Rome declares itself a republic under Mazzini and Gari- Rome–Chronology 493 baldi; is stormed by the French; Venice surrenders to Austria after a year's siege. 1859–French and Italians war against Austria, and win victories at Magenta and Solferino; Victor Emmanuel is given Lombardy, but loses Savoy. 1860–The states of Central Italy unite themselves by vote with Piedmont; Garibaldi heads a successful insurrection in Sicily and Naples; the papal states revolt and Victor Emmanuel interferes; he defeats the papal troops; Garibaldi turns over Sicily and Naples to the King, 1861–First general Ital- ian parliament meets; it votes Victor Emmanuel “King of Italy” (February 26th); the statesman Cavour died. 1862–Garibaldi with volunteers makes an unsuccessful expedition against Rome; is defeated and made prisoner by Italian troops. 1866–Disastrous war with Austria; Austria overwhelmed by Prussia; Venice, left free, joins the Italian kingdom. 1867–Garibaldi again assaults Rome; defeated by Roman and French troops. 1870–Italian troops seize Rome (September 20th); Rome declared the capital of Italy (December 5th). 1871–Kome formally inaugurated as the capital (July 3d). 1878– Victor Emmanuel died (January 9th); Pius IX. died (February 7th); Leo XIII. elected (February 20th). 1881–Garibaldi died. 1896–Terrible defeat of Italians at Adowa in Abyssinia. 1897–Peace with Abyssinia. 1900– King Humbert assassinated (July 29th), succeeded by his son Victor Emmanuel III. 1901–Beginning of a liberal ministry under Zanardelli. 1903–Pius X. elected Pope (August 4th). I, intº Lluvierºnt g=============== ΕJEEICIEICEí-JGEJEGEUGF]GEJEFJEHEJEIiTJ£Ei£ gr. {\ %¤§ ÃÄÄ JJJJ^%%$ §A I. ] % t-lEJC-lEjtcIEjclEjc EROMAN THEATRE MASKS RULERS OF ROME EARLY KINGs. A. D. B. C. | Pertinax, . o ę « » . I93 Romulus, . ę (… e - 753 | Julianus, . «e ę ę . I93 Numa Pompilius, ę e • 7 I 5 | Septimius Severus, . *• . I93 Tullius Hostilius, ú eo . 673 ( Caracalla, Ancus Martius, . ę e . 64O l Geta (slain 2 12), . . 2 I I Lucius Tarquinius, . * . 616 | Macrinus, . ę ę ę . 2 I 7 Servius Tullius, � ę - 578 | Elagabalus, ę « ò C. . 2 I 8 Tarquinius Superbus, ce • 534 | Alexander Severus, . ç . 222 Maximinus, … o • ę . 23 5 REPUBLIC. ( Gordianus I., Lasting from 509 to 27 B. C. l Gordianus II. . � . 237 Pupienus, EMPERORs. iii. ¢ * . 238 Augustus, . «… � * • 27 ] Gordianus III., . & » « ò . 238 A. D. | Philippus, . ę ę ę • 244 Tiberius, . ę ę ę • I 4 | Decius, . « ò « * o . 249 Caligula, . « ò © ¢ • 37 i Gallus, «… ę ę ę . 25 I Claudius, . c • ę ę . 4 I | Æmilianus, o* «• © . 253 Nero, «* «… ę * » • 54 ( Valerian (slain 26o), Galba, «e o ę ę . 68 l Gallienus, ç » «• . 253 Otho, ę ę ę ç . 69 | Claudius II., «» ę ę . 268 Vitellius, . © C- ę . 69 | Aurelian, . ę ¢ ę . 27O Vespasian, e* ® ę . 69 | Tacitus, . ç ę * * . 275 Titus, . o» © » . 79 | Florianus, . . o o . 276 Domitian, . «… ę ce . 8 I | Probus, ę ç ( ) C. . 276 INerva, ę e c» ç . 96 | Carus, ę o � ¢… . 282 Trajan, ύ ès ę ę . 98 ( Carinus, Hadrian, . « ò q. ce . I I 7 l Numerianus, ę � . 283 Antoninus Pius, * q. . I 38 f Diocletiam, o ç . 284 M. Aurelius, ] Maximian, « • • . 286 l L. Verus (died 169), . I 6 I ` Constantius, . ę . 3O5 Commodus, * «* G. . I 8O l Galerius, ę «… . 3O5 Rome—Emperors and Kings A.D. Galerius (died 311), gº . 