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The Indiana State Board of Education
EDUCATIONAL BULLETIN
Educational Bulletin No. 27 - vocational Series No. 16
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Courses IN AGRICULTURE
- ON THE
HOME PROJECT BASIS
INDIANApolis, INDIANA
August, 1917 -
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State Board of Education
EDUCATIONAL BULLETINS
Educational Bulletin No. 27 Vocational Series No. 16
Courses in Agriculture on the
Home Project Basis
Indianapolis, Indiana
August, 1917
FORT WAYNE PRINTING COMPANY
CONTRACTORS FOR STATE PRINTING AND BINDING
1917.
STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION
Vocational Division
HORACE ELLIS
Superintendent of Public Instruction
J. G. COLLICOTT
Director of Vocational Education
Z. M. Smith
Supervisor of Agricultural Education
BERTHA LATTA
Supervisor of Domestic Science Education
Contents
PAGES
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–8
A NIMAL HUSBANDRY PROJECTs:
I. Swine Production—
1. Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–11
2. Subject Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 11–35
3. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35–36
II. Baby Beef-
1. Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37–38
2. Subject Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38–56
3. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56–57
III. Sheep Raising—
1. Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58–60
2. Subject Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60–77
3. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w e º e º s = * * * * 77
IV. Colt Raising—
1. Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e º e is g g g g is a º e º e º & ºr 78–79
2. Subject Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80–102
3. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
DAIRY HUSBANDRY PROJECTS:
I. Dairy Cow Management—
1. Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103–107
2. Subject Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107–127
3. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
II. Dairy Calf Project—
1. Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128–129
2. Subject Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129–147
3. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
POULTRY PROJECTS:
I. Poultry Raising Project—
1. Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148–149
2. Subject Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149–163
3. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163–164
II. Egg Production Project—
1. Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165–166
2. Subject Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167–181
3. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4 CONTENTS
PROJECTS IN HORTICULTURE: PAGES
I. Home Garden (Also Market and Truck Garden, Gardening
and Canning.)
1. Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182—186
2. Subject Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186–209
3. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209–210
II. Fruit Growing—
1. Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g g g g g º 'º tº & e º ºs º e º $ 8 & 6 211–212
2. Subject Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213–239
3. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240–241
III. Landscape Gardening—
1. Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
2. Subject Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242–254
3. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
IV. Potato Growing—
1. Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
2. Subject Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256–262
3. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
BEEKEEPING PROJECT:
1. Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263—264
2. Subject Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264—279
3. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
CORN PRODUCTION PROJECT: * *
1. Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280–282
2. Subject Matter. . . . . . . . . . . • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 282—303
3. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Courts ES IN SOILs:
Seventh and Eighth Grades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304–332
High School and Vocational. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332–347
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Courts ES IN FARM CROPs:
Seventh and Eighth Grades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348—374
High School and Vocational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.4—392
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392–393
FARM MECHANICS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
FARM MANAGEMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
INTRODUCTION
HOW TO USE THE MATERIAL IN THIS BULLETIN
AMOUNT TO COVER IN ONE YEAR
. Seventh and Eighth Grade Teachers.--Teachers in the rural
Schools whose time for work in agriculture is limited to two
periods each week will find that one project is sufficient for one
year's work. Do not hesitate to limit the work to one project,
because the majority of seventh and eighth grade pupils will
not have time for the practical work of more than one. The
practical work must be done, otherwise agriculture in the school
course will have little or no educational and economic value.
High School Teachers.-The high school teacher who has one
class in agriculture should limit the work to two projects each
year, the equivalent of one for each half year. It will be found
advisable to give the work in each project in the order of seasonal
sequence rather than to attempt to cover all of a given project
in one semester. Not less than one year of work in agriculture
must be offered. Agriculture can not be substituted for a science.
Vocational Teachers.-If the teacher has but one group of
vocational pupils, he will devote all of each afternoon to agri-
cultural work with this group. By devoting one half of each
day during the school year and all of the time during the summer
to purely agricultural subjects, the vocational group can cover
four projects each year.
SELECTION OF PROJECTs
Seventh and eighth grade and high school teachers should
Select projects on the basis of dominant agricultural interests in
the community. Manifestly it would be unwise to attempt to
interest pupils in dairy husbandry as a major enterprise on the
home farm, if the community is wholly unsuited for dairy farm-
ing. Since the aim of seventh and eighth grade and high School
agriculture is general rather than vocational education, personal
interest and major agricultural occupations in the community
will determine largely the kind of projects to select.
Projects should be selected with due consideration of their
degree of suitability to the grade of pupils. Taking everything
into consideration, the following may be regarded as suitable to
Seventh and eighth grade pupils:
(5)
6 INTRODUCTION
1. Corn Growing. Seventh and eighth grade pupils should
not attempt to take up this project on either as extensive or in.
tensive a scale as should high school pupils. Breeding plot work
should not be undertaken by seventh and eighth grade pupils.
Soils studies in connection with this project should be more
elementary for seventh and eighth grade pupils than for those
in the high school, as should be also seed selection and corn
judging. The outlines in this bulletin make it possible for the
pupils to take up in a given project only those details which they
are capable of working out successfully. (In general these
statements apply to each project named below.)
2. Pig feeding. (See Swine Production. See also the
above comment on Corn Growing.). -
Poultry Raising.
Dairy Calf Raising.
Home Garden.
Potato Growing.
Dairy Cow Management.
See outline for work in soils for seventh and eighth grades.
. See outline for work in crops for seventh and eighth grades.
High School and Vocational Pupils.--All of the projects
outlined in this bulletin are suitable for high school and vocational
pupils. &
i
METHOD
Agriculture is essentially a practical arts subject. It is
preposterous to assume that boys can become fully informed on
the whole field of agriculture in one or two years. While infor-
mation that can be applied directly to practical farm problems
should be obtained by the boys who study agriculture, yet this
is not the sole aim of the work. Agriculture, like other practical
arts subjects, requires that the pupil “learn to do by doing.”
There should result from the school work the habit of putting
into practice the information gained through class room discus-
sions, laboratory exercises, and direct contact with the actual
problems of the home farm.
The home project method of teaching agriculture is perhaps
the best means of forming and fixing in the pupil’s life the habit
of doing rather than talking about doing things on the farm.
By using the home project method the teacher makes practical
use of well-established psychological principles, as, for example,
the personal interest of the pupil, the pérsonal interest of the .
INTRODUCTION - 7
pupil’s parents, “no impression without correlative expression,”
proceeding from the known to the unknown. Performance
under actual farm conditions must go hand in hand with instruc-
tion, if habits of profitable farm practice are to be developed.
Specialization not the aim.—Teaching agriculture by the home
project method does not in the least tend toward specialization
on the part of the pupil. On the other hand by this method of
teaching the pupil is trained in the fundamental principles of
conduct based on independent thought, power to take the in-
itiative, ability to organize and execute. By this method the
pupil learns through his experience in working out a corn growing
project how to proceed, on his own responsibility, in carrying
out successfully a hog raising, a crop production, a farm manage-
ment project. Power to do and ability to think for one's self are
results of the home project method of teaching. Therefore, the
pupil’s otulook upon farm life is broadened rather than narrowed.
Books.-Books should be used extensively. The pupil will
gladly read about things in which he is interested. If the pupil
takes “Poultry Raising” for his project, he will of his own volition
read extensively for information on how to select poultry that he
can raise with profit, how to house his poultry, how to feed his
poultry, how to keep his pens, yards, and houses in a sanitary
condition. The school library should contain, therefore, an
adequate supply of reference books on agriculture.
The work in agriculture should not be based on a book, but
should be based on farm problems in which the boy is personally
interested, such as, for example, beef production, sheep raising,
home gardening, fruit growing. The pupil will read books dealing
with the project in which he is interested, but it does not necessarily
follow that by reading books he will become interested in home projects
or farm problems.
TEACHERS
Seventh and Eighth Grade.—Seventh and eighth grade
teachers should be trained to teach agriculture on a home project
or practical arts basis. They should prepare themselves for
creditable teaching in agriculture, because agriculture is funda-
mental to our national life and deserves a large place in Our
scheme for general education.
High School Teachers.--The high school teacher should be a
graduate of a standard college or normal school. At least two
years of the four years' course should be the minimum require-
8 INTRODUCTION
ment. The course pursued in college or normal school should
include agricultural instruction on a practical arts basis.
Vocational Teachers.-Vocational agricultural teachers are
selected from graduates of standard agricultural colleges. They
must have demonstrated in their farm practice and their teaching
experience that they are qualified to teach agriculture on a prac-
tical arts basis. -
RECORDS
In each of the outlines in this bulletin the suggestion is made
that the pupil know how to keep records of work done. These
records should be complete but not complicated. The State
Department of Public Instruction will supply blanks on which
to keep home project records.
Z. M. SMITH,
State Supervisor of Agricultural Education.
Swine Production
SOW AND LITTER PROJECT
I. What the pupil should know.
A. Type of hogs to be raised.
1. Lard or fat type.
2. Bacon type.
B. Breed of hogs to be raised.
1. Lard or fat type.
. Poland China.
Berkshire.
Chester White.
Duroc-Jersey.
Hampshire.
Cheshire.
Victoria.
Small Yorkshire.
Essex.
j. Suffolk.
2. Bacon type.
a. Tamworth.
b. Large Yorkshire.
3. Points to be considered in judging each breed.
a. General appearance.
b. Head and neck.
c. Fore quarters.
d. Body.
e. Hind quarters.
4. A brief history of each breed. (Farmer's Bulletin 765.)
C. How to select the brood sow.
Pure-bred or grade, which?
Select gilt from a prolific mother.
Select gilt from a matured mother.
4. Number and character of teats.
5. Size, form or type, feet and legs, quality, femininity,
and disposition.
D. How to select the boar.
1. Pure-bred.
2. Weight, form or type, feet and legs, quality, masculin-
ity, and disposition.
E. Feeding and management of the boar.
Age at which he may be first used.
Excessive use.
Use immediately after feeding.
Exercise.
Removing tusks.
Feeding—overfed, underfed. Grain and supplemental
feeds.
;
i
(9)
10 Sw1NE PRODUCTION
F. Breeding the sow.
Age at which to breed the first time.
Breeding after farrowing.
Period of gestation.
Best time for farrowing.
One or two litters each year.
Condition at breeding time.
Feeding and management during gestation.
a. Exercise and quarters—winter and summer.
b. Rations—summer, winter.
c. Prevent constipation.
d. Care at farrowing time.
G. Feeding and management after farrowing.
1. Treatment immediately after farrowing.
1
i
2. Kinds and amounts of feed the first few days.
3. Rations.
4. Exercise.
5. Quarters.
6. Sanitation.
7. Pig eating sow.
H. Feeding and management of pigs.
1. Quarters.
2. Sanitation.
3. Exercise.
4. Rations—from three weeks to eight months, or until
marketed.
5. Use of self feeder. Feeding floor.
6. Forage crops.
7. Daily gains that may reasonably be expected.
8. Cost of daily gains that may reasonably be expected.
9. Prevention of disease; treatment.
a. Importance of sanitation.
b. Curative measures for cholera more or less
ineffectual.
c. Cholera, thumps, scours, worms, lice.
10. Selecting breeding stock.
11. Selecting pigs for pig feeding contests.
I. Market demands.
1. Time to market.
2. Size for market.
3. Method of marketing.
J. How Keep records of.
1. Amounts of feeds used.
2. Cost or value of feeds.
3. Daily gains.
4. Labor.
5. Total cost, value, profit.
II. What the pupil should do.
A. The above and related topics should be studied in school.
SWINE PRODUCTION 11
B. In connection with the study of the topics at school, the pupil
should actually put into practice at home the principles
involved in each topic. Unless the practical work is done
at home, the class room and laboratory exercises at school
will have but little meaning and value. Each pupil
should take the responsibility of managing at least one
sow and litter at home.
PIG. FEEDING PROJECT
(If there are pupils in the class who under no circumstances can carry out
the Swine production project, each of such should work out the Pig Feeding
Project. This project is outlined under the general topics above designated
as H, I and J.
Though the pupil takes up the Pig Feeding Project only, yet all the topics
in the outline for the Swine Production Project should be studied in school.)
POINTS OF INFORMATION
CLASSIFICATION OF Swin E'.
“There are two distinct types of swine which have been devel-
oped by different methods of breeding and feeding for certain
market requirements. They are the lard type and the bacon type.
Swine of the lard type far outnumber those of the bacon type in
the United States. The former is often called the American
type of hog, because in this country it has reached its highest
development. The people of the United States generally prefer
this type of hog for their purposes; consequently the majority
of feeders produce the rapid-fattening, heavily fleshed lard type.
Corn, which is largely responsible for this type of hog, is deficient
in protein and ash, and has a tendency to produce fat at the expense
of lean meat.
The bacon breeds of hogs are not raised in very large numbers
in the United States. Where corn is not relied upon as the
principal grain for hogs, the production of choice bacon is more
general than in the corn belt, even though the so-called lard breeds
are used. As the markets become more discriminating, breeders
will pay more attention to the production of quality, and with the
demand for greater excellence in meat the American or “lard”
breeds doubtless will be modified to play a large part in its supply.
CHoosing A BREED
The question, ‘Which is the best breed of swine?’ can not be
answered by naming any one breed. Some breeds are superior to
1. U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 765.
12 Sw1NE PRODUCTION
others in certain respects, and one breed may be better adapted
than another to certain local conditions. In general, the ‘best'
hog is the one the farmer likes best, provided it is what his market
demands. He will not make a mistake however, if he makes a
selection from the breeds already established in his locality.
This is a matter which the farmer will have to decide for himself.
After the farmer has decided upon the breed of hogs which
he believes to be the best and most profitable for him to raise, he
should stick to that breed and endeavor to develop it to its highest
possible standard. It is impossible to get the most out of swine
breeding by continually changing from one breed to another.
There is adequate room, and market, for the different breeds of
hogs, but it would not be profitable for one individual to try to
raise several and bring them to perfection.” -
POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN JUDGING FAT HOGs'
“Market Demands.-The market prefers the fat hog that will
“kill out’ the most profitably. To yield profitable returns to
the butcher or packer, the hog when killed must, first, “dress’
a large proportion of carcass to waste and, second, supply a
quality of meat which will please the consumer. High dressing
percentage” and superior quality in the meat are largely what
determines differences in merit and selling price. In judging
fat hogs in the show ring or on the market, therefore, these two
ideas, -dressing percentage and quality of meat—are fundamental,
and should be kept constantly in mind.
In order that high dressing percentage and superior quality
of meat may be obtained, the lard hog must possess certain char-
acters or ‘points.’ The attempt to describe or determine these
essential requirements has led to the adoption of a standard. This
standard, or ideal, for the lard hog is shown in the following score
card.
1. Purdue Circular 29.
2. Dressing per cent.—The proportion the weight of the carcass bears to the weight .
of the live animal. Obtained by dividing, the number of pounds of weight of the car-
cass, by the number of pounds live weight.
SWINE PRODUCTION 13
Points deficient
Stan-
SCALE OF POINTS dard Stu-
dent’s | Cor-
score | rected
GENERAL APPEARANCE—30 per cent.
1. Weight, score according to age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Form, deep, broad, medium length; smooth, com-
pact, symmetrical; standing squarely on medium
Short legs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Quality, hair Smooth and fine; bone medium size,
clean, strong; general appearance smooth and
refined. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Covering, finished; deep, even, mellow, free from
lumps and Wrinkles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HEAD AND NEC K—8 per cent.
5. Snout, medium length, not coarse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Eyes, not sunken, clear, not obscured by wrinkles. . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Face, short; cheeks full . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Ears, fine, medium size, attached neatly. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9. Jowl, full, firm, neat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10. Neck, thick, short, smooth to shoulder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FORE QUARTERS–12 per cent.
11. Shoulders, broad, deep, smooth, compact on top . . . . 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. Breast, full, Smooth, neat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13. Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; hard; pas-
terns short, strong, upright; feet medium size . . . . 2 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BODY-33 per cent.
14. Chest, deep, wide, large girth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15. Sides, deep, full, smooth, medium length. . . . . . . . . . . . 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16. Back, broad, strongly arched, thickly and evenly
covered. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ge e 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17. Loin, wide, thick, strong. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18. Belly, straight, smooth, firm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HIND QUARTERS–17 per cent.
19. Hips, wide apart, smooth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20. Rump, long, level, wide, evenly fleshed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21. Ham, heayily fleshed, full, firm, deep, wide . . . . . . . . . . 9 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22. Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean, hard; pas-
erns short, strong, upright; feet medium sized. . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How To SELECT THE BROOD Sow
The most valuable brood sow is the one which regularly
produces large, strong, uniform litters of pigs. In addition to
regular and prolific breeding qualities, it is also important that
she transmit to her pigs, quick, easy feeding traits and those
qualities which indicate profit when sold. The brood sow herself
must, therefore, first, be a good breeder, second, a good feeder,
and third, represent the general form and quality demanded by
the market. All breeders of lard hogs agree in attempting to
produce these important essentials. As a result the principal
breeds of lard hogs are similar in their general characters, Breed
14 SWINE PRODUCTION
differences are due more to variations in color, set of ear and dish
of face than to those things which determine the real usefulness
of the sow. -
In judging brood sows the following general plan may be fol-
lowed to advantage in making the observations, attention being
here given to those essentials common to all the lard breeds.
f Size.—A good standard for a mature brood sow in strong
breeding condition is from 350 to 400 pounds. When carrying an
excess of fat, as is common when fitted for show, they should exceed
this weight. Sows of this size are thought to be most able to pro-
duce pigs which will combine the ability to grow rapidly with a
tendency to fatten early. Sows that are extremely small are
usually too fine, lack constitutional vigor, and produce pigs
lacking thrift and growing qualities. On the other hand, sows
of extreme size are usually coarse in quality and produce pigs
lacking the smoothness and early maturity demanded by the
market. - - w
Form.—The form or type of the brood sow should in general
be similar to that of the finished fat hog. There are important dif-
ferences, however, which should be observed. The brood sow
should have more length, and because of thinner condition,
should not have the same appearance of compactness and thickness
which is shown in the fat hog. She should be deep bodied,
broad and uniform in width, and roomy. Smooth shoulders, a
strong, arched back, a wide loin, level rump, and deep, full sides
are especially desirable. She should be wide between the eyes
and not long in the snout. Depth and width of chest and a roomy
middle indicate strong constitution, superior feeding qualities,
and, usually, ability to produce large litters. A full development
of 12 teats is of the greatest importance.
The legs should be squarely placed, straight and strong.
A sow with weak pasterns, extremely light bone, and crooked
feet and joints is objectionable as a breeder. It is very desirable
that the sow have strong, upright pasterns. A medium sized
bone of quality is to be preferred. It is even more necessary to
shun light bone of too much fineness than it is bone which is
too heavy and coarse.
Quality.—General smoothness, fine, straight hair, refinement
about the head and ear, and clean, dense bone are all indicative of
quality in the brood sow as in the fat barrow. Quality in the brood
sow is usually associated with improved breeding and easy
keeping qualities. It is also a guarantee of quality in the pigs. In
SWINE PRODUCTION - 1
judging brood sows, however, quality should not be insisted on to
the extent of scrificing sufficient size and substance of bone. Ex-
treme refinement is undesirable. A good guide is to value quality
So far as it results in general smoothness and increased strength
and density of bone.
Feminimity and Disposition.—Femininity is indicated by re-
finement about the head and face, a light neck, a roomy middle, well
developed udder and teats and wide hips. Femininity is opposed
to masculinity. It includes all of those things which indicate the
female sex. The most feminine sows are usually free breeders and
the best mothers.
The sow with the most pronounced femininity is apt to have
the most desirable disposition, and will usually succeed in saving
her pigs. The brood sow should have a gentle, active, vigorous dis-
position. A sow that is wild and nervous, or that naturally has
a bad temper, is a pig killer. For the same reason the sluggish
lazy, awkward sow should be discriminated against.
In judging brood sows, therefore, we should consider primarily
their size, form or type, feet and legs, quality, femininity, and
disposition. -
HOW TO SELECT THE BOAR
The same general method employed for the examination of
the brood sow may be followed in judging the boar.
Differences which exist in the standard for the boar as com-
pared with that of the brood sow are the result of differences in
sex. Femininity in the sow should give place to pronounced
masculinity in the boar. The boar which has a weak, feminine,
or staggy appearance about the head is usually not able to impress
his own characters upon his offspring.
As compared with the sow the boar is heavier and stronger in
appearance about the head, neck and shoulders. Refinement and
femininity of the sow should give place to strength and masculinity
in the boar. It is characteristic of the boar, also, to be shorter
bodied and more compact than the sow. This appearance of com-
pactness and strength in the boar is aided by the development of
shields on the shoulder sides with approaching maturity.
The boar should weigh, on the average, from 75 to 100 pounds
more than the sow when in the same degree of flesh. A boar of
rather medium weight for the breed will usualy prove the most
satisfactory breeder. Extreme size is apt to be associated with
undue coarseness or lack of quality.
16 * SWINE PRODUCTION
The form of the boar should indicate a strong, vigorous con-
stitution and good feeding qualities. As with the Sow, it is espe-
cially desirable that the boar be wide between the eyes, wide and
full in the chest, and strong in the back and loin. A level rump,
full hams, straight sides, and low flanks are essential and add to
his appearance and symmetry. -
Feet and Legs.-He should have plenty of bone, and stand
wide and straight. It is very important that he be strong in the
hocks, for when breeding, much strain is borne by these parts.
Medium-sized bone with quality is to be preferred to either fine
bone or extreme size of bone.
Quality.—This is of the same value in the boar as in the sow.
The indications of quality are the same in both. The boar, how-
ever, because of his heavier shoulders and masculine character,
should not be expected to show the same degree of refinement as
the sow. General smoothness of form and covering, fine, straight
hair, and clean, hard bone are the important indications of quality.
Disposition.—In judging boars the importance of an active,
vigorous disposition should not be overlooked. For this reason
the boar should be made to move about and his ease and freedom
of action observed. A boar that is weak on his feet and legs is
an unsafe investment for the breeder and should be discriminated
against.
Weight, form, feet and legs, quality, masculinity, and disposi-
tion are the important general points to be observed when judging
the boar.”
FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE BOAR!
“When the boar arrives at the farm he should be dipped, as
a matter of ordinary precaution against the introduction of vermin.
As an additional precaution, a quarantine pen should be ready
for him, especially if epidemics are prevalent. In short, he should
be treated in much the same manner as has been prescribed
for the sows. His feed before change of owners should be known,
and either adhered to or changed gradually to suit the new con-
ditions. If he has come from a long distance it will be well to
feed lightly until he is well acclimated. -
His permanent quarters should be a clean, dry, warm, well-
lighted, and well-ventilated pen, 10 or 12 feet square, with a yard
adjoining where sows may be brought for service. This yard
1. U. S. D. A. Farmers’ Bulletin 205.
Sw1NE PRODUCTION 17
should be large enough to give him some exercise during the breed-
ing season, when it may be inconvenient to allow him the run of a
pasture. Adjoining the yard should be the boar’s pasture, from
one-half acre to an acre in extent, consisting of clover, alfalfa,
or good pasture grasses that thrive in the locality.
Breeders generally advocate the practice of keeping a boar to
himself during the entire year—out of sight and hearing of the
Sows. However, a boar is often allowed to run with the sows after
they are safe in pig; but during the breeding season it is by far
the best policy to keep him by himself, admitting a sow to his
yard for mating, and allowing but one service. This will be pro-
ductive of the best results in many ways. The energies of the
male are not overtaxed. He may thus serve a much larger
number of sows, and the litters will generally be larger and the
pigs stronger. In the case of a sow that is a somewhat shy breeder
and a valuable animal she may be allowed to remain with
a boar during the greater part of her heat, but such instances
are exceptional. Another advantage of the single-service system
is that a man always has an accurate knowledge of his breed-
ing operations and knows when to expect farrowing time.
The feed of the boar when not in service may be of a succulent
nature—mainly pasture and cut green forage during the summer
months and roots in winter. A boar can hardly be sustained on
this alone, and some grain should be allowed to keep him in con-
dition. This should be nitrogenous in character, consisting of
mill feeds—such as shorts, middlings, and bran—some oil meal,
and the leguminous grains, with a little corn. As the breeding
season approaches the feed should be increased, so that the boar
will be in good condition. While not in service ample exercise
should always be insisted upon, even if it must be urged by the
whip. Exercise is productive of well-developed muscles and
general thrift; with these two conditions activity and soundness
of reproductive organs will usually follow. During the breeding
season it will not be possible for the boar to get the same amount
of exercise, and accordingly care must be taken that his energies
are not wasted by unnecessary service. Careful feeding will
do much to counteract this disadvantage. It must always
be remembered that the drains on a boar during Service are
severe, especially if 50 or 60 sows are served. This will require
ample feed, with as much exercise as possible, and, with care in
his treatment, the results should be satisfactory. A fully matured
boar should serve not more than 2 sows daily, preferably one in
8345—2
18 - SWINE PRODUCTION
the morning and one in the afternoon, and can serve 50 or 60 in a
season without difficulty.
BREEDING THE SOW
Care should be taken not to breed young sows the first time
before they are well developed. It is seldom advisable to breed
a young sow before she is eight months old. In some cases the sow
should not be bred before she is ten or twelve months of age. If
a sow is bred too early, she will probably not raise a fair-sized
litter, and as a result of a small first litter her mammary glands
may not develop properly, and she would thus likely be imparied
as a good nurse for subsequent litters. Perhaps the main objec-
tion to breeding too early is that the young sow may not have the
strength to nurse a litter of pigs and at the same time develop
properly. In such case her life of usefulness would be shortened
and her litters would likely be less strong and vigorous than if
she had been more mature at the time of first breeding.
If sows are carelessly fed during pregnancy, trouble of some
kind is sure to ensue at farrowing; if over fed after farrowing,
losses may occur among the pigs from scours and thumps. At no
time is the development of the pigs so easily influenced as while
they are dependent on the sow's milk—the first month of life.
Excepting the ravages of epidemics, perhaps the greatest death
losses in the herd occur during this time, including farrowing.
The accidents during farrowing, an attack of scours due to the
milk of the dam, or a chill while following the sow in pasture
on a wet day may stop growth temporarily, leaving a permanently
stunted pig, or may result fatally. On the other hand, the results
of good management during pregnancy are as marked as the
unfortunate consequences of careless methods.
It is assumed that sows that are bred are purchased as the
foundation stock. If these sows are not all from the same herd
they should not be placed together until they are all known to
be free from vermin and contagious disease. They must be washed
or dipped and quarantined from each other at least thirty days.
If they come from the same herd no quarantine will be necessary.
It is always well for a purchaser to ascertain from the seller
the details of management and feeding to which the animals
were accustomed before changing owners. This system of feed-
ing should be conformed to, or, if this is not possible, the old
ration should be gradually replaced by the more convenient one,
SWINE PRODUCTION 19
the time of transition being from ten days to two weeks. For
the first few days newcomers should be fed lightly.
During pregnancy two facts must be borne in mind. The
first is that the sow is doing double duty. Not only is she keep-
ing up her own bodily functions, but the development of the fetal
litter is a constantly increasing drain on her system. Although
feeding at this time will not need to be so heavy as after the pigs
are farrowed, it should be liberal. The sow's condition should
be “good”—neither too fat nor too lean. An error which would
allow the sow to become fat would perhaps be least productive
of serious consequences. It is hardly too much to say that the
mistakes in feeding breeding animals are more frequently those
that keep such stock in a thin, half-starved condition, under the
idea that the reproductive organs are so peculiarly liable to become
transformed into masses of fat that the least appearance of fat
on the animal’s back and ribs will be the first step in bringing
about such unfortunate circumstances. The use of the reproduc-
tive organs in either sex creates demands of an unusual nature
on the animal organism, and these demands must be met in the
same manner as those of a different character—such as growth,
work, etc., -and that is by providing liberal supplies of the
proper kinds of feed. It is beyond reason that a sow can give
birth to a strong litter of pigs after having gone through a four
months’ fast. Bad results undoubtedly may be brought about by
overfeeding, especially as sows are naturally indolent and loath
to exercise, but a counteracting influence will be found in ample
exercise that may be provided by a large pasture or even by
driving slowly a mile or two each day. The necessity of exercise
must not under any circumstances be overlooked.
It must be remembered, in the second place, that the main
demands upon the sow are those for the building of new tissue,
Hence the kind of feed is important. The amount of nitrogenous,
or protein-bearing, feeds in the ration at this time should be in-
creased. These are bran, pease, beans, oats, and barley, and, to a
moderate extent, wheat. The forage plants that are especially
suitable to pregnant brood sows are the clovers and their relatives
—alfalfa, pease, beans, vetches, etc. The ordinary pasture
grasses are also of much value. Feed should be given in such
form that the system of the sow will be at its best. All breeders
lay special emphasis on the condition of the bowels during preg-
nancy, and particularly at farrowing, the special danger to be
avoided being constipation. To this end the greater part, if
20 SWINE PRODUCTION
not all, of the grain ration is given as slop, and toward the close
of the period of gestation oil meal or a small amount of flaxseed
meal is introduced into the ration.
Corn should not be fed in large amounts to breeding stock.
If possible, it should not be fed at all to any but fattening animals.
In the corn belt many farmers are often so situated that they have
no other grain feed at hand. If corn must make up the greater
part of the ration of the brood sow, the injurious effects may be
counteracted in a measure by compelling the sows to exercise.
Various schemes may be necessary to bring about this result, such
as having the house and feeding floor or the feeding floor and
watering place at opposite ends of the hog lot; so that a good walk
is a necessity several times each day. If the lot is located on a
hillside, the walk is made a climb. Some men scatter grain
among straw and corn fodder with this idea of exercise in mind,
and others resort to the whip and drive the sows gently for a mile
or two each day.
During the winter more care will be needed to keep the sow
in good health on account of the absence of pasture. Not only
does the hog's system crave green feed, but more or less bulk is
demanded. This is especially needed when a considerable
amount of confinement is necessary. To offset the lack of green
feed nothing surpasses roots. These may be sliced or pulped
and mixed with the grain or may be given whole, as a noon feed.
Some care must be used in feeding roots, as they are laxative in
effect, and if fed in excessive amounts may bring about profuse
action of the bowels. Some Eastern farmers recommend the use
of Silage. If neither is available, clover or alfalfa hay, sheaf oats,
or corn fodder may supply the bulky requirement of the ration
with good results. Charcoal, ashes, and salt should be accessible
at all times. These act as a vermifuge and preventive of disease
and meet the hog's craving for mineral matter in the feed.”
“In order to secure satisfactory results with growing pigs it
is necessary to begin with the sow before she is bred. At breeding
time the Sow should not be in high condition. In order to secure
the easiest conception and the largest number of pigs it is neces-
sary that the sow be in either medium or thin flesh and be improv-
ing in weight and condition at the time of breeding. Ordinarily
when a sow has been suckling a litter of pigs she is reduced in
flesh sufficiently to readily conceive when bred; but if she has not
been suckling a litter it is often necessary to limit her feed so that
SWINE PRODUCTION 21
she remains in medium to thin condition until about two weeks
before breeding time, when the ration should be increased.
From the time the sow is bred until farrowing time is the
period during which she exerts her greatest influence over the
offspring. The feed at this time should contain nutrients for
the formation of muscle and bone in the pigs and at the same time
not make the sow so fat that she becomes sluggish. The feeding
of corn alone has been shown to produce fat rather than growth
on the unborn pigs. Trials conducted along this line show that
the internal organs of the animals did not develop as perfectly
and received larger deposits of fat with the ration of corn alone
than when the hogs received bran or cowpeas in addition to corn.
Since animals made fat on corn alone contain more internal fat
than those fattened on a more nitrogenous ration, brood sows
may be kept in a higher condition on a mixed ration without
injury than on a ration of corn alone. It is a well known fact
that farmers who feed sows little except corn prefer to have their
breeding stock in much thinner condition than those who feed
rations containing more protein than is furnished by corn.
Some of the most successful rations for pregnant sows are:
Corn 60 to 65 per cent, Corn 60 per cent,
Shorts 30 per cent, Shorts 30 per cent,
Tankage 5 to 10 per cent. Linseed oilmeal 10 per cent.
Corn one-third, Corn one-third,
Shorts one-third, Shorts one-third,
Oats one-third. Bran one -third.
Exercise is one of the absolute requirements for the pregnant
sow. It is a matter of general knowledge that a severe winter in
which the hogs have a tendency to stay close to their shelter
and not exercise is always followed in the spring by unsatisfactory
results with pigs. This is due primarily to the confinement and
the lack of exercise on the part of the sow and is accompanied
not only by weak and uneven litters, but often by a large number
of dead pigs and generally unsatisfactory results at farrowing
time. The trouble is exaggerated when the sows are allowed to
become unduly fat. In summer, sows are provided with pasture
so that they receive exercise in gathering their feed, but in winter
this is often not the case. One of the best paying features in
hog management is the provision of some kind...of winter pasture
22 Sw1NE PRODUCTION
over which the sows may roam and keep themselves in good
physical condition. A field of rye, wheat, or blue grass, will furnish
sufficient green feed to induce the sows, when the weather is not
extremely severe, to graze over this field and receive sufficient
exercise to keep them in excellent health and develop, to best
advantage, their pigs. If there is no pasture over which the sow
may roam to get exercise, the house or cot should be at the opposite
end of the lot from the feeding place, thus making the sow take
exercise in coming to and from her feed. The house should be
dry and well bedded and the sills should be low enough that the
belly of the sow passes over them without difficulty.
The care and management of the sow at farrowing time deals
with one of the most critical periods in the production of pork.
This is especially true if the number of sows kept is so large that
they are somewhat crowded for room. The care at this time
depends very largely upon the animal and the weather condi-
tions. If the Sow is in good health and vigorous, there is usually
no trouble to be feared. She should be placed in her farrowing
quarters a few days before she is due to farrow in order that she
may become accustomed to them. A dry, warm house or cot 7
by 8 feet gives good quarters. The feed should be limited for a
day or two before farrowing, and should be of a laxative nature
in order to prevent any tendency toward constipation. Ordinarily
it is better to leave the sow to herself than to try to help her,
which in her fevered condition, excites her and often causes her
to trample upon or mash the pigs. If the sows are quiet, an at-
tendant may be of great assistance, but sows not used to being
handled should be left alone.
Loss of pigs by mashing is the most serious danger to be
feared at this time. It is impossible to entirely prevent the loss
from this cause, but the conditions that will reduce it to a mini-
mum are to have the sow in good physical condition; let her
receive only a small amount of warm laxative feed for a day
before farrowing; and have her placed in quiet, comfortable
quarters. In the farrowing pen, from which other hogs are ex-
cluded, there should be a rail set eight inches from the floor and
six to twelve inches from the wall This prevents the sow from
lying close to the wall, and gives the pigs a chance to creep
under the rails for protection. The floor should be level and
free from holes and have only a small amount of fresh, clean
bedding. A large amount of bedding prevents the pigs from
moving freely to escape the sow and also works under the guard
SWINE PRODUCTION 23
rail. If the weather is not cold the sow should be left alone.
In cold weather a lantern hung in the individual house keeps it
much warmer. The pigs, if the sow permits an attendant with
her, can be placed in a basket and wrapped in a warmed blanket
until the sow has finished farrowing and then placed to the teats
to be warmed by the milk. Pigs from a restless sow should be
put in a basket until the sow has finished farrowing. The after-
birth should be removed from the pen because it is believed
that some sows are started to eating pigs by first eating the
after-birth.
From the time the pigs are born until weaned, the sow, if she
is a good mother, is under the heaviest strain and requires a very
nutritious feed to prevent her from getting too poor. For a few
hours after farrowing, the sow needs no feed other than water
which has been warmed enough to have the chill removed. After
twelve or twenty-four hours she should receive warm feed of
milk or a medium to thin slop of some ground feed. Very little
corn should be fed at this time as it is very heating and may in-
crease her fever. The ration should consist as nearly as possible
of the same feeds as were fed before farrowing. The feed should
be increased as fast as the pigs can use the milk. The feeding
of cold feed or water to sows shortly after farrowing often causes
indigestion or chill that retards the flow of milk. On the other
hand, too heavy feeding for the first few days on nutritious
feeds may result in too sudden stimulation of milk flow, which
scours the pigs. Pigs that have been badly scoured by too heavy
flow of milk or by fevered condition of the sow very seldom
make as good growth as if they have not been thus injured, and
they are often killed outright. After the pigs are large enough
to use all the milk, the more milk producing feed used the better.
The rations mentioned for the pregnant sow do well for the Sow
at this time. The milk producing feeds should be reduced as the
pigs approach weaning age and more corn used in the ration,
which should be greatly reduced, thus gradually causing the
sow to “dry up.”
FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF PIGS
While the pigs are small, care should be taken that the quarters
are clean, as dirty quarters as well as too heavy feeding cause
scours in pigs. Exercise is also essential, as lack of it with heavy
feeding usually causes constipation which leads to thumps. For
24 Sw1NE PRODUCTION
this reason the sow and litter should not be confined to a small pen
or be fed at the same place as quartered. The benefit to be
derived from a short walk from the house to the feed trough is
Surprising. Getting the sow and pigs into the sunshine is very
essential to proper growth during the spring, fall, or winter.
Until the pigs have reached thé age of three or four months
they should not be made excessively fat, especially if they are of
a very early maturing type, since they may become fat and
chubby before they have reached a desirable size, and after
reaching such a condition it is usually unprofitable to try to
carry them to a very much heavier weight. For this reason it is
desirable to make young pigs grow rapidly rather than get too
fat. Therefore, the pigs should receive an abundance of muscle
and bone producing feeds and take a large amount of exercise.
This is especially true if any of the young stock is to be kept for
breeding purposes.
When the pigs are about three weeks old they will begin
to use feed other than their mother’s milk. At first they nibble
at grass or taste of the sow's feed until soon they are eating a
large enough quantity to justify giving them some feed of their
own. Shelled corn is one of the easiest feeds with which to teach
pigs to eat, but should not be their sole feed after they have
learned to eat well. The pigs show their greatest response to a
balanced ration before they have reached the weight of 125
pounds. Milk is about the best feed that can be given pigs. A
slop of corn meal, shorts, and tankage or oilmeal gives very ex-
cellent results. The rations should be compounded from some
of the following feeds, always having corn as the basis:
Proportion to feed by weight.
Corn Not more than 90% of grain ration
Shorts or shipstuff Not more than 50% of grain ration
Milk Not more than 66 2–3 % of ration
Oats Not more than 33 1–3% of grain ration
Wheat Not more than 50% of grain ration
Oilmeal Not more than 20% of grain ration
Tankage Not more than 10% of grain ration
Meat meal Not more than 10% of grain ration
Bran Not more than 33 1-3% of grain ration.
These feeds should be fed in a small enclosure near where
the sow is fed, but with openings in it too small for her to enter.
The opening or creep should be so that pigs go between vertical
SWINE PRODUCTION 25
boards rather than under horizontal ones. Some good pasture
should be available for pigs as soon as they begin eating.
Sanitation.—While the pig is attaining the weight of 50 to
60 pounds it is passing through the most critical period in its
existence. Numerous troubles and diseases attack it during this
time. The most common source of trouble with young pigs
comes not from one particular cause, but from many minor ones
which can usually be avoided by proper sanitation about the hog
lot. Dirty pens or houses, muddy lots, dusty floors, wet damp
houses or sheds, foul stagnant pools of water, dirty feed troughs,
etc., are more commonly the cause of bad results with pigs than
any specific disease. These conditions on the hog farm cannot
be tolerated if best results are to be expected. All places must
be kept clean. Sunshine is the greatest disinfectant that nature
can provide. Cleanliness and plenty of sunshine are essential to
Success. Disinfectants should be used freely about the houses
and sleeping quarters. Lime should be used about the yards
and in wet places that might otherwise become foul. Troughs
must be cleaned before each feed and all slop feeds should be
cleaned up soon after being fed.
Thumps.-This disease in young pigs is generally due to
Overloading the stomach and to lack of exercise. While it may
sometimes be due to other causes, such as worms, etc., the great
majority of cases is caused by overfeeding in close quarters.
Pigs running on pasture are very seldom troubled with thumps.
The best preventative of thumps is to make the pig take exer-
cise by grazing on pasture. When thumps appear, the feed
should be reduced and a good laxative such as salts or linseed oil
given. The best method of handling thumps is to furnish pas-
ture and make the pigs take exercise.
Scours.--This disease is due to bad feeding, or to unsanitary
or filthy conditions around the lots. In young pigs sucking the
Sow, Scours are often caused by fevered milk of the sow, induced
by too heavy feeding, by farrowing, or by sickness. Soured
slops, moldy corn, etc., fed to either the sow or pigs, may also
cause scours. As this is a disease of feeding and sanitation
more than anything else, the provision of clean quarters and
good feed for both sows and pigs is necessary. If the scours are
due to fever in the sow, she should be given a purgative, such
as oil or salts. In treating the pigs, first of all the error in feed-
ing should be corrected, and if they are eating they should re-
ceive a purgative. If the scours continue, a few drops of lauda-
26 SWINE PRODUCTION
num per pig, or one-half to a tablespoonful to the sow should
be given, and the dose repeated if necessary. Blood meal also
has a tendency to stop scours, - -
Worms. The presence of worms in hogs probably causes
as much trouble as any other ailment, except cholera. Very few
herds are entirely free from them, and many are so badly in-
fected that hog raising is not a profitable business. There is no
remedy that will give entire satisfaction in removing worms.
The following remedies are generally successful:
1. One teaspoonful of turpentine for 80 pounds of hog. Re-
peat the dosé in three days.
2. Santonin five grains, oalomel three grains, for every 80
pounds of hog. This should be given after starving the hog
twelve hours and should be followed by a physic. º
3. Fluid extract of spigelia and Senna, one-half ounce for
80 to 100 pounds of hog, repeated every four hours until purging
occurs in the animal. This method, however, is rather expensive.
When treating hogs, it is advisable to separate them into
lots of 15 to 20 hogs each, to insure each animal's getting its
share of the medicine. When using powders that do not dis-
solve readily in water, shelled corn in a trough with the powder
sprinkled on top of the grain furnishes the easiest method of
giving the powder. Best results are obtained when the pigs
have been starved for twelve hours before receiving the treat-
ment.
Lice.—Pigs, and older hogs as well, often are so lousy that
they become very unthrifty. Lice can be easily detected on the
necks and backs or between the legs of the pigs. Lice are readily
killed when the proper treatment is applied. The most general
remedies for lice are crude oil, coal oil, crude petroleum, creolin,
and coal tar dips such as chloro-naphtholeum, Zenoleum, etc.
The hogs should be dipped in the solutions of these preparations
and if a dipping tank is not at hand the pigs should be sprayed.
Sows heavy with pig and pigs weighing less than 20 pounds should
not be run through dipping tank, but should be sprayed. The pigs
can be dipped by hand in a tub; in this case the hand
should be held over their noses to prevent strangling. It is often
more difficult to destroy lice in the sleeping quarters than to kill
them on the pigs. As long as the houses are infested the pigs
will soon after being dipped have lice again. After the pigs
have been dipped the houses and sleeping quarters should also
be sprayed and sprinkled with a disinfectant. Even then there
SWINE PRODUCTION 27
will be eggs of the lice left that will not be killed by spraying.
It is advisable to dip the pigs again after two or three weeks
in order to free them from the lice hatched since the previous
dipping. Another very handy method is to put dip or crude oil
in the wallowing places. Many men have a special wallowing
hole of concrete or boards where the water can be kept cleaner
than in the mud wallow. A sunshade, however, is preferable to
a wallow. -
Robbing.—The trouble caused by the larger pigs robbing the
smaller ones can be avoided only by keeping together pigs of the
same size. Even then, large numbers of pigs together become
addicted to the habit. Keeping the sows separated as much as
possible until the pigs are weaned is the most satisfactory method
of handling the problem.
Feeding the Weaned Pigs.-Weaning should usually be done
when the pigs are eight to twelve weeks old. Castration should
occur about two weeks before weaning, or as soon after weaning
as thrift of the pigs will permit. No matter how weaning is
done the feed of the weaned pig should be practically the same
as before weaning. If good pasture is available more corn can
be used than otherwise, but if dry lots are used, as in the case
with fall pigs, a mixed feed is essential to best results. In dry
lots the gains can be doubled with weaned pigs by feeding corn
60 per cent, shorts 30 per cent, and tankage 10 per cent instead
of corn alone. When a slop is fed the best results can be secured
only when pigs of the same size are fed together, otherwise the
larger ones crowd out the smaller ones and cause them to soon
become runts. A creep for the smaller pigs helps in a case of this
kind, but is not entirely satisfactory. Troughs should always be
kept clean. Pigs do better if the troughs are clean and they do
not run as much risk of disease. Give them a dry place to sleep.
A large amount of bedding is not necessary if the shelter is dry.
Houses should be free from dust which is very detrimental to
pigs and often causes thumps, wheezes, and associated diseases.
Ideal conditions for pigs are good pasture with shade in which they
receive an abundance of exercise and have sanitary surroundings.
Some good rations are as follows:
Corn 60%, shorts 30%, tankage 10%.
Corn one-third, wheat one-third, oats one-third, ground together.
Corn one-half, shorts one-half. -
Corn 60%, shorts 20%, linseed oilmeal 20%.
Corn one-third, milk two-thirds.”
º-º ºm-tºm-
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin 13.
28 SWINE PRODUCTION
FORAGE CROPs'
“Pastures afford ideal conditions for pork production, in furnish-
ing feed of a succulent and nutritious character, providing sanitary
conditions, and promoting exercise. Pastures are in most cases
an essential to most economical pork production and may largely
determine the financial success or failure of the enterprise. After
several years’ experiments, including five trials in dry lot and fifteen
trials with various forage crops, the Missouri Experiment Station
drew the following conclusions: “The average amount of grain
required to produce a pound of gain with five dry lot experiments
was 5.11 pounds, and that when well balanced rations were used.
The average amount of grain to produce a pound of gain with hogs
on forage crops was 3.54 pounds. The forage crops effected a sav-
ing of 30.7 per cent in the amount of grain to produce a pound of
gain. We may safely conclude from the above experiments that
gains made with forage crops are made at 20 to 30 per cent less
cost than the gains produced largely with grain. These experi-
ments have shown that the profits per acre of forage when pork is
worth six cents may range, from $7.26 to $35.61 per acre. With
pork at six cents the average value of a bushel of corn fed to hogs
in dry lot was 66 cents per bushel; the average value of a bushel of
corn fed to hogs on forage was 95 cents.” The Iowa Experiment
Station after making twenty-three trials comparing different for-
ages with dry lot feeding says: “An acre of 50 bushel corn land
devoted to good forage, with corn at 50 cents and hogs at $5.00,
returns from $30.00 to $80.00 net profit when grazed with spring
pigs. The effect of pasture is most pronounced when the hogs are
young. After hogs reach the weight of 175 to 200 pounds, the
benefits to be derived from pastures are very small, and are due
more largely to comfortable surroundings afforded for the hogs
than to the feeding value of the forage. Clean, comfortable
dry lots are practically as good as pasture for large fattening hogs.
Pasturing Clover.—Clover is Indiana's most popular hog
pasture. It furnishes an abundance of excellent forage containing
a high per cent of protein, a nutrient in which corn is lacking;
it improves the soil while growing; and it fits perfectly into a rota-
tion where corn is the principal crop. The general distribution
and popularity of clover as a forage crop is due to its great adapt-
ability to the conditions found in this state. There is no serious
drawback to it as a hog pasture. There are, however, some
precautions to be taken when pasturing it. It is, in addition to
being a biennial, more easily killed by heavy pasturing than is
2 Purdue Extension Bulletin 39.
SWINE PRODUCTION 29
bluegrass or timothy. If heavily pastured when small, the
hogs eat off the crown of the plant and kill it. Too heavy pastur-
ing at any season of the year may cause serious injury. If the
clover is to be pastured heavily, the hogs should not be turned
in until it is several inches high. Clover is at its best for hog
pasture when heading or blossoming. If the hogs are not turned
in until the clover reaches this stage it will take a very large
number of animals to keep the pasture from getting too ripe.
After the heads are ripe the plant is so woody that the hogs do
not relish it. When the plant has reached this stage it should
be cut and a new and succulent growth allowed to spring up. The
clover can be pastured heavily enough to keep from getting woody,
but, when this is done, a dry spell is apt to cause serious injury.
A better method is to furnish enough pasture so that it is neces-
sary to clip it once during the season.
Pastºiring Alfalfa.—Alfalfa is a forage of the same general
character as clover but is shown by the experience of its users to be
somewhat superior to the latter as a hog pasture, both as to quality
and quantity of feed furnished. While the quantity of forage fur-
nished varies with the season, the stand of alfalfa and the soil on
which it grows, alfalfa will often pasture 50 per cent more hogs
than the same area of clover. Alfalfa comes earlier in the season
and withstands drouth better than clover, and if kept from heading
will make a green, succulent, nitrogenous forage from spring until
heavy freezing comes in the fall. Not only does this plant give a
good forage during the growing season, but the hay, especially the
last cutting, will furnish a high class roughage for hogs in winter.
Anyone who has used alfalfa hay for this purpose never fails to
recommend it very highly. &
The same precautions should be taken when pasturing alfalfa
as when pasturing.clover, i. e., the hogs should not be turned on be-
fore the crop is established and well started in the spring; they must
be kept from the pasture while the land is very wet; the plant
should be clipped before it becomes woody; and the crop should
not be pastured too heavily. If the purpose is to use the alfalfa
solely for pasture, the field should be divided, and one part pastured
while the other is growing. The common practice, however, is
to allow enough pasture so that about two crops of hay are har-
vested each year. Alfalfa should never be pastured so heavily
that two or three cuttings are not made yearly. When new buds
are well started in the crown of the plant the pasture should be
clipped.
30 SWINE PRODUCTION
Pasturing Bluegrass and Timothy.—Bluegrass, in conjunction
with white clover, and in some cases red clover, is a very popular
pasture. Its popularity rests on its hardiness and the fact that
it is a perennial which, when once established, is hard to kill out.
Neither is there the danger of scouring in hogs on bluegrass
pasture that there is in some other kinds, such as rape, young
clover, or young alfalfa. Bluegrass also comes early in the spring.
It furnishes good fall and winter pasture especially if allowed
to grow up in the fall. It should be pastured heavily enough to
prevent extremely rank growth. Rank bluegrass becomes too
watery, and dry grass is not palatable to hogs. During the period
of eight to ten weeks in summer usually beginning in July just
after seeding, bluegrass is in its resting state and is too dry to
give good hog pasture. At this time it should be supplemented
with some other forage crop, such as clover, alfalfa, rape, etc.
The resting period of bluegrass, coming at the time of the year
when the hot weather makes a green pasture all the more necessary
for success in hog raising, is one of the most objectionable features
of this grass as a pasture for hogs. This objection is overcome
where other forage crops are provided.
The value of timothy as a pasture is not as high as that of blue-
grass, for the reason that bluegrass is suitable for pasture much
earlier in the spring and will last much longer in the fall. Blue-
grass pastures also frequently contain white clover, which is seldom
found in the timothy pasture. The timothy, however, does not get
as tough as the bluegrass and will spring up sooner after being cut,
thus shortening the period of rest in mid-summer. Timothy,
however, when it begins to joint, gets woody and is then poor
pasture. This difficulty can be remedied by cutting early,
although this practice tends to shorten the life of the meadow
or pasture. 3.
Winter and Early Spring Pasture.—The chief function of
winter pasture is to aid in promoting the health and vigor of the
pigs. There are times during the winter when it is impossible
for hogs to get anything green to eat on pasture, but during a
large part of the winter the weather in Indiana is such that hogs
will forage if any green feed is to be found in the pasture. Pasture
in winter and early spring serves not only the purpose of furnish-
ing a green feed, but also induces the hogs to take exercise, which
they will not otherwise do, both of which will tend to keep the
shoats in a healthy, vigorous condition. It is impossible to furnish
the best of pasture for four months, from December 15 to April
SWINE PRODUCTION 31
15, but even during these four months a field of rye, wheat, blue-
grass, or a feed lot makes an excellent place for hogs to forage.
With some kind of green forage to “pick at” pigs will take sufficient
exercise so that practically all danger of thumps will be removed.
As is well known, two of the worst troubles that the hog raiser
has to guard against in winter are thumps and constipation, both
due, to a large extent, to lack of exercise and of laxative food,
and which can be largely prevented by pasture during a greater
part of the winter. t
For early winter pasture, the succulent forages may do well
until freezing weather. Clover, alfalfa, etc., if of good growth,
may last that long. Rape will sometimes make good pasture
well into December. Cowpeas and soy beans can be pastured
late in the fall, and give a large amount of forage; but from freezing
time until grass comes in the spring, pasture for hogs requires a
crop especially adapted to this purpose. Rye, wheat and bluegrass
are about the only plants adaptable to Indiana of much value for
the winter months. If the bluegrass has a good growth in the
fall it makes excellent pasture in winter and early spring If
pastured close in the fall, however, this grass furnishes little
pasture during the winter. Wheat is in general use as a winter
crop for pigs, and can be sown at the right time to make a good
crop of grain the next summer and at the same time furnish good
pasture in either winter or early spring. Rye is in more general
use as a winter forage for hogs than any other single crop. For
winter pasture it can be sown at any favorable time from August
to October, and give good returns. It may be sown in the corn
and pastured after the latter is gathered. Good results are often
secured when it is put in after corn has been hogged down. Rye
will make an early start in spring and furnish green feed until
clover and other crops will do to pasture, or until some early
spring Sown crops, such as oats, or rape, is ready to use.
One of the worst features about using rye as pasture is that
it is hard to prevent it from mixing with wheat and injuring the
latter. It should be sown in a place that is to be plowed up in the
spring and planted to corn, so as to kill any rye that may have es-
caped the hogs. Clover can be sown in rye, and the entire crop
pastured.
SUPPLEMENTARY FORAGE CROPS
Quick-growing crops are often of great value. While clover,
alfalfa, bluegrass, and timothy must in general be relied upon
to furnish hog pasture, conditions such as drouth, poor stand
32 SWINE PRODUCTION
of grass, etc., make it necessary to use a supplementary pas-
ture. It is both possible and economical to sow some quick-
growing crop, or a series of crops, in the spring and summer
that will furnish an abundance of hog pasture of almost the
same feeding value of clover and at very little extra cost in time
and labor. Rape makes pasture of almost the same feeding value
as clover and will furnish almost twice the quantity of forage as the
same area in clover. It can be sown to furnish pasture at almost
any time during the growing season after the early days of May.
Oats makes good early pasture. Canadian field peas are fairly suc-
cessful in the northern part of the State. For late summer and
fall pasture, rape, cowpeas, and soy beans give excellent results.
With oats or rape or a mixture of the two sown six to eight weeks
before use in early summer; rape sown six to eight weeks before
use in summer and fall; the cowpeas or soy beans planted two-and-
one-half to three months before use in late summer and fall,
temporary pastures can be secured during the entire growing
Sé8,SOIl.
Feeding on Pasture.—Young hogs on pasture can, when such a
practice is desirable, usually be given as much grain as they will
eat without danger of making them too fat or “chubby” before
they reach a desirable market weight. Usually the exercise taken
by young hogs on pasture prevents too early fattening. A common
practice is to make the hogs ready for market at a weight of 200
to 250 pounds, in which case a full feed of grain on grass is desir-
able. Corn mixed with a nitrogenous concentrate is desirable
when the pigs are young, but after they reach a weight of approx-
imately 150 pounds, corn alone on clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, soy
beans, or rape, will give as economical results as a more expensive
feed. If bluegrass, timothy, or oats pasture is used a mixed ration
such as is recommended for dry lot feeding is preferable. If it
is the purpose of the feeder to grow hogs for a time before they are
put on full feed, a ration of corn alone on leguminous pasture,
except in years when this grain is very high in price, is very satis-
factory. A more rapid gain can, in practically all cases, be made
with the supplemented ration but the corn ration favors economy
except when pasture is short.
DRY LOT HOG FEEDING
Feeding hogs without pasture presents a different question from
that involved when the hogs get a part of their feed from forage.
The hog does not have the variety of feed available on pasture.
SWINE PRODUCTION 33
Both variety and proper food nutrients must be furnished the ani-
mal from harvested or purchased feeds. In dry lot hog feeding
special emphasis must be placed on the factors relating to nutrients,
bulk, and palatability as previously discussed.
Corn.—Corn, on account of its abundance and of being the
staple crop of the State, must comprise the main part of the hog ra-
tion. Sometimes occasion arises when corn is not the most eco-
nomical grain to feed but such cases are rare. The main problem
in dry lot hog feeding is whether it is better to feed corn alone or
to supplement corn with some other feed. There are conditions
under which it is the best policy to use corn alone for hogs even
when in dry lot, but there are many other times when to use corn
alone would be at a sacrifice of time as well as profit.
SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDs”
The question of getting the proper food nutrients into a ration
can easily be settled, for there are numerous feeds containing an
excess of the nutrients in which corn is deficient. The great prob-
lem is to find the one that will give the best results at the lowest
cost. This depends on the amount of each supplement to corn
required to balance the ration, and the relative cost of the same.
The lower the price of corn, the less is the financial benefit to be
derived from the supplement.
When growing hogs are to be fed in dry lot there is little doubt
of the advisability of adding a supplement to corn. If the pigs
have been well grown on grass or behind cattle, before they are
placed in dry lot to finish there is less benefit to be derived from a
supplement than if the hogs are young and need growing material.
A well grown hog weighing 175 pounds or more will finish almost
as economically, though not so rapidly, on corn alone as on a mixed
feed. Hogs of less age (the younger they are the greater is the
effect of the supplement to corn), however, not only make a more
rapid but also a more economical gain when a supplemented ration
is fed. Young pigs in dry lot should certainly receive more than
corn alone. The question of the proper supplement to use depends
on the availability of the different feeds and on their relative cost.”
*Supplementary Feeds from which to select are milk, tankage and meat meal,
linseed oil meal, soy beans, shorts or middlings, bran, oats, wheat, rye and barley.
8345–3
34 Sw1NE PRODUCTION
HOG CHOLERA ContROL
By R. A. CRAIG, . Veterinary Department
Purdue University Experiment Station
Hog cholera is spread by healthy hogs coming in direct or
indirect contact with cholera hogs. The germ of hog cholera is
carried about a neighborhood by dogs, men birds and streams.
If you live in a section of the state where hog cholera is prev-
alent, you should carefully observe the following:
Don't allow persons who travel about the neighborhood buy-
ing hogs or selling cholera remedies to walk through your hog
yards.
Don’t allow your hogs to pasture in fields that receive the
drainage from adjoining farms.
Don’t allow stock and breeding hogs that you have purchased
to mix with your herd until they have been quarantined three
weeks. -
Don’t harbor pigeons, or a dog that is in the habit of visiting
neighboring farms.
Don’t fail to quarantine you hogs, if cholera breaks out among
them.
Don’t fail to burn the dead hogs.
Don’t waste your time and money in buying and feeding
so-called hog cholera cures and preventatives.
Hog cholera may be controlled and finally stamped out by
obeying the rules and regulations governing the prevention, spread
and control of infectious diseases among swine, and co-operating
with the state veterinarian in their enforcement. -
These rules and regulations relate to the selling of exposed
and diseased hogs; the disinfection of stock cars in which hogs
are shipped to market; the shipping into the state of stock and
breeding hogs; the proper disposal of the carcasses of dead hogs;
the quarantining of cholera herds, and the use of remedies and
vaccines.
Violations of the above rules and regulations are costing the
farmers of Indiana several million dollars yearly. Because of
this, the swine industry has not developed to the extent that it
should in this state. -
Can the Indiana farmer afford to violate laws controlling the
spreading of infectious diseases of swine? -
SWINE PRODUCTION 35
SELECTING PIGS FOR PIG FEEDING CONTESTs'
“Pigs that will make rapid gains at a comparatively low cost
should be selected. This requires animals of much vigor and rug-
gedness. Indications of these characteristics are large bone of good
quality, strong arched back, smooth shoulders, deep broad chest
and an abundance of energy. Avoid pigs with extremely small
bone, or Harge bone that is very coarse. Also avoid weak backs,
open shoulders, narrow or shallow chests, and animals showing
lifelessness and lack of energy.
The animal should also have medium length and great depth.
A short bodied hog when fed heavily tends to fatten at a very early
age. After an animal becomes fat, gains can not be made as rap-
idly nor as economically as before such a high condition is reached.
Hence a hog in order to make rapid and economical gains must
possess as much length as is compatible with sufficient early ma—
turity for easy fattening. Depth of body is necessary in order to
insure satisfactory digestive capacity. Narrow shallow bodied ani-
mals will not consume sufficiently large quantities of feed to make
rapid gains.
The pig should not be rough or coarse but have quality. This
is easiest secured in animals having a high per cent of pure blood.
Purity of breeding insures that the pig comes from ancestry se-
lected for the characteristics desired in fattening hogs. The higher
the per cent of pure blood in the animal the greater is the likelihood
that it will develop into a desirable kind of fat animal.
If a male is to be selected for the contest, recovery from cas-
tration should be practically complete before the contest begins.
Otherwise, the setback received from the operation may be a
serious handicap. A pig that has had a serious setback of any kind
is apt to prove unsatisfactory for the contest because in many
cases a setback leaves lasting results.”
REFERENCES.
Types and Breeds of Farm Animals—Plumb, Ginn and Company.
Common Diseases of Farm Animals—Craig, Lippincott.
Productive Feeding of Farm Animals—Woll, Lippincott.
Productive Swine Husbandry—Day, Lippincott.
Purdue University Publications—
Extension Bulletin 9—How Are Your Hogs Housed?
Extension Bulletin 35–Hog Houses.
1 Purdue Extension Leaflet 60.
36
SWINE PRODUCTION
Extension Leaflet 58—Principal Points in Combatting Hog Cholera.
Extension Leaflet 21—Hog Cholera.
Extension Leaflet 34–Hog Cholera.
Experiment Station Bulletin 140—Hog Cholera.
Extension Bulletin 13—More Hogs for Indiana.
Extension Bulletin 39—Growing and Fattening Hogs.
Extension Bulletin—40—Relation of Sanitation to Swine Management.
Extension Bulletin 48–Hogging off Corn.
Experiment Station Circular 54—Community Organization for Promot-
ing the Production of Swine.
Experiment Station Circular 29–Live Stock Judging for Beginners.
Extension Leaflet 60—Selecting and Feeding the Pig.
Extension Leaflet 56—Pig Clubs.
U. S. Department of Agriculture Publications—
Farmers' Bulletin 781—Tuberculosis of Hogs.
Farmers’ Bulletin 765—Breeds of Swine.
Farmers’ Bulletin 205—Pig Management.
Farmers’ Bulletin 438—Hog Houses.
Farmers' Bulletin 379—Hog Cholera.
Farmers' Bulletin 411—Feeding Hogs in the South.
Farmers' Bulletin 614—A Corn-Belt Farming System. Which Saves La-
bor by Hogging Down Crops.
Farmers' Bulletin 566—Boys' Pig Clubs.
Baby Beef
I. What the pupil should know.
A. Breeds of beef cattle.
1. Beef Breeds.
Shorthorn.
Polled Durham.
Hereford.
Polled Hereford.
Aberdeen-Angus.
Galloway.
2. Dual-purpose breeds.
Shorthorn.
Red Polls.
Devon.
Brahman or “Indian” Cattle (See Farmers'
Bulletin 612.)
B. How to select the cow or cows.
Beef breed.
Well matured and in thrifty condition.
Supply sufficient milk for calf.
General appearance.
Constitution.
Size, color.
|Uniformity of type.
C. How to select the sire.
1. Line of ancestry.
a. Excellent type.
b. Quality.
c. Milk-producing ability.
d. Early maturity.
2. Individual excellence. *
a. Ability to transmit to calves tendency toward
earliness of maturity.
i
:
i
b. General appearance.
c. Head and neck.
d. Forequarters.
e. Body.
f. Hindquarters.
D. How to select the calf or calves to be fed.
1. Three general classes.
a. Butchering.
b. Feeding.
c. Breeding.
2. Quality and finish.
3. Early-maturing qualities.
4. Wide, deep-bodied, thick-fleshed, short legs.
38 BABY BEEF
5. Short, broad, large muzzle and mouth, strong jaw,
Quiet eye.
6. Loose, pliable, mellow skin.
E. Feeding and management of calf.
Dehorning the calf.
Castration.
Vaccination.
Feeding the calf up to weaning time.
Weaning the calf.
6. Feeding from weaning time to market.
F. Fall or Spring calves.
G. Systems of management.
G. How to keep records of all items of cost and income.
II. What the pupil should do.
A. The above and related topics should be studied in school as the
regular school work in agriculture.
B. The information gained must be applied in a practical way at
the home of the pupil. Each pupil should select and feed
one or more calves at home. If it is not possible for the
pupil to feed and manage a calf at home, this project
should not be selected for the school work.
:
POINTS OF INFORMATION
BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE'
“The Shorthorn.—The Shorthorn is popular everywhere in the
world where beef animals are grown. In conformation they ad-
here closely to the beef type, though certain families, as the Bates,
have exceedingly strong milking tendencies. They are the largest
of our beef animals, the cows usually attaining weights from 1,300
to 1,400 pounds and the bulls from 1,800 to 2,100 pounds or more,
where conditions are favorable and the cattle tick has been eradi-
cated. When compared with other beef breeds of cattle the Short-
horn is a heavy milker; no beef breed is better able to nourish the
calf. For this reason the American farmer has always regarded the
Shorthorn as better suited to general farm purposes than any other
breed. A few Shorthorn cows have, in fact, made exceedingly
high milking records. In color, the Shorthorn may be pure red,
red and white, pure white, or roan. This breed produces high-
class beef, but, compared with the Aberdeen-Angus, the Short-
horn will not dress as high a percentage of high-class meat.
For this reason the Shorthorn steer has not in recent years main-
tained his reputation at the fat-stock shows, the purebred and
1 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 580.
BABY BEEF 39
grade Aberdeen-Angus or Hereford having surpassed him re-
peatedly. Shorhorn bulls, however, mated with grade cows have
revolutionized the character of the meat cattle of the world.
The Shorthorn is not as early maturing and does not graze
as well as do the Herefords. On a farm, however, where the
pasture grasses are well developed and too ms th effort is not
required to get a sufficient amount to eat, it would be difficult to
find a breed of beef animals which would surpass the Shorthorn.
Polled Durham cattle are really Shorthorns, except that they
are hornless. The “single standard” Polled Durham was the
first type of hornless Shorthorn to attract attention. The origina-
tors of this type used pure Shorthorn bulls on “muley” cows of
the Shorthorn type, and finally developed what they called the
Polled Durham breed. These cattle were very much like the
average Shorthorn, except that they tended toward the dual-
purpose type. The “double standard” Polled Durham represents
the demand of Shorthorn breeders for a hornless breed of Short-
horn cattle; these cattle are eligible to registration in the American
Shorthorn Herdbook, as well as in the Polled Durham Herdbook.
The Hereford.—This breed of cattle has been materially improv-
ed within the last 25 years and now ranks as one of the most prom-
inent breeds of beef cattle. In size this is one of the largest breeds,
ranking next to the Shorthorn. From the standpoint of the aver-
age farmer, the weakest point is their inability to give a large
quantity of milk; in fact, the cows average low in the amount of
milk produced and are open to criticism in this respect. The
color is characteristic, the body being red and the head and face
white.
On account of exceptional vigor, rustling ability, a thick coat
of hair, and temperament, the Hereford has taken first place as
a grazing animal. The Hereford is more vigorous than the Short-
horn, and on this account is often capable of securing a good living
from pastures which afford a too limited amount of grass for
Shorthorn cattle. No breed of beef cattle equals the Hereford for
withstanding the unfavorable conditions which always accompany
the range system of farming. Hereford bulls have accomplished
remarkably fine results when crossed with the native cows of
the ranges of Texas and the Western States.
The Aberdeen-Angus.-In general conformation this breed
differs somewhat from that of the Shorthorn and Hereford, the
body being, as a rule, lower to the ground and more cylindrical.
This breed, however, is not as large as the Hereford or Shorthorn,
40 BABY BEEF
but does not fall far short of the weights reached by the two
larger breeds. The almost universal color is black, although red
occurs at rare intervals. A small amount of white on the under-
lines is not objectionable. As milkers the Aberdeen-Angus cows
rank only fair. They do however, afford more milk than the
Hereford, but the breed is not the equal of the Shorthorn in this
respect. This breed produces remarkable beef animals. The
Aberdeen-Angus steer in the fat-stock shows has made a wonder-
ful record, surpassing all other breeds repeatedly in this respect.
Although the Aberdeen-Angus is hardly the equal of the Here-
ford on the range, nevertheless, on account of his vigor and rustling
habits, he is well suited to range conditions. The Aberdeen-
Angus is much better suited than the Shorthorn to southern
grazing conditions.
The Galloway.—This breed of beef animals has never been
extensively introduced into the South; a few herds, however, are
found in Texas. They originated and were developed in a very
cold and damp country—southwestern Scotland—so have never
been thought of as being suited to the southern part of the United
States, where the summers are long and hot. The individuals of
this breed are short of leg, close to the ground, polled, black in
color, have long hair, and are slow to mature when compared with
the Shorthorns, Herefords, and Aberdeen-Angus. The Galloway
is an extremely hardy animal and is well suited to the ranges of
the Northwest, where food may be scarce, and where the winters
al’é Severe.
The Red Polled.—The native home of the Red Polled cattle is
in England. This breed represents the dual-purpose type in its
true form, as the typical cows yield milk liberally and fatten quickly
and satisfactorily when dry. The udder is often deficient in the
fore part and the teats are usually large. The color varies from
light to dark red, but a little white on the belly and udder is not
particularly objectionable, although the solid color is preferred.
The Red Polled cattle are not as heavy as the beef breeds, the cows
under favorable conditions averaging perhaps, 1,200 pounds.
As beef producers these cattle hold very good rank, but of course
they do not win the highest honors when shown in competition
with the beef breeds. As milk producers they have long held
high rank. At the Pan-American dairy test in 1901 five Red Polled
cows took fifth rank among 10 breeds.
They are hardy, gentle, and reasonably good grazing animals.
The Devon.—The Devon in conformation closely resembles
BABY BEEF 41
the beef breeds, though it is smaller in size, mature bulls seldom
weighing 2,000 pounds and usually from 1,400 to 1,800, while the
cows weigh about 1,000 pounds when raised under good conditions.
In color they vary from light to deep red, although the rich deep
color is more popular. They have a white switch and may have
Some white on the underpart of the body, although white on other
portions of the body is not permissible.
The Devon is a wonderful rustler, and will keep in good con-
dition on pastures in which some cattle of the beef breeds could
hardly subsist. They are slower of growth than the beef breeds,
but do well in the feed lot, comparing very favorably with the
Herefords or Shorthorns. The cows are usually good milkers,
many of them giving more milk than the calf will take at first.
The result of this abundant milk flow is usually a good calf.
There is no breed of cattle in this country which make work
oxen superior to the Devon. They are quick, intelligent, attain
good size, and stand the heat well.”
HOW TO SELECT THE COW OR COWS'
“In selecting cows from which baby beef is to be produced three
very important factors should be kept in mind:
1. The cows should have at least a fair amount of beef blood.
Pure breds are not necessary, but two or three crosses of such
breeding is essential. Cows with a preponderance of dairy blood
will not do for the production of baby beef.
2. Cows best suited for this type of breeding usually weigh
900 pounds or over in thrifty breeding condition. So long as early
maturity is not sacrificed, the heavier cows are the most suitable
for baby-beef production. Size of frame rather than weight
should govern in selecting cows which are to be used for this
purpose.
3. The cows used to produce baby beeves should produce
enough milk to keep the calves fat and growing without much
additional feed up to weaning time.
In addition to these three factors, such things as constitution,
uniformity of breeding, color, size, and early maturity should be
considered.
HOW TO SELECT THE SIR.E.
As a general rule it may be said that lack of excellence in any
one or all of the above-mentioned points in the cow may be offset
1 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 811.
42 BABY BEEF
through additional excellence in the herd bull. Some bulls seem
to have sufficient prepotency to stamp their own excellence of form,
type, and quality upon their calves regardless of the kind of cows
in the herd. Such a bull is a very valuable asset to any breeder,
and it is unfortunate that we can not tell absolutely what a bull
will do in this respect until his offspring are seen. A bull coming
from a line of ancestry which has been noted for its excellence of
type, quality, milk-producting ability, and early maturity is
more than likely to be a producer of animals like himself. This,
together with individual excellence in the bull, is the only standard
we have for forecasting the type of calves which an untried bull
will get. For the producer of baby beef the additional sum paid
for a good bull is money well spent.
Above all, a breeder in selecting a bull should procure one of
good beef form and with a strong tendency toward earliness of
maturity.
To a very large extent the breeder's success in raising and
feeding baby beeves will depend upon the bull’s ability to transmit
this latter character to his calves. Quality and excellence of form
in calves can not be obtained from poor breeding.”
BABY BEEF
43
INDIVIDUAL ExCELLENCE IN BEEF CATTLE."

Points deficient,
Stand-
SCALE OF POINTS ard Stu-
dent’s Cor-
score | rected
GENERAL APPEARANCE—40 per cent.
1. Weight, estimated . . . . . . . . Ibs. Actual. . . . . . . . lbs
according to age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Form, straight. 'top and underline: deep, broad,
low Set, Stylish, Smooth, compact, symmetrical. . . 10 ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Quality, fine, Soft hair; loose, pliable skin of medium
thickness; dense, clean, medium-sized bone . . . . . . 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Condition, deep, even covering of firm, mellow flesh;
free from patches, ties, lumps and rolls; full cod
and flank indicating finish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HEAD AND NECK—7 per cent.
5. Muzzle, broad, mouth large; nostrils large and open. . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Eyes, large, Clear, placid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Face, short; jaw strong. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Forehead, broad, full . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9. Ears, medium size; fine texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10. Neck, short, thick, blending smoothly with shoulder;
throat clean with light dewlap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FORE QUARTERS–9 per cent.
11. Shoulder vein, full. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. Shoulders, Smoothly covered, compact, snug, neat. . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13. Brisket, trim, neat; breast full. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14. Legs, wide apart, straight, short ; arm full; shank fine. . 2 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BODY—30 per cent.
15. Chest, full, deep, wide; girth large; crops full . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16. Ribs, long, arched, thickly and smoothly fleshed . . . . . 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17. Back, broad, straight, thickly and smoothly fleshed. . 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18. Loin, thick, broad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19. Flank, full even with underline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HIND QUARTERS–14 per cent.
20. Hips, Smooth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21. Rump, long, wide, level; tail-head smooth; pinbones
Wide apart, not prominent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22. Thighs, deep, full. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23. Twist, deep, plump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24. Legs, wide apart, straight, short; shanks fine, smooth. 2 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
“How to Examine a Fat Steer.—When inspecting a fat steer,
note from in front the general appearance of the head, for refine-
ment of features, and any indications of coarseness; width of fore-
head; length and cleanness of face; size of muzzle; size and quality
of ear and horn, and proportion of head to rest of body. The head
should be short, broad and refined, the muzzle, large and broad,
and the jaw strong. The ears and horns should be of fine texture,
and the features of the head have a well defined, clear-cut ap-
1 Purdue Experiment Station Circular 29.
44 BABY BEEF
pearance and the head itself be of proportionate size to the rest of
the body. Objectionable things about the head are narrowness,
extreme length, coarse features, small, delicate muzzle, or lack of
proportion in size between the head and the rest of the body.
From a slight angle to the right of the animal observe, the
width and smoothness of body, as shown in chest, shoulder, ribs,
back, loin, hip and rump. The body should be broad and smooth.
The chest should be wide and deep with the fore legs short, straight
and standing far apart, the fore flank should be full and not
sunken behind the fore leg. The shoulders should fit smoothly
into body without a tendency to flatten on top or show prominence
of shoulder blades. The lower part should be smooth, well covered
with flesh and not heavy, coarse nor unduly prominent. The body
behind the shoulders should fit smoothly into them and be more
than full enough in ribs, back and loin to form a straight line from
shoulder to hip. Any tendency to be flat in the rib or to be narrow
or thin in back and loin must be discriminated against. The hips
should fit smoothly into the body and be entirely covered by flesh,
showing no prominence nor unevenness, and the rump should carry
out full and show no tendency to droop beside the tail-head.
The paunch must not be large and should be very little wider than
the shoulder or thigh, because a large paunch means a very large
amount of waste in dressing.
Passing farther around the animal so that a full side view is
obtained, note the length and cleanness of neck and its manner of
fitting the shoulder at the shoulder vein, and the general outline
of the body, the top and bottom lines, the depth and fullness of
hind-quarters and size and length of leg.
The neck should be thick, but short, thus avoiding a large
amount of cheap meat, yet indicating good muscular develop-
ment throughout the entire body. It should be free from dewlap
or heavy skin and exceedingly large brisket and fit smoothly into
the shoulder on both top and sides. The body when viewed from
the side should present the general outlines of a rectangle, the top
line being straight from head to tail with no tendency to droop
either in front of or behind the shoulder or on the rump; nor sag or
be low in the back. The bottom line should be low, straight and
parallel to the top line, showing no tendency to be high in the
flanks nor too low in the middle, due to an excess of paunch. The
brisket need be only large enough to fill out the outlines of the body;
the chest should be deep and full and the hind flank on a level with
the lower line of the body which should stand on straight short
BABY BEEF 45
legs. The thighs should be deep, plump, full and extend well
down to the hock.
Moving toward the rear of the animal, note from the changing
viewpoint the different parts of the animal until a position in the
rear is reached. From this position observe the depth and width
of hindquarters, size of paunch, width and straightness of back,
smoothness of hips and fullness of rump. The hindquarters should
be deep and as broad as the shoulders. Paunch or belly must be
very little wider than shoulders or thigh. The back as seen from
the rear must be straight and not droop behind the shoulders nor
in front of hips and be very broad and thickly fleshed. The hips
should be smoothly covered and show no prominence. The rump
should be filled with flesh on either side and gradually round off
smoothly from hips to tail-head. Passing around the animal on
the other side observe the various parts of the animal from all
angles until the right side is again reached when the hands should
be used to test the quality and thickness of flesh, or the condition,
which it is impossible to do without handling. The best quality
of flesh feels under the pressure of the hand to be firm yet elastic
and is free from any rough places such as rolls, lumps, patches,
ties and bare spots. Rolls are most commonly found on the ribs.
Lumps and patches usually occur on the back, ribs and rump.
These three objections are all of the same nature in that they are
due to the fat having been laid on in larger amounts in some places
than others and denote not only that there is a loss by having an
excess of fat to be trimmed off before use but also that the fat is
unevenly distributed through the lean, thereby injuring the quality
of the meat. They can be easily detected by placing the hand
upon the flesh. If it is smooth, firm and elastic it is of the proper
quality, but localized hardening of the fat, as if in pockets, in-
dicates the presence of undesirable fat. Ties are found commonly
in the back but occasionally around the tail-head and are depres-
sions where the skin is closely attached to the bone and cause
unevenness of flesh. Bare spots or places where the flesh is
very thin are most liable to occur on the shoulder, loin, back, or
lower ribs and are due to uneven distribution of flesh. Press
the fingers against the flesh (beginning on the shoulder and con-
tinuing toward the rear) in order to detect any of the above
mentioned defects. The ideal flesh is even in all parts so that the
hand can be moved over the body without a depression or rough
place being found. Avoid a soft flesh or one that is harsh and
inelastic. In handling a steer, feel the flank in order to see that
it is filled with fat until there is no loose, pendulous skin.”
46 BABY BEEF
How To SELECT THE CALF OR CALVES To BE FED1
“Classification.—Beef cattle are divided into three general
classes, depending on the purpose for which they are to be used—
butchering, feeding or breeding. The ultimate end of all beef
animals is the butcher's block and the one that comes nearest to
meeting the ideal of the butcher is the one which the feeder and
breeder must strive to produce. The stock feeder when selecting
cattle for the feed or show yard must ever keep in mind the steer
that will most nearly meet the demands of the butcher and at the
same time be an economical producer. The breeder must keep
in mind when selecting his breeding stock not only the good
killing animal which the butcher demands and the quick fatten-
ing one desired by the feeder, but also one that has in addition to the
killing and feeding qualities, indications of being a good breeder
as well. In other words the breeding animal must give evidence
of the ability to transmit his or her own good qualities to the off-
Spring.
Since the butcher is the final judge of excellence in an animal
and is largely responsible for the ideals of the feeder and the
breeder, the animal that will most nearly meet his demands is
the one the latter classes of cattlemen must strive to produce.
The steer that brings the highest price from the butcher is one
that will dress the highest per cent. of salable meat and will also
have a maximum amount of this meat located in the most valuable
cuts, which requires that the animal have the best conformation,
quality and condition. -
Calves to qualify as baby beef must have quality and finish.