3O 5 | Constantine I., the Great, . 3O6 Licinius (slain 324), & . 3O7 Constantine II. (slain 340), | Constantius, - Constans (slain 350), & . 337 Julian, e & tº ge . 36 I Jovian, . tº º º . 363 The successor of /ovian, Valentinian, divided his dominion and made / is brother, Valens, Emperor of the East. Hencefortſ, the two empires are sepa- 7ate, though Theodosius zenited them for about a year in 394. EMPERORS OF THE WEST. Valentinian I., . g tº . 364 Gratian, . wº tº e . 367 Valentinian II., . e © . . 375 Eugenius, . e g tº . 392 Theodosius, the Great, tº . 394 Honorius, . tº g g . 395 Interregnum, tº e . 423 Valentinian III., { } tº . 425 Maximus, . e e ſe . 455 Avitus, . iº e e . 455 Majorianus, g & * > . 457 Severus, . e ge tº . 46 I Interregnum, . . . 465 Anthemius, e ſº e . 467 Olybrius, . e e ge . 472 Glycerius, . tº * > . . 473 Julius Nepos, . © wº . 474 Romulus Augustulus, º . 475 Theodatus, Vitiges, Theodebald, Tortila, or Baduila, Teias, 4.95 A.D. - 534 . 536 . 54C) . 54 I . 552 Italy subject to the Eastern Empire till the time of the Lombard King, Alboin, Cleoph, Autharis, . Agilulph, . Adaloald, . Arioald, Rotharis, Rodoald, e Aribert I., e & Bertharit and Godebert, Grimoald, . © • Bertharit (re-established), Cunibert, . Ragimbert, Aribert II., Ausprand, . . Luitprand, Hildebrand, Rachis, Astolph, Desiderius, . 568 . 573 . 575 . 59 I . 6 I 5 . 625 . 636 . 652 . 653 . 66 I . 662 . 67 I . 686 . 7OO . 7OO . 7 I 2 . 7 I 2 . 744 . 744 . 749 . 756 Charlemagne deposed Desiderius in 774, and Italy became nominally subject to the lands of the North. KINGS OF ITALY. Odoacer, . ſº e Theodoric, the Great, Athalaric, . . 476 - 493 . 526 MODERN KINGS OF ITALY. Victor Emmanuel II. (of Sar- dinia), tº e g . I 86 I Humbert, e e e . 1878 Victor Emmanuel III., . . I 900 • *.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.* ºstrº st = i. *- : *Nº, Nº NººSºº-ºº-º-º-º-º: º **-- *-* * * **--" tº e^* * *--** *** -*-*.*.* º ſº q2 Aeº, e, Adº...º.e.' *-eſ-area’s Adº Aº Aº Aº, e...º.º.e. e.e. e. eeeeeeeeeeeeee •Nº. :33 * * * * * * * * * * *-*.*.*.*.*.*, *, *. TRIUMPIIAL PROCESSION OF THEODOSI US PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY FOR ROME Achillas (ā-kil'las) Adige (ādī-jë) Adowa (ah'do-wä) AEgades (é'ga-déz) AEneas (é-ne'as) Afranius (a-frå'ní-iās) Agrippina (à-grip-pi'nā) Alboin (āl'boin) Amulius (a-mü'li-às) Angelo (ān'jā-lo) Antiochus (an-ti'o-küs) Antoninus (ān-to-ni'nus) Apulia ((à-pü'lí-ā) Araxes (a-ráx'éz) Archimedes (ar-ki-mé'déz) Ariminum (ä-rím'í-num) Arminius (ār-min'i-us) Athanasius (äth-a-nā'shi-us) Attila (ät'íl-ā) Auletes (5-lè'téz) Aurelius (Ö-ré'li-us) Auximum (Öx'i-mum) Avignon (ah-vén-yôn') Balearic (bål'é-ar'ik) Belisarius (bél-i-sā'rius) Boccaccio (bök-kāt'cho) Borgia (bör'jāh) Brundisium (brün-di'zhi-um) Buonarotti (bö-nā-rötte) Byrsa (bér'sa) Byzantium (bi-zán'shi-um) Caesar (sé'zār) Calabria (kā-lā'bri-a) Calatafimi (kā-lāh'tá-fé'mē) Caligula (kā-lig'u-lā). Camerinum (käm'é-ri'nām) Camillus (kā-mil'īās) Canossa (kā-nós'sā) Caracalla (kär'a-kāl’lā) Catana (kátá-nā) Catiline (kat'i-lin) Cavour (kā-voor') Charlemagne (shārlé-mân) Chioggia (ké-öd'jā) Cicero (sis'e-rö) Cincinnatus (sin-sin-nā'tūs) Claudius (klaw'di-us) Clodius (klö'di-us) Cneus (né'us) Colonna (kö-lón'na) Colosseum (köl'o-sé'um) Collatinus (köl’lā-ti'nus) Rome—Pronouncing Vocabulary " . 