The consumer does not want the unfinished yearling, and the calf
that does not have quality will not take on a high finish. Neither
will the calf lacking in early-maturing qualities fatten during the
latter part of the feeding period, but instead it will use most of the
feed which it consumes for growth. Keeping this in mind, the
feeder should first determine whether his calves are good enough
to compete on the fat-yearling market, and if he decides that they
are not, they should be finished off on coarser feeds for a later
market.
The wide, deep-bodied, thick-fleshed calf with short legs and
an abundance of quality as indicated by fineness of hair, texture
of skin, smoothness of flesh, and general refinement about the
head and other parts of the body is the type best suited for making
1 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 811.
BABY BEEF 47
prime baby beef. Uniformity in size, weight, and color should
not be overlooked, because such factors are an advantage in
marketing. These points are of great importance in selecting
calves to be finished as baby beef, and they deserve the strictest
attention.
FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE CALF
Of the many problems confronting the producer of baby beef,
those of greatest importance during the first six months of the
calf's life, aside from that of feeding, are the castration, dehorn-
ing, and vaccination of the calf. Some breeders very success-
fully perform all of these operations at one time. When dealing
with spring-born calves, these are generally operated upon during
the late fall months when around 6 months of age. This method
is recommended, as it saves labor in the actual operation as well
as in the care of the calf afterwards.
Calves can be dehorned successfully through the use of caustic
potash on the horns when the calf is under 10 days of age. How-
ever, good results will usually be obtained and less labor is involved
if the horns are sawed off when the calf is around 6 months of
age, as mentioned above. When sawing off the horns the operator
should be careful that about one-quarter of an inch of hair and
skin is removed with the horn. During fly time pine tar may be
used over the wound to prevent screw-worm or maggot infesta-
tion.
Losses through castration generally occur through improper
wound drainage and can be prevented if the castration wound is
made large enough. In making the cut through which the tes-
ticles are to be removed, the scrotum is grasped in the left hand
and a slit is made from one end of the scrotum to the other over
each testicle with a sharp knife which is held in the right hand.
The testicles are then forced one at a time through the openings.
The cords may be severed either by scraping with a knife or
through the use of a castrating instrument made for this purpose.
In localities where blackleg is prevalent all calves should be
vaccinated so as to prevent this disease. The first vaccination,
as stated above, may be made at the time of dehorning and
castration. .
Unless the cows in the herd are exceptional milkers, calves
intended for baby beef should be fed a conservative ration of grain,
beginning as soon as the calves will eat grain. Nothing so stimu-
lates growth and early maturity as milk sucked fresh from the dam,
48 BABY BEEF
but in all cases baby-beef calves should be fed liberally on grain
for at least one month before weaning time. They can be started
on grain when 4 to 6 weeks of age, with the crushed grains of corn,
kafir, milo, barley, wheat, or oats, etc. The first mentioned is
well suited to their needs. After a few weeks the grain may be
given whole.
As weaning time is the crucial period with baby-beef calves,
every effort should be made to get them through this period with-
out the loss of their calf fat. The grain ration should be increased
to the extent that the loss of their milk after weaning will cause
very little change in their growth and fattening. Some feeders
provide “creeps” for their calves at this time. These creeps are
built in the pastures or in the lots so that the calves can get their
grain without disturbance from the cows. ' They consist of small
pens fitted with openings of such size as to permit only the calves
to enter. These openings should have rollers on each side so
as to prevent bruising or other injury to the calves when entering
the pen.
Calves should be weaned gradually. If they are running with
the cows at all times, the weaning may be started by keeping
them up and allowing them to suck only twice each day for five
or six days, after which they should be allowed to suck only once
a day for a similar period. Then one day's sucking may be
omitted, and later on two days may be skipped. The entire
weaning should take from 10 to 15 days.
Fall-born calves should not be weaned until after the cows and
calves are on grass. Spring-born calves should be weaned early
enough in the fall to allow them some time on grass if possible.
It is advisable to provide them with winter pastures such as wheat,
Oats, rye, barley, etc.
The feeding and management of the calf after weaning time
depends greatly upon the time of the year when it was born and
the age at which it is to be sold. Calves that are born in the spring
are fed and managed differently from those born in the fall. The
calf intended for market at 15 months of age must be fed and
handled somewhat differently from those intended for sale at
18 months of age. To aid the feeder in handling calves under
these different conditions the two tables which follow are given.
The first deals with spring-born calves and the second with those
born in the fall. The data in both of these tables will vary with
the time of birth and the length of the feeding period.
BABY BEEF
49
:1
5
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Month Calves to be
March. . . . . . . . Born. . . . . . . . .
April..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
May. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
June. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
July. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
August. . . . . . . . Wean. . . . . . . .
September... Vaccinate, cas-
trate, and
dehorn.
October. . . . . . . . . . . do. . . . . . . .
November. . . . . Dry lot. . . . . .
December. . . . . ... do. . . . . . . .
January. . . . . . . do. . . . . . . .
February. . . . . . do. . . . . . . .
March. . . . . . . . do. . . . . . . .
April. ... . . . . . . do. . . . . . .
May. . . . . . . . . . Sell. . . . . .
June. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
July. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
August... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
finished in 15 months.
Calves to be finished in 18 months.
With cows. On grass or
milk.
With cows. On grass or
milk; begin feeding
shelled corn or corn
meal, # to 1 pound.
With cows. On skim milk
or grass; corn meal, 2
pounds.
On grass with cows or on.
skim milk; chopped
corn, 2% pounds.
Pasture; chopped corn, 4
pounds; silage and hay
if necessary.
Pasture; chopped corn, 5
pounds; silage, 10
pounds.
Corn, 6 pounds; cotton-
seed meal, # pound;
silage, 8 pounds; oat
straw, unlimited;clover,
3 pounds.
Corn, 7 pounds; cotton-
seed meal, 1% pounds;
silage, 10 pounds; clov-
er, 3 pounds; oat straw,
unlimited.
Corn, 8 pounds; cotton-
seed meal, 1% pounds;
silage, 12 pounds; clov-
er, 3 pounds; oat straw,
unlimited.
Corn, 9 pounds; cotton-
seed meal, 2 pounds;
silage, 10 pounds; clov-
er, 3 pounds; oat straw,
unlimited.
Corn, 10 pounds; cotton-
seed meal, 2 pounds;
silage, 9 pounds; clov-
er, 3 pounds; oat straw,
unlimited.
Corn, 11 pounds; cotton-
seed meal, 2 pounds;
silage, 8 pounds; clov-
er, 3 pounds; oat straw,
unlimited.
Corn, 12 pounds: cotton-
seed meal, 2% pounds;
silage, 8 pounds; clover
hay, 3 pounds; oat
straw, unlimited.
* * * * * * * a s a º a s s e a # s e g º s & sº
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* e s tº e s e º e º a s & gº
* * * * s a ſº e º º sº e º º
* e s is º is a s & 4 + æ e s
tº gº e º ºs e < * * * * * * *
Vaccinate, cas-
trate, and
* * * * * * * * * * * * * *
e e º $ tº e º is g g g g º gº
s & e a s a s & © tº e º 'º º
* * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Heavy feed;
or pasture,
with grain.
In dry lot. . . .
* * * * * e º 'º e º 'º & e is
& e º is º e º ſº e º e º &
* * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Same as 15-months calf.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Stalk fields, meadows; corn,
4 pounds; cotton-seed
meal, # pound silage, 5
pounds; straw.
Corn, 5 pounds; cottonseed
meal, 1 pound; silage, 10
pounds; oat straw, un-
limited.
Corn, 6 pounds; cottonseed
meal, 1 pound; silage; 10
pounds; oat straw, un-
limited. t
Corn, 7 pounds; cottonseed
meal, 1 pound; silage, 10
pounds; oat straw, un-
limited.
Corn, 8 pounds; cottonseed
meal, 1 pound; silage, 12
pounds; oat straw, un-
limited.
Corn, 9 pounds; cottonseed
meal, 1 pound; silage, 14
pounds, or pasture; oat
Straw.
Corn, 10 pounds; cottonseed
meal, 1% pounds; silage,
14 pounds, or pasture;
oat straw, unlimited.
Corn, 11 pounds; cotton-
Seed meal, 2 pounds; sil-
age, 16 pounds, or pasture;
oat straw, unlimited.
Corn, 12 pounds; cotton-
seed meal, 2 pounds; sil-
age, 15 pounds, or pasture;
oat straw, unlimited.
Corn, 14 pounds; cotton-
seed meal, 23 pounds;
silage, 12 pounds, or pas-
ture; oat straw, unlimited.
8345—4
50 BABY BEEF
Month Calves to be finished in 15 months. Calves to be finished in 18 months.
1 || October. . . . . . . Born. . . . . . . . . With cow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Born. . . . . . . . . Same as 15-month calf.
2 | November. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :...do. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Do
3 | December. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . With cow, small amount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Do.
hay and grain.
4 || January. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . With cow; corn meal, 1 |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Same as 15-month cal;f;
pound; hay, unlimited. grain and hay, 1 pound.
5 | February. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Withcow;grain, 2pounds; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Same as 15-month calf;
hay, unlimited; small grain and hay, 2 pounds.
amount silage. .
6 | March. . . . . . . . Castrate, de- || With cow; grain, 3 lbs.; Castrate, de- Do.
horn, vacci- hay, imited; pas- horn, vacci-
nate. ture. nate.
7 | April. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Do.
8 || May. . . . . . . . . . Wean. . . . . . . . Pasture; grain, 4 pounds; Wean. . . . . . . . Same as 15-month calf;
hay or silage, if neces- grain, 2 pounds.
Sary.
9 June. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pasture; grain, 5 pounds; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Same as 15-month calf;
hay and silage, if neces- grain, 3 pounds.
Sary.
10 July. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pasture; grain, 6 pounds; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Do.
smallamountofhayand
silage. *
. 11 || August. . . . . . . . Dry lot or | Corn, 8 pounds; cotton- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pasture; grain, 3 pounds.
heavy feed; Seed meal, 1% pounds;
On pasture. silage; 12 pounds; clov-
er, 4 pounds; oat straw,
unlimited.
12 | September.....|... . . . . . . . . . . . Corn, 9 pounds; cotton- |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Do.
seed meal, 2 pounds;
silage, 12 pounds; clov-
er, 3 pounds; oat straw
unlimited.
13 || October. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corn, 10 pounds; cotton- || Dry lot. . . . . . Pasture; grain, 5 pounds.
Seed meal, 2 pounds; si-
age, 10 pounds; clover,
3 pounds; oat straw,
unlimited.
14 | November. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corn, 11 pounds; cotton- |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corn, 7 pounds; cotton-seed
* seed meal, 2 pounds; meal, 1% pounds; silage,
silage, 9 pounds; clover 14 pounds; alfalfa or
hay, 3 pounds; oat clover, 2 pounds; oat
straw, unlimited. straw, unlimited.
15 December. . . . . . Sell. . . . . . . . . . Corn, 12 pounds; cotton- |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corn, 10 pounds; cotton-
seed meal, 2% pounds; seed meal, 2 pounds; si-
silage, 8 pounds; clover lage, 15 pounds; alfalfa or
hay, 3 pounds; oat clover, 3 pounds; oat
straw, unlimited. straw, unlimited.
16 January. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corn, 10 pounds, cotton-
Seed meal, 2% pounds;
silage, 20 pounds; alfalfa
or clover. 3 pounds; oat
Straw, ted.
17 | February. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corn, 12 pounds; cotton-
seed meal, 2% pounds;
silage, 18 pounds; oat
straw, unlimited. .
18 March........]..............l........................ Sell. . . . . . . . . . Corn, 14 pounds; cotton-

Seed meal, 2 pounds; si-
lage, 15 pounds; oat straw,
unlimited.
feeds may be substituted in the place of these.
The rations indicated in the foregoing tables consist of corn,
cottonseed meal, corn silage, clover hay, and oat straw. Other
Barley, milo,
kafir, and similar grains may be used in the place of the corn, but
slightly larger quantities should be fed. Linseed-oil meal may be
used in place of cottonseed meal.
When neither of these meals is
available, the roughage should consist chiefly of a high-grade
leguminous hay. Alfalfa or other leguminous hays may be used
BABY BEEF 51
in place of clover hay. Other silages, or beets, may be used
instead of corn silage.
Oat straw is a valuable addition to all baby-beef rations, not
because of its nutritive value but because of its slightly laxative
and alterative effect. When available, oat straw should be kept
before the calves at all times.
Outside of the class of feeds mentioned above there are a few
that are highly effective in the finishing of baby beef. It has
been found at experiment stations that rations consisting of a
grain, some kind of oil meal, a succulent feed such as silage or
beets, and a leguminous hay, such as clover or alfalfa, are general-
ly productive of the best results. Some feeders, however, are
finishing a fair type of baby beef on simpler rations.
Average rations suitable for the last six months of the feeding
period are as follows:
1. 5.
Corn, 10 pounds. - Kafir or milo chop, 12 pounds.
Cottonseed meal, 2 pounds. Cottonseed meal, 2 pounds.
Clover hay, 3 pounds. Silage (corn, kafir, milo, or cane), 12
Corn silage, 10 pounds. pounds.
2. 6.
Corn-and-cob meal, 15 pounds. Corn, 8 pounds.
Linseed-oil meal, 2 pounds. Oats, 3 pounds
Clover hay, 3 pounds. Clover hay, 3 pounds.
Corn silage, 7 pounds. Corn silage, 10 pounds.
3. 7.
Corn, 10 pounds. Corn, 12 pounds.
Cottonseed meal, 1% pounds. Alfalfa hay, 7 pounds.
Alfalfa hay, 6 pounds.
Oat straw, unlimited. 8.
Corn, 6 pounds.
4. Molasses, 2 pounds.
Barley, 12 pounds. Cottonseed meal, 1% pounds.
Beets or roots, 10 pounds. Mixed hay, unlimited. .
Alfalfa hay, 5 pounds.
Straw, unlimited.
These rations are average for the main feeding period. A small
quantity of grain is fed at the start, and the quantity is increased
throughout the entire feeding period. Corn may be increased at
the rate of about 1 pound a month, or more if the calves will take
it. Cottonseed or linseed-oil meal may be increased from one-
fourth of a pound a day to 2 pounds during the first six or eight
weeks. If silage is fed a light ration is given at first, which is
increased as rapidly as the calves will take it until the last six
52 BABY BEEF
weeks of the feeding period, when it is decreased so that the grain
ration may be increased.
FALL OR SPRING CALVES
Most of the calves on farms of this country are born during the
spring months, but in recent years quite a number of farmers have
adopted the fall calving plan.
The following seem to be the advantages of this system:
1. Calves born during the fall months are not bothered by
flies, screw worms, maggots, etc., and hence they need less atten-
tion after castration and dehorning.
2. The young calf needs no grass until weaning time. The
fall-born calf can therefore suckle its dam during the winter
months and when weaned may go directly on pasture.
3. The fall-born calf fits in with pastures somewhat better
than those born in the spring. His first summer is spent on the
pasture, and at the end of this period he goes into the dry lot for
finishing. On the other hand the spring-born calf must be fed
during his first winter, and when the pastures are ready usually
he can not be placed on them because he has reached the finishing
period and should go into the dry lot.
4. The farmer who sells milk will derive greater profit when
his cows freshen in the fall, since milk markets are better during
the fall months.
5. Finishing calves in the fall and early winter interferes less
with the other farm work than when it is done during the Spring
and early summer. *
The disadvantages of fall calving are:
1. In extremely cold climates calves born in the late fall will
suffer from the cold, and unless warm barns are available fall
calving is not practicable.
2. More feed is necessary to maintain the cows when they are
nursing calves, and during the winter months this will add some-
what to the expense of keeping the herd, since pastures are not
always available.
3. Unless the farmer buys cows bred to calve in the fall he
can not make the change from spring to fall calving without los-
ing six months of service from the cows.
Those breeders who have tried the fall calving plan seem to
favor it highly, but it will not work to advantage under all condi-
tions.
BABY BEEF 53
SYSTEMS OF MANAGEMENT
The distinction between different systems of management of
the breeding herd and the calf herd chiefly pertains to the
methods of handling and feeding the calves up to weaning time.
The four systems practiced most extensively in the United States
are those which have been arbitrarily named as follows:
1. The beef system, in which the cows are kept strictly for
the calves they produce, and all calves are allowed to nurse their
dams. Such calves usually run with their dams at all times.
2. Double nursing, or the system whereby some of the cows
are required to suckle two calves rather than one, the cows with-
Out calves being milked.
3. Partially milked, or the system of allowing the calves to
take a portion of the milk, the balance being hand milked.
4. Dual purpose, where the herds are kept for both beef and
milk purposes. Under this system the cows are milked and the
calves are raised on skim milk and grain.
The straight beef system is advisable in cases where the cows do
not give enough milk to justify milking or where the cow herd is
too large to permit of milking, where good feeds are scarce, when
the cattle are kept under range conditions, where labor is very high
or unobtainable, where the calves are allowed to take all the milk in
order to get the greatest growth possible, or where the farm is not
located near a good market for milk products. A great advantage
in this system is that the calves can be allowed to run continuously
with their mothers. When on pasture the cattle need very little
attention, while with the other systems the handling of the herd
involves additional attention and labor.
The double-nursing system appears to be the best where the
cows are milked. An investigation recently completed by the
Department of Agriculture seems to indicate that this system
is the most economical of all beef-producing systems used in the
corn belt. The additional profits come through the sale of milk
and milk products. The system, however, is advisable only
where the breeding herd is composed of heavy milking cows.
The partial-milking system is used more extensively in the
Southeast than in any other section. It involves a great deal of
trouble and labor and is not practicable on the average beef-
producing farm.
The dual-purpose system does not generally yield very satis-
factory results in raising calves to be finished out as baby
54 BABY BEEF
beef, because it is very difficult to grow such calves on skim milk.
Calves grown in this manner lose their baby fat, and few feeders
can get the growth and finish out of such calves in time to sell
them as baby beef.
The first two systems mentioned, the beef and the double-
nursing, are the two which will be found most satisfactory for the
production of prime baby beef.
BREEDING AND FEEDING THE Cows
Uniformity in size and weight are very important factors in
producing baby beef; therefore it is desirable that all the cows
should calve within as short a period of time as possible. The
average period of gestation for the cow is 283 days, or about
9% months. To calve in April the cows should be bred during the
latter part of June and up to the latter part of July. If the calves
are desired in October the cows should be bred during December
or January. The bull should be kept separate from the cows
until the breeding season arrives. Every effort should then be
made to get all the cows in calf during six weeks or two months,
or in less time if possible. A cow generally comes in heat three
times during 63 days, and those that are not in calf after three
Services should be disposed of. -
Heifers should not calve before they are 27 to 30 months of
age, and most heifers will do better if they are older than this at
calving time.
Heifers and cows should be on pasture during as much of the
year as possible. If pastures become short they should be fed
a small quantity of grain. From one-half to 1% pounds of cotton-
Seed cake per day, depending upon the condition of the cows, is
generally enough. If the grass is very sparse, silage or hay should
be added to the ration, preferably the former. During the fall
and early winter they will get good grazing in cornfields and
meadows, although sometimes it will be necesary to supplement
their feed at this time with a small quantity of roughage. It
should be kept in mind that the most economical results in pro-
ducing beef calves will be obtained when the cows are maintained
largely on a roughage ration. At the present time silage is the
most economical of all available farm roughages. Expensive
hays should be avoided. Such feeds as straw and stover should
be provided in such quantities as the cows will consume. Suitable
\,
BABY BEEF 55
winter rations for 1,000-pound breeding cows per day are as
follows:
1. 4.
Cottonseed meal, 1% pounds. Corn, 3 pounds.
Silage, 40 pounds. Corn stover, 20 pounds.
Alfalfa, or clover hay, 4 pounds.
2. *
5.
Cottonseed meal, 1 pound.
Corn stover, 10 pounds.
Oat straw, 5 pounds.
Cottonseed meal, 2 pounds.
Johnson grass, prairie, or mixed hay,
ſe . 20 pounds.
Silage, 30 pounds. Corn stover, 10 pounds.
3. 6.
Cottonseed meal or linseed meal, 1 Corn-and-cob meal, 4 pounds.
pound. Cottonseed meal or linseed meal,
Shredded corn stover, 20 pounds. # pound.
Clover hay, 4 pounds. Hay (not leguminous), 15 pounds or
unlimited.
In each of these rations the roughages such as silage, corn
Stover, and all hay except leguminous hays (alfalfa, clover, etc.)
should be fed in such quantities as the animals will eat. The
quantity of grain and clover or alfalfa hay fed should be controlled,
and they should be given as the needs of the cows indicate. These
are sample rations, and substitutions may be made as prices or
availability of the feeds necessitate. The different constituents
of these rations also may be increased or decreased as needed.
The table which follows may be of assistance in the manage-
ment and feeding of the cow herd.
56
BABY BEEF
CALENDAR OF HERD MANAGEMENT IN PRODUCTION OF SPRING AND FALL CALVES
To produce spring calves.
To produce fall calves.
Month What to do. | Feed. Month. What to do. Feed.
July. . . . . . . . . . Breed. . . . . . . . Pasture with calves || January. . . . . . Breed. . . . . . . . Silage, 40 pounds;
and pull. cottonseed meal, 2
August.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pasture with calves. pounds; or silage,
September. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Do. 30 pounds, with
ctober. . . . . . . Wean calves. . . Pasture. COrn Stover or Straw
November. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. unlimited
December. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stalk fields, straw, February. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Do.
meadow aftermath. || March. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Do.
4. April..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Do.
January. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corn silage, 40 lbs.; May. . . . . . . . . Wean calves. . . Pasture.
cottonseed meal, || June. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Do.
1} p ou n d S ; || July. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Do.
or corn silage, 35 || August... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Do.
pound 8., with || September....|. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pasture; 1 pound cot-
stover unlimited. tonseed cake.
October. . . . . . Calves born Do.
February. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Do. November. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Do.
arch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C or n sil age, 40 || December. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stalk fields, meadow
pounds; cottonseed aftermath; cotton-
Seed meal, 1% seed cake, 2 lbs.
pounds; or corn pounds.
silage, 35 pounds,
with stover unlim-
ited.
April. . . . . . . . . Calves born...| Cottonseed meal, 2
pounds.
May. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pasture with calves.
June. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. -
FEEDING THE HEIFERs
Ordinarily, heifers intended for breeding purposes may be
kept with the steer calves and fed in the same manner until the
steers go on full feed. After this time the heifers should be fed
separate from the breeding herd, and on a grain ration somewhat
greater per 1,000 pounds live weight than that received by the
COWS.
A good ration for heifers at this time is 2% to 3 pounds
of cottonseed meal or linseed meal with all the silage they will
eat.
When nearing maturity they may be fed with the cow herd.
After about 9 months of age heifers will begin to come in heat,
and until breeding time they should be kept separate from all
bulls.”
REFERENCES
Types and Breed of Farm Animals—Plumb, Ginn and Company.
Animal Husbandry for Schools—Harper, Macmillan.
Beginnings in Animal Husbandry—Plumb, Webb Publishing Company.
Productive Feeding of Farm Animals—Woll, Lippincott.
Diseases of Animals—Mayo, Macmillan.
Common Diseases of Farm Animals—Craig, Lippincott.
BABY BEEF - 57
Purdue University Publications—
Extension Bulletin 12—Shall I Feed Cattle?
Experiment Station Circular 29—Livestock Judging for Beginners.
Experiment Station Bulletin 191—Winter Steer Feeding, 1915–1916.
Experiment Station Circular 60—Tuberculosis in Cattle and Hogs.
U. S. Department of Agriculture Publications—
Farmers’ Bulletin 612—Breeds of Beef Cattle.
Farmers’ Bulletin 580—Beef Production in the South.
Farmers' Bulletin 655—Cottonseed Meal for Feeding Beef Cattle.
Farmers' Bulletin 811—The Production of Baby Beef.
Sheep Raising
I. What the pupil should know.
A. Classification of sheep.
1. Types.
a. Mutton.
al. Medium wools or down breeds—(8
breeds)—Hampshire, Suffolk,
Dorset-Horn, Cheviot, Shrop-
shire, Tunis, Southdowns and
Oxford.
a2. Long wools—(3 breeds)—Leicester,
Cotswold and Linclon.
b. Merino.
a1. Fine wools—(3 breeds)—American,
Merino, Delaine Merino and
Rambouillet.
2. Market classes.
a. Fat or mutton.
al. Lambs.
a2. Yearlings.
a3. Wethers.
a 4. Ewes.
a 5. Bucks or stags.
b. Feeder.
a1. Lambs.
a2. Yearlings.
a3. Wethers.
a4. Ewes.
c. Breeding.
a1. Ewes.
a2. Bucks.
B. How to judge sheep.
1. Mutton sheep.
Age.
General appearance.
Head and neck.
Forequarters.
Body.
Hindquarters.
g. Wool.
2. Feeder sheep.
a. Constitution and form.
b. Quality.
c. Condition.
(58)
i
SHEEP RAISING 59
3. Breeding sheep.
a. Conformation.
b. Constitution.
c. Quality.
d. Breed type.
e. Sex characteristics.
f. Character of the fleece.
g. Color of the skin.
h. Ability to transmit good qualities.
i. The ewe.
j. The ram.
4. The Merino or Fine Wool type.
a. Form.
b. Wool.
C. Management of the flock.
1. Autumn.
a. Selecting the ewes.
b. Age of breeding.
c. Time of breeding.
d. Condition at time of breeding.
e. Number of ewes to a ram.
2. Winter.
a. Division of the flock.
b. Feeding—grain, roughage.
C. Water.
d. Rations for rams.
3. Spring.
Division of flock.
b. Trimming and cleaning udders.
c. Disturbing ewes.
d. Weak lambs.
€
f.
3.
Feeding grain to lambs.
Castrating the lamb.
. Docking the lamb.
4. Summer.
Fresh water required.
Salt and sulphur.
Application of tar.
Shade.
Change of pasture.
Guard against worms.
Summer grazing crops.
Weaning.
i. Shearing the sheep.
D. Fattening Sheep.
g
i
E. Diseases of sheep.
1. Parasites.
2. Gid or Sturdy.
3. Stomach worm.
60 SHEEP RAISING
4. Catarrh.
5. Scours.
6. Constipation.
7. Colic.
8. White dysentery in lambs.
9. Pink eye.
10. The scab.
11. The tick.
12. Lice.
13. Maggots.
F. How to keep records of all items of cost and income.
II. What the pupil should do.
A. The above and related topics should be studied in school.
B. Beginning in the fall and continuing throughout the year, the
pupil should have under his management at least one ewe
and her offspring. If he can not have one or more ewes
at home to care for and manage, he should not take up the
study of this project.
POINTS OF INFORMATION
TYPES OF SHEEP1
“Sheep may be divided into two general types on the basis
of the purpose for which they are bred. These two types are
the mutton and the Merino. The breeders of the mutton type
breed primarily for mutton, with the fleece as a secondary con-
sideration. The breeders of the Merino or fine-wool type em-
phasize first of all the wool producing qualities.
The following outline shows the classification of sheep on the
basis of types: t
Medium wools
Or
Mutton -
Classification No. 1 & * Down breeds (8 breeds)
Types
Long wools (3 breeds)
| Merino—Fine wools (3 breeds)
By the above classification note that the mutton type of sheep
is divided into two sub-types or groups, medium wools and long
wools. This division is made on the basis of the nature and
length of the wool and not on the basis of conformation or utility.
Although the breeds within these two groups differ materially in
character, what is known as the mutton type or form is essentially
1. Purdue Experiment Station Circular 29.
SHEEP RAISING 61
the same in both groups and the advocates of each breed have
the same ideas as to what constitutes good form, quality, and con-
stitution, regardless of the breed to which the animal belongs.
In these essentials of the mutton sheep, breeders of the several
mutton breeds have many things in common and all agree on a
common ideal in most respects.
The market cares nothing for breed characters and it never
asks to what breed the animal belongs. However, some markets
do prefer the black-faced type. What it demands is the best
development of those parts which make for good mutton. As a
result sheep that go on the market are not classified with respect
to breed type. They are classified on the basis of their utility
according to the following outline:
ſ Lambs
Yearlings
Fat Or mutton Wethers
Ewes
Bucks or stags
Lambs
Yearlings
Wethers
Ewes
Classification No. 2
Feed
Market Classes º €6Cler”
Ewes
| Breeding Bucks
By market sheep is meant all those sheep that are sold on the
live stock market. The names of the classes indicate the use to
which they are put, while the names of the sub-classes suggest
difference of either age or sex between sheep put to the same use.
According to classification No. 2, market sheep are divided
into three classes, fat, feeder, and breeding, according to the use
to which they are put when sold.
FAT SHEEP
Market Demands.--It is the ultimate aim of all breeders of
mutton sheep to produce that type best suited to fill the demands
of the butcher. The main feature demanded in a sheep by dealers
in high-class mutton are, proper age and weight, form, condition,
and quality.
The butcher’s or market's ideal is best represented in the
following score card:
62 SHEEP RAISING
Points deficient
Stand-
SCALE OF POINTS ard Stu-
dent’s Cor–
SCOre rected
1. Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GENERAL APPEARANCE—38 per cent.
2. Weight, score according to age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Form, long, level, deep, broad, low set, stylish. . ... . . . 10 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Quality, clean bone; silky hair; fine pink skin; ligh
in offal, yielding high percentage of meat. . . . . . . . . 10 ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Condition, deep even COvering Offirm flesh, especial-|
ly in regions of valuable cuts. Points indicating
ripeness, are, thick, dock, back thickly, covered
with flesh, thick neck, full purse, full flank, plump
breast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HEAD AND NEC K–7 per cent.
6. Muzzle, fine; mouth large; lips thin; nostrils large
and Open. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Eyes, large, clear, placid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Face, short; features clean-cut. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9. Forehead, broad, full . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10. Ears, fine, alert. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11. Neck, thick, short, free from folds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FORE QUARTERS–7 per cent.
12. Shoulders, covered with flesh, compact on top, snug. 5 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13. Brisket, neat, proportionate; breast wide. . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14. Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong; forearm
ull; shank smooth, fine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BODY-20 per cent.
15. Chest, wide, deep, full. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16. Ribs, well sprung, long, close. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17. Back, broad, straight long, thickly fleshed., . . . . . . . . . 6 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18. Loin, thick, broad, long. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HIND QUARTERS–16 per cent.
19. Hips, far apart, level, Smooth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20. Rump, long, level, wide to tail-head. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21. Thighs, full, deep, wide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22. Twist, plump, deep. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23. Legs, straight, short, strong; shank fine, smooth. . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WOOL–12 per cent.
24. Quantity, long dense, even . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25. Quality, fine, pure; crimp close, regular, even. . . . . ... • 4 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26. Condition, bright, sound, clean, soft, light. . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

FEEDER SHEEP.
When judging feeder sheep, always keep in mind the type that
best meets the demands of the butcher. The feeder that will come
nearest to doing this when fat will be the most profitable.
Constitution and Form.–From the market standpoint the
chest, breast, or underline requires little consideration but in the
view of the feeder, these points are of great importance. To be
profitable to the feeder, a sheep must have a vigorous constitu-
SHEEP RAISING 63
tion, be able to consume a large amount of feed and transform it
into valuable meat at the lowest possible cost. These characters
are invariably associated with a wide, deep chest, good depth of
barrel, and well sprung ribs to give ample room for the lungs,
heart, and digestive organs. Good size is desired because an
animal is wanted that will attain a good weight at an early age.
A short, broad head with fine quality ears, full, bright eyes, open
nostrils, strong lips, and a short, thick neck, deep body and short
legs, all indicate a vigorous, thrifty animal which will give a good
return for feed consumed and kill out a valuable carcass of mutton
when fat.
Quality.—Quality is indicated in the feeder in the same way
that it is in fat sheep. It is very important in that it adds to the
value of the carcass when fat, both in dressing per cent. and the
edible quality of the meat. It is also very closely associated with
the growth and feeding qualities of the animal.
Condition.—By no means should feeder sheep be fat. How-
ever, the better type shows fairly straight, full outlines because
they indicate good growth and a rapid feeding tendency. Then
too the very thin lamb is not likely to finish in a normal feeding
period and is less likely to possess the thrift and constitutional
vigor necessary to make fast and economical gains in the feed
lot. The animal that carries some flesh and is in a growthy con-
dition is preferred, at the same price per pound, to the very thin
animal because it will finish quicker and to a higher degree, even
though the gains per day are not so great.
BREEDING SHEEP
All the marks of excellence in conformation, constitution, and
quality, that are required in butcher and feeder sheep, are just
as important in the breeding classes. Because of the action and
workings of the law “like begets like” you cannot expect to raise
high class feeders that will finish into high grade butcher sheep
from an inferior lot of breeding stuff. -
Besides the above mentioned requisites, special attention must
be given to breed type and sex characters. Then, too, greater
emphasis must be placed on the character of the fleece, the color
of the skin, and the constitutional vigor and thrift of breeding
sheep, for without such qualities all excellence of form, quality,
etc., will avail nothing if the animal is not strong enough to
transmit these good features to its offspring. Straight, strong
64 SHEEP RAISING
legs, set well apart, with strong pasterns, are also very necessary
to the general health and utility for breeding purposes.
The Ewe.—When judging the ewe from the breeding stand-
point it should be remembered that she must possess not only the
requisites of the fat sheep in general form and quality, and the
constitutional vigor and feeding and fleshing qualities of the feeder,
but she must also possess all those characters that indicate a
longlived, regular, and prepotent breeder. To insure a long
life and regularity in breeding, the ewe should be rugged in con-
stitution, of good form, sound in mouth and udder, and bear an
abundant fleece of healthy wool. In addition to this she should
have a strong maternal nature and feminine appearance. This
is indicated by rather fine features about the head, a slender neck
as compared to that of the ram, especially deep, round ribs, with
a rather long, capacious body to provide room for the developing
fetus. The ewe that will milk well and rear early maturing lambs,
tends towards the wedge shape, being deeper in the chest, larger
bodied, and wider across the loin and hips than the ram. She
should not carry excessive fat. The flesh should be firm and
evenly distributed, and not gathered in blubbery patches about
the tail-head. -
Ewes should adhere very closely to the type of the breed to
which they belong, possessing in a marked degree all the breed
characters that are laid down in the standards of the breed
association. Such ewes give evidence of purity of breeding
through several generations along definite lines for a definite
purpose, having the breed characters so fixed as to be uniformly
transmitted to the offspring.
Rough ewes with plain, heavy heads and necks, lacking in
general refinement and feminine appearance are rarely satis-
factory breeders. On the other hand, short, shallow bodied ewes
with narrow hindquarters and an undersized, stunted appearance
should also be avoided for they lack the necessary breeding
essentials of size, form, quality and constitutional vigor as pointed
out above.
The Ram.—The ram is the head of the flock and might well
be called half of it. Type and breed characters are the first
considerations in judging a ram. He should be pure-bred, and
possess, to a high degree, all the characters of the breed to which
he belongs, as in the case of the ewe, because this indicates
prepotency. He should have plenty of size, and as opposed to
the ewe, have a strongly developed forehand and a decidedly
SHEEP RAISING 65
masculine appearance, indicated by general burliness of the head,
thickness of neck, general massiveness, with a bold, energetic
Outlook, a bright, clear eye, much quality, and a brisk movement,
denoting vim and vigor. He should have widely distended
nostrils, a thick, heavy loin, twist and crops, broad, full
chest and brisket, a level, strong back, hips well laid in, a
straight, deep, level flank, and a fine, long dense fleece of good
quality. Such a ram will leave his impress indelibly on the off-
spring. An effeminate ram is a decided objection because he
usually lacks prepotency and is rarely a sure and strong breeder.
THE MERINO OR FINE WOOL TYPE OF SHEEP
The purpose of the Merino or fine-wool sheep is essentially
different from that of the mutton type. The former is bred almost
exclusively for its wool, while the latter is bred principally for
mutton, with the wool as a secondary consideration.
Form.—The general conformation of the Merino may be com-
pared to that of dairy cattle. It lacks fullness of breast, breadth
of back, and general thickness throughout with a leg of mutton
that lacks fullness, and has rather long neck and legs. An angular,
muscular development of the entire body prevails rather than the
smoothness and heavy fleshing of the mutton type. However, the
head is short and should be broad at the muzzle, with large nostrils;
the nose short and inclined to be wrinkled, and somewhat Roman
shaped in the ram. Horns occur on most males of the fine wool
type and on the females of some breeds. They have a more or less
cork screw shape and should have a waxy, dense texture denoting
Quality. The neck is rather long and thin in the ewe, but should
show decided strength and masculinity in the ram with more or
less “throatiness.” Although the shoulders are narrow they tend
to be prominent with sharp withers. The breast and chest are
narrow but should gain capacity by depth. Crooked legs com-
ing together at the knees, with the toes spread out are objection-
able, indicating as they do a narrow chest. The body usually
carries a narrow back and flat rib. The ribs should be long to give
ample feeding and breeding capacity. The sheep is usually
inclined to be droopy and narrow behind with a thin leg of mutton
carrying a small amount of flesh. The head and neck, forequarters
and body are given about the same rating on the score card for
both the mutton and fine-wool types. However, the hindquarters
are given only eight per cent. for the fine-wool type as compared
8345—5
66 SHEEP RAISING
to 16 per cent. or double the amount for the mutton. This is
readily understood when we consider that it is in the leg that we
get the greatest amount and the highest priced meat in the .
mutton type, and that meat is of little importance in fine-wools.
Wool.—Since the wool is the principal source of income from
the Merino sheep, it must be given special consideration. It is the
most important factor in the true Merino type. When judging a
ring of fine-wools almost half the rating is based on the fleece.
The score card gives the wool a value of 45 per cent. in the Merino
as compared to only 12 per cent. in the mutton type. The wool
of the Merino is shorter than in the mutton type, but is very
thick over the entire body, carrying well down on the face and
legs and is remarkably fine in quality, having a very close crimp
and an exceedingly soft texture. The yolk is abundant and gives
the sheep a dirty and oily appearance because it collects and holds
dust and foreign particles. Many sheep of this type possess
folds on the neck and shoulders, and in some cases they appear
on the body and thighs, affording more area for the growth of
the wool.” -
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT"
“The important things to be attended to in the fall are the
culling of the ewes, having them get in lamb, and the selection
of the rams. In fact, the latter should by no means be deferred
until the fall. The culling of the ewes is equal in importance to
the choice of a ram. The fall flock should contain no eves past
breeding age that have not had or raised lambs. . . . Two
factors determine a ewe's fitness to remain in the breeding flock.
The first is the character of the lambs she has raised, and the
Second her prospects for usefulness as shown by age and con-
dition. . . . . The best milking ewes are likely to be in lowest
condition, and if condition and appearance are the only guides,
the best breeders are likely to be put among the culls and the
poorest mothers retained.
It is generally considered that a good breeding ewe should be
kept as long as she will breed. Occasionally there are ewes that
will continue to breed good lambs until nine or ten years of age,
long after they have lost the power of getting into good market-
able condition. In pure-bred flocks, the extra value of the lambs
from such eves more than overbalances the loss from being unable
1_“Sheep Farming” by John A.VCraig.
SHEEP RAISING 67
realize upon them when they finally succumb. . . . . In a
strictly commercial flock, however, it is more economical to
discard ewes before they are too far gone to bring a fair price
from the butcher. The aim should be to keep the flock composed
mainly of ewes four or five years old.
The number of ewe lambs will ordinarily be considerably
greater than the number of ewes to be discarded. This allows
a thorough culling of the lambs to be made. In the fall that they
are yearlings, they can again be gone over and only the most
promising used to replace the old ewes that have been discarded.
It is very desirable to breed yearling ewes to an old ram that is
known to be a sure breeder and a good sire.
The time at which the breeding season begins will depend
largely on the local conditions and the parentage of the flock.
It will be found generally that ewes of Dorset descent or Merino
breeding may be bred at unusual seasons, but with other breeds
of sheep the usual breeding season is either in September or
October. It usually comes with the first cold weather that comes
in the fall.
The inheritance of the lamb expected is arranged for and
determined beyond direct control when the matings are arranged.
The heriditary material from the parents is more likely
to be active and potent in developing the qualities it conveys
when the body of the parent is in a vigorous, healthy, and well-
nourished condition. -
A ram that is a yearling or older, when running in the field
with the ewes, should serve fifty ewes. To do this, he should be
taken out and fed grain once each day. Ram lambs will do as
well as sires if well grown and used only moderately. About
twenty is as large a number of ewes as can be relied upon for good
results when bred to a ram lamb.
If more than one ram is mated, it is good economy to divide
the ewes into flocks according to their adaptability to the separate
rams. If rams are kept up, however, each eve may be assigned
to a particular ram as she comes in heat and is ready to be bred.
By keeping the ram away from the flock, he can care for nearly
twice as many eves as when running in the field. . . . . When
this plan is followed, the ram is turned among the ewes in the
morning or both morning and evening. The ewes that appear to
he in heat are taken out and allowed a single service. A ram well
cared for and bred on this plan may serve two or three ewes both
morning and evening for a limited number of days, and a well-
68 SHEEP RAISING
cared-for mature ram so handled can get one hundred ewes in
lamb in a season.
WINTER MANAGEMENT
Good yard accommodation in which the sheep can keep on dry
footing and have plenty of room to exercise is the first requisite.
In the house or sheds, about fifteen square feet of floor space is
necessary for an average-sized sheep. The fleece affords sufficient
warmth while it is dry, and for this reason the main need in a
shed or sheep barn is protection from storms and plenty of ventila-
tion without drafts. If the quarters are airy and comfortable,
the sheep will resort to them whenever necessary. On most dry
nights, they will prefer to be out of doors and will winter much
better if allowed to do so than they will if kept confined in close
or crowded pens. . . . . With dry footing, sheep are better
off to remain in the fields as long as possible, and if some grass
has been allowed to cure upon the ground, it is a good place
for the ewes during the daytime until snow becomes deep or
ground becomes wet.
One advantage of a large flock is that the sheep are more
likely to be sorted by age, sex, and condition into various lots
for wintering. In a small flock in which all kinds are run together
some members of the winter flock are sure to get more or less feed
than they need. It is first of all desirable to have one shelter
and lot for ewe lambs. . . . . Ordinarily it will be found
more economical to dispose of all the lambs that are not wanted
for breeders in the fall and use the winter feed and quarters mainly
for a large number of breeding ewes. . . . . The number of
ewes in lamb that will do well together varies with the breeds,
but they will thrive better in lots of forty or fifty than in larger
numbers. Ewes carrying lambs for the first time need extra
feed and attention and can make up a separate lot to good ad-
Vantage.
The aim in wintering breeding ewes is to bring them to
lambing time in good vigorous condition and in medium flesh.
The health and vigor desired cannot follow a close in-door winter
life. The feeding required will depend upon the season and the
condition of the ewes at the time the pastures are abandoned.
When the fall grass is soft and washy, it is good economy
to start with some dry feed before the ewes are taken from the
pasture. Hay may be used at this time, though a feed of about
SHEEP RAISING 69
one-half pound of grain for each eve daily can usually be taken
to them more conveniently.
Sheep that enter the winter in good heart can be carried
until nearly lambing time without grain feeding. To do this,
however, a good supply of clean, well-cured roughages is neces-
sary. Red clover or alfalfa hay are well-nigh indispensable,
indeed without one of them grain feeding must be resorted to.
Corn fodder can be used in wintering ewes, but it should be well
cured. . . . . The advisability of cutting fodders for sheep
can be determined mainly on the value of the fodder and the waste
that is saved by so doing. . . . . When good dry fodder
or hay is used as part of the rough feed, a good quality of silage
can be used to good advantage. Account needs to be taken of
the amount of grain in the silage, as the ewes may be made over-
fat if the rest of the ration is of a fattening nature.
The amount or kind of grain that should be used will depend
upon the character of the other part of the ration. With some
silage carrying the ordinary amount of corn and alfalfa or clover
hay, little or no grain should be needed, but this can be determined
best by the condition of the ewes as revealed by going among
them. . . . . Toward lambing time, the growth of the fetus
makes demands for such elements as occur in oats and bran.
These feeds also favor a good milk flow, and their use a few weeks
before and after lambing is highly desirable.
The breeding flock should have access to water at all times,
especially is this true after they have lambed. It will be found
then that ewes seem to have an inordinate thirst for water,
and it should be supplied to them liberally. Salt should also be
within their reach at all times. . . . . They seem to get
the most from coarse-grained salt, which may be spread on the
sills of the shed or put in small boxes used especially for the
purpose. .
In feeding rams during the winter season, the object is to feed
them as cheaply as possible and maintain their health and thrift.
Oats and bran and oil meal may be relied on to meet all the
requirements of a grain ration. A ram should receive one-half
to one pound of this mixture, though the quantity should be
decided altogether by the condition of the ram. Clover hay,
pea straw, or corn fodder are the best foods from which to select
the coarse portions of the ration. Some succulent fodder, such
as silage or roots, should be fed so as to keep the ram from be-
coming constipated.
70 - SHEEP RAISING
SPRING MANAGEMENT
It is advisable to divide the ewes into lots according to the time
they are due to lamb. This will assist the shepherd in keeping
informed as to the time of lambing, and also benefit the ewes.
By putting the ewes that are in the same degree of pregnancy
together, they are not so liable to be injured, and through divisions
into small groups, there is likely to be less crowding at the feed
boxes. This is a very critical period in the management of the
flock, and every attention should be given to the care and comfort
of the ewes. . . . . It is better to separate the ewes one week
before they are actually due, rather than to delay this until their
period of gestation has almost passed. The duration of preganacy
is almost invariably 147 days. -
Indications of lambing are noticable several days before the
event takes place. There is a marked dropping of the flanks
accompanied by a swollen and red appearance of the vulva.
Immediately preceding lambing, the ewe becomes restless and
frequently changes her position.
Previous to lambing, the udders of the ewes should be trimmed
when necessary, thereby removing all wool that might be in the
way of the lamb when it attempts to suck. By removing too
much of the covering of the udder, inflammation may result from
exposure. The udder should be cleaned if any filth has gathered
on it, for such will often prevent the lamb from sucking the teat.
Inexperienced shepherds invariably err in being too attentive
to the ewe when lambing is about to take place. Unless there is
evidence that something is wrong in the presentation or condi-
tion of the fetus, the ewe should not be annoyed. She should be
left quiet and unnoticed until straining begins.
Warmth is one of the best stimulants to use when the lamb
is weak. The quarters should supply this as far as possible.
It is a good plan to warm weak lambs by wrapping them in thick
woolen cloths that have been warmed on a stove. . . . . If
the lamb is not extremely weak, it may be only required to feed
Some of its dam's milk with a spoon. If it does not gain strength
by frequent feeding of the milk and keeping it warm, a stimulant
such as whiskey will be required.
It is advisable to feed grain to lambs as soon as they begin
to eat. If the ewes are fed grain from a low trough, the lambs
will begin to eat some with their dams before they are two weeks
old. As soon as they begin to do this, a part of the pen should
SHEEP RAISING 71
be set apart as a feeding place for them. . . . In feeding lambs,
the aim should be to give them all the food they have the capacity
to consume without gorging them. This implies frequent feed-
ing in small quantities. (Feed in the morning, at noon, and in
the evening.) . . . . At first lambs will take but a small quantity
of grain, but as soon as a few of them come to the trough at your
call, the others soon follow and the grain is eagerly eaten. . . .
When lambs have reached the age of one month, they will eat
and use to advantage one-half pound daily of an equal mixture
of bran and oil meal. -
The safest method of castration is best performed when the
lamb is one or two weeks old. If attempted before this time, the
testicles will be found to be small and soft, and as a result difficult
to remove. Two persons are required. One should hold the
lamb tightly by gathering the four legs together and pressing
the lamb tightly against his body. The operator taking hold
of the scrotum and pulling the skin free from the testicles cuts
it straight across about an inch from the body of the lamb. The
testicles will then protrude. It will be noticed that there will be
a constriction near the end of the testicle. If this is slit the
testicle at once springs free of the covering, and it is easily re-
moved by pulling it out after the slight attachment remaining
at the end has been loosened. As much of the cord should be
taken away as can be removed by pulling it. When the lambs
are young and the testicle small, it should be drawn from the lamb
without attempting to remove the outer covering. The scrotum
should be left open so that festering may not occur. The lambs
that are treated should be kept in a dry place for two days.
The easiest and most agreeable way of docking is to have the
lamb held in a manner similar to that desirable for castration,
and when in that position, the tail is cut off with a sharp knife
one inch or less from the body. It will be observed that it is at
that distance that the skin of the body on the underside merges
into the tail. . . . . If done when the lamb is not more than
a week old, it will not suffer from the loss of blood.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT
While sheep possess the ability to do without water with less
annoyance than other classes of stock, yet it certainly adds to
their comfort and health to have access to pure, fresh water at all
times. Especially is this true during the hot, dry months of
July and August.
72 SHEEP RAISING
It is advisable to have places in the pasture or under shelter
where the sheep may secure salt and sulphur at any time. In
the spring and winter there is a likelihood of contracting colds
from eating sulphur, but this is not likely to occur during the
summer months. . . . . The sulphur should be mixed with
the salt in sufficient quantities to give it a slight yellowish tinge.
When the salt is fed in a granular form, the sheep will eat more of
it than if it is given them in the rock condition. The salt should
be before them at all times. *
During the hot, dry season when the flies torment the sheep a
great deal, it is advisable to coat the nostrils of all the sheep with
pine tar. The best plan is to warm the tar until it becomes
fluid, and then with a stick that has a small piece of cloth wound
around it, apply the tar to the nostrils. This wards off the attacks
of the gadfly. The gadfly is generally busiest just before sunset.
During the summer season, the sheep should have some shade
in their pastures. If they have access to a small grove of trees,
this is all that is needed, but where they cannot have this, a cheap
shelter may easily be constructed by means of boards.
Instead of giving the sheep the run of a very large pasture,
better results can be obtained by limiting them to a small acreage
at different times. They like a change, and by arranging the
pasture into fields of fair size, the pasturage may be better main-
tained.
Where permanent pastures are the sole reliance, there is danger
in all central states from the stomach worm. The eggs are left on
the ground by infected sheep and taken in by the lambs when graz-
ing. The infection is seldom troublesome in the ewes. Infec-
tion of the lambs is to be avoided by allowing them to graze only
on ground that has been cultivated since having been passed
Over by infected animals. When this is not convenient, recourse
is sometimes had to the plan of keeping the lambs all the time in
the shed and bare lots, where there is no means of the eggs being
taken in. The ewes run on the pastures and come in to nurse
the lambs two or three times each day. . . . . This plan
requires considerable attention to the flock, but has worked
successfully.
It is possible to carry a flock from spring until winter upon
sown crops. One piece of land sown to rye will furnish fall and
spring pasture and can be reseeded to furnish oats and peas
later or a fall crop of rape. Early sown oats or oats and field peas
can be ready after therye is gone, and a new clover field may be used
SHEEP RAISING 73
before the second crop is ready. Spring and summer pasture is
sometimes furnished by a stand of clover seeded at the end of
cultivation of a corn crop. Rape sown with small grains furnishes
good fall pasture in some seasons. There is a danger of its making
growth enough to be troublesome in the grain harvest. The same
crop can be sown between the corn rows, or it can be sown sep-
arately for earlier feeding. . . . . Oats, peas, and vetches are
other crops that can be used to maintain the supply of summer
feed. . . . . Alfalfa is one of the most valuable forage crops.
It can be used to carry sheep all through the season or for use when
none of the other crops is ready.
There is considerable variation in the ages at which lambs are
weaned, but at four months of age is the standard time. It
is not often considered necessary to take out the older ones first,
though if some of the lambs are much younger than the others,
it may be advisable to leave them with their dams after the older
ones are weaned. . . . . Weaning may be done at ten or twelve
weeks, though such is possible only when there is plenty of good
green feed available for the lambs.
The time at which shearing may be best done depends upon
location, housing facilities and time of lambing for breeding ewes.
There may be actual losses or serious setbacks for some sheep if
the wool is removed early and warm quarters not provided.
FATTENING SHEEP
In farm flocks, practically all the sheep fitted for market are
lambs. A few cull ewes need to be fattened in most seasons, but
it is the finishing of the lambs that has most to do with returns
and requires special study. There are three plans of disposing
of lambs. The first is to have the lambs come early and then
to feed them liberally in pens from which the ewes are excluded.
The milk flow of the ewes is also kept up by good feeding, and
lambs are marketed at fifty pounds or upwards.
The second plan is to market the lambs at weaning time or
shortly after. The third is to wean the lambs and run them on
pasture until winter, when they are fattened and sold when ten
or twelve months old. In the first plan, the lambs must be fed
grain while on the ewes; with the other plans feeding at that stage
is optional.
Experiments have shown that lambs fed grain from birth
bring a higher price, if sold at the end of the weaning period, as
74 SHEEP RAISING
well as at the beginning of the fattening period and at the end
of the period, than those not receiving grain. It pays to feed
lambs grain if they are sold at weaning time or at about four
months old. It pays to feed lambs grain before and after weaning
if they are to be sold in November.
Corn is the most fattening grain that may be fed to sheep.
In relying on it alone, however, there is much difficulty in main-
taining the appetites of the sheep and in preventing disorders and
deaths. . . . . With clover, hay, or alfalfa, corn has com-
bined to give excellent results in numerous experiments and in
commercial feeding.
Oats are especially desirable for getting sheep or lambs on
feed. It is a grain safe to begin with. Fed alone continuously
Oats do not produce as great gains as corn does, and as the fatten-
ing period advances, the proportion of oats should be decreased.
Much, however, depends upon the form of roughage in use and
comparative prices of these grains.
Peas are excellent feed for sheep. With breeders they are
especially prized for producing firm flesh.
Bran, like oats, is very useful in avoiding disorders when com-
mencing grain feeding, and its cooling and laxative tendencies
make it very useful, especially when the alfalfa or succulent
feeds are not available.
Clover hay, alfalfa hay, oat straw, and corn stover are rough-
ages that may be used with grain feeds.
Careful attention must be given to the amount of grain that
is fed. . . . . There are some foods that are safer than others
to feed at the beginning, and among these oats or bran have a
general preference. Wheat is comparatively safe, while corn
is probably the most dangerous to feed alone. One pound per
head daily of either bran or oats is liberal feeding for sheep that
are accustomed to grain and a slightly smaller quantity will be
sufficient for those that have not been accustomed to it. The
quantity of grain may be gradually increased as the capacity
of the sheep to consume it becomes greater. . . . . In start-
ing, from .5 pound to one pound may be fed. A month later
the wether will probably be taking 1.5 to 2 pounds per head,
and during the last month from 2 to 3 pounds per head has been
the capacity for most of the sheep.”
SHEEP RAISING 75
LAMB FEEDING ExPERIMENTs AT PURDUE UNIVERSITY
Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin
192 contains the following discussion on experiments in feeding
western lambs in 1915–1916: -
Western lambs have been money makers in the experimental
work at Purdue during the last few years. They have been the
most profitable animals employed to convert feed into meat.
In spite of the fact that feeding lambs have been extremely high,
the price of fat lambs has been correspondingly high, and the
profit from handling them has been very satisfactory.
The large cash profit in feeding lambs has not obscured the
greatest and most permanent benefit from the operation. This
is the maintenance of productive soils. The utilization of rough
feed and return of plant food to the soil are of even greater value
to the stockman than the direct profit from the stock. When both
factors are considered, lamb feeding offers one of the most profit-
able live stock operations open to farmers who are fitted personally
and are equipped for handling this class of stock.
When the trial reported in the bulletin was started, feeding
lambs were at an extremely high level. When it was finished, fat
lambs were correspondingly high and all lots of lambs returned
Satisfactory profits. Choice improved Mexican lambs were pur-
chased in Denver, Colorado, and were fed for a period of one
hundred days. Before being started on feed the lambs were
divided into nine equal lots of twenty-five animals each. All
lots were as nearly equal as possible in weight, quality, condition,
thrift and sex. The lambs were fed twice daily at the same hours.
Lots 1 to 8 inclusive were fed in an open shed facing South,
upon different rations. Lot 9 was fed in a well ventilated barn
upon the same ration as lot 6.
The following rations were fed:
Lot 1. Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, corn silage.
Lot 2. Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, molasses, clover
hay, corn silage.
Lot 3. Shelled corn, clover hay.
Lot 4. Shelled corn, alfalfa hay.
Lot 5. Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, oat straw, corn silage,
Lot 6. Shelled corn, clover hay, corn silage.
Lot 7. Shelled corn, cottonseed meal, clover hay, corn silage.
Lot 8. Shelled corn, ground soybeans, clover hay, corn silage.
Lot 9. Shelled corn, clover hay, corn silage (fed in barn).
76 SHEEP RAISING
The feeds used in the trial were of as good quality as could be
purchased. All feed was weighed before being fed. The lambs
were weighed at regular intervals of ten days. They were valued
at the end of the trial by expert sheepmen from the stock yards.
The addition of corn silage to a ration of corn and clover hay
slightly increased the rate of gain and reduced the cost of gain
81 cents per hundred pounds. The selling value of the lambs
was increased by the use of silage in the ration. The profit
per lamb was $1.02 when silage was not fed as compared with
$1.31 when this roughage was a part of the ration. -
Corn silage without hay did not prove satisfactory as roughage.
The lambs did not make as economical gains nor sell for as high
a price as when hay was fed in addition to the silage. The
addition of oat straw to a ration of grain and silage did not im-
prove the feeding value of the ration. The rate of gain was not
more rapid and the cost of gain was higher than when oats straw
was not fed. When both hay and silage were fed with the grain
the lambs made most satisfactory gains and returned a profit
of $1.74 per head.
Lambs fed a ration of corn and alfalfa hay made more rapid
and more economical gains and returned a larger profit than those
fed a ration of corn and clover hay. -
The use of cottonseed meal in a ration of corn, clover hay and
corn silage was economical. The rate of gain was increased and
the finish secured was much better when the cottonseed meal was
fed. Lambs fed the ration not containing cottonseed meal re-
turned a profit of $1.31 per head as compared to $1.74 per head
when cottonseed meal was fed.
The replacement with cane feeding molasses of a small quan-
tity of corn in a ration of shelled corn, cottonseed meal, clover
hay and corn silage had little effect on the rate of gain or feed
required to make a pound of gain. The cost of gain was higher
and the finish on the lambs less when the molasses was fed. The
lambs fed a ration containing molasses, returned a profit of $1.29
per head as compared to a profit of $1.74 when the same ration
without the molasses was fed.
Ground soybeans fed in comparison to cottonseed meal as
supplement to a ration for fattening lambs failed to produce as
rapid or as economical gains as when cottonseed meal was fed.
Lambs fed the ground soybeans as supplement were valued at
$10.65 per cwt. and returned a profit of $1.45 per head. Lambs
SHEEP RAISING - 77
fed cottonseed meal as a supplement were valued at $10.90 per
cwt. and returned a profit of $1.74 per head.
Lambs fed in an open shed gained slightly more and at a less
cost than lambs fed in a barn. The finish on the lambs was the
same in both lots but on account of more economical gains the
lambs fed in the open shed returned nine cents per head greater
profit than lambs fed in a barn.
DISEASES OF SHEEP
For a discussion of the topics under this heading teachers and
pupils are referred to books and bulletins dealing with these
topics as indicated in the list of references.
REFERENCES
Sheep Farming, John A. Craig–Macmillan.
Sheep Feeding and Farm Management—Doane, Ginn and Company.
Animal Husbandry for Schools—Harper, Macmillan.
Types and Breeds of Farm Animals—Plumb, Ginn and Company.
Common Diseases of Farm Animals—R. A. Craig, Lippincott.
Productive Feeding of Farm Animals—Woll, Lippincott.
Purdue University Publications:
Experiment Station Bulletin 192—Fattening Western Lambs, 1915–1916.
Experiment Station Circular 29—Livestock Judging for Beginners.
U. S. Department of Agriculture Publications:
Farmers’ Bulletin 713—Sheep Scab.
Farmers’ Bulletin 49—Sheep Feeding.
Farmers’ Bulletin 98—Raising Sheep for Mutton.
Circular 102—B. A. I.--Stomach Worms in Sheep.
Bulletin 63—B. A. I.-Foot Rot in Sheep.
Bulletin 66—B. A. I.-Gid Parasite in Sheep.
Farmers' Bulletin 798—The Sheep Tick.
º
Colt Raising
I. What the pupil should know.
1. Types of horses.
a. Draft type.
b. Speed type.
c. Show type.
d. Saddle type.
2. Classes of Horses.
a. Work.
b. Heavy Harness.
c. Light Harness.
d. Saddle.
e. Pony.
3. Breeds of horses.
a. Draft.
1a. Percheron.
2a. Belgian.
3a. Clydesdale.
4a. Shire.
5a. Suffolk.
b. Heavy Harness.
1b. Hackney.
2b. Yorkshire Coach.
3b Cleveland Bay.
4b. French Coach.
5b. German Coach.
6b. Russian Orloff.
C. Light Harness.
1c. American Standardbred.
d. Saddle Breeds.
1d. Thoroughbred.
2d. American Saddle Horse.
3d. Arabian.
e. Pony.
1e. Shetland.”
2e. Welsh.
3e. Hackney.
4. How to judge horses.
Features to consider.
8.
1a.
2a.
3a.
4a.
5a.
6a,
7a.
(78)
General appearance.
Form.
Conformation.
Quality.
Substance.
Constitution.
Condition.
CoLT RAISING 79
8a.
9a.
10a.
11a.
Way of going.
Age.
Soundness.
Temperament and Disposition.
(See score cards for the different
breeds.)
5. Care and management of the brood mare.
6. How and what to feed the brood mare.
7. Selection of the sire.
8. The Colt.
a. Feeding the colt.
1a. . Food for the young foal.
2a. Feeding grain.
b. Weaning the colt.
1b. Age.
2b. How to prepare for weaning.
3b. Grain to be fed.
4b. Company of other colts.
5b. Management of the dam.
c. Training the colt.
1c. Handling.
2c. Training to halter.
3c. Subordination.
4C. Training to drive with lines.
5c. Uses of bit.
6c. Importance of a good mouth.
7c. Bitting.
8c. Harnessing.
9c. Hitching double.
10c. Hitching single.
11c. Kindness and firmness.
12c. Handling and trimming the colt's
feet.
13c. Training to stop—“Whoa.”
14c. Training to back—“Back.”
15c. City sights.
d. How to detect unsoundness.
e. How to
Care,
prevent disease (Sanitation, feed
exercise, etc.)
f. Common diseases.
II. What the pupil should do.
1. The pupil should study the above and related topics in
connection with his regular school work in agri-
culture. At the same time he should carry out
at home all the details in connection with the
problem of colt raising as outlined above. Prac-
tice under actual farm conditions must go hand
irf hand with the instruction given at school.
80 - CoLT RAISING
POINTS OF INFORMATION
HOW TO JudgE HORSES!
“Classification.-For the purpose of study, a broad classifi-
cation may be made as follows: market horses; breeding horses.
Market horses may be divided into four groups according to type,
and the work that the horses are best fitted to perform, as follows:
draft horses, horses principally valuable for moving heavy loads;
harness horses, horses used for stylish driving, road work and rac-
ing in harness; saddle horses, horses used for riding purposes; and
ponies. Breeding horses may be of any of the above types, and
may be considered under two groups—stallions and mares.
DRAFT HORSES
The draft horse finds his particular field of usefulness in haul-
ing heavy loads. He is a machine, the function of which is pro-
pulsion. In the score card below is given the description of the
horse best fitted to do this. To best perform this work he must
be heavily and strongly made. Everything about him should be
massive. - ~,
SCORE CARD
DRAFT HoRSEs - MARKET
Points deficient
. - Stand-
SCALE OF POINTS arol Stu-
- dent’s COr–
SCOre rected
GENERAL APPEARANCE–19 per cent.
1. Height, estimated. . . . . . hands; actual. . . . hands. .
2. Weight, over 1600 lbs., estimated. . . . . . . . lbs., a C-
tual. . . . . . . . . ... lbs., according to age. . . . . . . . . . . 6 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Form, broad, massive, well, proportioned, blocky,
Symmetrical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 4 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Quality, refined; bone clean, hard, large, strong;
tendons clean, defined; skin and hair fine; feather.
if present, silky. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 6 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Tempera ment; energetic; disposition good. . . . . . . 3 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HEAD AND NEC K–9 per cent.
6. Head, lean, proportionate size; profile straight. . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Ears, medium size, well carried, alert. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Fore head, broad, full . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, same color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10. Lower jaw, angles wide, clean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11. Muzzle, neat; nostrils large, open, free from dis-
charge; lips thin, even, firm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. Neck, well muscled, arched; throatlatch clean; wind- 2
pipe large. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Purdue Experiment Station Circular 29.
CoLT RAISING
81
SCORE CARD (Continued)
DRAFT HORSES
M A R KET
Points deficient

Stand-
SCALE OF POINTS ard Stu-
dent's Cor-
Score rected
FORE QUARTERS–24 per cent.
13. Shoulders, moderately sloping, smooth, snug, ex-
tending into back. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14. Arm, short, strongly muscled, thrown back, well set 1 |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15. Forearm, strongly muscled, wide, clean. . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16. Knees, deep, straight, wide, strongly supported. . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17. Caº. short, wide, clean; tendons defined, set 2
aCK. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean. . . . . . . . . . . . 1 |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19. Pasterns, moderate length, sloping, strong, clean. . 2. l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20. Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; sole
concave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; heel
Yº. and one-fourth to one-half the lineal length 8
Of UOe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I & I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21. Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the
point of the shoulder should fall upon the center
Of the knee, cannon, pastern and foot, From the
Side, a perpendicular line dropping from the cen-
ter of the elbow joint should fall upon the center
Of the knee and paster joints and back of the hoof 3 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BODY-9 per cent.
22. Chest, deep, wide, large girth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23. Ribs, long, well sprung, close; coupling strong. . . . . 2 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24. Back, straight, broad, strongly muscled. . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25. Loins, wide, short, thickly muscled. . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26. Underline, low; flanks full. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HIND QUARTERS–30 per cent.
27. Hips, broad, smooth, level, well muscled. . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28. Croup, not markedly drooping, wide, heavily mus- 2
Cled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29. Tail, stylishly set and carried. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30. Quº. deep, broad, heavily muscled, thighs 3
Strong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31. Gaskins, long, wide, heavily muscled. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32. Hocks, large, clean, strong, wide, well set. . . . . . . . . 6 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33. Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons defined. . . . . . 2 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean. . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35. Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean. . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36. Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; sole
Concave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; heel
Wide, and one-fourth to one-half the lineal length
of the toe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37. Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from
the point of the buttock should fall upon the cen-
ter of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. From
Side, a perpendicular line from the hip joint should
fall upon the center of the foot and divide the
gaskin in the middle, and a perpendicular line
from the point of the buttock should run parallel
With the line of the cannon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ACTION.—9 per cent.
38. Walk, fast, elastic, regular, straight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39. Trot, free, springy, balanced, straight. . . . . . . . . - - - - 3 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8345—6
82 COLT RAISING
Height.—A “hand,” the unit for measuring the height of the
horse, is four inches. A measuring staff marked off in hands, inches
and fractional parts thereof, is used where accurate height is
required. Where such is not available, or where absolute accuracy
is not demanded, a good way to estimate the horse's height is to
‘chin’ him. Find out how high it is from the ground to the point
of your chin when standing erect. The measurement for the height
of the horse is taken at the withers.
Stand facing the horse close to his side, on a level with the
soles of his feet. Estimate how much the top of the withers varies
in height from the point of your chin. For example, if from the
ground to the point of your chin is 62 inches, or 15 hands, two
inches, and the point of the withers is three inches higher, addition
gives 65 inches, or 16 hands, one inch, as the height of the horse.
The desired height for the draft horse is from 16 to 17 hands; a
wide. variation, however, from 16 to 18 hands, is common. The
height should be due to depth of body instead of length of leg. A
deep body indicates constitution, and capacity for food, which in
turn indicates capacity for work.
Weight—6 per cent.—The draft horse must weigh 1600 pounds,
and should weigh a ton or over. This great weight should be
largely due to massiveness of form and heavy frame and mus-
cles, rather than to an excessive amount of fat. Weight holds the
horse to the ground, enabling him to secure a foothold against
which to exert his strength and throw his weight. Weight thrown
forward is power in itself and the greater the weight to throw
forward, the greater the power derived from it. The horse
• market classes horses weighing less than 1600 pounds, and of
draft type as chunks and wagon horses. Any horse under weight
should not be allowed a place in the draft classes in the show ring.
Depth and width of body, compactness, blockiness, massiveness,
heavy muscles, are some of the things which indicate great weight.
Excessive fat should not be considered a credit. Long legs, light
bone and muscles, long body with small girth at the heart and
flank, and long coupling, are some of the things which indicate
that the horse is not heavy for his height, and should cause you to
discriminate against him in the show ring, and cut him heavily
when scoring.
Form—4 per cent.—Stand at a convenient distance in front
of the horse, facing him, and note the form of the head, the balance
of its parts, the width of breast and depth of chest, strength and
straightness of the fore legs. You should see a large, clean-cut
CoLT RAISING - 83
head, bright eyes, large, open nostrils, proportionate muzzle,
broad forehead; a large wind-pipe; great breadth between the points
of the shoulder; a wide breast and floor of the chest; a pair of
short, strong clean, heavily muscled legs supporting the shoulders,
Squarely placed and vertical to the ground. A narrow forehead
means small brain and nerve development, a tendency for the
horse to be slow going and unintelligent. Small, contracted
nostrils and windpipe are generally associated with a narrow chest
and small heart girth, indicating weak constitution and limited
endurance. * ge
Observing the horse from the side, note the upper and lower
lines, the balance of the fore and hind quarters, the depth of body,
the straightness and muscles of back, compactness and closeness to
the ground. The body should be deep and well proportioned in all
its parts, giving a well balanced appearance. The fore and hind
flanks should be low, the back and loin straight, strong, short, and
heavily muscled. The coupling should be close and strong. The
compactness and squareness of the body should be completed by
the croup carrying out level to the tail-head. A sagging, “hollow’
back, long, ‘washy' coupling, steep croup, cut-up flank, long, poorly
placed legs, are some of the most frequent faults to be seen from the
side view.
Passing to a safe distance at the rear of the horse, note the
width and straightness of croup, the muscles of the thighs and quar-
ters, and the position of the hind legs. The croup should be wide
and straight, quarters and thighs, deep and heavily muscled; the
legs straight and squarely placed under the body. Narrow or
lightly muscled croup, quarters, or thighs, or crooked legs are seri-
ous faults. After a view from the other side you will have finished
the examination for form.
Lack of depth of body, too much ranginess, openness, legginess,
lightness of muscling and of body are some of the things to be
most severely criticized. These deficiencies of form detract from
the weight and strength, and therefore from the pulling power of
the horse. -
Quality—6 per cent.—From the same position as before,
note the flatness and cleanness of cannon, cleanness and definition
of the joints, fineness of coat, mane and tail, cleanness of head.
There is a correlation of the external and the internal anatomy of
the animal; therefore, these may be taken as indications of quality.
High quality is shown by a flat appearing, clean cannon bone; hard
clean and well defined joints; fine skin, hair, mane, and tail; clean
84 CoLT RAISING
cut and sharply defined features of the head, thin, even lips, and
fine ears. All of this fineness should be accompanied by sufficient
substance; that is, a small cannon bone is not necessarily a bone of
high quality; neither is a large cannon bone one necessarily of poor
quality. A cannon bone behind which the tendon is clean and
clearly defined, giving a flat appearance to the cannon indicates
wearing quality; fineness of hair about the leg and hoofhead, or
coronet, indicates that the small fibres of the wall of the hoof and
the structure of the bone are fine, making a dense hoof wall and a
hard, sound bone. The value of the horse, the length of time he
will be of service, depends largely upon the quality of all his parts.
Superior quality increases the selling price of the draft horse.
The common, sound, 1800 pound draft horse sells at $300 on the
Chicago market; give him style and quality and he will sell on the
same market at $450. Heavy horses of very low quality, sell on
the horse market as loggers, and for a lower price than the drafter
of good quality, suitable for city service.
Temperament—3 per cent.—A live, snappy, energetic tempera-
ment, together with a docile, manageable disposition, should
entitle a horse to a full score, and should give him preference over
a horse with either a vicious disposition, or a slow, sluggish, lazy
temperament.
Head and Neck—9 per cent.—The head and neck should
be of such excellence of feature, form and quality, that they give
the horse a distinctively pleasing, stylish appearance, either in or
out of harness. Some of the most common faults to expect are,
a coarse, meaty, over or under-sized head, with a “Roman nose;”
a narrow dished or bulging forehead; blindness or defective eyes;
large, meanly carried, poorly attached ears; weak, narrow jaw,
meaty in the angles; small muzzle; poorly controlled lips; teeth
not meeting evenly, making a ‘parrot' mouth, or an ‘undershot.’
jaw; a poorly muscled, ‘ewe’ neck, with a coarse, meaty throat-
latch, and a small contracted windpipe. Any of the above faults
detract from the appearance of the horse and decrease his useful-
ness and selling price. -
Forequarters—24 per cent.—The shoulder should be smooth
and strong. It should form a collar bed against which the pulling
power of the horse may be applied for a long time without sores
and unsoundness developing. The rough, angular shoulder is more
liable to become sore and unsound than the smooth, snug shoulder.
The slope of the shoulder, that is, the direction of a line which you
might draw from the top of the withers to the point of the shoulder,
COLT RAISING * 85
is closely related to the slope of the pastern joint. Upright shoul-
ders and pasterns mean a short, stubby, wearing, undesirable way
of going. Too great slope of these two parts means a poorly
controlled, ambling way of going. A slope of about 45 degrees is
proper. The arm, lying between the point of the shoulder and the
élbow joint, should be short and heavily muscled, strongly support-
ing the shoulder. It should lie in a nearly horizontal plane, well
thrown back under the body, insuring strength and desirable
action. Weak muscling and upright position are common faults.
Heavy muscles on the upper part of the forearm, and a clean,
‘cordy,’ flat appearance of the lower part, indicate strength. Here
is a good place to estimate the probable size of the hidden muscles
of the horse. The appearance of stength of the back and loin
may be improved by fat, but the forearm does not fatten. Its
size depends upon the muscular tissue present. Light muscles
of the forearm are taken to indicate light muscles, therefore
weakness, throughout the horse. The knee joints should be large,
straight, and angular (not round or egg shaped as viewed from
in front), with the tendon standing out well behind, giving strength
and support to the joint. A tied-in appearance below and at the
back of the knee indicates weakness. The cannons should be short,
clean, with the tendon well defined at the back, giving the leg a
flat appearance. . Shortness increases power and improves action.
Roundness, coarseness, or too much fineness (lack of substance)
are undesirable. The fetlock joints should be clean, straight, and
strong. The pasterns, viewed from the side, should show a slope
of about 45 degrees, and will have about the same slope as the
shoulder. This slope allows of some spring and elasticity in this part
when the foot meets the ground. Pasterns too light give the horse
a stubby, pounding way of going, tending to produce foot troubles
and unsoundness, as sidebones, ringbones, navicular disease and
stiffness. Pasterns with too great a slope are weak and liable
to break down when the horse becomes old, or is put under a
great strain for a long time.
The foot should be attached to the leg so that it toes straight
ahead rather than in or out. This position permits straight, for-
ward action. If the toes turn in, the horse throws his feet out
when bringing them forward, or “wings.” If the toes turn out,
the horse throws his feet in when bringing them forward or
‘‘paddles.” Either fault tends to unbalance the stride, decrease
its length, and causes the foot or the shoe to wear unevenly.
View the shape and size of the fore feet from in front and from the
86 CoLT RAISING
side. The feet should be large, even in size, and from the front
view should appear nearly circular at the line of contact with the
ground, the circle making a somewhat abrupt.turn at the inside
front arc, and following a trifle less circular line to the inside
quarter. From the side, note the slope of the toe and of the heel
and their proportionate lengths. The length of the heel should
equal one-fourth to one-half the lineal length of the toe. The heel
should be parallel to the median line of the foot, and should appear
parallel to the toe when viewed in profile. The toe should slope
at an angle of about 50 degrees, and should harmonize in this
respect with the slope of the shoulder and of the pastern, which
as above stated should be about 45 degrees. The hoof wall should
be free from cracks or breaks. Lift the foot, and hold it by the
point of the toe with the sole upturned. The heel should be wide
throughout its length, widening somewhat as it reaches the sole
of the foot. The frog, that spongy portion beneath the heel,
should be well defined, large, and elastic to the touch. Hard-
ness, dryness decaying conditions, and total absence of frog, are
serious faults. The bars are horny braces leading from the
point of the frog to the hoof wall at the sides of the heel on both
sides of the frog. Their purpose is to keep the heel from contract-
ing, and they should appear strong and well defined. If the black-
Smith has cut them out, or for some other reason they are not
strong, the heel will be contracted, crowding the frog out of shape
and place. The dense sole of the foot should be very slightly con-
cave. The arched or concave sole gives a stronger support to the
interior anatomy of the foot than would a flat or a convex sole. As
Soon as his feet wear out or become notably unsound, the horse is
no longer serviceable on the city streets. Any faults about the
feet should cause severe criricism of the horse and discrimination
against him in the show or sales ring.
Body—9 per cent.—From a position at the side of the horse,
observe the form of the body: The fore rib should be well sprung
and long, giving the horse a broad back and a deep chest. The
back and loin should be short and heavily muscled, the coupling
should be close and strong, the rib roundly arched, the flank low,
giving the horse a deep, strong-bodied appearance, abundance of
room for the respiratory and digestive organs, and the ability to en-
dure strenuous labor for a long period of time. Do not mistake
excessive fat over the back and loin for heavy muscling. A horse
with a shallow body, poor spring of ribs, hollow or weakly muscled
CoLT RAISING 87
back and loin, and with long, open coupling is neither a good, hardy
worker nor an “easy keeper.”
Hindquarters—30 per cent.—Exercise caution in making an
examination of the hindquarters of a horse. Make observations
from a safe distance at the rear or the side, and when necessary
to handle a part to aid the eye in determining quality, size, con-
dition or soundness, never approach the horse from the rear, nor
without first speaking to him, thus warning him of your approach.
Speak to him, and then, making your approach from the side, lay
your hand on his back, following along the loin, thigh and gaskin
and thence to the region you desire to examine. Always expect a
kick and maintain a position at all times from which you can
readily escape injury. A squatting position, or one at the immedi-
ate rear of the horse should never be assumed, as they are unneces-
Sary, undignified, and dangerous. From the side and rear observe
the distance between, and the smoothness of the hips, the width
and levelness of the croup, the depth and fullness of the quarters
and thighs, and the strength of the gaskins. Note the muscling
throughout. The hips should be proportionate in width to the
general width of the body. Prominent, rough hips are unsightly
and more susceptible to injury than smoothly covered hips.
To afford room for heavy mucling, and to improve the general
appearance of the horse, the croup should be level, wide, and
fairly long. A short, steep croup is a common fault. Deep,
strongly muscled quarters and thighs are required for strength.
The gaskin, or lower thigh, should be short and heavily muscled,
indicating great development of muscle throughout the body.
. This whole region of the horse should be powerfully built and
heavily muscled, for most of the force in pulling is exerted by the
muscles of the hindquarters.
You can best note the shape, strength, and soundness of the
hock from a position in line with the head of the horse, and to
either side. From this position you see the face of the hock which
should be broad, clean, flat, and strongly supported below. The
juncture of the hock with the cannon bone should be strong, and
should not appear cut-in. Passing again toward the rear and con-
tinuing the examination, note the back and sides of the joint, which
should be long from top to bottom, angular, strong, sharply de-
fined and strongly supported by the back tendon. Soft, full,
puffy, small, rounded or crooked hocks deserve a considerable cut
on the score card or in case of comparative work, should cause the
horse so afflicted to be strongly discriminated against. With the
88 CoLT RAISING
exception that the hind cannons are usually wider, pasterns and toes
slightly shorter and more nearly upright, an angle of about 50
degrees for the former, and 60 degrees for the latter and the feet
less rounding, the requirements are the same as forward, and may
be seen from about the same relative positions. The common
faults are about the same as in front. The set of the fore and hind
legs when the horse stands naturally and is not posed should be as
described in the score card, and with a little work you will become
able to recognize correct and faulty position of the legs. Most of
the faults in the way the horse goes are due to a faulty attitude of
either the fore or the hind legs, or both; hence the necessity of
having a faultless set of legs.”
FEEDING THE COLT1
“The first summer is the time when growth can be put on the
colt, cheapest and most profitably. Plenty of feed is necessary
for the best growth and development. Of all feeds, the mother's
milk is of greatest importance. It is essential that the dam be
cared for in such a way as will cause her to yield the biggest
supply of milk possible. Mares suckling foals should be fed
Riberally of clean, healthful, and appetizing foods. It is permis-
sible and usually advisable that the mare be worked. She should,
however, be in the hands of the most thoughtful, careful driver
and should be handled with good judgment.