497 Constantinus (kön'stán-ti'nus) Corcyra (kor-Sirā) Cosimo (kös'í-mo or kös'mo) Crassus (krás'ús) Curzola (koord-zö'lā) Cyrenaica (Sir'e-nā'ī-că) Dandolo (dān'do-lo) Dante (dān'té) Decimus (dès'í-müs) Decius (dé'shi-às) Dentatus (dén-tā'tūs) Divitiacus (div'í-ti'ā-kus) Domitian (dö-mish'í-an) Domitius (dö-mish’i-us) Donatello (dö-nā-tël'lo) Doria (dö'ré-ā) Garibaldi (går-í-bal'di) Genoa (jën'o-ā) Ghibelline (gib'él-lèn) Gracchus (grák'us) Gregory (grég'o-ri) Guelph (gwělf') Guiscard (gès-kar') Hamilcar (hä-mil'kar) Hannibal (hān'ni-bāl) Hasdrubal (hâs"drü-bal) Hiempsal (hi-Émp'säl) Hiero (hi'é-rö) Hildebrand (hil'dé-bränd) Hohenstaufen (hö'én-stow'fèn) Horace (hör'ês) Iapygians (i'à-pig'í-ans) Icilius (i-cil'í-us) Iguvium (i-gū'vī-um) Ilerda (i-lèr'dā) Illyria (il-lir’i-á) Jugurtha (jū-gūr'thā) Justinian (jūs-tin'í-ān) Juvenal (jū'vén-al) Latium (lä'shi-um) Leo (lé'ö) Lepanto (lé-pân'to) Lepidus (lép'í-dus) Libyan (lib'e-ān) Lignano (lén-yah'no) Lilybaeum (lil'í-bé'um) Licinus (lic'í-nus) Lipari (lip'a-ré) Liris (li'ris) Lombard (löm'bard) Lorenzo (lö-rén'zö) Lucceous (lūc-sé'yūs) Lucrece (lū'krès) Maecenas (mé-Sé'nās) Magenta (mā-jën'tā) Marco Polo (marko pö'lo) Marius (mā'ri-us) Masinissa (màs'í-nis'sä) Mazzini (māt-sénē) Maximianus (mäx'im-i-ā'nus) Medici (mēd'é-ché) Meloria (mā-lö'ri-á) Messana (měs-să'na) Michael-Angelo (mi'kel-ān'jā-lô) Micipsa (mi-sip'sā) Mithridates (mith'ri-dā'téz) Murviedro (moor-ve-ā'dro) Narses (nar'séz) Nero (né'rö) Nice (nés) Numa Pompilius (nū'mă pâm-pil’ſ-us) Numitor (nu'mi-tor) Octavius (úc-tā'vi-us) Odoacer (o-do-ā'ser) Origen (Öri-jen) Orodes (o-röſdêz) Orsini (Ör-sénē) Ovid (Öv'id) Pantheon (pán-thé'on or pån'the-on) Papirius (pa-pir'í-us) 32 498 The Story of the Greatest Nations Pelusium (pe-lisi-um) Pepin (pêp'in) Petrarch (petrark) Pharnaces (fārna-sez) Pharsalia (far-så'li-ā) Picenum (pi-senum) Piedmont (pêd'mönt) Pisa (pe'zā) Polybius (po-lib'i-us) Pompey (póm'pë) Porsena (pór'sé-nā) Pothinus (po-thinus) Prusias (pru'sſ-as) Ptolemaeus (tôlé-meus) Pyrrhus (pirºus) Quirites (kwi-ritez) Raphael (rāfā-èl) Regillus (ré-jil'lús) Regulus (régu-lis) Rienzi (re-enzé) Romulus (röm'u-liis) Sabine (sābīn) Savonarola (sah-vo-nah-rö’lā) Savoy (sā-voi") Scipio (sip'i-o) Sejanus (se-jānis) Solferino (sôlfér-end) Sophonisba (sôf-o-nis"bă) Sosigenes (so-sig'énez) Sulla (süllā) Syphax (sifax) Syrtis (sirtis) Tacitus (tāsī-tus) Tarentum (ta-rén'tum) Tarpeia (tär-peyā) Tarquinius (tār-kwini-us) Teias (telyās) Tertullian (tér-tūlī-an) Theodotus (the-o-do'tus) Tiberius (ti-beri-us) Tigranes (ti-grä'nez) Titian (tish'yān) Trasimenus (trasi-menus) Tuscany (täskā-ni) Varus (vā'rus) Veii (veyi) Vercingetorix (vér'sin-gēt'o-riks) Vespasian (vés-pâ'zhi-an) Vinci (vin'ché) Virgil (vérjīl) Viriathus (vir’i-à'thus) Vitellius (vi-telli-us) Zanardelli (zān-ar-déllé) Zela (zelā) Y OF MICHIGAN Illilill O7860 5022 WITTTTTTTTT||[[: § gi SºlII E- |E | B 5 : : : ". ; ſº, º | º 2. a B º 3. ; : s Y º f º: *-- º # º: sº sº - S- f º g “. . . : ºf- §: ‘. º ' ' - 'i, X: ) B * . . º ºº. . . . . := * . -- ſº `AE: ---, E º r” -- = º . s E ; , ; 2 = , = -- * zºº […] {} $º: 22:3 }-T_º E ! * šº's Pannºun art ºf :- ºg - | || Ǻmºrre is E - Sº …º.º. 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