FEED AND PASTURE
After the age of about one month the foal needs food in addi-
tion to what it can secure from its mother. Clean, bright oats
makes probably the best feed that is available on the farm.
A mixture of oats, bran and oil meal in proportion of 6-3-1 is
splendid if one will go to the trouble of preparing or mixing a
feed. Ordinarily a colt will learn to eat the first mouthful from
the mother's feed box but he cannot get enough there. He must
have a small box out of reach of the mare, or some place
where larger and older stock cannot reach it.
Good pasture is highly important in securing gain and growth.
In fact there is no one thing so necessary aside from the mother's
milk. If the mare is worked in the field, she and the colt should
have the best grass pasture possible at night. Care must be given
1 Purdue Experiment Station Newspaper Bulletin 203.
COLT RAISING 89
that pastures are not overstocked and that variety of grasses or suc-
cession of pastures is provided to avoid the dry grass in summer.
The mare relishes grass and her milk flow is stimulated and in-
creased by good pasture. The colt relishes grass, gets needed
exercise, and will thrive best where pasture is abundant.
If the mare and the colt are running on pasture, supplemental
feed will be needed just the same, especially when the grass begins
to dry up. A feeding place should be constructed in such a
way that young colts can enter and older stock cannot. Grain
should be fed liberally in this separate pen. -
MANAGEMENT
Colts should not follow mares at work in fields during summer
and fall. They should be left in clean stalls, paddocks or pastures
where they cannot hurt themselves. Colts love company and
where there are a number of colts on the farm, they should be
in the same stall, paddock, or pasture while the mares are in the
field. Good sense and judgment must be used in allowing the
youngster to suckle at noon and evening.
It is very necessary to keep the colt free from accident. Wire
cuts, nail pricks, and brusies produce severe losses on many farms
where colts are grown. To just the extent that a man keeps his
colts free from accident, he increases his profits. Old sagging
fences must be straightened up; corner posts must be set; broken
boards with nails in them must be gathered up. Every pre-
caution possible must be taken to guard against injury because
it means the saving of money.
Flies, too, must be guarded against by having the barn clean
and by having manure piles and all breeding ground for flies
cleaned up. Shelter from the hot sun in summer is another
factor that increases the growth and thrift of the colt and increases
the profit to the owner.
It pays well to handle the colt the first summer. They
should be broken to halter. Their feet should be picked up and,
whenever they need it, trimmed. If they are handled the first
Summer, much of the work of breaking later will not be necessary.
Good care and management the first summer will cause the colt
to become a bigger and better horse and a more profitable farm
product.”
90 COLT RAISING
WEANING THE COLT4
“To keep the colt growing without interruption during weaning
time and afterward is a most important consideration in pro-
ducing horses profitably. A good horseman aims to replace the
milk that the colt has been accustomed to secure from its mother.
He tries also to reduce the worrying and fretting of the colt to a
minimum. To wean a colt appears to be a simple matter. It is
simple as many do it; yet the very low degree of success that is
shown on many farms by their unthrifty colts is evidence that
there is something wrong or that there is something lacking.
Often in a few weeks during weaning time the youngster changes
from the growing, sleek, milk-fat colt to a stiff-haired and
unthrifty, stunted individual. The colt if properly cared for
need lose but little of his flesh, bloom and spirit.
GRAIN TO BE FED
Grain must be used as the milk is taken away. It is necessary
that the colt has been taught to eat grain before weaning is at-
tempted. Oats have always been preferred by horsemen for young
colts. They are undoubtedly superior to any other single grain.
The colt likes a mixture or a variety of grains and will thrive
best on such a ration. He relishes corn and it may well be fed
as part of the grain ration. It may be said that corn contains
a rather high percentage of fat. True it does and so does milk
which is as nearly ideal food as nature can make. Corn should
not be fed alone, nor in too great quantities. Bran is a splendid
feed and contains material for bone and muscle. A mixture of
oats 60 per cent., corn 30 per cent., and bran 10 per cent., makes a
ration that will enable any colt to grow rapidly. A handful of
oil meal may be profitably added. Then he will be more likely
to eat enough to almost make up for the lack of milk.
Hay should be provided in plenty. Doubtless alfalfa or
clover is the most desirable for young growing colts. Both grain
and hay should be of the very best quality. If it is at all possible
to furnish succulent grass for the colt it should be done. This
is a big factor in preventing any check in the growth of the young-
Ster.
1 Purdue Experiment Station Newspaper Bulletin 204.
CoLT RAISING 91
COMPANY OF OTHER COLTS
Naturally the colt will miss the company of his dam. If he
has been accustomed to stay in the stable or yard while the mother
is out at work there will be less fretting on that account. If the
youngster has followed the dam constantly and has never been
kept separated from her, he should be broken gradually to stay
away from her if it is at all convenient to do so.
If there are several colts on the farm it is best to wean all of
them at the same time. The youngsters love company and if
there are two or more of them together, they will fret and worry
less.
The stall or pen where the youngster is confined should be
such that he cannot injure himself. The door and fence should
be high enough so that he will not try to jump out. Nothing but
a clean and comfortable place with plenty of sunshine and proper
ventilation should be used for the colt during weaning time.
It should be made possible for the colt to exercise freely every
day.
MANAGEMENT OF THE DAM AT THE TIME OF WEANING THE COLT
Just before weaning the colt it is best to change the dam from
succulent pasture to dry feed. If she is being fed grain the amount
should be reduced to a minimum. This will have a tendency to
reduce the flow of milk. The colt should then be allowed to
suckle only two or three times per day instead of being with the
the mother all the time or at least over night. It may be necessary
to milk out the mare occasionally for a few days, in the case of
large milk producers and where there is a tendency for the udder
to swell. Having done these things it will be comparatively
simple and easy to keep the colt away from the mother entirely
without injury or handicap to either the dam or her foal.
Having made the change slowly and gradually the youngster
will not miss the milk greatly. He will eat grain and hay, will
take exercise and will grow without any set back. If he is kept
healthy, thrifty and growthy, the very best of results will follow.”
TRAINING THE COLT!
“Age to Break-Horses are broken at ages ranging from wean-
lings to old horses. The instincts in a horse which are opposed to
1 U. S. D. A. Farmers’ Bulletin 667.
92 CoLT RAISING
obedience to man increase in strength with age. This accounts
for the difficulty encountered in handling range horses that are
allowed their freedom until their instinct of independence is so
strongly developed that it is proportionately difficult to teach
them that it is their duty to obey some force other than their own
instinct.
First Steps in Breaking.—It is a great advantage to begin
the education of the colt as early as possible. The plan generally
followed is to break the colt to being led and handled before it is
weaned, and to break to harness between the ages of two and three
years. Colts should not do heavy work until they are 4 years old,
and should be accustomed to it gradually.
Before a colt is broken to being led it should be taught to
stand tied; this applies to unbroken horses of all ages. To do
this, put a strong halter on the colt; then take a rope about 14
feet long, double it, putting the loop under the horse's tail as a
crupper, twist the two ropes together about three times, then let
One rope come forward on each side of the horse, and tie the ends
together in front against the chest just tight enough so that it
will not drop down; then run a surcingle loosely around the horse
behind the withers, tying into it the crupper rope at both sides.
Have an additional rope about 12 feet long, run it through the
halter ring, and tie it at the breast to the rope that forms the
crupper. Tie the other end of the rope to a solid post, allowing
about 3 feet of slack. Leave the colt tied for an hour.
Another method is to have a loop in one end of the rope, run
the lead strap through this loop, and tie it with a little slack to
the rope that forms the crupper, the other end of the additional
rope, of course, being tied to a solid post.
Gentling the Colt.—While tied the colt should be gentled and
accustomed to being handled on both sides, on the hind parts,
and on the legs. To do this hold the headstall in one hand and
with the other gentle (that is, pet and rub) the colt, first on the
neck and head, then on the back and sides, and last on the legs.
To gentle the hind parts take a stick about 4 feet long, wrap
a gunny sack around one end and tie it. Allow the colt to examine
it with his nose. Then rub it all over his body.
With this arrangement the colt's hind legs may be rubbed
without placing one's self in danger of his heels. If he kicks at
it do not hit him, but allow him to examine it again, and proceed
as before. This lesson should continue until the colt will stand
being approached from either side and rubbed all over. The second
CoLT RAISING 93
day he may be tied up again and further gentled with sacks,
blankets, and noises until he has no fear of them around him, under
him, or upon him.
BREAKING TO LEAD
The horse is now ready to lead. Loosen the rope from the
post, step off from the horse, and tell him to “come”, following the
command with a pull on the rope. As soon as the horse advances
pet him, then step away and repeat. He will soon follow with-
out the pull on the rope. Half an hour's leading and this lesson
is over.
The next day the crupper should be put on at the beginning
of the lesson, but should be discarded after a short work-out and
the halter alone used so that the colt will not depend on the
crupper rope. These lessons should be continued until the colt
leads satisfactorily. If a colt is still running with his mother, it is
a good idea, as soon as he is broken to lead, to tie his halter rope
to the mother's trace if she is being worked. The tie should be
made at about the union of the backband and the trace and short
enough to prevent the colt from getting in front of the team.
This will acquaint him with the general conditions and noises
pertaining to work, and on account of the mother being so near
he will soon become familiar with such surroundings and lose his
fear of them.
To break to lead without crupper use a strong halter with
a lead rope. Step back about 6 feet from the colt, opposite his
shoulders, cluck to him, and pull on the rope. The colt will be
forced to take a couple of steps; reward him; cross in front to
a similar position on the other side and repeat the command with
a pull. Continue the lesson until the colt follows. Never pull
straight ahead on the colt; he can outpull you. Use diplomacy
rather than force.
Handling and Care of Horses Feet.—If the owner will accustom
a colt to having his feet handled at the same time he is broken
to lead—that is, before he is weaned—much future work and
trouble will be avoided. Untrimmed hoofs usually grow long and
uneven, and a crooked foot, or worse, a crooked leg, is the result.
Failure to regulate the length and bearing of the foot may make a
straight leg crooked or a crooked leg worse, while intelligent care
during the growing period can greatly improve a leg that is crooked
at birth. If horses’ feet were properly cared for, there would be
94 COLT RAISING
fewer knock-kneed, bow-legged, pigeon-toed, cow-hocked, inter-
fering, and paddling horses.
When picking up a colt's foot teach him to stand on three legs,
and not to depend on the one holding up his foot for the fourth
point of support. When handling a colt's feet begin with the
near front foot. Tie a rope around the pastern, grasp the rope
close to the foot, push gently against the shoulder, and quickly
lift the foot. The lifting of the foot must be simultaneous with
the weight shifting to the other feet. Gentle the foot and leg
and let it down. Repeat several times and then trim and level
the hoof. --
To raise a hind foot, put on a rope as on the front foot and draw
the foot forward. To put a rope on the hind foot of a wild horse,
tie up a front foot, have the assistant hold his hand over the eye
on the same side as the foot to be lifted, or take the headstall in one
hand, the tail in the other, and twirl the horse until he becomes
dizzy. While in this condition he may be handled with safety.
Lift the foot forward two or three times and gentle it. As soon
as the horse gives in, carry the foot backward into a shoeing
position and trim the hoof.
To handle the feet of a horse that will not stand still, or that
kicks, a halter twitch is a great aid. This twitch is easily applied
and needs only the ordinary halter and tie rope. Pass the rope
Over the horse’s head just behind the ears; raise the upper lip
and put the rope across the gums above the teeth; run the rope
through the loop made by passing the rope over the horse's head.
The rope should be tight from the halter ring, over the head, under
the lip, and through the loop. A few good pulls on this rope should
make the horse stand quietly.
For a kicker try the following: Buckle a strap with a 2-inch
ring around hind pastern, run a rope through this ring and carry
end up over horse's back, tie to opposite foreleg next to the body,
and lead the horse forward. When he lifts his foot it may be
held up by pulling on the loose end of the rope. The foot may
be held either forward or backward with this arrangement. The
best time to work on a horse's feet is when he is tired from a drive
or other exercise.
BREAKING TO DRIVE
After the colt has been broken to lead he may be accustomed to
harness and trained to rein. A horse should never be hitched to
a wagon, or ridden before he is broken to drive in harness; that
CoLT RAISING 95
is, trained to go at command, stop when he hears “whoa,” rein
to the right and left, and to back up.
To familarize the colt with the bit and harness the “bitting
harness,” consisting of an open bridle with snaffle bit, check and
side reins, and surcingle with crupper may be used.
Put the rigging on the colt, leaving the side and check reins
comparatively loose, and turn him loose in a small paddock for
an hour. On the second lesson the rein may be tightened some-
what, but not left on for over on hour. The third day driving lines
may be put on. Let the assistant lead the colt till he is not
frightened at the driver walking behind. Dismiss the assistant
as soon as possible, and drive the colt for half an hour in a quiet
paddock or lane where he will not see other horses. All that should
be taught in this lesson is to go ahead. Cluck to the colt, or
tell him “get up,” and use the whip to let him know what is
meant.
It is essential to train both sides of a colt. He may become
accustomed to objects seen on the near side with the near eye,
but when the same objects are viewed for the first time on the other
side with the off eye he may be badly frightened. Driving in a
right and left circle will facilitate this training.
To Stop a Horse—“Whoa.”—The next lesson should be a
short review of the previous work and in addition the meaning
of “whoa.” “Whoa” in horse training is the big word. It
doesn’t mean back or steady, but stop. Train the horse so that
when he hears “whoa" he will stop and stay stopped no matter
what is happening. -
To stop a horse say “whoa" so that he hears you plainly, and
immediately follow the command with a pull on the reins. The
most effective use of the reins is to hold one rein just tight and
give a good reef or pull on the other one, then relax the pressure.
If the horse doesn’t stop, repeat the command and pull. Soon
he will stop at the word, and the pull may be eliminated.
To Back a Horse—“Back.”—The next lesson should review
“get up” and “whoa" and the horse should be taught to back.
As a horse should be trained to stop on command, so should he
back on the word, and lugging on the lines should be unnecessary.
Drive the horse a few steps to get his attention, stop him,
then give the command “back,” following it with a good reef on
the reins. If he yields a step, pet him, and then repeat the com-
mand with the pull on the reins. Do not exert a continuous
pressure, for if this is done the horse will take the bit and forge
96. COLT RAISING
ahead. Do not make the lesson too long. Repeat again and
continue lessons until the horse will back on command.
After the horse goes satisfactorily in bitting rig, the work
harness with breeching should be substituted. The traces and
breeching should be joined loosely together and gradually tighten-
ed as the work progresses. This will familiarize the colt with the
sensation of wearing collar and breeching. As soon as he goes
well with the harness he is ready to be hitched to the wagon or
cart, single or double. - -
Driving Dowble.—To drive double use a broken horse for a
team mate, preferably one that the colt knows. Hitch them
together and drive around without the wagon, stopping, starting,
and backing the team. Thirty minutes should suffice for this
lesson.
At the next lesson familiarize the colt with the wagon; lead
him up to it, allowing him to smell it. Then rattle the wagon
and lead him around it; lead the gentle horse to its place at the
tongue, bring the colt up, attach the lines, the neck yoke and
lastly the traces. Hitch the two together. The assistant may now
take the colt's lead rope. Drive a few steps and stop, using the
brake to prevent the wagon from running up on the team. Let
the assistant pet the colt until he quiets down, then start again,
going a little farther. As soon as the colt gets over his fear drive
around in a circle a few times. Stop occasionally and always
Quiet the colt. Circle in the opposite direction. When the colt
goes quietly the assistant may get in the wagon. Have a short
stay chain on the old horse so that if necessary he may start the
wagon alone. After the colt goes well a short drive may be taken.
Always stop when the colt shows fear of something. Let him
look it over and examine it; never whip him or rush by anything
at which he is frightened; otherwise a shying horse will result.
The daily drive may be increased in length until the colt is broken.
Driving Single.—Put single harness on the colt, using an open
bridle. Lead him to the rig and allow him to examine it. A
two-wheeled breaking cart with long shafts is usually used. Let
the assistant draw the rig around the colt a few times, or until
the colt does not shy at it; then raise the shafts and draw the rig
into place. If the colt is one that you think may kick or try to
run, put on the trip ropes.
Some horses are confirmed kickers, runaways, or otherwise
unsafe to handle with the ordinary appliances. With trip ropes
such horses may be handled with safety and cured of many bad
CoLT RAISING 97
habits. To put on trip ropes a strong surcingle, four 2-inch iron
rings, two straps to go around pasterns, and a rope about 25
feet long are needed. Fasten two 2-inch rings to the under side
of the surcingle and put straps with rings on front feet. Run
end of rope through near ring on surcingle, through ring on
near foot, up and through off side surcingle ring, down, and tie
to off fore foot. A pull on the rope when the horse steps will
bring him to his knees. This appliance may also be used to
teach a horse the meaning of “whoa.” Always use knee pads or
have the horse on soft ground, where he will not injure his knees.
When the colt is hitched the driver should get in the rig and
have the assistant lead the colt. Start him quietly, drive a few
steps, stop and pet him. Repeat until he starts and stops the
rig without becoming frightened. Dismiss your assistant as
soon as possible so that the colt's attention may not be divided
between two authorities. Before the colt is driven on busy
highways he should be “city broke.”
Breaking to Ride.—When a horse is to be used for riding it is
well first to break him to drive single and double. This will make
him quieter to ride. 4.
Horses usually buck through fear. In breaking one to ride,
take plenty of time and do not frighten him. Put on the saddle
and lead him around until he becomes accustomed to it. Do not
have the girth too tight. The horse may be tied up for a time and
later turned into a paddock with the saddle on.
Next accustom the horse to being mounted, getting on and
off a number of times. The assistant should have a lead rope
tied around the horse's neck and run through the rings of a snaffle
bit. If the horse attempts to play up, punish him with a jerk
on the bit. Let the assistant lead the horse with rider around
until the horse is familiar with the weight on his back, then dismiss
the assistant. If the horse becomes rebellious, pull his head
sharply to one side; do not let him get it down. The first few
rides should be in a small inclosure. .
The gaits should be taught separately. The first few rides
should be the walk; next teach the trot, and then the canter.
BAD HABITS
Horses that have been properly handled and trained are not
balky, neither do they have bad habits. When horses with bad
habits are encountered a careful study of each case should be
8345—7
98 - CoLT RAISING
made in order to ascertain the cause, and, if possible, to remove
it. .
Balkiness.-The most common cause of balkiness among
horses is punishment to make them do something that they can
not do or that they do not understand how to do. Another
common cause is the forcing of horses to draw heavy loads without
allowing them to stop occasionally to rest and regain their breath.
The use of the whip or spur in such instances should be avoided,
as the pain inflicted will be very likely to provoke further and more
stubborn rebellion. If a horse balks the bearing of the harness
should be examined to see if it is hurting him. If a heavy load
is being drawn and the horse is not allowed to rest and regain his
breath and strength he may become sulky and refuse to pull.
Give him a short rest, and while he is resting rub his nose, pick up
a front foot and tap the hoof a few times, or adjust the harness,
and he may forget his grievance. Take the lines and give the
command to go ahead, turning slightly to the right or left to
start. If the horse does not start it is either a case of overload
or a chronic balker. If the load is so heavy it can not be drawn,
unload. If the horse is a chronic balker a course of training will
be necessary to overcome the habit.
In older horses where the habit of balking is fixed the horse
should be trained to obey all commands with promptness without
being hitched to the wagon. First put on the double trip ropes and
use them until the horse stops and stands when he hears “whoa.”
Next put on the guy line, which should be managed by an assistant
while you drive and attend the trip ropes. The guy line is a rope
fastened around the horse's neck and a half hitch over the lower
jaw. It is very severe and should not be used to excess. If the
horse shows any tendency to balk, give the command “whoa"
before he stops of his own accord. When ready to start, the
assistant should take a position in front of the horse and Smartly
jerk him forward with the guy line at the same time you give the
command “get up.” Repeat the process of stopping and starting
until the horse shows no signs of self-will. Use the guy line
and use it severely, on the slightest intimation that the horse is
going to balk. After a few of these lessons the horse may be
hitched to a wagon. The trip ropes and guy line should be kept
on until he is well broken of the habit. -
Kicking.—A horse that kicks when something touches his
heels is dangerous to drive. To overcome the habit, put on the
harness and the trip ropes. Take a stick and pole him all over,
CoLT RAISING : 99
as described under “Breaking to lead.” After he becomes sub-
missive to the pole, tie sacks of hay to the traces and breeching,
and continue the lesson until he pays no attention to them.
Fasten a long pole on either side with one end-to drag on the
ground, the other end to be fastened to the shaft carrier. Drive
him around with these, and if he attempts to kick command
“steady” and pull him to his knees. The lessons should be con-
tinued until he submits to the poles dragging between his legs
and all around him. This is a good lesson to give before driving
single.
IMPORTANCE OF A GOOD MOUTH
When we say that a horse has a good mouth we mean that he
readily obeys the signals conveyed to him by the reins and bit and
that he will also “go up on the bit” in his work without pulling.
A horse is held steady and true in his gait and at all times is under
better control when is he “up on the bit.”
Always see to it that the bridle on the colt is properly adjusted,
and never use a severe bit. The bit should be adjusted in the
mouth tight enough so that the rings will not be pulled in, but
loose enough so that the corners of the mouth will not be pulled
or stretched up. . The bit should rest on the bar, above the
tushes. - -
Always train the colt to walk rapidly. There is no gait so
valuable and useful in a horse as a rapid walk. It is not difficult
to train the average colt to walk fast. From the very beginning
keep him walking up to his limit, and he will get into the habit.
When a horse trots make him trot “up on the bit;” he will have
-a better head and neck carriage, will be less liable to stumble,
and will give his attention to the driver. -
A colt's mouth may be spoiled by severe bits, by a too tight
adjustment of the reins of the bitting harness, by tight check
reins, by jerking and lugging on the lines, or by a poor driver.”
PREDISPOSITION TO UNsoundNESs TRANSMITTED TO
OFFSPRING!
“Predisposition to certain unsoundness is considered by the
best authorities to be hereditary. Weak conformations in which
unsoundnesses sooner or later develop are transmitted with marked
regularity from sire and dam to the offspring. Dr. Alexander
1 Purdue Experiment Station Circular 29.
100. CoLT RAISING
gives the following as unsoundnesses and faulty conformations
which should disqualify either stallion or mare from being used
for breeding purposes: moonblindness; blue eye; cataract; heaves;
broken wind; Spavins; ringbones; Sidebones; navicular disease
(grogginess); hocks, sickle formed, curby, crooked, boggy, sprung;
hoofs, flat, weak, unsound; “washy” couplings; pasterns, short,
wp:right.
It is not the purpose here to discuss at length the numerous
unsoundnesses to which the horse is heir. The location and names
of the more common unsoundnesses listed in systematic order will
aid in examining for soundness. Column 1 gives the place to
look; column 2 some of the unsoundnesses to expect. Unsound-
ness in any part makes the horse “unsound” on the market.
The Chicago Horse Market has discontinued the use of the term
“serviceably sound,” as it left too great an opportunity for con-
troversy. Horses are now sold as sound or unsound.
LOCATION OF COMMON UNsoundNESSES AND FAULTS
sº
WHERE TO Look WHAT TO LOOK FOR
1. Head 1. Poll evil
2. Eyes 1. Blindness
2. “Blue-eyed.”
1. Overmobile:—indicates
a. Viciousness
3. Ears b. Blindness
2. Immobile:—indicates
a. Deafness
b. Lockjaw
1. Discharge:–indicates
a. Catarrh
4. Muzzle b. Glanders
c. Diseased molars
Signs of roaring
Bit sores
;
Diseased molars
“Bishoped”—cut to appear young
“Parrot,” mouth
Undershot jaw
5. Teeth
:
1.
6. Tongue Mutilation—end cut off to prevent lolling'
CoLT RAISING 101
LOCATION OF CoMMON UNsoundNESSES AND FAULTs (continued)
7.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
WHERE TO Look
Under jaw
Neck
Withers
Shoulders
Elbow /
Knee
Cannons
Fetlocks
Pasterns
Coronets
Feet
Hips
1
:
;
1.
:
:
;
*
i
:
WHAT TO LOOK FOR
Abscesses
Broken crest
Sores
Skin disease
Braided in mane
Fistula
Collar boils
Sweeney
Abscess or fistula
Shoe boil
High splint
Broken knee
Buck knee
Calf knee
Capped knee
Splints
Thick tendons
Grease heel
Scratches
Windgalls
Interfering Sores
Cocked ankles
Grease heel
Scratches
Scars of unnerving; to prevent lameness due to
ringbone or navicular disease
Ringbones
Sidebone
Quittor
Navicular disease; shown by contracted foot
favored in action
Founder
Toe cracks
Quarter cracks
Corns
Thrush
Fractured ilium
Knocked-down hip
102 CoLT RAISING
LoCATION OF COMMON UNSOUNDNESSES AND FAULTS (continued)
WHERE TO LOOK WHAT TO LOOK FOR
19. Tail 1. Unhealed docked end
2. False tail attached
1. Knee-cap out of place
20, Stifle 2. Dropsical swelling
1. Spavins
a. Bone
b. Bog
Thoroughpin
Curb
Jarde
21. Hocks
;
St. Vitus dance
Crampiness
Stringhalt
Roaring
Heaves
22. General
:
Cribbing
Wind sucking
Halter pulling
Balking
Biting
Rolling in stall
Kicking”
23. Vices
i
REFERENCES
Productive Horse Husbandry—Gay, Lippincott.
Types and Breeds of Farm Animals—Plumb, Ginn and Company.
Common Diseases of Farm Animals—Craig, Lippincott.
Animal Husbandry for Schools—Harper, Macmillan.
Productive Feeding or Farm Animals— Woll, Lippincott.
U. S. Department of Agriculture Publications:
Farmers’ Bulletin 667—Breaking and Training Colts.
Farmers’ Bulletin 619—Breeds of Draft Horses.
Farmers’ Bulletin 779—How to Select a Sound Horse.
Bulletin 487—Judging Horses as a Subject of Instruction in Secondary
Schools.
Purdue University Publications:
Experiment Station Circular 29, Livestock Judging for Beginners.
Experiment Station Newspaper Bulletin 204, Weaning the Farm Colt.
Experiment Station Newspaper Bulletin 203.
Dairy Cow Management
I. What the pupil should know.
A. Importance of dairy farming.
1.
2.
i
8.
9.
As a means of producing food.
As related to national development.
a. Holland; Denmark.
In relation to maintenance of soil fertility.
In relation to management of high priced land.
Value of dairy cattle in the United States.
Value of dairy cattle on each farm in the township.
Annual receipts from dairy products in the United
States.
Annual receipts from dairy products on each farm in
the township.
Annual receipts from dairy products at the home of
each pupil.
(All of the foregoing and the following topics should be studied by the
pupil in their relation to his or her management of the milk cows at home.
Do not attempt to treat the subject in the abstract; make the study of each
topic concrete by reason of the fact that the pupil will need the information
to manage successfully the milk cows used in carrying out this project.)
B. Types of cattle.
1.
2.
3.
:
7.
Beef type.
a. Description.
Dairy type.
a. Description.
1a. General characteristics.
2a. Form. ge
Dual-purpose type.
a. Description.
Number of each type in the township.
Number of each type on each farm in the township.
Number of each type at the home of each pupil.
Number of each type being used in this project.
C. Breeds of cattle.
1.
Beef breeds.
a. Shorthorn.
1a. Description.
2a. Brief history.
3a. Number being used in this project.
b. Hereford.
c. Galloway.
d. Aberdeen- S.
(103)
104 DAIRY COW MANAGEMENT
2. Dairy breeds.
a. Holstein.
1a. Description.
2a. Brief history.
3a. Number being used in this project.
Jersey.
Ayrshire.
Guernsey.
Dutch-Belted.
Brown-Swiss.
3. Dual-purpose.
a. Shorthorn.
1a. Description.
2a. Brief history.
3a. Number being used in this project.
b. Red Polled.
c. Polled Durham.
d. Devon.
D. Value of breeds.
E. Points to consider in selecting a breed.
1. Kind of cattle most common in the logality.
Product to be sold—milk, cream, butter, cheese.
Topography, climate and food supply.
Preference of the pupil.
Average production of milk.
Average production of butter-fat.
Economy of production of milk and fat.
Breeding qualities of the cows.
9. Vigor of the calves.
F. Points to consider in selecting individual cows.
1. Conformation.
a. Spare angular form.
b. Udder, milk veins and milk wells.
c. The barrel.
d. Use of the score card.
(All pupils should have practice in use of the score card.)
2. Records of performance.
a. Amount of milk.
b. Percentage of fat.
c. Economy of production.
d. Desirable qualities reproduced.
G. How to test milk.
Taking the sample.
Manipulating the Babcock tester.
Bi-weekly tests.
Averaging tests.
;
i
:
DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT - 105
H. How to keep records.
1. Production of individual cows.
a. Pounds of milk daily, monthly, annually.
- b. Butter-fat tests.
2. Feeds used.
a. Kinds.
b. Amounts of each.
c. Cost of feed.
3. Cost of production of milk per pound.
4. Cost of production of butter-fat per pound.
5. Records that keep data on individual cows in usable
form, year to year.
(Although a cow-testing association may have been organized in the
community, the individual members should know how to test milk and to
keep detailed and accurate records.)
I. Cow testing associations.
1. Purpose.
2. How organized.
3. How conducted.
4. Their value.
J. Principles of feeding the dairy cow.
1. Uses of the feed.
a. To maintain the body.
b. To supply the material for milk.
c. To develop the fetus.
d. To develop the body if immature.
e. To increase the weight.
2. The most economical feeds for the purposes enumera-
ted above. &
a. Classes of feeds.
1a. Proteids.
2a. Carbohydrates and fat.
b. Constituents of feeds and their uses.
1a. Water.
2a. Protein.
3a. Ash.
4a. Crude fibre.
5a. Nitrogen-free extract.
6a. Fat.
c. The ration.
1a. Use of a feeding standard in calcu-
lating the ration.
2a. The cost of the ration.
3a. Common feed-stuffs to be consid-
ered in making up the ration.
1b. Corn.
º 2b. Silage.
* 3b. Wheat bran.
106 DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT
4b. Clover, alfalfa, cowpea, soy-
bean and vetch hay.
5b. Timothy hay.
6b. Corn stover.
7b. Oats.
8b. Cottonseed meal.
9b. Linseed meal.
10b. Gluten feed.
11b. Beet pulp.
12b. Molasses.
13b. Brewers' grains.
d.
The balanced ration.
1a. What it is.
2a. Its value in economical milk pro-
duction.
3. When and how to feed.
K. How to house the dairy cow.
1. Arrangement of barn for convenience.
8.
b.
Save labor in feeding.
Save labor in removing litter.
2. Sanitary conditions.
8.
b.
C.
d.
©.
Plenty of light.
Concrete floor.
Concrete gutters.
Concrete mangers.
Stanchion tie.
3. Ventilation.
&.
L. Care of milk.
Abundance of fresh air without drafts over
the cows.
1. Keep cows clean.
2. Keep utensils clean.
3. Well ventilated and lighted milk house.
4. Cooling milk.
5. Use of separators.
M. Common diseases of dairy cows.
1. Lumpy jaw.
Lice.
Bloat.
:
Cowpox.
Corn-stalk disease.
Black leg.
Tick fever.
Milk fever.
Tuberculosis.
Abortion.
Inflammation of the udder.
DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT 107
II. What the pupil should do.
A. He should study the above and related topics at school. The
project plan of study requires that the pupil have the en-
tire care and management of one or more of the milk cows
at home throughout the year. The topics included in the
outline above are to be studied in their relation to the
needs of the pupil in the successful management of the
dairy cattle. The value of the work from both an educa-
tional and a practical point of view lies in the combination
of study and practice. No matter how far from ideal the
dairy cow management at home may chance to be, the
pupil can keep records.
The project plan does not require that a problem be devised
for the occasion. The problem confronts the pupil in the
performance of daily duties at home. The conditions and
the routine of work at home do not have to be changed
to make possible the carrying out of the project. On the
other hand, the carrying out of the project will show
clearly in some instances, in all probability, the desirability
of a change in the management of the dairy cows.
It is not intended that the study of dairy cow manage-
ment and the actual practice of the best methods in man-
agement shall cease with the end of the first twelve months.
The year's experience should result in the formation of
habits of thought and practice that will insure improve-
ments from year to year not only in dairy cow manage-
ment but in all other activities on the farm.
POINTS OF INFORMATION
IMPORTANCE OF DAIRY FARMING"
“Whether as milk—raw, malted, powdered, or condensed;
whether as cream—plain, whipped or iced; whether as butter,
alone or in combination with other oils; whether as cheese in its
many brands and varieties; whether as buttermilk; as kumiss,
or as confection, the call for dairy products is one of the most
insistent, universal, and exacting of all the demands of trade.
An infant necessity, a standard food, a common luxury, is the milk
of the dairy cow.
To serve the dairy demands of the people of the United
States requires the milk of more than twenty-one millions of cows.
This is one-third of all our cattle, one-tenth of all domestic animals
other than poultry, and almost exactly one cow to each family.
These cows are worth in round numbers some seven or eight
1 Dr. Eugene Davenport in the “De Laval Dairy Hand Book.”
108 DAIRY COW MANAGEMENT
hundred millions of dollars, or more than all the railroads of a
state like Illinois. Standing side by side, with three feet of space
for each animal, they would reach almost half way around the
world. They are milked each morning and evening by more than
five millions of people, and the daily labor involved in milking
alone is equal to twelve hundred years of individual labor at eight
hours per day.
- These cows eat, every twenty-four hours, two, hundred thou-
sand tons of feed or enough to load a solid wagon train reaching
from Chicago to Denver. In a year they consume feed approxi-
mately equal to their own value; more than equal to that of the
wheat crop, and but slightly less than that of all the hay and
forage produced in the United States. In short, the cost of what
we feed our cows is practically one-eighth of all we produce out of
the land, not only in grain and forage but in cotton, fruits, and
vegetables as well.
However, these cows produce an enormous amount of human
food, for their annual yield of milk is more than thirty millions
of tons—enough to load a wagon train reaching seven times around
the earth. If this milk were made into butter and if by careless
methods one per cent of the fat were left in the milk, the loss to
the dairyman, after making liberal allowances for the feeding value
of the unrecovered fat, would be not less than six millions of
dollars annually—a striking instance of the meaning of incon-
spicuous margins.
Everybody uses milk and its products, not occasionally but
every day of the year. This means that it is by nature a standard
and staple food as well as an indispensable article of diet for in-
valids and small children. Moreover, if economically made and
handled it is relatively cheap, for quite contrary to popular opinion
milk at ten cents a quart is cheaper food than lean meat at
twenty-five or even at twenty cents a pound. Furthermore,
butter is the only animal fat that everybody likes and that is
entirely consumed.”
“There are, at the present time, 1913, something over 666,000
dairy cows in the State of Indiana. These cows are reported to
produce about 150 pounds of butterfat per cow per year, which,
if sold at thirty cents per pound would amount to $45.00 per cow.
As the average cow is fed, it costs almost $45.00 per year to main-
tain her. The calf and the manure produced by the cow is sup-
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin 21.
*
* 4.
DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT 109
posed to equal the labor required in handling her. If, by some
system, it would be possible to increase the average production
of the cows of this state fifty pounds per cow, making an average
yearly production of two hundred pounds, it would increase
the yearly revenue, from this one branch of agriculture, almost
$10,000,000 per year, (calculations based on a butter fat value
of thirty cents per pound).
The growing of legumes and cereal crops, which, when har-
vested, are fed to live stock from which a finished product is
sold and the manure produced returned to the soil, constitutes
one of the best methods of conserving the fertility of our farms,
and, in this way, establishes a more permanent agriculture.
Out of each one hundred dollars worth of corn sold from the
farm, it requires $34.33 to purchase and return to the soil the plant
food thus removed, and for each one hundred dollars worth of
butter sold from the farm, only about nine cents worth of plant
food is removed. These facts are of special importance to dairy-
men because their system of intensive farming is without peer
among live stock systems, when viewed from the standpoint of soil
conservation.”
HOW TO SELECT A DAIRY COwl
“General Appearance.—The conformation of the dairy cow is
such that her general appearance distinguishes her from cows of
other classes. She is thin or spare in flesh, angular and loose
jointed. Her body is muscular, coat smooth and soft, eyes bright
and in disposition she is wide awake, showing that her thin appear-
ance is not due to lack of feed or the ravages of disease, but to
her inherent tendency to convert her feed into milk instead of
body fat.
The general angularity of the cow gives her what is known as
the wedge conformation, which is very evident in the typical
dairy cow. This conformation outlines distinctly three wedges.
When the cow is viewed from the side, one of the wedges is
seen with the base formed by the depth through from the hips
to the lower extremity of the udder, and the apex or point of the
wedge at the head.
When viewed from the top, the dairy cow's peculiar form pre-
sents a second wedge, with the base formed by the great width
across from one hip point to the other, and the apex at the withers.
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin 16.
110 DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT
The third wedge is seen when the cow is viewed from the front.
The base of this wedge is formed by the wide floor of the chest
and the apex by the withers.
This wedge shape is found to a greater or less degree in all
dairy cows, and is sought after, alike for the dairy, and for the
show ring.”
BREEDs of DAIRY CATTLE'
“Cows now producing from 10,000 to 30,000 pounds of milk
are descended from ancestors capable of giving but 2,000 pounds,
or less. This ability to yield increasing amounts of milk has come
about through changes in type and temperament caused by
the surrounding conditions and by careful selection and breeding.
Holstein-Friesians.—The Holstein-Friesian breed originated
in Hollahd and has been an important factor in the agriculture
of that country for more than a thousand years. There the breed
is known as the Friesian and has been bred pure for many hundreds
of years without the intermingling of other blood, with one
possible exception. Some two hundred years ago red cattle were
imported into North Holland following the inroads of a devasta-
ting disease. This blood was mixed with some herds, though
many were maintained entirely pure. There are now many
registered red and white Friesians in Holland. Red disqualifies
for registration in this country, though occasionally the red crops
out in calves, whose ancestry, so far as known, were black and
white.
This milk has been used and is still used almost exclusively
for the manufacture of butter and cheese. The Hollander must
send to the block practically all of his bull calves and a considerable
proportion of his heifers and cows, and so he has selected a type
which will fatten readily when not milking. This type is more
beefy and compact and less open in conformation than most of
the breed in this country.
The Holstein-Friesian is the largest of the dairy breeds, ma-
ture bulls weighing from 2000 to 2600 pounds and mature cows
from 1200 to 1600 pounds. Although their average of fat is
around 3.4% and lower than that of other breeds, their milk
production is enough heavier to make them equal in butter-fat
production.
Jerseys.-Little is known regarding the origin of the Jersey
breed. It is supposed, however, that it has descended from cattle
1 By F. A. Pearson in the “De Laval Dairy Hand Book.”
DAIRY COW MANAGEMENT 111
brought to the Channel Islands in the early days by French
refugees. These were probably similar to the Normandy and
Brittany cattle now found in Northwestern France. Whatever
its origin may have been, it is known that the Jersey on the island
has been bred pure for several hundred years. Since 1789 it has
been prohibited by law to import cattle to the island, except
for immediate slaughter. At that time there was little difference
between the cattle on the various islands of the Channel group.
The Jerseymen, however, preferred a refined, more nearly solid
colored animal, suited not only to the production of butter, but
also to the adornment of the estates of the English noblemen.
Selection to this ideal has produced the most highly developed
dairy type to be found among the dairy breeds, both as to con-
formation and temperament.
The Jersey produces very rich milk, testing around 5.4% of
butterfat. Most Jerseys are solid in color shading to black at
the points, though many are spotted with white, a marking which
in no way indicates impurity of blood. Mature cows of this breed
weigh from 600 to 1000 pounds. Mature bulls weigh from 1400
to 1800 pounds.
Guernseys.-The origin of the Guernseys so far as known is
the same as that of the Jersey. The Guernseyman, however,
has selected and bred for utility alone and has therefore developed
a type of cow larger and more rugged than the Jersey. She is
a heavier producer of milk, somewhat lower in butter-fat content
than that of the Jersey.
It has not been until recent years that Guernseys have been
imported to America. Their popularity is so great at the present
time, however, that greater numbers of them are now being
brought in than of any other breed. Although there is a compara-
tively small number of Guernseys in this country, rapid gains are
being made. Their adaptability to our conditions and their
general excellence have made these cows one of the most popular
dairy breeds.
Colors are varying shades of red or fawn and white, the darker
color predominating, Mature bulls weigh from 1500 to 1800
pounds. Cows range from 800 to 1100 pounds and give a fair
amount of milk, averaging around 5% butter-fat. The breed
is similar to the Jersey in economic production of butter-fat.
A rich, yellow color is characteristic of Guernsey milk and butter
and the breed is preferred by many because of that fact.
The Ayrshire.—The native home of the Ayrshire is the county
112 DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT
of Ayr, in Scotland. Ayrshires have been developed with such
definite purpose that a uniform type has been obtained. Ayr-
shire is hilly, the soil of only fair fertility and the climate severe.
These conditions have tended to give the Aryshire the two char-
acteristics for which it is most famous, activity and hardihood,
which allow it to thrive on poor and rough pastures in a cold
and rigorous climate. The color is red, brown or black and white,
the darker color in Scotch cattle predominating. Cows fatten
readily when dry and produce a good quality of beef.
The Ayrshire has been selected and bred to obtain great
symmetry of body and udder and as a result we find such form
and style in no other breed. The udder, particularly, is superior
in shape.
One of the early objections to the breed in America was the
typically small and short teats found on imported cows. American
breeders, however, are gradually doing away with this difficulty
through careful selection.
The breed has obtained its strongest foothold in the New
England States and in Canada, where the land is rough and the
climate severe. The breed has never been exploited and its
slowly increasing popularity is entirely due to its many excellent
qualities. It produces large quantities of milk, better balanced
in its solid constituents than that of any breed, the fat per cent
averaging around 3%. The pure bulls weigh from 1500 to 2000
pounds and cows around 1000 pounds in fair flesh.
OTHER MILKING BREEDS OF CATTLE
Besides the four leading breeds of dairy cattle we have the
Brown Swiss and the Dutch Belted. Both of these are good milk
and butter producers and may be classed with the strictly dairy
breeds. They are, however, not as numerous in this country as
the four dairy breeds described by Mr. Pearson in the preceding
chapter.
Brown Swiss.-The Brown Swiss, as the name indicates,
originated in Switzerland. They are remarkably strong, healthy
animals, larger and coarser than any other dairy breeds. While
many individuals have made excellent dairy and milk records,
the total number of the breed in this country is small and it
has not, therefore, been as important a factor in the dairy in-
dustries here as it has been in Switzerland. The number of
animals, however, is rapidly increasing and the breed is receiving
more and more attention from dairymen.
DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT . 113
Dutch Belted.—The Dutch Belted Cattle closely resemble
the Holstein in form and production. These cattle are invariably
black with a white belt around the body. There are probably
about 2000 in America. Many people have an erroneous idea
that their chief asset is their distinctive color marking. This,
however, is not the case. Considering the small number of the
breed, it has produced as many excellent individuals as any
breed.”
THE DAIRY BULL"
“There are two methods of judging the merits of a dairy bull.
The first is that method based upon performance or the ability
of the bull to stamp his good characters upon his offspring. He
should be able to increase the production of his daughters over that
of their dams and maintain the breed characters of conformation.
When this method of selection is practiced, only aged bulls
can be considered and records of his progeny must be known.
This condition of affairs is very seldom found, so that it is necessary
to resort to a second method of selection or judging the merit
of dairy bulls, that is, judging by pedigree and records of ancestors
along with the conformation of the individual.
The dairy sire should be a pure-bred animal of the breed he
represents and should have in his immediate ancestry females
that have good yearly production records, and sires that have
tested daughters. The records and conformation of the dam,
granddam and their sisters are good indications of what may be
expected of the bull. After the proper precautions have been
taken, as to breeding and production records back of the bull,
then the estimation of the merit of the animal as to his conforma-
tion can be taken up.
The dairy bull should be typical of the breed he represents
and should show, in general, the spare, angular form seen in the
cow, with prominent indications of masculinity and constitution.
These qualities are seen in a strong face, broad forehead, bright
prominent eyes, heavily muscled neck, neatly joined to head and
shoulders, a neat crest, deep, broad chest, and large barrel.
The hips do not show the same relative width as seen in the
cow, but the thighs should be thin, incurving, and cut up well,
making the bull high in the twist. The rudimentary teats should
be of good size and evenly placed in front of the scrotum, as they
indicate in some degree the size and position of the teats on the
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin. 16.
8345—8 &
114 DAIRY COW MANAGEMENT
female offspring. The dairy bull should have quality as indicated
by a soft, pliable hide, fine, glossy hair, strong, clean bone and
abundant yellow, waxy secretions in the hair, and over the body
in general.
Some of the common defects of the dairy bull, which should
be discriminated against are:–a tendency to beefiness, lack of
barrel, full outcurving thighs, coarseness in shoulders and head,
and lack of that style and carriage which indicates strong nervous
development. Greater progress can be made in the improvement
of dairy stock by discriminating against grade bulls, and pure-
bred dairy bulls of undersirable conformation, in favor of good,
purebred dairy sires with desirable conformation and good produc-
tion records back of them, than by any other one process.”
Cow TESTING Associations'
“The matter of keeping records of farm operations seems to
be very distasteful to most farmers. This is particularly true with
dairymen who have never established a system of records showing
the daily production of their herd. To take care of this class of
dairymen and to be able to demonstrate that there is a very
great variation among cows, the Purdue Experiment Station
stands ready to organize testing associations in the various dairy
districts throughout the State and to supply a man who will take
charge of all record keeping and present the members of the
organization with a monthly statement showing the profit from
each cow in their herds. Such information will cost the members
of the organization about one dollar or one dollar and a half per
cow per year. This information enables the dairyman to dispose
of the poor cows in his herd, and in this way, to begin a systematic
plan of selection. -
CoMMUNITY BREEDING Associations
Realizing the value of a bull from high producing ancestors
and also considering the cost of such blood, dairymen, in certain
Sections, have banded together in order that they might secure
the services of a high-class bull at a moderate cost. Five farmers,
each having ten cows, may band together and purchase a five
hundred dollar bull, (a sufficient amount to secure excellent blood)
at a cost of only one hundred dollars each. Several of these Small
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin. 21.
DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT 115
Organizations in various sections of the country will very soon in-
crease the production to a large degree. Such organizations have
additional advantages, all of which are important, such as in the
Selling of surplus stock, in the disposing of their dairy products,
in the trading of bulls, or in the purchase of feed. Additional
information in regard to the organization of these associations will
be supplied upon request to the Dairy Department, Purdue
University. -
FEEDING THE DAIRY COW
All cows require a certain amount of a full ration to maintain
the body functions. If she is a good cow, she will require about
one-half of a full ration to maintain her body, and the remaining
fifty per cent will be available for milk production. If the
ration be reduced one-fourth, she will still require the fifty per
cent. for maintenance, and will have available for milk produc-
tion only one-half as much as when given the full ration.
Unfortunately, we have some cows that are not profitable
dairy cows, and with such it is not economical to feed a full ration
as with the cow above discussed. The economical ration for a
cow that tends to fatten if fed a full ration is to supply her with
only sufficient food to maintain her body weight while in full flow
of milk. Although this may be the most economical ration for
such a cow, from a practical standpoint, it is not advisable to keep
such an individual.
Housing.—The food which a cow consumes is used for various
purposes, one of these being to maintain her body temperature.
If a cow is sheltered in a warm barn, it is obvious that the nature
of the ration which she receives may be considerably different
from the ration required by a cow exposed to severe temperatures.
Therefore, adjust your ration in accordance with your building
equipment if best results are to be secured.
Feeders' Judgment.—Another point that is very seldom given
proper consideration is that of studying the cow's requirements
and desires. Every cow has peculiarities to which a successful
feeder must cater, in order that she may produce to her best
advantage. A study of this factor and the adjustment of the
ration to the cow's nature is one of the fine points in successful
feeding, and also one of the faculties of the successful herdsman
that is sure to be rewarded.
Water.—All feeds contain water in a greater or less degree.
It has no feeding value and is not different from the water which
116 . DAIRy Cow MANAGEMENT
the cow consumes at the tank or brook. It is essential, however,
to the health of the cow and should always be supplied in abun-
dance. . g- -
Ash.--The ash or mineral matter of a feed is that portion which
remains after the substance has been burned. It is used in the
structural part of the bone and muscle. Most feeds have an
abundant supply of ash, so very little attention is usually given
to this element of foods in the compounding of rations.
Protein.—An important part of an efficient dairy ration is
protein, so known on account of the fact that it contains nitrogen.
It is the expensive part of the ration to supply and is found in
such feeds as bran, linseed meal, cottonseed meal, alfalfa, clover,
and soybeans. Its presence in a ration for a dairy cow is essential,
due to the fact that protein is found in the casein of the milk,
in the skin, in the bone and in the muscle. No other food element
can be substituted for protein by the animal. -
Carbohydrates.—Carbohydrates are found in the fibrous
parts of all tissues as well as the protoplasm, that is free from
nitrogen, which fills the cell space. Its use is to produce heat,
energy and body fat. It is found mostly in the form of starch
and sugar and is present rather abundantly in such feeds as corn,
rye, wheat, stover and timothy hay.
Fat.—The fat of a feed is found in the form of oils and gums
mostly and is used for the same purpose as the carbohydrates,
although being two and a quarter times as powerful as a food
nutrient. - -
Concentrates.—The term ‘concentrates' is a general term
applied to all feeds such as grains and factory by-products. In
a properly compounded ration, a small amount of concentrates
is essential. The following table gives a few of the well-known
concentrates classified according to composition.
(Concentrates)
Oats \
Wheat bran
Wheat middlings (shorts)
Cowpeas
Dried brewers’ grain } Protein
Gluten feed
Soybeans
Linseed meal (O. P.)
Cottonseed meal
DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT 117
Corn and cob meal
Corn
Wheat
Rye
Carbohydrates
There are on the market at the present time a number of
dairy feeds mixed ready for use. In many cases these compounds
contain grains that form excellent milk producing rations, but,
in the majority of cases, they are an agent for disposing of materials
which are found difficult to dispose of as a separate product.
These feeds, as a general rule, cost more than they are really
worth, and for this reason they are not recommended to dairy-
men that are capable of mixing their own rations.
The average Indiana dairyman should grow or purchase corn
as the foundation of his dairy ration. The next point to consider
is that of purchasing protein from such feeds as we find listed
under “Concentrates.” As a general proposition, the feed to
purchase is the one which carries the most pounds of protein per
dollar cost price. In addition to the nutrients, the factor of bulk
should be considered. In order that the ration may be properly
digested, it should contain an ingredient that is high in fibre,
such as bran or ground oats. Such a feed will permit the digestive
juices to mix freely with all parts of the ration, and in this way,
assist in thorough digestion. -
A thorough mixture of the concentrates of a ration is essential
in order that each cow may secure the desired amount of food
nutrients. The mixing of the feed is best accomplished by grind-
ing together the various grains wherever such a practice is
practical. If this method is not feasible, the various grains may
be mixed after the manner generally employed in the mixing of
cement, viz.: piling one feed on another in a cone-shaped mass
and mixing the mass by shoveling.
Roughage.—The term roughage is applied to all dry fodders,
grasses and straws. They may be divided into two classes, those
high in protein and those relatively lower in protein. The follow-
ing table shows such a classification.
(Roughages)
Red clover hay -
Cowpea hay Protein
Alfalfa hay
Soybean hay
118 - DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT
^
Sugar beets
Corn silage
Wheat straw
Oats straw
Corn stover Carbohydrates
Corn and soybean silage
Timothy
Dried beet pulp
Mixed hay
Millett hay ed
In the feeding of cows, certain physical considerations have
been found to be essential. One of these is the supplying of a
bulky ration. You may supply a cow with all the nutrients she
needs in the form of grains, nevertheless, she will appear hungry
and will be satisfied only after being supplied a rather large amount
of coarse feeds. All ruminating animals demand this class of
feed to a certain extent.
Of the feeds shown in the table, those classed opposite the
word ‘protein’ are known as legumes. They represent a class of
forage crops which have the faculty of absorbing the nitrogen of
the air and storing a portion of it in their roots. They also carry
a large amount of nitrogen in the plant tissue itself, and therefore,
are high in protein. A good dairy ration should carry a small
amount of such feed and, when properly combined, assists greatly
in supplying protein to a home-grown ration. The other classifica-
tion in the table, carbohydrates, contains several feeds which
should never be used in feeding for milk production. Such feeds
as timothy hay and wheat straw have no place, whatever,
in a properly balanced ration for dairy cows. Many of the car-
bonatious feeds, however, may be used to advantage and are
always recommended and are usually found in an economical
ration. tº
The contented cow is the one that produces the most milk
when considered from an economical standpoint. In order that
this condition may be brought about, it is essential that she be
given all the roughage she cares to consume. When properly fed,
you may expect a thousand pound cow to consume about twelve
or fifteen pounds of hay and fodder when it is fed in connection
with succulence. -
It is quite essential that a cow be given her feed in a logical
and regular order if you expect her to consume enough to produce
to advantage. As a general propostition, two feeds per day are
sufficient and may very properly be fed as follows: fodder, in the
DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT 119
morning, and hay in the evening, feeding the same amount of
Succulence and grain with each feed. *
Succulent Feed.—A succulent feed is one designed to supply
the moisture and appetizing influences of pasture grass.
As a cow's natural food is green grass, any substitute that we
find possible to make will assist greatly in increasing milk produc-
tion. Milk is composed mostly of water, and, in order to produce
a large flow of milk, it is necessary that a cow consume a great
deal of this material. Silage in addition to supplying the cow
with a rather large amount of moisture, serves, also, as an appetizer
and in this way tends to increase the total amount of food con-
sumed by the cow.
- Succulence has been supplied to dairy cows for a very long
time, either in the form of soiling crops, roots, or preserved forage
crops, commonly known as silage. Indiana conditions are best
Suited to the silo, as the greatest of all silage crops, corn, is so
successfully grown here. Wherever large records are desired
and the labor of growing is of minor importance, certain root
crops assist greatly in supplying succulence in an excellent form
for dairy cows. - -
As stated above, corn is preeminently the silage crop for
Indiana. There are, however, other crops which may be mixed
with corn and will be found to assist greatly in supplying an
economical form of protein. The crops usually used for this
purpose are, soybeans, cowpeas, Canadian field peas, alfalfa and
clover. Very few of these feeds form a good silage when used
alone, however, when mixed with corn in the proportion of two
parts corn to one part legume, an excellent silage is formed.
The best feeders do not supply their dairy cows with over three
times as much silage as the cow consumes of dry roughages. A
cow on a high ration of silage is much more difficult to keep in
perfect physical condition than one fed a smaller amount. Thirty
to thirty-five pounds of silage per day per thousand pounds live
weight is about the proper amount to feed.
Silage is not a concentrated feed and should not be required
to produce the same results as a high protein concentrate. It is
true that silage carries a rather large amount of grain but not
enough to replace the grain required by the average cow. It is
also strictly a carbonatious feed, therefore, requiring some protein
concentrate in order to properly balance the ration.
The round silo is without doubt the most practical method
available for the storing of silage. Just what material should be
120 DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT
used in its construction depends upon many factors. The wooden
silo is a success and for the beginner in the use of a silo, no doubt,
is the most practical, -
Economy in Feeding.—On this one factor hinges the success or
failure of the dairy business. If one knows what feeds are re-
Quired to compound a ration and plans to grow as many of these
as possible on the farm, the matter of purchasing feeds is very
greatly simplified. On the other hand, wherever the entire grain
ration must be purchased, the best of judgment is required in its
selection. A properly compounded ration carries the following
factors: Food nutrients, bulk, palatability and succulence. If
the factors are supplied in accordance with the directions given,
using all the home grown feeds possible and purchasing the pro-
tein in accordance with its cost, the ration will be within the limits
of economy.
GOOD RATIONS
The following rations are offered as a result of experience and
observation as those best fitted to Indiana conditions.
TABLE X
ECONOMICAL RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS
RATION I & RATION III
Feeds Amount Feeds Amount
Corn silage . . . . . . . . . . . 30 lbs. Mangles or sugar beets 25 lbs.
Cowpea hay. . . . . . . . . . 10 “ || || Alfalfa hay. . . . . . . . . . . 10 “
Corn stover. . . . . . . . . . . . 2 & 6 Corn stover. . . . . . . . . . . 5 “
Corn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 § { Corn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 “
Cottonseed meal . . . . . . | 1.5. “ Dried brewers’ grains. . 5 “ .
RATION II - RATION IV
Clover hay. . . . . . . . . . . 18 lbs. Corn silage * * * * * * * * * s is 30 lbs.
Corn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. “ Canadian pea & oat hay 10 “
Wheat bran or oats. . . . 4. “ Oats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * 5 “
Cottonseed meal. . . . . . 1. “ Gluten feed. . . . . . . . . . . 4 “



.The above grain ration may be fed in accordance with the yield of milk by making
a mixture of the grain. Feed one pound of the mixture for each three or three and
one-half pounds of milk produced, varying the amount of grain given according to
per cent of fat in milk.
DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT 121
BUTTER MAKING ON THE FARM4
“The principal idea and the most important factor in making
butter is to make it so good and put it up in such an attractive
way that every one will want it.
First of all, everything that comes in contact with the milk
and cream must be scrupulously clean, for milk is the most easily
contaminated food product that we have, and a little careless-
ness may spoil a whole batch of butter and make it unsalable.
The cream should be cooled as soon as it comes from the
separator and should be kept in a cool place until enough is had
to make a churning. It would be well to have a small wooden
trough that can be filled with cold water, in which to set the cans
or jars of cream to keep them cool. The water in this should be
changed frequently, or, better still, a running stream through it all
the time would be ideal. After enough cream has been accumu-
lated to make a churning (generally about two or three days'
cream) it should all be mixed together in one large can, thoroughly
stirred and allowed to stand over night to ripen or evenly sour
before churning.
In the winter time this cream may have to be warmed to about
70 degrees F. before it will sour. This should be done at the time
of mixing it the night before churning. In this case it should be
cooled down the next morning to about 60 degrees F. before the
churning is begun. It is always best to have a dairy thermometer
and test the temperature of the cream, for the temperature is
very important in butter making.
Three times a week during the summer and twice a week
during the winter is often enough to churn. A barrel churn is
about the most convenient for home use, for it is easy to handle
and keep clean, and does not cost much.
When ready for the churn, see that the temperature is at about
60 degree F., then pour the ripened cream into the churn and
churn it until the butter has come in the form of small granules
about the size of wheat grains. Then draw off the buttermilk,
leaving the butter in the churn. Over this butter pour fresh
cold water, put on the lid and turn the churn two or three rounds
to wash the butter; draw off the water, then the butter is ready
to remove from the churn for salting and working.
It should be salted at the rate of one ounce to the pound,
and worked with a paddle or on a so-called butter-worker. Always
1 De Laval Dairy Hand Book.-S. E. Barnes.
122 DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT
handle the butter with a paddle or ladle; never allow the hands
to touch it, for the warmth of the hands would make the butter
soft and greasy. - -
. Remember, butter should not be worked too much, only
enough to dissolve the salt and get the butter into a nice, waxy
consistency. Butter is often worked until it is soft and greasy,
which is very undesirable and makes a very poor product. After
the working is done, it should then be molded into pound prints
and wrapped neatly in parchment paper and kept in a cool place
until marketed. Remember that appearance goes a long ways
in selling an article.” --
CARE OF MILK AND CREAM"
“During hot days and sultry nights the milk and cream on the
farm require special attention. The summer weather that is
so much needed to mature the corn and other grains also accel-
erates the life and growth of the germs in milk and cream.
The bacteria that are in the milk and cream may become the
direct cause of such diseases as summer complaint and colic
among infants and of poor quality of the butter, cheese and con-
densed milk turned out in our creameries, cheese factories and
condensories. - -
The chief factors required for the milk to reach the consumer
and factory in proper condition are cleanliness and low tempera-
ture. -
Wipe off the udder with a cleam damp cloth before milking.
Milk into a clean pail with clean, dry hands. Strain the milk as
soon as drawn in a clean room free from dust and foul odors.
Use a wire mesh strainer (60 to 80 mesh to the inch) instead of a
cheese cloth strainer, as the latter is hard to cleanse and is never
really clean.
Cool the milk to as low a temperature as the available water
on the farm permits. Use ice, if available. Cooling to 60 degrees
F. is better than no cooling at all but lower temperatures are
preferable. Keep the milk cold until it leaves the farm.
The simplest way to cool the milk is to set the can in a box,
trough, tub or half barrel of water and stir the milk to hasten the
cooling. If running water is available let it run through the
trough continuously, if not, change the water at least once before
retiring for the night. -
1 Purdue Extension Leaflet, 32.
DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT 123
If the milk is separated, cool the cream immediately after
separation and keep it cool until it leaves the farm.
When hauling milk and cream to the factory or station cover
the cans with a wet blanket to protect them from the sun. If
left at the station before train time set the cans in cold water or
in the shade at the station. -
Rinse all dippers, pails, strainer, cans, etc., with cold water.
Wash them thoroughly with hot water to which some washing
powder has been added, scrub with a brush until all remnants of
milk are removed. Then rinse the utensils thoroughly with scald-
ing hot water. Do not wipe them off with a cloth, they do not
need it, but incline them on a clean shelf or over pegs so that the
water can drain off readily. If the utensils are allowed to drain
out-of-doors, the shelves or rack should be at least four feet above
ground to prevent undue contamination from dust.
Flush the separator with plenty of cold water immediately
after use. Take the bowl apart and wash with warm water and
washing powder all parts until they are thoroughly clean. Then
rinse them thoroughly with scalding hot water and place them
in the clean milk supply tank to drain.
Never mix warm morning's milk or cream with the cold milk
or cream of the previous evening. Such a mixture sours quickly.
If the two must be mixed, cool the warm milk or cream before
mixing, otherwise haul or ship to the factory in separate cans.”
124
DAIRY COW MANAGEMENT
THE SCORE CARD."
D AIR Y CATTLE COW
Points deficient
- Stand-
SCALE OF POINTS ard Stu-
dent's Cor-
score | rected
HEAD–8 per cent.
1. Muzzle, broad a e º 'º º º s º g s = e < e < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Jaw, Strong, firmly joined. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Face, medium length, clean. . . . . : , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Forehead, broad between eyes, dishing . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Eyes, large, full, mild, bright. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Ears, medium size, fine texture; secretions oily and
abundant, yellow color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FORE QUARTERS–10 per cent. -
7. Throat, Clean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 • * * * * * * | * * * * * * *
8. Neck, long, spare, smoothly joined to shoulders, free
from dewlap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9. Withers, narrow, sharp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10. Shoulders, sloping, smooth; brisket light. . . . . . . . . | 3 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11. Fore legs, straight, clean, well set under body. . . . . 1 ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BODY-25 per cent.
12. - Crops, free from fleshiness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13. Chest, deep, roomy; floor broad. . . . . . . . ‘. . . . . . . . . 6 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14. Back, Straight, strong; vertebrae open. . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15. Ribs, long, deep, sprung, wide apart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16. Barrel, deep, long capacious. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17. Loin, broad, strong. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HIND QUARTERS–12 per cent.
18. Hips, prominent, wide apart. … . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19. Rump, long, level, not sloping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20. Pin Bones, wide apart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21. Tail, neatly set on, long, tapering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22. Thighs, Spare not fleshy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23. Hind legs, well apart, giving ample room for udder 2 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MAM MARY DEVELOPMENT—30 per cent.
24. Udder, large, very flexible, attached high behind,
carrying well forward; quarters even, not cut up 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25. Teats, wide apart, uniformly placed, convenient size 5 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26. Milk veins, large, tortuous, extending well forward 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27. Milk wells, large. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GENERAL APPEARANCE—15 per cent.
28. Disposition, quiet, gentle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 2 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29. Health, thrifty, vigorous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30. Quality, free from coarseness throughout ; skin soft,
pliable; secretions abundant; hair fine. . . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31. Tempera ment, inherent tendency to dairy per-
formance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

“”The essential points of a good dairy cow are: constitution,
capacity; nervous temperament, blood circulation, and ability.
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin 16
2 Purdue Extension leaflet 52.
DAIRy Cow MANAGEMENT 125
* *
CoNSTITUTION
In order that a cow may perform, efficiently, her work of pro-
duction and reproduction for a long period of time, she must have
a strong constitution. The following characteristics indicate this
first essential point in a dairy cow:—
Large, mild, bright, expressive eyes; good width of fore-
head; broad muzzle with large mouth and nostrils; prominent
windpipe; strong jaw; deep heart girth; good width between
front legs; full crops and breast, and horns that are rather
thick at base and tapering to the ends.
Most of these points are more or less closely associated with the
vital organs, namely, the heart and lungs, which must be well de-
veloped, with plenty of room in which to operate properly, if the
animal is to have constitutional vigor. *
CAPACITY
There are few cows of consistent high production which are
not amply provided with storage room for consuming immense
quantities of feed and water. The large consumer is almost always
the most profitable producer and must, therefore, be provided with
a large capacity for digesting and assimilating feed, as indicated by
the following points: - -
Great length from withers to hip bone; large barrel; full
crops; well sprung ribs that are broad, deep and wide apart.
When judging the capacity of a cow, it is important to notice
the efficiency of her digestive organs by studying her handling
qualities. See whether her hide is soft, loose, pliable, of medium
thickness, and covered with a soft, silky coat of hair, which indi-
cates that the organs of digestion are in perfect working order.
NERVOUs TEMPERAMENT
When speaking of a cow having a good nervous or dairy tem-
perament, it isn’t meant that she ought to be excitable, fretful and
hard to manage. The nervous temperament should be highly
developed but it should be under control. She should show a
disposition to work under almost any condition. The cow that is .
busy eating or chewing her cud most of the time and, at the same
time, using a minimum amount of feed eaten for maintaining her
own life processes, is usually a profitable cow. The following
126 Dairy COW MANAGEMENT
points of conformation are indicative of a good nervous temper-
ament:
A clean, dished face; neat throat; long, slender neck that
is thin and smoothly joined to the shoulders; withers sharp;
back bone prominent; no fleshiness on shoulders, neck, withers,
back, loin, rump, and thighs; eyes that are large, bright, mild,
expressive, and her general actions and movements indicating
alertness and freedom from sluggishness. - -
Cows that are recognized as good workers generally have most
of these characteristics.
BLOOD CIRCULATION
A cow may have a strong constitution and a large capacity,
but if her blood does not circulate abundantly through the right
portions of her anatomy, she may be worthless as a dairy cow.
The udder is that part of a cow's anatomy where milk is manu-
factured, consequently, we like to see a maximum amount of blood
passing through this organ. A good dairy cow should have abun-
dant circulation through the lower part of her anatomy. This
factor is best ascertained by a careful study of the udder, milk
veins, and milk wells.
A large well-placed udder, hung high behind, and extend-
ing forward, flat at the bottom, well veined, accompanied with
large tortuous milk veins that are long, having one or more
large milk wells, indicates a liberal distribution of food nutri-
ents in the right part of her body. - *
ABILITY
It is possible for a cow to possess all the essential points above
mentioned and yet, if she lacks ability, she will be an absolute
failure as a profitable milk producer. Since the udder is the milk
plant of the cow's conformation, we logically study this organ in
order to determine her ability to transform feed stuffs into dairy
products. -
If the udder is large and shapely, showing that it has a copious
blood supply, if it is free from fleshy tendencies, collapses into soft,
pliable folds, resembling a folded glove when the milk has been
drawn, and if all the quarters are free from scars, and milk down
equally well, we have reason to believe that such a cow has ability
to transform farm crops into the finished product with great
DAIRY Cow MANAGEMENT 127
economy. This inherent tendency of dairy cows to produce
milk persistently is a factor which dairymen have been striving
to establish for over a thousand years. As the result of this effort,
we have the Jersey, Holstein, Guernsey and Aryshire breeds of
dairy cattle which reflect credit upon the ingenuity, skill, perser-
verance and wisdom of man.”
REFERENCES
Productive Dairying—R. M. Washburn, Lippincott.
Dairy Farming—Eckles and Warren, Macmillan.
Dairy Cattle and Milk Production—Eckles, Macmillan.
Milk and the Public Health—Savage, Macmillan. -
Milk and Its Products—Wing, Mendota Book Co., Madison, Wisconsin.
Feeds and Feeding—Henry and Morrison, Henry and Morrison Co., Madison,
Wis. “. . -
Dairy Farming—Michels, Published by the Author, West Raleigh, North
Carolina. -
Purdue University Publications:
Extension Bulletin 34–Cow Testing Associations.
Extension Bulletin 16—Judging Dairy Cattle.
Extension Bulletin 21—Economic Milk Production.
Extension Bulletin 56—Increasing Dairy Production in Indiana.
Extension Leaflet 52—How to Select a Good Dairy Cow.
Extension Leaflet 42—Hay and Soiling Crops for Dairy Cattle.
Extension Leaflet 32—Timely Hints on the Proper Care of Milk and
Cream.
Extension Leaflet 67—Contagious Abortion of Cattle.
Experiment Station Circular 51—How to Produce Cream that Makes
Good Butter.
Experiment Station Circular 42—Testing Milk and Cream for Bufter.
U. S. Department of Agriculture Publications:
Farmers' Bulletin 106—Breeds of Dairy Cattle.
Farmers' Bulletin 434—Judging the Dairy Cow as a Subject of Instruc-
tion in Secondary Schools.
Farmers' Bulletin 790–Contagious Abortion of Cattle.
Farmers' Bulletin 743—The Feeding of Dairy Cows.
Farmers' Bulletin 748—A Simple Steam Sterilizer for Farm Dairy
Utensils. .
Farmers' Bulletin 602—Production of Clean Milk.
Bulletin 49, B. P. I.-The Cost of Raising a Dairy Cow.
Farmers' Bulletin 777—Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves and
Young Dairy Stock. -
Dairy Calf
I. What the pupil should know.
A. Types and breeds.
1. Beef type.
2. Dairy type.
a. Dairy breeds.
a1. Ayrshires.
a2. Brown Swiss.
a3. Devons.
a4. Dutch Belted.
a5. Guernseys.
a6. Holstein-Friesians.
a'ſ. Jerseys.
a8. Polled Durhars.
aſº. Red Polls
a10. Shorthorns.
B. How to select the mother.
1. Ancestry.
2. Individual excellence.
C. How to select the sire.
1. Ancestry.
2. Individual excellence.
D. Points to consider in judging dairy cattle.
1. General appearance.
2. Head.
3. Forequarters.
4. Body.
5. Hindquarters.
* 6. Mammary development.
E. Feeding and management of the calf.
1. . Feeding before birth.
2. Caring for the cow at time of calving
3. Care of calf at birth.
4. Separating calf from cow.
5. Teaching the calf to drink.
6. Walue of sanitation.
7. Quantity of feed required.
8. Changing feed.
9. Frequency and regularity of feeding.
10. Milk substitutes.
11. Home-mixed calf meal.
12. Roughage for calves.
13. Grain for calves.
14. Pasture for young calves.
(128)
DAIRY CALF 129
15. Weaning the calf from milk feed.
16. Water requirement of calves.
17. Housing the dairy calf.
18. How to prevent horns.
19. Calf diseases.
. Indigestion.
Scours.
White scours.
Colic.
Blackleg.
f. Prieumonia. iº.
F. Feeding and management of young dairy stock.
Feeding from six months to one year of age.
Feeding from one to two years of age.
Cost of growing dairy heifers to two years of age.
Age to breed.
Time of year to breed.
The young bull.
G. How to keep records of all items of cost and income.
II. What the pupil should do.
A. The above and related topics should be studied in school,
B. Step by step as the topical study at school progresses the
pupil should make practical use of the information in the
actual management of dairy calves at home.
:
i
POINTS OF INFORMATION
(For types and breeds, and points to consider in judging dairy cows, see
the subject-matter on “Dairy Cow Management Project.”)
IMPORTANCE OF GROWING HEIFERS!
“One of the most serious obstacles in the rational development
of the dairy industry of the State lies in the scarcity of available
dairy cows of good production. This scarcity is, to a consider-
able extent, due to the general tendency among a large number
of dairymen to under-estimate the possible value of the heifer
calves produced by their herds. This tendency, in turn, has a
retarding influence on the increase of our dairy cow population
and causes the few animals that are available to be very high in
price.
The only permanently successful means to overcome this
unfavorable condition is for the dairymen to maintain, increase
and improve their herds by the use of pure bred bulls of high-pro-
ducing ancestry and by rearing the heifer calves from cows of known
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin 44.
8345—9
130 DAIRY CALF
and profitable production. The ease with which the production
of the individual cows in the herd may be determined places
every progressive dairyman in a position to follow this practice
and relieves him of the most plausible excuse for disposing of
his herd as soon as it, apparently, fails to yield a profit.
The practice of raising his own calves offers the dairyman
many and unlimited advantages: it improves the quality and
market value of his herd; it means increased production of both
milk and butterfat; it reduces, to the minimum, the danger of
infecting his herd with the many diseases common to this class of
live stock, thereby avoiding serious loss which may result from
condemnation or death of diseased animals and from decreased
production, due to low vitality caused by disease; and it protects
his product against contamination with disease germs which
might otherwise jeopardize the health and life of the consuming
public. t
METHODS OF RAISING CALVES
It is no longer possible, from an economic standpoint, to per-
mit the dairy calves to be reared in their natural way—that of
nursing the cow. As a result, artificial methods have been de-
vised, such as skim milk feeding and the use of milk substitutes..
These methods have been perfected to such an extent that it is
no longer considered necessary to provide a young calf with
whole milk after the first few weeks, in order to insure proper
growth.”
FEEDING BEFORE BIRTH."
“Poorly nourished cows give birth to weak, puny calves which
are hard to raise. The feeding of the calf, therefore, begins
before it is born. The food elements necessary for the develop-
ment of the calf are taken into the stomach of the cow, digested,
assimilated, and transmitted to the calf through the umbilical
cord, the connection between the mother and the calf. It is
evident that if the cow does not receive food enough to keep her-
self in thrifty condition and at the same time develop her calf,
both she and the calf must suffer. In endeavoring to raise good,
thrifty calves many dairymen handicap themselves at the start
by not properly feeding the pregnant cows. Such cows should
have an abundance of palatable and succulent or juicy feed in order
to insure good body flesh and healthy, thrifty condition at calving
1 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 777.
DAIRY CALF 131
&
time. The calves will then be well developed, strong, and sturdy,
and ready to respond normally to proper feed and care.”
CARING FOR THE Cow AT TIME OF CALVING!
“In order that a cow may calve normally, it is best that she
should be in good flesh, which is the result of six or eight weeks
of rest, and an adequate supply of nutritious, palatable, bulky,
and laxative feed. If she calves at a season of the year when
good pasture is available and the pasture is located so that fre-
Quent observations concerning her condition may be made, noth-
ing better need be provided. However, if the weather is hot and
flies are thick, a roomy, well-bedded box stall will prove to be
more comfortable and desirable.
The chief object for permitting a cow to be dry for six to eight
weeks between periods of lactation is the increased yield in milk
produced by cows so managed over that produced by cows that
are milked constantly throughout the year.
CARE OF CALF AT BIRTH
A cow should calve normally in 282 days from date of breed-
ing, although considerable variation from this figure is not un-
usual. As a cow approaches the date of parturition, her udder
becomes distended, the ligaments on either side of the rump
relax and there is a marked increase in the size of the vulva. At
the time of delivery, some competent attendant should be pres–
ent to attend to any emergency, such as an irregular presentation.
As soon as the calf is dropped, it should be wiped dry with straw
or burlap, in case the cow does not lick it as she should. If
the calf fails to obtain food within two hours after birth, it should
be assisted in securing its first meal. The first milk produced
by the mother, which is called colostrum milk, contains a ma-
terial that assists in opening the alimentary tract and in starting
the digestive processes. Under no condition, should this milk be
denied the young calf without providing an adequate substitute.
RAISING CALVES BY HAND
The practice of raising calves by hand is increasing in locali-
ties where improved dairy practices are properly understood.
A decided prejudice exists in many localities where dairying is
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin 44.
132 DAIRY CAir
little practiced against this method of raising calves, due, prob-
ably, to the usual inferior class of stock produced whenever this
method of feeding is first used. This condition is usually not
the result of the feeds fed, but, rather, the manner of feeding.
The lack of proper information, together with carelessness on
the part of the feeder, is largely responsible for the inferior class
of calves often produced by hand feeding.
The commercial value of butterfat prohibits its use as a feed
for live stock. Its value in a ration for calves is very low as
shown by practical feeding experiments. Calves reared on whole
milk usually are in a higher physical condition but not further
developed in growth and muscle tissue than those fed skim milk.
After six months of age, it is difficult to note a difference between
calves fed whole milk and those properly fed skim milk.
CHANGING CALF FROM NURSING TO BUCKET FEEDING
The young calf should remain with its dam until it is in a
good, thrifty, condition, all organs performing their normal func-
tion. If it is impractical to feed more than twice per day, it is
advisable to allow the calf to remain with its dam for four or five
days after birth. The condition of the udder of the dam is an
important factor. Under average conditions, the calf will remove
the congestion from the udder to a better advantage than the
average milker. In case the milk produced by the dam is very
rich in fat, it may be necessary to substitute another cow's milk,
as digestive troubles often result if an excessive amount of fat
is consumed.
TEACHING THE CALF To DRINK
If possible, the calf should be housed a considerable distance
from its dam when weaned, in order to reduce the worry of both
to the minimum. Require the calf to exist without milk for
eighteen to twenty-four hours after weaning, as a hungry calf is
much more teachable than one more contented. The first feed
should consist of a small amount of the mother's milk, freshly
drawn. Force is of little avail in teaching a calf to drink and it
may result unsatisfactorily for both calf and attendant. Patience
and kindness receive their reward more quickly in the practice
of calf feeding than in any other division of live stock feeding.
Permit the calf to draw its milk from the bucket by submerging
a portion of the hand and fingers in the milk and allowing the
calf to suck the first two fingers of the hand. Gradually with-
DAIRY CALF 133
draw the fingers from the calf's mouth and, unconsciously, the
calf will start to drink. Usually, two or three feedings are suf-
ficient to teach a calf to drink normally, although some individuals
require a much longer time.
QUANTITY OF FEED REQUIRED
The average calf feeder experiences more trouble from over-
feeding of the milk portion of the ration, than from underfeeding.
It is possible to rear a good calf to the age of six months, using
the amount of feed as indicated below:
Whole milk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125— 150 pounds
Skim milk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000–2,100 “
Grain mixture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150– 175 “
Hay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450– 500 “
The average calf will begin to consume dry feed at about
ten days of age. The milk portion of the ration will depend upon
the size and age of the calf, usually varying from eight pounds
at one week of age to sixteen pounds at six months of age.
CHANGING FROM WHOLE MILK To SKIM MILK FEEDING
A dairy calf that is doing well on bucket feeding may be
changed to a skim milk ration during the third week of its life.
Skim milk should be fed in the same quantities as if whole milk
had been continued. If the calves are of high breeding and their
value depends upon their appearance during the first six months
of their life, whole milk feeding may be continued until five or
six weeks of age. All changes in a calf's ration should be grad-
ual and regular and the milk of all feedings should be uniform in
temperature.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BODY WEIGHT AND MILK RATION
Under average conditions, a calf should gain, approximately,
1 to 1.5 pounds per day, depending upon the size at birth and the
thriftiness of the calf.
134 DAIRY CALF
SHOWING MINIMIUM GAIN IN LIVE WIEIGHT AND DAILY AMOUNT OF
MILK RATION FOR CALVES OF VARIOUS WEIGHTS AT BIRTH.

10 days 30 days 60 days 90 days 120 days 150 days 180 days
of age of age of age of age of age of age of age
Birth
Weight g .* º
lbs. Milk| Wt. |Milk Wt. |Milk Wit. |Milk| Wt. |Milk| Wt. |Milk| Wt. |Milk| Wt.
lbs. lbs. || lbs. lbs. || lbs. lbs. || lbs. lbs. || lbs. lbs. || lbs. lbs. || lbs. lbs.
40 6 45 7 55 8 73 9 94 10 118 11 || 145 12 || 175
50 6 56 7 68 8 89 10 || 111 11 || 135 12 165 13 || 197
60 7 67 8 84 10 106 11 || 129 12 | 155 13 | 184 14 || 217
70 7 78 8 94 10 || 119 11 || 146 13 || 176 14 209 15 248
80 8 89 9 || 107 11 || 137 12 | 168 13 | 201 14 || 237 15 279
90 8 || 100 9 || 120 || 11 || 153 13 187 14 || 221 15 258 16 || 301
100 9 || 111 10 || 133 12 || 167 13 || 201 14 || 237 15 277 16 || 322
In applying the above table, feed the amount of milk indi-
cated nearest the weight of the calf at the time the weight is
taken, making due allowance for age. In order to intelligently
feed calves, it is necessary to weigh them, at least, once per week.
A decline in the condition of a calf may be detected much more
quickly by means of the scales than by the eye. A change of
method of feeding may easily forestall a decided decrease in
weight and decline in the condition of the calf.
MILK SUBSTITUTES
If skim milk is available upon the farm for stock feeding the
use of milk substitutes is unecessary. On many farms, the chief
product sold is whole milk and, under such conditions, the use
of a milk substitute for calf feeding is essential. There are
numerous commercial calf meals available, many of which have
Some degree of merit. • Their cost is usually rather high and, as
a result, the gains produced by such feeds cost more than if pro-
duced by a skim milk ration. As the dairymen become better
informed upon the subject of feeding, the use of home-mixed calf
meals will doubtless increase. The results secured from milk
substitutes will not be as good as those produced by a milk
ration, although if proper care is taken after weaning time, the
final development of the heifer will be almost equal to the milk- .
fed individual.”
FREQUENCY AND REGULARITY OF FEEDING1
“Under natural conditions the young calf receives nourishment
every 2 or 3 hours. In hand feeding it is best to follow these
conditions as closely as possible, but because of the trouble and
1 U. s. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 777.
DAIRY CALF I35
expense involved it has been found impracticable to feed calves
more frequently than three times a day, and in some cases only
twice a day. -
It is the practice of many dairymen to feed young calves three
times rather than twice a day, because the better results obtained
more than pay for the additional work. When this is done the
periods between feeding should be as nearly equal as possible.
The chief advantages of feeding in this manner are that the calf
can not overload its stomach, and that the digestion of the feed
is more evenly distributed throughout the 24 hours. When calves
are fed only twice a day the utmost care should be observed to
see that the feedings are, as nearly as possible, 12 hours apart.
The importance of regularity in feeding can not be overempha-
sized. -
CLEANLINESS THE FIRST EssENTIAL
Cleanliness is absolutely essential to the successful raising of
calves. This is equally necessary in feed, pens, bedding, and pails
or untensils. All milk fed should be fresh and clean, and the
same is true of other feeds. Calf pens should always be kept clean
and be filled with plenty of dry bedding. Great care should be
taken in washing the milk pails. These should be thoroughly
scalded with boiling water, or sterilized with steam if possible.
Discarded feed should be removed from the feed boxes, which should
be thoroughly brushed and cleaned each day. Attention to these
details is the best preventive of disease. Nearly all disorders
or diseases of the calf are caused either directly or indirectly by
lack of cleanliness.”
DIRECTIONS FOR MIXING AND FEEDING HomE-MIXED CALF MEAL1
“Home-mixed calf meal, such as was used with excellent re-
Sults in feeding trials at the Purdue Experiment Station, is made
up of four feeds, mixed in the proportion of one part of each, by
weight. The feeds used in the mixture are linseed meal, (O. P.)
hominy feed, red dog flour and dried blood.
The mixture, when prepared as above suggested, is fed chief-
ly as a substitute for milk, although it may be fed dry as a grain
ration if properly mixed with other feeds or in skim milk as a
Supplementary feed.
When used in the place of milk, home-mixed calf meal should
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin 44.
136 DAIRY CALF
be mixed with warm water (100°F.) in the proportion of one pound
of calf meal to one gallon of water. In case less than one gallon
of the mixture is used per feeding, make the necessary reduction
when mixing as it is not advisable to have the meal mixed pre-
vious to the time of feeding. After the calf is drinking readily
from the bucket, substitute for a small portion of the milk at each
feeding an equal amount of gruel, prepared by mixing the calf
meal as above suggested. Gradually increase the amount of
gruel fed, placing the calf on this material, exclusively, at four
or five weeks of age. Do not feed over one gallon of the mixture
per day previous to the time the calf is one month of age, unless
the calf is very large at birth. After this time, gradually increase
the liquid ration to one and one-half gallons per day at five or six
months of age.
Home-mixed calf meal is a very concentrated feed and, in
order to be successful with its use, it is necessary to make all
changes in the amount of all material fed, gradually. Over-
feeding is responsible for much trouble in calf raising and the care-
ful feeder will constantly guard against this source of trouble.
The same precautions should be observed as if milk were being
fed.
The following table indicates the amount of milk, calf meal
and water to be fed per day, arranged according to periods.
When using the table, it is understood that the amount of
materials fed is to be gradually changed between the dates (age
of calf) as indicated, endeavoring, constantly, to make the daily
ration naturally conform to the table upon the dates given.
It is absolutely essential that all changes in amount and kind of
feeds fed be made gradually. After forty days of age, the daily
ration may be increased, ever keeping in mind the danger of over-
feeding and seeking, always, to secure maximum development.
SHOWING THE DAILY AMOUNT OF MILK, CALF MEAL AND WATER REQUIRED BY CALVES
OF WARIOUS BIRTH WEIGHTS AND OF WARIOUS AGES

Daily Ration Daily Ration Daily Ration Daily Ration Daily Ration
at 5 days at 7 days at 20 days at 30 days at 40 days
of age of age of age of age of age
Birth
Weight | Milk Milk | Meal Milk | Meal ||Water|| Milk | Meal Water Meal Water
of ºve lbs. lbs. oz. lbs. 1 oz. lbs. || lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs.
S.
§ 5 ºrs ºf =frº;
40 § 3.5 6 || 2 |##| || 4.5 | 8 || 2 || 1 || 13 || 5 || 3 || 14 6.
50 5 * = g| 5 || 2 |* : , || 4.5 || 8 || 2 || 1 || 13 || 5 |gº g| 14 || 3.
60 6 gº iſ 7 2 | #: 5.0 9 2.5 || 1 14 || 6 # § 15 7.
70 6 *g:#| 7 3 |:5-3 ..] 5.0 | 9 || 2.5 || 1 14 || 6. || 3 F.3| 15 7.
80 7 |33 || 8 3 : 3 & 5.5 10 || 3 1 15 || 7 || 3 33 16 || 8.
90 7 gº 8 3 ||= 5.3| 5.5 || 10 || 3 1 # Z. Hºàg| 3 | }.
100 || 8 |###| 9 || 4 ##| Šâ ií | 3.5 | i. ié || 8 H; 17 | 9.
G - Tes pi* £,
§ 3-3 #
DAIRY CALF 137
MILK SUPPLEMENTS
Some feeders consider it necessary to substitute a material
in the milk portion of the ration to take the place of the butter-
fat removed by separation. Such feeds as flaxseed, linseed meal
and middlings are used extensively for this purpose. Those most
experienced in the feeding of calves by hand recommend that the
supplemental feeds be fed separately from the milk ration, per-
mitting the milk to be consumed in its natural state with the
exception of the butterfat, which is, of course, removed. If a
portion of the grain ration is fed in connection with the milk, it
is usually “bolted” by the calf and an acute attack of indigestion
results. A proper mastication of all solid materials consumed by
young calves is necessary for complete and thorough digestion.”
RoughAGE FOR CALVES!
“Usually a vigorous calf begins during the second week to pick
at the bedding or other material within its reach, and at that time
both grain and roughage of the best possible quality should be
provided. Clover hay, alfalfa hay, or, if these are not available, the
most palatable roughage on hand should be given the calf after the
second week. If alfalfa is used, care should be taken that it does
not cause scours; this feed should be fed sparingly at first and in-
creased only after the calf gets accustomed to it. The essential
points are that the roughage be of good quality and kept clean.
The usual mistake in providing roughage is that it is not kept
clean. It is either placed on the floor, where it soon becomes
contaminated with the droppings, or is put into a manger or feed
box, so placed that the calf can easily spoil it. Hay should be
furnished at first only a handful at a time and placed so that it
can not get soiled. A latticework rack, of metal or wood is
useful if it is placed high enough from the floor so that the calf
can not soil the hay in any manner but still have it within easy
reach. This rack can be so constructed that is can be hung on
the wall or framework of the stall or pen and removed when not
needed. For the first six months, at least, the calf should re-
ceive all the roughage of good quality that it will eat up clean.
The quantity taken up to the time it is one month old is very
Small. The rack should be emptied every day and fresh roughage
supplied.
1 U. S. D. A. Farmers’ Bulletin 777.
138 DAIRY CALF
Silage may be given after the calf is one month old, but the
utmost care should be observed to be sure that it is fresh from the
silo. For this reason very young calves, except in the hands of a
very careful feeder, should not be fed silage, as it ferments rapidly
when exposed to the air. Care should be used in starting with
Silage, using only a little at first and gradually increasing the
quantity as the animal becomes used to it. Generally there is no
danger that the calf will get too much roughage that is clean and
of the proper quality.
If the calf has access to good pasture during the first 6 months
it need not receive other roughage. Pastures used in summer
should contain plenty of shade. It is not advisable, however,
to have a calf under 2 months of age on pasture in the early
spring.”
GRAIN MIxTURES FOR YOUNG CALVES!
“The thriftiness and rate of gain made by young calves de-
pends, very materially, upon the kind and amount of grain con-
sumed by them. If properly managed, an average calf will begin
consuming grain at ten days or two weeks of age. The grain is
not furnished to supply protein to the young calf, as an adequate
supply of this nutrient comes from the skim milk fed. The fat,
however, has been removed from the milk and a supplementary
material must be furnished. The use of home-grown grain is,
of course, advisable in the feeding of all classes of live stock for
which it is adapted. Such grains as corn, oats, barley and kaffir
corn are excellent feeds for the young calves. Ground corn and
oats, half and half by weight, form a splendid dry mash. The
'use of mill by-products is not recommended unless especial qual-
ity in the growing calf is desired, regardless of cost. Wheat bran
may be substituted for ground oats, if oats are not available or
are less economical.
The young calf will consume a very small amount of grain
at first. It may be encouraged to eat this class of feed by placing
a small amount of the dry meal in its mouth immediately after
feeding the milk ration. The grain may be placed in a small box
at a convenient location in the calf's stall and thus stimulate the
calf's appetite for dry food. The meal should always be kept
fresh and sweet by frequent changes. After the calf is two
months of age, it should be required to consume this grain im-
mediately after feeding. After the calf is two or three months
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin 44.
DAIRY CALF - 139
of age, whole grains may be fed with as good results as the ground
feed. -
CoRN SILAGE FOR YOUNG CALVES
The value of corn silage for young calves is an unsettled
question. In the absence of other and more nutritious feeds, it
may serve as a good substitute. It should never be fed exten-
sively and care should be exercised to prevent the feeding of
coarse parts, such as large stalks and parts of cobs.
PASTURE FOR YOUNG CALVES
Due to the laxative effect of blue grass pasture, its use as
a roughage for young calves is limited. After the grass has be-
come dry, its undersirable effect is reduced and, if patatable, may
be consumed by calves without danger. Usually, the use of soil-
ing crops is more desirable, as the kind of feed, as well as the
amount fed, may be controlled more accurately. Young calves
should not be permitted to feed on green pastures over two or
three hours per day. If hay is available, the calves are preferably
kept in a dry lot and fed the same as during the winter season.
WEANING THE YOUNG CALF
The average dairyman may well stop feeding milk to his
calves at the age of six months. The breeder of pure bred stock
quite often finds it to his advantage to feed a milk ration for nine
or ten months in order to produce a larger individual and to in-
duce earlier development. In either event, milk feeding may be
discontinued by gradually reducing the ration covering a period
of three or four days. After the calf has been deprived of its
milk ration, it is very necessary to provide a grain ration which
contains a rather high protein content.
INDIVIDUAL FEEDING
If best results are to be secured, it is, of course, necessary
that each calf be fed separately, and that it be given a known and
constant amount of milk. The use of a common trough in which
the milk for an entire herd of calves of all ages is placed, cannot
be too emphatically condemned. Certain calves feed rapidly
while others are able to take milk only very slowly. As a result,
certain calves gorge themselves and others secure an insufficient
140 DAIRY CALF
amount of food. The sanitary aspect of such a practice is also
sufficient, in itself, to condemn the method.
THE WATER AND SALT REQUIREMENT OF CALVES
It is not an uncommon opinion that so long as a calf obtains
milk, it is unnecessary to supply water. It is true that during the
winter months a calf may do quite well even though deprived of
water; however, in the summer or hot season, water is considered
absolutely essential. Fresh water should constantly be available,
both during winter and summer if a calf is to develop to its best
advantage.
The mineral matter obtained from salt is relished and quite
necessary for a calf that is consuming dry roughage. It is well
to supply a small amount of Salt to each calf daily.
HousING THE DAIRY CALF
Due to the delicate nature of a young calf, its future depends
very much upon its comfort while young. The portion of the
barn in which the calves are kept should have a south exposure
and contain an abundance of windows to permit the sunlight to
enter whenever available. The temperature of the barn should
never go below forty-five degrees Fahrenheit and the more con-
stant, the better it will be for the general health of the calves.
Frequent changes of temperature and draughts produce colds
and pneumonia, a very fatal disease with all classes of stock, but
more especially with young calves. Some means of changing the
air regularly is also necessary and should be provided in a first-
class calf stable.
It is a mistake to construct calf pens that are small or to
crowd the pens full of calves. A box stall or pen, ten by twelve
feet square, is of splendid size for the accommodation of four or
five calves and for their convenient feeding. The floor should
be of cement, but covered with a heavy layer of dry straw. A
provision may be made for the removal of the scrub water in case
it is necessary to thoroughly cleanse the stalls occasionally.
The partitions between pens may be open of construction, but
should not permit the calves to stick their heads through be-
tween the slats.”
DAIRY CALF 141
PREVENTION OF HORNS!
“In the average dairy it is better that cows be without horns, as
the danger of their hooking one another is thus prevented. Only
in pure-bred herds, where the appearance of the herd is considered
important from a show or sale point of view, is there any justifica-
tion for allowing horns to grow. It is much easier to prevent the
growth of horns than to remove them.
The points that ultimately will develop into horns can be
felt as Small buttons imbedded in the skin. The prevention is
most effective if the treatment is applied when the buttons are
just large enough to be felt, which is usually between the third
and the seventh days. To prevent their development, the hair
should be removed from the horn buttons; a stick of caustic
potash or soda, wrapped in paper to protect the hands of the
operator, is then moistened with water and rubbed on each horn
button two or three times, allowing the caustic to dry after each
application. Care should be taken to apply the caustic, which
should not be too moist, to the buttons only, for if it touches the
surrounding skin it will cause unnecessary pain. Immediately
after the application the calf also should be protected from rain,
in order to prevent the caustic from spreading. If the operation
is carefully performed the horns will make no growth. If scurs
or horn growths appear, it is an indication that the caustic was
not properly applied.”
CALF DISEASEs”
“Indigestion.—The most common affliction which may attack
the growing calf is indigestion. The causes of this condition
are numerous; the most important ones are overfeeding, feeding
of cold or sour milk, feeding dirty milk, feeding milk that is high
in fat, improper housing and frequent or sudden changes in
temperature. Frequent attacks of indigestion are an indication
of improper feeding practice.
Calf Scours.-If a calf is attacked with a case of indigestion
and no attempt made to improve its condition, it usually develops
into a chronic case of indigestion, which is more commonly known
as calf scours. As soon as there is an indication that the calf's
digestive tract is not acting normally, the ration which is being
fed should be withheld for twelve hours and then reduced to
1 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 777.
2. Purdue Extension Bulletin 44.
142 DAIRY CALF.
one-half its normal amount until the condition of the digestive
system is normal. It is often well to remove the irritating
materials from the alimentary tract by means of a purgative,
such as castor oil. Calves under one month of age should receive
one ounce (two tablespoonfuls) of caster oil, for older calves
the dose may be doubled. Limited feeding should continue until
the excreta is of normal consistency, and of usual odor. If con-
ditions fail to improve, the following treatment is recommended:
1 ounce Bismuth Subnitrate
}% ounce Salol Prescription
3 ounces Bicarbonate of Soda )
Give one teaspoonful of the above preparation three or four
times per day in three ounces of milk as a drench. Usually, the
treatment need not be continued more than one or two days.
After conditions have become normal, gradually increase the
ration, observing, carefully, the condition of the calf. The above
prescription may be obtained at the drug store. -
White Scours.-This type of scours differs from that caused
by indigestion in that it is the result of a definite form of infec-
tion. Only the very young calves are subjected to this disease
and it is indicated by a white, cheesy excretion of a particularly
objectionable odor. The disease is caused by germs entering
the circulatory system directly through the tissues in the freshly
Severed naval. It may be prevented by providing a clean, dry,
well-bedded stall for the cow at calving time. As an additional
precaution, it is well to disinfect the naval with tincture of iodine
or with a strong solution of a standard type of coal tar disinfectant,
such as liquor cresolis, as soon as the calf is dropped and to bind
it close to the body by means of a strong cord, properly sterlized
or disinfected.
This disease is usually fatal, although by means of a treat-
ment known as the “Polyvalent Calf Cholera Dysentery Serum,”
also called “Polyvalent Bacterin,” a large proportion of recover-
ies is made. As soon as the disease is noticed, the calf should be
isolated and pen and utensils thoroughly disinfected with a
tWO per cent solution of a standard type of live stock disinfec-
ant. The “Polyvalent Bacterin” may be obtained through a
local veterinarian or from firms that manufacture the standard
types of vaccines.
Calf Colic.—Colic in calves is the result of feeding materials
DAIRY CALF 143
not adapted to the undeveloped stomach of the young animal,
or the feeding of the regular ration at unusual hours or in unusual
amounts. The calf usually suffers violent abdominal pains,
indicated by an unusual activity of the animal, frequent and con-
tinuous kicking, and, finally, complete prostration. Unless
relieved within a short time, death usually follows. A standard
treatment is to drench the calf at intervals of two hours with a
mixture containing a teaspoonful of turpentine and a tablespoonful
of raw linseed oil. Relief will usually follow shortly after the
first treatment, although in certain cases, it may be necessary to
give more than one dose.
Blackleg.—Blackleg is a disease affecting young cattle, espe-
cially those under two years of age. It causes lameness or
partial loss of the use of the part affected. The disease is caused
by a specific germ that produces a characteristic dark discolora-
tion of the tissues immediately under the skin of the affected part.
Upon careful examination, the affected limb or quarter will pro-
duce a crackling sound when rubbed with the hand, which is a
very characteristic symptom. The disease does not respond to
medical treatment and is usually fatal. If the disease is prevalent
in a given locality, it is recommended that all uninfected animals
be vaccinated against the disease. This method of prevention is
universally recognized as a safe and economical means of guard-
ing against loss from blackleg. -
Pneumonia in Young Calves.—Pneumonia is usually the result
of improper housing, ventilation or bedding. Draughts, undue
exposure and a depleted condition, due to improper feeding,
all contribute toward producing the disease. If it is the infectious
type, the presence of a germ in the stable makes it possible for
other calves to contract the disease more rapidly. It is recognized
by the loss of appetite, labored breath, increased temperature,
loss of countenance, murmuring sound in the lungs and a discharge
from the nose. -
The calf affected with this disease should be immediately re-
moved from the herd and the stall thoroughly disinfected. The
application of cold compresses to the lungs, supplying plenty of
fresh air, frequent use of a laxative, if necessary, and an occa-
sional application of mustard plaster to the lungs, are beneficial.
The disease is very serious and demands constant care and proper
treatment to insure even a fair percentage of recoveries.”
144 DAIRY CALF
FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG DAIRY STOCK!
“Feeding from six months to one year of age.—As has been pre-
viously stated, it is a common practice among dairymen to feed
skim milk until the calf is approximately 6 months of age. Usually
the time of weaning depends upon the availability and cost of
the milk.
When milk is fed in abundance it furnishes the greater part of
the protein necessary for the growth of the animal. If no milk
is fed it becomes necessary for the protein to be provided from
some other source. Probably this can be done most economi-
cally by the use of some legume, such as alfalfa, clover, soy
beans, or cowpea hay. When hay of this sort is not available
it is necessary to provide the bulk of the protein through a grain
mixture. In either case, plenty of roughage should be supplied
to the growing heifer at all times. During summer, when good
pasture is available, the heifer needs no supplementary feed,
although a little hay and grain are sometimes advisable late in
the season to insure steady growth.
Part of the roughage should be silage, if it is available. A
heifer of six months to one year of age will consume from 5 to
15 pounds of silage a day. The grain mixture used may be the same
as mentioned for calf feeding. Another excellent grain mixture,
to be used when leguminous hay is lacking, is composed of 2
parts of corn meal, 2 parts of linseed meal, and 1 part of bran.
The quantity of grain to be fed depends very largely upon the
individual animal's growth and condition, as well as upon the
price of the grain. Some feeders desire a rapid growth of the
young animal, and for this reason feed heavily with grain, while
others are satisfied with a slow growth and try to carry their
young stock largely on roughage. Either extreme is unwise and
a medium course between the two is advisable. A safe rule to
follow is to feed 1 pound of grain for the first hundred weight of
the heifer and 3% pound for each additional hundredweight.
Feeding from one to two years of age.—After the heifer reaches
One year of age, the following rations are suggested: Corn meal,
fed according to the rule just mentioned, together with all the
alfalfa, clover, or cowpea hay that the animal will consume. If
no leguminous hay is available, grain composed of 2 parts corn
meal, 1 of bran, and 1 of linseed meal, gluten meal, or cottonseed
meal, and 10 to 20 pounds of silage, together with all the dry
1 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 777.
DAIRY CALF 145
*.
roughage the animal can consume, will be found to be adequate.
Under ordinary circumstances a gain of at least a pound a day
from the time of weaning to the time of first calving is a good
average for a dairy heifer.”
EFFECT OF TIME OF BREEDING UPON THE GROWING OF HEIFERs'
“There are numerous factors responsible for the complete and
early development of breeding heifers. If properly fed and
housed, nothing exerts a greater influence upon the final size of
the animals in a dairy herd than the time of breeding. Early
breeding is quite often practiced to the disadvantage and detri-
ment of the future herd. The most desirable type of milk cow
has a large body capable of consuming and digesting large quan-
tities of feed. Early breeding prevents the desired growth and is
not warranted under average conditions. The age of breeding
should be governed, largely, by the size of the breeding heifers
rather than their age.
CoST OF GROWING DAIRY HEIFERs
The amount of feed required to properly develop a heifer to
the age of two years or to whatever age she calves is rather
large. So great is this expense that no one is warranted in spend-
ing money for feed and labor unless he is assured of a valuable
finished product in the form of a high-producing cow. Only the
heifer calves from cows of profitable production and sired by
bulls of known ability should be considered in selecting calves
for the future herd. Under the present conditions, it is more
economical from the standpoint of dollars and cents to grow
the dairy herd from known sources than to purchase it from
unknown sources.
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin 44.
8345—10
146
DAIRY CALF
SHOWING COST OF GROWING D AIRY HEIFERS TO TWO YEARS OF AGE
(Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 63)

Barn Net
Bed- rent, Value Cost
Feed Feed | Labor ding insur- of ma— Of
Breed. COSt. COSt. for $1.00 ance, Illiré. heifer
Of first second t;WO per inter- pro- to two
COW year year years year est, and duced years
taxes of age
Guernsey. . . . . . . $24. 41 || $27.88 || $10.00 $2.00 $4.00 $5.00 $63. 29
Jersey. . . . . . . . . . 28.62 26, 26 10.00 2.00 4.00 5. 00 65. 28
Holstein . . . . . . . . 28. 22 27. 21 10. 00 2 : 00 4.00 5.00 66.43
Jersey. . . . . . . . . . 28, 18 25.93 10 : 00 2 : 00 4.00 5. ()0 65. 11
Holstein. . . . . . . . 32. 29 28.99 10 : 00 2 : 00 4.00 5.00 72. 28
Average. . . . . . $28.34 $27. 25 || $10.00 $2.00 $4.00 $5.00 || $66.59
Table V presents figures collected by the Connecticut Agri-
cultural Experiment Station giving the actual feed cost of five
dairy heifers from birth to two years of age. In connection with
the actual data secured by experiment, the authors suggested
certain overhead costs and credits that are very often neglected in
calculations of this type. It will be noted that the average cost
for the two years was slightly over sixty six dollars per head.
This, especially, emphasizes the importance of selecting promising
calves from which to develop the future dairy herd.
The feed prices charged in making the calculations as shown
in Table V are as follows: Whole milk, $2.00 per hundred
pounds; skim milk, 25 cents per hundred pounds; hay, $12.00
per ton; silage, $4.00 per ton, and grain, $30.00 per ton.
THE YOUNG BULL
The application of the principles as herein presented will
necessitate the production and use of a large number of prop-
erly bred bulls. So far as the feeding and management is con-
cerned, the bull calf offers no problem different from that of the
heifer. His selection, however, should be restricted to the pure bred
herd only. The importance of the bull, as sire of all the heifers,
emphasizes the need of selecting an individual that will insure
an improvement in his offspring. Not all pure bred animals are
capable of exerting a desirable influence and, as a result, it is
necessary to select the herd bull not only from a pure bred herd,
but from stock of higher production than the herd on which he
is to be used. Those interested in larger profits from the indivi-
DAIRY CALF 147
dual cow in the dairy herd should most seriously consider and
fully realize the possible and far-reaching influences of a properly
bred sire.”
REFERENCES
Productive Dairying—Washburn, Lippincott.
Dairy Farming—Eckles and Warren, Macmillan.
Animal Husbandry for Schools—Harper, Macmillan.
Common Diseases of Farm Animals—Craig, Lippincott.
Types and Breeds of Farm Animals—Plumb, Ginn and Company.
Purdue University Publications:
Extension Bulletin 44—The Management of The Dairy Calf.
Experiment Station Bulletin 193—Skim Milk, and Milk Substitutes for
Calf Feeding.
Extension Leaflet 16—Judging Dairy Cattle.
U. S. Department of Agriculture. Publications.
Farmers’ Bulletin 106—Breeds of Dairy Cattle.
Farmers' Bulletin 777—Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves and
Young Dairy Stock.
Bulletin 49, B. P. I.-The Cost of Raising a Dairy Cow.
Poultry Raising
I. What the pupil should know.
A. How to produce eggs of strong vitality for early hatching,
1. For outline and points of information, refer to the
Egg Production Project.
B. Problems in connection with care and management of the breed-
ing stock and the rearing of chicks.
1. Sanitation.
a. Study home and community poultry condi-
ditions.
2. Diseases of poultry.
a. Prevent rather than attempt to cure.
b. Ways of preventing disease.
1a.
2a.
3a.
4a.
5a.
Select strong, vigorous, healthy
stock.
Provide proper housing and en-
vironment.
Feed properly.
Provide clean, pure water.
Keep houses and yards free from
lice and mites.
1b. How this may be done.
c. Roup—catarrh, canker.
1a.
2a.
3a.
Symptoms.
Cause.
Treatment.
C. Incubation—Natural and Artificial.
1. How prepare for artificial incubation.
2. Natural incubation.
a. Points to observé in setting a hen.
D. Brooding chicks.
1. How prepare for brooding.
2. Care and management of brooder.
3. Colony brooder houses.
i
When, how and where use.
Importance of using.
Cost of operation.
An economical system.
Construction of.
Adaptability.
E. Feeding chicks.
1. Importance of proper feeding.
2. A chick ration.
3. Value of the dry mash.
4. Patent chick feeds.
F. Diarrhoea in little chicks.
(148)
POULTRY RAISING 149
II. What the pupil should do.
A. The above and related topics should be studied in school, be-
ginning in the fall and continuing until school closes.
B. Month by month the home project work should be done.
Unless the pupil makes practical application of the lessons
learned at school, the school work will lack meaning and
value.
C. The POULTRY RAISING PROJECT should be carried out
in connection. With the EGG PRODUCTION PROJECT.
(See topic “C” under section “II” of the Egg Production
Project outline.)
POINTS OF INFORMATION*
September and October.
SANITATION DISEASES AND PESTs
Sanitation must be taught by class room discussion but should
be followed or at least supplemented with some practice work.
If possible a nearby hen-house should be cleaned by the pupils
in the manner taught in class and the hens should be treated for
lice, scaley leg or anything else the instructor deems advisable.
Weather conditions should favor outside work and such a type of
instruction is to be commended. It might be advisable to take
the whole school some afternoon to carry out such a type of in-
struction.
DISEASEs of PoulTRY
Much of the handling of poultry disease problems in the past
has been the result of experience. Little has been based upon
thorough investigation, for that phase of Poultry Husbandry
is in its infancy. This condition has caused erratic treatment
and oftimes undersirable results. Curing as a rule is unsatisfac-
tory because a bird as an individual is a small unit. The body is
covered with feathers and the disease hard to understand until
the bird has gone so far that it is not worth treating. As a whole
the bird is not worth the time and expense necessary to cure it.
With live stock, the number of indivuduals are few and worth
a sufficient amount of money to warrant treatment. With the
fowls the numbers are many and the unit of value very little.
Another reason why it is not best to try a cure is on account of the
*The subject matter for this project was written by Prof. A. G. Philips, Purdue
University.
150 POULTRY RAISING
lack of suitable remedies. Many poultry remedies are “cure
alls” and have little value.
-
PREVENT DISEASES INSTEAD of CURE THEM
Prevention is by far the best cure. If sanitation and disease
are understood to any extent, a reasonable amount of care and
prevention will keep down disease to the minimum. In pre-
vention, the flock can be handled as a whole, thus reducing cost.
There are many ways to prevent disease. Probably the first
one would be in the choice of stock. When considering all phases
of poultry husbandry it is wise to remember that only strong,
vigorous, healthy, well raised birds will produce the best results.
The bird with a strong vitality and full blooded head will prob-
ably be the last to succumb to disease. It is the late hatched,
poorly grown weakling that is apt to suffer from conditions that
aggravate disease.
The second thing worth considering is the house and eviron-
ment of the bird. Cleanliness, sanitation, lack of dampness,
plenty of fresh air and sunlight will combine to make life more
cheerful, increase the disease resisting powers of the bird and keep
down the growth of organisms. Every effort should be made to
prevent the growth of disease producing organisms. The open
front house with a good foundation, dry floor, and tight walls will
Supply the requirements of sanitary housing. Such a building
must, of course be kept clean as is reasonable to expect, by using
different sprays, disinfecting solutions, whitewash and the like.
The ground surrounding the house needs as much considera-
tion along the line of sanitation as does the inside of the build-
ing. Bare land that has not been cultivated or cropped is a poor
place for fowls. Too many places in Indiana are called poultry
yards that are absolutely bare of vegetation and have not been
plowed or spaded for years. All land used for poultry purposes
should either be plowed at least twice a year and, if possible,
cropped, or kept permanently in blue grass. A cultivated orchard
is an ideal place for birds but if this is not available a corn field
that is planted to a cover crop of rye in the winter will do as well.
If colony houses are used the birds could be rotated from one
field to another, thus keeping the land over which the poultry
roams in good shape. The chief point is to prevent the growth
of disease organisms in the soil and by plowing this can be re-
duced to a minimum. If disease does break out, the land must
POULTRY RAISING 151
be sprayed or thoroughly limed in addition to being plowed and
cropped. Thoroughness must be emphasized. It is the person
who follows directions in a haphazard way that becomes dis-
couraged in trying improved methods. There is no reason why
poultry and crops can not be raised on the same piece of land with
benefit to both.
The drinking water is a splendid agent for spreading disease
from one bird to another. In order to prevent this, intestinal
antiseptics are recommended. Make a stock solution using
eight ounces of powdered copper sulphate to one gallon of hot
water. Use one pint of this solution to ten gallons of drinking
water. This has no medicinal or curative influence, but is simply
a means of keeping the water antiseptic. Sulpho carbolate is
a useful intestinal antiseptic. *
Proper feeding assists in preventing disease, for birds on poor
rations, such as musty feed or a lack of meat food, are not in
condition to withstand disease. It may be well to compare birds
with persons of the human family when considering treatment
of the bird for prevention of disease, for man improperly fed
cannot keep in good health. In this particular phase birds might
be considered as like man.
LICE AND MITES
Lice and mites are two pests that assist in reducing the vitality
of birds to such an extent that they easily succumb to disease.
Lice.—The louse is an insect naturally creamy in color and
very small in size. It has six legs, biting mouth parts and cannot
suck blood. It lives and reproduces on the body of the hen,
there existing on the filth, scurf of the skin, and scales from the
feathers, or dried blood. Lice do not reduce the vitality of the
fowl by means of sucking blood, but simply by a nervous irrita-
tion, allowing the bird no peace. A restless irritated bird does
not sleep well and is a poor sitter. Many people think that lice
suck blood and that they live in the cracks and crevices of the
house, but such thoughts are erroneous. They may be killed if
proper means of eradication are carried out. Lice are more COm-
monly found in the fluff and below the vent on the abdomen of
the bird, and it is at this point that means of eradication are
generally applied. Lice breathe through the pores in the sides of .
their bodies and any dust or insect powder applied to the birds
in such a way that it fills these pores in the body of the lice, will
cause the death of the insects by suffocation.
152 . POULTRY RAISING
For this reason there are on the market many satisfactory
louse powders. The only objection to the use of powders is that
one application may kill the lice but it will not destroy the eggs,
which may hatch later. .
Also it may not get all of the living lice. This means that the
application must be repeated individually in from 10 to 14 days
and possibly at a later period.
The Purdue Experiment Station has found that a salve made
of mercury commonly known as Blue Ointment has been very
Satisfactory in the eradication of lice. (Blue Ointment is a poison
on account of the mercury in it and must be treated as such.)
Take a small amount about the size of a pea and apply it to the
Section of the abdomen just below the vent or annus of the bird,
and the lice will disappear in about ten days. What action this
Blue Ointment has is unknown, but one application is apparently
of sufficient strength to last for about six months or some time
longer. One thing to remember is that a large amount must not
be used for it may kill the bird. Sitting hens that are lousy must
be dusted, for the grease of the ointment may affect the hatching
eggs. A hen with chicks may be treated with Blue Ointment and
the whole brood soon freed from the pest, but such a treatment
applied directly to the little chicks is not recommended.
Mites.—Mites are spiders and have eight legs, sucking mouth
parts and are red in color when gorged with blood. They live
in cracks and crevices of the house where the filth is greatest,
and reproduce there. They go to the body of the fowl only when
the birds are at rest and obtain food by sucking the blood. Since
in this case the pest does not live on the fowl, but in the cracks
and crevices of the house, it will do no good to treat the indivi-
dual hen. The house itself must be treated and spraying is the
best method. There are many effective and satisfactory sprays
which quickly destroy mites. The Purdue Experiment Station
as a general recommendation finds that the ordinary coal tar
stock dip will make a good spray. Mix it about one part dip to
thirty-five parts water and add one-half part crude carbolic acid.
Pure kerosene may be used. This is a strong and irritating spray
which will prove satisfactory. Spray the house after it has been
cleaned, and repeat it in ten to fourteen days in order to destroy
the young ones that hatch after the first spraying. It is well to
remember that thoroughness and plentifulness in spraying is
desirable. Many people spray lightly and, then become dis-
couraged with their work. Every conceivable part of the house
POULTRY RAISING 153
and every fixture must be soaked, at every spraying. Mites
can be prevented by giving the house two thorough sprayings
during the year and by spraying the vicinity of the roosting com-
partment every time the dropping boards are cleaned. Spraying
the hen house or oiling the roosts will not destroy lice. Lice and
mites are entirely different in their habits and mode of living
and must be destroyed by different methods. -
A weakness in chickens, or any ailment or sign of disease in
the flock may be a point upon which proper prevention or treat-
ment may hinge. The flock should be looked over daily at
feeding time with the idea of looking for weak chickens, or those
that are out of condition. At the first sign of trouble the weak
or affected chicken should be removed to a hospital and there
treated or destroyed. Experience has shown that too many
people do not know that chickens are sick until they are too far
gone to be worth treating. It is believed desirable to spend time
preventing the remaining part of the flock from developing disease
rather than to spend it treating the one or many birds that are
affected. When a bird is fatally or chronically sick it should
be killed. Every dead bird should be cremated, but never
buried for it may be the means of spreading the disease. It is
not necessary to have a special place to burn dead fowls, for the
kitchen stove, or any other similar place will do as well. Wrap
the bird in newspaper, place it in the stove containing a hot fire
and open the drafts. The bird will be quickly consumed and
there will be no odor in the room. Such actions may seem out of
the Ordinary, but one experience will prove their worth.
ROUP
Roup is a general term applied to disease that effects the
nasal passages of the head. It can be divided into at least two
parts; first catarrh, second canker.
Catarrh.-Symptoms: Catarrh is indicated by a collection
of mucus around the nostrils, either by a running nose or by
having the opening caked over with foreign matter or dry mucus.
Sometimes the eyes seem to be bubbling. The bird appears to
be in excellent health otherwise and not suffering from the effects
of the catarrh.
Cause.—The cause of this trouble is unknown. It is thought
to be contagious and to be caused either by an organism or by
irritation that will cause the exudation of mucus. The irritation
154 POULTRY RAISING
may be brought on by a sudden change in the weather, dampness
or possibly draughts. If a bird is in splendid vigor there is little
reason why draughts or cold weather should cause catarrh. Most
troubles of this kind appear late in the Summer or early fall,
without any known cause. It may spread rapidly from bird
to bird and continue throughout the flock for many months.
Birds have been known to linger and seemingly keep in good
health, while others gradually weaken and die. Catarrh is
supposed to be a forerunner of a diphtheritic roup or canker and
for this reason needs to be given proper attention.
Treatment.—When the trouble is first noticed every effort
should be made to prevent its transmission to other birds. All
affected birds should be isolated and the remainder of the flock
should be given copper sulphate,” and the surrounding ground
sprayed or treated with lime. The sick birds must be put in a
good place that is dry and well ventilated. Powdered calomel
is used as a treatment. Remove the mucus from the nostrils
and with a cotton swab collect the mucus in the cleft of the roof
of the mouth. With a fountain pen filler force the powdered
calomel into the nostrils and the cleft of the roof of the mouth.
This should be done every day until the catarrh is dried up.
Why this treatment has any effect is not known. Many times
it will not prove effective, but in the majority of cases it seems
satisfactory. Care should be taken to see that the instruments
used in treating the birds are burned or thoroughly cleansed.
With this disease, as with others, prevention is the best cure.
Thorough culling of the flock in the summer and the use of sour
milk have many times aided in reducing the number of birds with
colds. The flock will do better if changed each year to different
land.
Diphtheritic Rowp or Canker.—This disease is the one most
dreaded in the fall and early winter. It is highly infectious
and must be treated accordingly. Extreme carefulness on the
part of the owner is necessary to keep this disease reduced for
it may spread very rapidly. -
Symptoms.-Catarrh does not always accompany diphtheritic
roup, but it may and thus might be considered an indication.
Roup is indicated by cankerous or yellow patches in the mouth
and for that reason is sometimes called canker. These yellow
patches are a true indication of the disease and it is the presence
*For direction see paragraph on “drinking water” on page 151.
POULTRY RAISING 155
of these that insures a proper diagnosis. Yellow patches often
the size of a pin head are found in the mouth.
Treatment.—The treatment mentioned under catarrh should
be given. If the bird is in good vigor, the treatment may prove
successful, but as a rule it is doubtful whether much of a success
will be attained. The organisms of roup are known to be unable
to live in the acid of sour milk and for this reason sour milk used
in the place of drinking water may assist in the treatment. There
are numerous roup remedies on the market, many of which are
Satisfactory. A removal of the canker spots and the applica-
tion of a strong solution of an antiseptic or stock dip may cure
the disease.
When a bird is affected with roup, and canker has developed
to the extent that large patches are present in the mouth, eyes
become bulged and swollen and show a collection of canker either
in the eye, or below the eye, and the mucus of the nostrils gives
off an extremely bad odor, it is best to kill and burn the bird,
rather than endeavor to cure it. Roup is a disease about which
little is actually known and therefore it is impossible to give
definite and clear cut methods of treatment or eradication.
With this knowledge Purdue Experiment Station recommends
that little time be spent in endeavoring to treat the disease, but
that more time be spent in getting rid of weak individuals that
may become susceptible to it.
November.
REVIEW OF FEEDING AND HOUSING
It would be advisable to have a review of feeding and housing
conditions with special emphasis on conditions in the home
flock. Details of this are given in the outline for the Egg Produc-
tion Project.
December and January.
Incubation. Whether natural or artificial incubation should
be used will depend somewhat on the method most commonly
in vogue in the community. If the natural way is used the pupils
should build a brood coop either at school or at home, -preferably
at home. This will be in preparation for February when some
eggs should be set.
If the artificial method is used one or two incubators should
be borrowed and brought to the school room. Enough catalogues
should be obtained from the manufacturers to allow the pupils
156 POULTRY RAISING
to read at home and make a thorough study of the machines.
It would be advisable to have both a hot water and hot air ma-
chine. Most catalogues furnish good rules of management.
SETTING A HEN
Setting a hen properly has its problems, for unless conditions
be just right, the hatch may not be successful. When making
plans for setting hens they should be modeled after those of the
hen that steals her nest in the bushes, and brings off a successful
hatch; in other words, follow nature's way as far as possible.
The following rules are practicable:
1. Use a quiet and secluded place where nothing will bother
the hens, but where there is plenty of fresh air and pro-
tection from inclement weather.
2. Use a low nest box so that the hens will not jump down
onto the nest. This prevents breaking the eggs.
3. Place a large piece of sod in bottom of box under the nest
so that it will be moist and as near a substitute for mother
earth as possible. If convenient the nest should be
on the ground and not in a building.
4. Prevent any hen from getting on a nest with another
OIle.
5. Keep the nest sanitary by spraying once before setting,
and by sprinkling nest and hen during setting period
with insect powder. -
6. See that hens leave the nest once each day.
7. If possible remove the chicks as they hatch. Af
The setting coop may also serve as a hen coop after the hatch
is off. The inside under the roof should be divided into two parts
and made for two setting hens. This partition should be movable
so that it can be used as a floor, after the hatch is over, and the
chicks given to one hen. The front part should be covered with
a wire screen that can be easily removed to that the attendant
can get at the hen and the chicks. The front end should be made
so that it will open on a hinge, or may be made to slide up and
down, allowing the chicks or the hen to run out.
In each of the two compartments it is advisable to place a
piece of sod and then enough straw to give shape to the nest.
Place a hen in each side with from 13 to 15 eggs, depending upon
time of year, and put water and feed out in the run-way in front
POULTRY RAISING 157
of the nests. The hens should be taken to these nests at night
and allowed to stay on China eggs long enough to prove their
tenacity of purpose. If this coop be placed on some blue grass
or clover, setting hens can be supplied with green feed very
easily. It might be advisable to put a slat or wire covering in
front of each of the hens for part of the day, thus preventing two
hens from getting on the same nest.
The hens should be given plenty of corn, grit and water during
period of setting, and the nests kept clean from all filth and mites.
If the hens are free of lice before they are set, there will be little
trouble from that source. If hens become lousy during the setting
period, lice powder should be dusted in their feathers and in the
nest.
February. -
BROODING AND CHICK PESTs
Brooding needs study and thought preceding the time of opera-
tion, the same as does incubation. Class discussions supple-
mented with bulletin reading, a study of brooders in the labora-
tory or some near-by home, and the construction of brood coops
and hen nests may profitably employ the time of teacher and
pupils devoted to agriculture during the month of February.
January and February are the months in which to plan the
time of hatching and brooding, for the early chicks is the valuable
one. Fall egg production and high prices for spring broilers de-
pend on early hatching. May and June offer the best broiler
prices and it takes from six to eight months to get a pullet into
maturity or size for egg production. Leghorns should be hatched
in April and the heavier breeds in March. Earlier than this is
preferable to later though no rule should be too definite. May,
June and July are considered undersirable for hatching pullets
that are to be used as layers in October, November and Decem-
ber. If brooding with a hen or capon is the method, a brood coop
Such as discussed in January should be used. If the hen is kept
in the coop there will always be plenty of protection against
dampness and small animals. The coop affords all the room that
is necessary for the first few days and the wire top keeps sparrows
from eating the chick feed. When the chicks are young the hen
should be fed some corn, and other grain feeds, rather than be
made to depend upon the chick feeds for her food. On pleasant
days when the chicks have become large enough to run about,
the coop can be moved to the edge of a corn field or clover patch
158 POULTRY RAISING
and the chicks be allowed to run out either with or without the
hen. Cleanliness of the coop can be assured by frequently spray-
ing with some liquid disinfectant and soil sanitation can be assured
by moving the coop often.
COLONY BROODER HOUSES
The term “colony brooder house” belongs to any house that
is portable, has large capacity and is suitable for brooding
chicks. Such houses are usually grouped in colonies of two to
four, especially during the summer growing season.
When, How and Where Use Colony Brooders.--Whenever the
poultry raiser can hatch 150 or more chicks at one time he should
construct a colony brooder, and heat it with a hard coal or oil
stove, gasoline burner, or lamps. The stove is to be preferred
in most cases due to its low cost per chick capacity, low fuel cost,
excellent supply of heat, ease of regulation, and lack of danger
from fire.
The most convenient and suitable place for colony brooder
houses during the early spring is on a grass sod near the dwell-
ing house or other farm buildings. Such a location and environ-
ment reduces labor and insures clean ground for the young and
tender period of the chick's life. After the heat is removed from
the houses they can be moved on skids or their own runners to
woods, cornfield or pasture, permitting the chickens to have
unrestricted range for food and exercise. Early in the fall or just
before the pullets begin to lay, the houses can be returned to
the locality of other farm buildings, and either rearranged for
spring brooding or put close together for winter housing of breed-
ers, layers or extra stock.
IMPORTANCE OF USING COLONY BROODERs
There are a good many reasons why the colony house system
of brooding is of great importance when considering the methods
of management for reproducing the poultry flock.
When compared with most brooding systems this type is
the cheapest per chick. A 10x12 foot house was constructed at
Purdue for $46.00 including labor and materials, exclusive of
the $15.00 stove heater. On the basis of 350 chick capacity
the cost per chick with and without the heating system was $.174
and $.131 respectively. A shed or “A” shaped 8x8 foot house heated
with the gasoline burner costs $30.75 without and $41.75 with the
PoulTRY RAISING 159
heater. On the basis of 200 chick capacity the costs per chick
were $.153 and $.208. Most high class small outdoor brooders
with a capacity of 50 chicks cost $19.00 or $.38 per chick.
Cost of Operation.—In 1916 a coal stove brooder on the Purdue
farm heated from March 24 to May 6, a very cold spring, consumed
21.1 pounds of coal per day at a cost of $.091. The temperature
produced was very satisfactory. In the spring of 1914 a gasoline
heater from April 6 to May 10 consumed .62 gallons of gasoline
at a cost of $.10 a day. The season was reasonably cold. The
coal stove heated brooder had almost twice the chick capacity
of the gasoline heated one, and was therefore more efficient, from
the standpoint of cost of fuel.
Labor invloved in handling a colony brooder as compared
to the same chick capacity of small lamp heated brooders or hen
mothers is very much less. The attendant takes about the same
time to handle one colony brooder as he would two small brooders
or four mother hens. All work is done inside the house out of
the weather where the chicks can be carefully examined and the
attendant be kept comfortable. Many people become discouraged
with the labor in handling large numbers of chicks in small units
but the Colony Brooder House will reduce labor to a minimum.
Convenience of operation is very noticable with the large
brooder. If stoves are used, no stooping over outdoors in bad
weather is required and one large group is fed instead of several
small ones.
One very important factor that has helped to popularize the
colony type of brooder is the ease with which it can be moved
from place to place even within the same season. Clean, fresh,
sweet land is necessary where large numbers of chicks are to be
raised. It is a good rule never to raise the chicks on the same
piece of land two years in succession, because of the chances of
gapes, and infectious diseases. This is made possible with
movable houses by using land that is in crops after June the first.
An Economical System.—A building that can be used as a
baby chick brooder, a growing chick summer house, and winter
laying quarters, especially if it be portable, is the most economical
brooding device. Chicks to be properly managed in summer
require shelter and there is no good reason why the same build-
ing can not be used as a brooder. Too many brooding systems
require an investment of capital that will lie idle for a part of
the year, thus reducing the efficiency of management.
160 POULTRY RAISING
CONSTRUCTION OF A 10x12 FOOT HOUSE
A 10x12 foot colony house is in use on the Purdue farm as a
stove heated brooder, Summer colony quarters and winter laying
house. It is extremely plain and cheap of construction and de-
signed to meet the needs at the lowest cost.
The size of floor space, 10x12 feet is ample for 350 chicks,
provided the cockerels are removed at about two pounds. It
is rather heavy but can be moved by placing on skids and using
four horses.
The question of shape does not enter into the colony house
problem very much. This house was built with the twelve
feet to the front because of increased light desired during the
early spring. It would be warmer for the hens in winter if the
building was twelve feet deep from front to rear.
The sills are made of two 2x4 inch boards nailed together and
the floor timbers are of 2x4 inch material. In the middle of the
house, two 2x4 inch boards nailed together help make the floor
rigid The flooring material is of single thickness and made of
No. 1 Common Yellow Pine flooring. This is the cheapest kind
of floor that can be built. º
In height, the front is 7 feet and the rear 4 feet 7 inches from
bottom of sills to rafters, leaving barely the necessary head room.
No studs are used except at the corners, doors and windows.
The walls are of No. 1 Common Yellow Pine flooring laid per-
pendicularly and serving to support the roof. Such construction
cheapens and reduces the weight without weakening a building
of this size.
The roof is supported by 2x4 inch rafters. Its construction
is of 10 inch shiplap covered with 2 ply roofing paper. Projec-
tions six inches wide extend around all extremities.
The ventilation is plentiful yet cheap. Without the use of
expensive casings two glass windows are used, each made of two
six light stock sized cellar sash. These are made to slide up and
down and held in place with hooks.
Wire screen can be placed over the outside to prevent older
birds from flying out. Between the glass windows is an open-
ing supplied with a wooden shutter outside and cloth covered
frame inside. These are hinged to swing out or in at the top and
will take care of much of the front ventilation during the cold
weather. In the back, above the plate and between each rafter, is an
opening for summer ventilation. These are open during hot
POULTRY RAISING 161
weather and help reduce the temperature very greatly. They are
each equipped with a board shutter that closes up tightly against
the roof, preventing too rapid change of air in winter. The door
for attendant and exit door for chicks are on opposite ends of the
house.
ADAPTABILITY OF THIS Hous E
This house is planned to accommodate 350 chicks. For
Smaller units it could easily be reduced in size by cutting down
the front width to 10 feet and the depth to 8 feet. This will
handle a stove heater for 200 chicks. When such reductions are
made the large end door should be put in front, between the glass
windows, and an opening made in the top half of the door for
ventilation.
March and April.
FEEDING CHICKs
Possibly the latter part of April, at least in March, each pupil
should set one or more hens at home and care for them. When
the chicks hatch they should be handled, fed and records kept
of all the management. This hatching and feeding is the home
project part of the year's study and should be handled as such.
Under favorable conditions it might be advisable to build a hen
brooder at school, set two hens and feed the chicks on the school
grounds. As this work is being done the home problems should
be brought up and discussed. 4.
FEEDING CHICKs
The feed for chicks may largely control their future health
and growth and needs to be carefully selected and administered.
The first thing to be remembered and considered is that the egg
from which the chick was hatched contains a yolk that is not used
in the development of the chick's body. This yolk is taken into
the abdomen of the chick just before it is hatched, and a cord
connects it with the small intestines. This baby food is absorbed
by the chick during the first few days of its life, and if anything
prevents its proper assimilation, the yolk tends to coagulate,
harden and apparently causes the death of the chick. In order to
follow nature's plan, the chicks should be starved for from.48
to 60 hours after being hatched, no food of any kind being given
during that time.
8345—11
162 POULTRY RAISING
A CHICK RATION
After this period the grain mixture from the following ration
can be profitably fed, five times daily. The chicks should be
fed as much as they will eat up clean.
Grain Dry Mash
10 lbs. cr. corn (sifted, fine) 2 lbs. Bran
1 lb. cr. wheat 2 lbs. Shorts
1 lb. Steel cut oats 2% lbs. Meat scraps
12 6%
If meat scraps are not used, 31 pounds of buttermilk or sour
skim milk is a good substitute. If cracked wheat and steel cut
oats are not available, increase the corn to 12 pounds.
A little charcoal and salt in the mash is valuable. Coal ashes,
dry ground bone and pieces of green sod aid the ration in insuring
health and growth.
A deep litter should of course be kept on the floor of hen
coop or brooder, and as soon as possible the grain should be
scattered in it, in order to compel exercise. It is well to remember
that a chick's digestive organs are as sensitive as a baby's and the
motto of “feed a little and often” is a sensible one. Grit in the
form of sharp sand or mica grits is necessary to aid in quick
digestion.
VALUE OF THE DRY MASH
When quick growth is desired, a ration made up wholly of
grain will be found to be deficient. To overcome this deficiency,
some feeds containing more protein or that which will make
flesh, feathers, blood, etc., is necessary. This element can be
supplied by the dry mash mentioned above. The charcoal is
included, because it tends to absorb gases and helps to prevent
diarrhoea. While meat scraps can be successfully fed to laying
hens to the amount of 10 per cent of the ration, some people have
recommended 15 per cent for chicks. This station, however,
wishes to recommend that this amount of meat scraps be not
fed, but the chicks allowed access to all the buttermilk or other
sour milk they want from the start. The acid in the sour milk
is thought to be beneficial to digestion.
The dry mash is fed when the chicks are about 5 to 7 days
old, placed in some sort of a hopper that will prevent the chicks
from wasting it. If they eat too much of it, and not enough
PoulTRY RAISING 163
grain, a condition that often happens, diarrhoea will immediately
result.
To prevent this, the hopper can be set out after the grain
has been fed. When the chicks are a few weeks old the hopper
can be left before them all the time, and they be allowed to con-
sume as much as they desire.
If chicks are to be forced rapidly, more mash should be given.
If it is necessary to retard growth, reduce the dry mash and in-
crease the grain. When feeding milk, care must be taken to
prevent dirty or unclean milk vessels. Feeding vessels should
be cleaned daily and thoroughly scalded out frequently. Clean-
liness is an absolute essential. º -
There are a great many patent chicks feeds on the market,
many of which are very good, and have produced satisfactory re-
sults. There are two objections to a general recommendation
of these feeds: (1) Cost. (2) Lack of knowledge of what is
contained therein. Chicks need not be fed expensive feeds.
It costs enough to raise them on cheap feed. Too many patent
feeds are made up of weed seeds and mill fannings, and made to
sell rather than to produce results. If the make up of a ration
is known, the feeder knows what to look for if unsatisfactory
results are obtained.
As with the laying ration, there is no best chick ration. Home
made “johnny cake”, stale bread, and oat meal have often times
been found satisfactory, but labor must some times be considered
as well as handiness of the product. This has caused the Purdue
station to use the above mentioned ration, which has given good
results. -
REFERENCES
Poultry Keeping—Lewis, Lippincott.
Productive Poultry Husbandry—Lewis, Lippincott.
Farm Poultry—Watson, Macmillan.
Twenty Lessons in Poultry Keeping—Patterson, Lippincott.
Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture—Robinson, Ginn and Company.
Purdue University Publications:
Extension Leaflet 72—Rearing Chicks.
Extension Leaflet 71—Prevention of Losses Among Chicks.
Extension Leaflet 73–Bacillary White Diarrhoea in Chicks.
Extension Leaflet 57—Housing Farm Poultry. -
Extension Bulletin 52—Colony Brooder Houses.
Extension Bulletin 10—Feeding Farm Fowls.
164 POULTRY RAISING .
Experiment Station Bulletin 196—Cost of Raising Leghorn Pullets.
Experiment Station Bulletin 195—Temperature Experiments in Incuba-
tion. -
Experiment Station Bulletin 182–Meat Scrap and Milk in Laying Ra-
tion.
Extension, Small Folder—Home Preservation of Eggs.
Extension, Special Circular—Emergency Poultry Work.
U. S. Department of Agriculture Publications:
Farmers' Bulletin 452–Capons and Caponizing.
Farmers’ Bulletin 528—Hints to Poultry Raisers.
Farmers' Bulletin 530—Important Poultry Diseases.
Farmers' Bulletin 562—Boys’ and Girls' Poultry Clubs.
Farmers' Bulletin 574—Poultry House Construction.
Farmers' Bulletin 585—Natural and Artificial Incubation.
Farmers' Bulletin 642—Natural and Artificial Brooding.
Farmers' Bulletin 682—Simple Trap Nests for Poultry.
Farmers' Bulletin 684—Squab Raising.
Farmers' Bulletin 697—Duck Raising.
Farmers' Bulletin 767—Goose Raising.
Farmers’ Bulletin 791—Turkey Raising.
Farmers' Bulletin 801—Mites and Lice on Poultry.
Farmers' Bulletin 656—The Community Egg Circle.
Bulletin 464—Professional Paper, Lessons on Poultry for Rural Schools.
Farmers' Bulletin 806—Standard Varieties of Chickens.
Egg Production
I. What the pupil should know.
A. Poultry conditions at home and in the community.
1. Number, kind and value of fowls.
2. Kind, amount and value of feeds used.
3. Monthly egg production throughout the year.
4. Kind, size and condition of poultry buildings.
B. How to house Poultry.
1. Requirements of a poultry house.
a. Location.
b. Size.
c. Shape.
d. Foundation and floor.
e. Height and walls.
f. Roof.
g. Windows.
h. Interior fixtures.
C. Classes of Poultry.
1. Definition.
2. Asiatic.
a. Purpose.
b. Characteristics.
3. American.
a. Purpose.
b. Characteristics.
4. Mediterranean.
a. Purpose.
b. Characteristics.
D. Breeds of Poultry.
1. Definition.
2. Breeds of Asiatic Class.
a. Cochin.
b. Brahma.
c. Langshan.
3. Breeds of American Class.
a. Plymouth Rock.
b. Wyandotte.
c. Rhode Island Red.
4. Breeds of Mediterranean Class.
a. Leghorn.
b. Minorca.
c. Ancona.
E. Varieties of Poultry.
1. Definition.
2. Characteristics of each variety of different breeds.
(165)
166 EGG PRODUCTION
F. How to Feed Poultry for Egg Production.
1. Things upon which egg production depends.
a. Inborn tendency to lay, or the breeding.
b. Good health and vigor.
c. Comfortable and congenial quarters.
d. Proper feed.
2. Things to consider when mixing a laying ration
There is no best ration.
Hens should be fed what they like.
Proportions in which to mix feeds.
Variety of feeds in a ration.
Cost of feeds.
Grain, meat food, mill feeds, green food, grit,
shell and water needed by fowls.
g. Quality of feeds.
h. Exercise for fowls.
i. Housing and poultry yard conditions.
i
3. The Purdue Laying Ration.
4. Helpful suggestions.
G. Eggs.
1. Judging.
2. Testing.
3. Grading.
4. Scoring.
5. Preservation.
II. What the pupil should do.
A. The above and related topics should be studied in school, be-
ginning in the fall and continuing until early Summer.
B. Early in the fall the pupil should take charge of all or a part of
the home flock. In this way practical use should be made,
day by day, of the information gained from the class room,
laboratory, and field work. If the home project work is
not done by the pupil, the school work will have but little
meaning or value.
C. The EGG PRODUCTION PROJECT should be merged
into the POULTRY RAISING PROJECT, because one
can not be carried out successfully without the other.
Egg production early in the fall and winter depends largely
upon the early hatching of pullets of strong vitality, and
the early hatching of pullets of vigorous constitution is
impossible without early eggs produced by hens that
possess vitality and vigor.
EGG PRODUCTION 167
POINTS OF INFORMATION
September
POULTRY CONDITIONS IN LOCAL COMMUNITY”
Assign each pupil the home flock as a source of information
and request that there be brought in answers to the following
questions:
1. Number, kind and value of fowls.
2. Kind and amount of feeds used.
3. Estimate of number of eggs laid in winter and summer.
4. Kind, size and condition of poultry buildings used.
References: Purdue Extension Circular No. 40, on Poultry
Conditions in Indiana, and State Bureau of Statistics, State
House, Indianapolis, Indiana.
Teachers should obtain this material not only that the pupils
may find out the conditions at home but that they themselves can
get acquainted with the local problems and needs, and prepare for
future topic study.
The pupils should compare conditions on the different farms
and a table or chart compiling and averaging the data would
be of interest. Since many farmers do not keep records suf-
ficient to answer questions Nos. 2 and 3, they offer an oppor-
tunity to do work with the parents of the children. Many
surprising and interesting things will come up in this comparative
study and material will be supplied for many future lessons.
October.
HOUSING
Since many poultry houses discussed in September will be
found unsatisfactory and as much of the success of the egg pro-
duction project depends on proper housing facilities it will be
best to spend six weeks on this subject. Principles should be
mastered first and then the application of them to home con-
ditions, either remodeling the houses already in use or building
entirely new ones. If opportunity prevails, trips should be
made to nearby hen houses and the good and bad points discussed.
Good housing is one of the essentials for egg production
and consequently should be given proper consideration. A hen
that is comfortable and happy is more apt to be profitable than
one that is uncomfortable.
No specific rules and regulations are known for poultry
house construction. Conditions vary so much that every builder
*The subject matter for this project was written by Prof. A. G. Philips, Purdue
University.
168 EGG PRODUCTION
must use his own judgment when planning the details of his house.
There are herein stated a few well known principles which should
underlie all poultry house building.
The Requirements of a Poultry House.—A poultry house should
meet at least six requirements; 1, Fresh air; 2, Sunlight; 3, Dry-
ness; 4, No Draughts; 5, Low Cost; 6, Durability. Any building
that meets these requirements may be properly called a good hen
house. Those constructing houses should endeavor to meet them.
Location.—Protection from northern exposure, land sloping
to the south, Southern exposure, and sandy loam soil, are things
to consider when choosing a site for a hen house. These may
influence egg production and cost of same very materially. Near-
ness to other buildings and central food and water supply may save
labor, but can be sacrificed to meet the other requirements.
Construction.—(1) Size: The size of the house depends on the
size of the flock. Never crowd birds and never fail to build with
an eye toward the future. Four square feet of floor space per
bird is a good average to figure. For large flocks it may be less,
and for small flocks it should be greater. For example, a 20 x 20
foot house will comfortably accommodate one hundred birds
but an 8 x 8 foot one would seem crowded if sixteen birds were
kept in it. The birds in the larger house have actually more area
for exercise per individual than have the birds in the small house.
(2) Shape: The nearer square a building is the less it costs to
build it. The deeper a house is from front to rear, the warmer
it will be at the back or roosting quarters. Ordinarily 14 to 16
feet is a good depth, but 20 feet is better if proper lumber is ac-
cessible.
(3) Foundation and Floor: Foundations are necessary to keep
out rats, cold air, moisture, and prevent heaving of floor. A
concrete mixture of one part cement to six parts gravel will be
satisfactory and cheap. Place the forms so that they will be 6 to
10 inches above the ground, 16 to 24 inches deep and 4 to 6 inches
wide. A floor must be dry, easy to keep clean, sanitary and cheap
of construction. A concrete floor meets these requirements better
than dirt or boards: A 4-inch fill inside the foundation and a
2-inch mixture of concrete on top of this will be dry, easy to
clean, relatively cheap, and permanent.
(4) Height and Walls: A house should be high enough in front
to allow sunlight to strike the rear some time during the day, but
no higher. It should be just as low as possible and allow suf-
ficient head room for the attendant. As a rule, poultry houses
EGG PRODUCTION 169
have more air space than the birds need and the more this is
reduced the warmer the house will be. A height of 4% feet in
the rear, and 6% to 7% feet in front is sufficient for a shed roof
house of a depth not to exceed 18 feet.
All walls must be of tight construction in order to prevent
draughts. Under ordinary conditions this can be done with
No. 1 drop siding, but if there be any danger of this drying out
and spreading, an inner lining of heavy building paper can be
added. The poultryman need not construct double walls for
they are entirely too expensive in proportion to their value.
(5) Roof: There are many kinds and styles of roof that are
popular and satisfactory, but for ordinary average conditions the
shed or flat roof is to be recommended. It requires a minimum of
material, is easy of construction, turns all water to the rear and
enables the poultryman to reduce the air space.
Shingles are not tight and so can not be considered as suitable
roofing material. Ordinary boards, shiplap or tongue and
groove flooring, covered with two-ply prepared roofing paper
can be easily put on and make a tight roof. Paper roofs, if
painted with roofing paint every two years, will last for many
years.
(6) Windows: The theory of ventilation for poultry houses
calls for an abundance of fresh air, but no draughts. In order to
supply this, the floor, roof and all sides must be absolutely tight.
One open side on the south with this construction will allow slow
change of air but permit no draughts. In the summer a house
with a shed roof becomes very hot and the open front alone is
not sufficient to keep the house comfortable. To overcome
this, an opening is made in the back with a hinged door. This,
when opened, will allow free circulation which by boarding up
the roosting quarters can be carried on without draughts. On
the south or front side windows are placed. Some of these are
filled with glass and kept closed and some are covered with mus-
lin and kept open except in bad weather. Glass windows are
needed to allow the entrance of sunlight when the cloth curtains
are closed. The open windows are used to allow the entrance of
fresh air. At nights in winter and on stormy days the cloth
curtains are closed. The proportion of glass to floor space can
and will vary, but is satisfactory if the equivalent of about one-
half of the area of the open space is glass. It is advisable to use
a stock size sash in order to reduce cost. The open space will
vary in different localities, but need not be over 1 square foot to
170 EGG PRODUCTION
12 square feet of floor space. Poultrymen are gradually reducing
the amount of open front windows as compared with the amount
recommended a few years ago. -
(7) Interior Fiatures: The inside arrangements are extremely
important, for convenience of arrangement will influence the
labor required of attendant and the comfort of the fowls. The
roosting quarters should be in the rear of the building and about
18 inches from the roof. The ends, back and ceiling are boarded
up with common flooring, making a tight compartment.
This helps to keep the birds warm in winter by conserving
the body heat. The roosts should be made of 2 x 2 inch material
and placed on 1 x 4 inch boards above the dropping boards. It
is best to allow about 8 to 10 lineal inches per bird for roosting
space. The dropping boards are for the purpose of collecting
the night manure, thus aiding in keeping the floor clean and help-
ing to box in the roosting quarters.
On the side wall a platform of rough lumber should be built
for holding water pans and hoppers. This helps to keep the
vessels clean and allows the birds to use the floor space.
Either in front below the open window or on a side, are placed
the nests, one to each five or six birds. These ought to be dark-
ened, but easy of access. A square foot for each nest is ample.
Wire bottoms made of 3% inch mesh hardware cloth are sometimes
found very easy to keep clean. Labor in gathering eggs can be
saved by having a door in the top or front of the nests. A slop-
ing top is necessary to prevent the birds from roosting on them.
There is nothing complicated about a poultry house. The
principles of construction of most buildings can be applied to this
problem. Differences in construction of a minor nature have
little influence, and any house that is dry, has plenty of sun-
light, no draughts, an abundance of fresh air and built at a low
cost will prove satisfactory. Reference: U. S. Farmers' Bulletins
574—618–682.
November
HousING CONTINUED Two WEEKs
CLASSES AND BREEDs of PoulTRY
By the use of colored pictures, pictures cut from poultry maga-
zines, or live birds, the teaching of Class and Breed character-
istics of the most common kinds of poultry can be carried on. The
descriptive characteristics of birds should be known in order
that their utility value may be understood. A person choosing a
EGG PRODUCTION 171
breed must know what can be reasonably expected of a bird before
he can choose well. It will be of value to note the following
things.
1. Feather legged birds are primarily meat birds.
2. The small active birds are theoretically the egg pro-
ducers.
3. Dual purpose birds are made from crossing meat and egg
producers and possess both qualities to a high degree.
4. All birds with red earlobes lay brown eggs.
5. All birds with white earlobes lay white eggs.
6. Large combs accompany the heavy laying breeds.
7. Nervous active birds are poor sitters.
The following definitions and characteristics apply to the three
principal classes of poultry and their popular breeds.
Class.—Is an arbitrary classification of fowls according to
broad general characteristics. The name is taken from the country
in which the fowls originated.
Breed.—A sub-division of class. It is determined by shape.
Birds of the same breed maintain similar shape characteristics.
“Shape makes Breed.”
Variety.—A sub-division of breed. Variety is indicated by
the different colors or kinds of comb that are found in the same
breed. Color and comb make the variety.
I.—As IATIC CLASS. PURPOSE—MEAT.
Characteristics.-1. Large size. 2. Red earlobes. 3. Feathered
shanks. 4. Yellow skin except in Langshan, which has white.
5. Yellow shanks except Langshan, which may have white or
black shanks. 6. Color of eggs, brown. 7. Loose plumage
8. Slow movers, non-flyers. 9. Not nervous. 10. Fair sitters
and mothers, but clumsy, and are apt to break eggs and trample
on chicks. 11. Not heavy egg producers. 12. Poor foragers.
13. Small single comb except Brahma, which has pea comb.
II.-AMERICAN CLASS PURPOSE—MEAT AND EGGS.
Characteristics—1. Medium size. 2. Red ear lobes. 3.
Clean shanks. 4. Yellow skin. 5. Yellow shanks except in
Javas. 6. Eggs, brown. 7. Medium close plumage. 8. Ac
tive. 9. Not nervous. 10. Good sitters and mothers. 11
Good layers. 12. Fair to good foragers. 13. Medium sized
single and rose comb. In the rose comb varieties the Spike curves
with the head, except in the Dominique.
172 EGG PRODUCTION
III.-MEDITERRANEAN CLASS. PURPOSE—EGGS.
Characteristics.-1. Small in size except the Minorcas and
Spanish, which are medium. 2. Ear lobes, white. 3. Clean
shanks. 4. Yellow skin except in Minorcas, Spanish and And-
alusians, which have white skin. 5. Shanks yellow except in
Minorcas, Spanish and Andalusians, which have white or black
shanks. 6. Eggs white. 7. Close plumage. 8. Active. 9.
Nervous. 10. Non-sitting. 11. Good layers. 12. Good for-
agers. 13. Large single and rose combs. In the rose comb
varieties the spike points straight back, except in Black Minorcas.
I.—ASIATIC CLASS.
A. Cochin.—Round and fluffy, short legs, and neck, low
short tail, high cushion, short back, single comb, two
outer toes feathered.
B. Brahma.—Body longer than it is deep, rather rectangular
in shape. Longer neck and legs than Cochin, but not
as long as Langshan. Pea comb. More compact and
closer feathered than Cochin. Sloping back. Two
outer toes feathered. Heaviest breed of the class.
C. Langshan.—Longest legs, shortest back and highest tail of
the Asiatic class. Body shorter than the Brahma.
Closer feathered than Cochin. Single comb. Only
the outer toe feathered. Least in weight of Asiatic
class. Might be called V-shaped.
II.-AMERICAN CLAss.
A. Plymouth Rock.-Back longer than Wyandotte and shorter
than Rhode Island Red. Sloping back. Always single
comb. Little inclined to be rangy and wedge shaped.
B. Wyandotte.—Bird of curves. Short back, body and legs.
Round like a ball. Very blocky and broad. Always
rose comb.
C. Rhode Island Red.—Long rectangular body. Long
straight back, with tail coming off at a sharp angle.
Rather short legs. Tail and head carried low, giving
a long appearance to the bird. Single or rose comb.
Always red in color.
EGG PRODUCTION 173
III.-MEDITERRANEAN CLAss.
A.—Leghorn.—Small size. Very graceful. Shorter back and
higher tail than the Minorca. Legs yellow. Single
or rose comb.
B. Minorca.-Larger than Leghorn. Extremely long back
and body. Tail carried low. White or black legs.
Very large combs. Single or rose comb.
C. Ancona.-Exactly the same in shape as the Leghorn.
The only difference is in color, which is mottled.
Pupils should be cautioned against using memory instead
of reason in learing to distinguish one bird from another. There
is alway a reason why a bird is a Wyandotte or Leghorn and
if an unknown bird is enountered a mental statement of its char-
acteristics will soon place it in the correct class and breed.
One excellent way of studying this subject is to use cards on
which are posted pictures of birds cut from magazines without
any name of bird. The shape must then be the chief indication.
Reference: U. S. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 51.
FEEDING
December, January, February, March.
Each pupil should be assigned the home poultry flock and
arrangements made whereby all or at least part of it can
be cared for and managed as the pupil desires. The purpose
of this plan is to carry out at home the theories learned in the
class room, to have the practical view point always conspicious
and to interest the parents in the school work. In other words
the feeding should be home project work.
Arrangements must be made whereby the pupil does as much
of the work in caring for the birds as possible and that he partic-
ipate in the profits. This will necessitate co-operation with the
parents and may require time from the teacher, but the labor will
be fruitful.
The pupil makes all plans, directs all work and builds equip-
ment, changes the house and selects the rations as much as is
practical. Each week the egg production and possibly the
expense account should be reported in school and a permanent
record made on the board in the school room. It might be advis-
able to plot a curve of production as each weekly record comes
in. Pupils will probably want to know why certain flocks are doing
174 EGG PRODUCTION
better than others or why a particular group of birds fell off or
increased in production. Reference: Purdue Experiment Sta-
tion Bulletin No. 182.
One of the largest factors entering into live stock and poultry
production is the feeding question. All body constituents and
products are manufactured from feed, and if they be produced
most economically, the proper feeds in the correct proportions must
be supplied. e
Eggs are the source of the greater proportion of the income
in the poultry business. Thus egg production is the greatest
problem with the keeper of fowls. Profitable egg production
depends on four things: (1) Inborn tendency to lay or the breed-
ing, (2) Good health and vigor. (3) Comfortable and congenial
quarters. (4) Proper feed. Thus it may be seen that while the
feeding may be an important item in egg production, it alone can
not control the number of eggs desired.
When any ration, no matter for what purpose, is desired,
the chemical analysis of the feeds should be understood, at least
in some degree. The fact that some feeds are extremely rich
in protein or the muscle, blood and white of egg forming consti-
tuents, and that other feeds supply the carbohydrates which are
used largely in the production of fat, heat, energy or yolk of egg,
should be kept in mind when mixing feeds, for the purpose of a
ration must control its ingredients.
The common grains are too fattening if fed alone, and will not
assist the hen in producing a maximum number of eggs. The
mill feeds, such as bran and shorts, are richer in protein and help
to balance the fattening tendencies of grain. They also add
variety to the rations. The animal bi-products are absolutely
necessary to furnish the bulk of the protein for they are the easiest
sources through which this element can be obtained in large
quantities. The greatest trouble with the average farm ration
lies in the fact that it consists of too much grain.
An experiment, of four years duration, at Purdue University
was carried on to show the feeding value of skim milk and meat
scraps when fed in a ration with corn, wheat, oats, bran and shorts.
Conditions were sufficiently uniform to prevent any difference
in egg production being influenced by anything but the feed. The
pen fed skim milk averaged to produce 135.4 eggs per pullet in
one year at a cost of .097 per dozen, the pen for meat Scraps pro-
duced 135 eggs at a cost of $.085 per dozen and a pen fed corn,
wheat, oats, bran and shorts but no skim milk or meat scraps laid
EGG PRODUCTION 175
32.5 eggs at a cost of $.30 per dozen. It paid to feed animal
by-products in a ration, for grains and grain by-products alone
are not sufficient.
Things to Consider When Mixing a Laying Ration.
1. There is no best ration. It is not the number of pounds
of feed consumed that control the results, but the quantity of
digestible food material in the ration. There are plenty of good
rations, and it makes no difference what they are made of, if they
will produce results.
2. Hens should be fed what they like.
3. Hens know best how much to eat, but the feeder should
know in what proportion to mix the feeds in the ration. Give a
hen all she wants of a ration, made up of the proper proportion of
different feeds.
4. A ration should contain a variety of feeds.
5. The ration must be cheap.
6. Fowls needs grain, meat food, mill feeds, green food, grit,
shell and water.
7. Quality is as important as quantity.
8. Exercise is absolutely necessary.
9. The conditions under which the flock is kept will influence
any ration; for example, confined fowls need more green food and .
meat food than do farm fowls.
THE PURDUE LAYING RATION
Grażn. Dry Mash.
10 lbs. corn 5 lbs. bran
10 lbs. wheat 5 lbs. shorts
5 lbs. oats 3% lbs. meat scraps
25 lbs. 13% lbs.
This will supply the flesh and white of egg forming elements
in the proper proportions with the fat, heat, and energy forming
elements. In addition to this ration, green food, grit, and oyster
shell is given. The mixed grain should be fed in a deep litter
lightly in the morning, and all the hens will consume in the
evening. The dry mash is kept in a hopper, open before the fowls
all the time. For heavier breeds, the hopper may not be opened
before noon especially if they have a tendency to eat too much
and thereby cause digestive troubles. In order to keep the ration
176 EGG PRODUCTION
properly balanced, the 13% pounds of dry mash should be con-
sumed in the same length of time as the 25 pounds of grain.
It is a natural tendency for hens to eat too much grain and this
must be prevented. It is well to remember that the proportion of
grain to mash must be controlled but the total consumption de-
pends on the appetite of the hen.
The above mixtures are figured out for confined hens and
should of course be varied to meet other conditions. The follow-
ing might be examples of conditions that may exist; (1) Meat
scrap is costly and skim milk or buttermilk may be available.
Under such a condition 50 pounds of milk should be used in pref-
erence to the 3% pounds of meat scraps. (2) If wheat is not
available increase both the corn and oats to take the place of the
wheat.
(3) Available green cut bone if fed in small quantities can
be profitably used in place of meat scraps, provided it is sweet
and clean, and free from any decomposition. (4) If much
range is at hand such as generally found on the farm, the dry
mash during the summer time can be reduced. (5) When the
fowls have the use of the feed lots, and can obtain an abundance
of corn, the grain should be greatly reduced and care taken to
prevent fowls becoming over fat.
HELPFUL SUGGESTIONS
Silage, sprouted oats, cabbage or stock beets, all make good
winter green feeds. When feeding in the winter, the fact must
be borne in mind that cold weather is not the natural laying season,
and in order to obtain eggs, summer conditions must be imitated.
This means the supplying of an abundance of green and meat
feeds.
Meat scraps vary in feeding value, some are of poor quality
and low in per cent of protein, hence not of much feeding value.
Meat scraps should be bought according to the per cent of protein
and should contain plenty of ground bone.
In summer, the grain given to confined hens should be slightly
reduced, for heat is not needed very much at that time. During
the molting season, one pound of oil meal should be added to the
dry mash to assist in the production of new feathers.
All grain must be fed in a deep litter and scratched for as
much as possible. An abundance of exercise will help insure health
and egg production.
EGG PRODUCTION 177
April.
Eggs.—The feeding project carried on through the preceding
four months should be continued through April and the returns
recorded on the blackboard.
Each pupil should bring some eggs at stated times for the
purpose of studying, testing, grading and scoring. Conditions
may be such that it would be advisable for the instructor to
furnish the samples of undesirable eggs. At first the construction
of the egg should be understood and can be worked out by the
following exercise.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EGGs.
1. Material and equipment:
2 raw eggs (1 fresh; 1 stale)
2 saucers,
1 boiled egg,
Chart or drawings.
2. Demonstration. Eacercise:
Break the 2 raw eggs out upon saucers and study
the difference in structure and condition.
Peel the shell from the boiled egg, taking care
not to injure the egg proper. Cut the egg long-
itudinally and study the structure.
3. Questions:
What are the different parts of the egg and their
uses as food?
What is the difference between a stale and fresh
egg?
What causes staleness?
What is the difference between a fertile and an
infertile egg?
Why are yolks of different colors?
4. Suggestions:
Take up eggs as a food and the care necessary
before marketing and after purchasing. Eggs are
perishable products and easily absorb odors, etc.
5. Points of Information:
RAW EGG :
Thin Albumen: Watery substances around the
edge of egg.
8345—12
178 EGG PRODUCTION
Dense Albumen:—Thicker transparent, substance
which stands up in thick layer.
Yolk:—Yellow portion.
Germinal Disc:-White spot which floats to top
of yolk.
Vitelline Membrane:—Very thin membrane around
the yolk of the egg, containing the yolk.
Chalaza:-Dense, cordlike albuminous structures
at each end of yolk, the function of which is to
suspend the yolk in the center of the food supply,
the albumen; also to keep it suspended for protection.
In the stale egg the yolk is flat, and in the fresh
egg the yolk stands up much higher.
BOILED EGG :
Observe two outer membranes enclosing a small
air cell. After the egg is cut the two whites can
be easily separated.
Staleness is caused by age or heat, and influences
the physical rather than the chemical condition to a
great extent. A fertile egg contains a fertilized ovum
and when heat is applied to it can produce a chick.
EGG GRADING AND TESTING.
1. Material and Equipment:
A home-made egg tester, several dozen eggs, and
a few eggs with different qualities both inside and
Out.
2.
Demonstration. Eacercise:
Each pupil should take several dozen eggs and
pick out the three best dozen, considering weight and
outside conditions only. Following this, each pupil
might place in 1-2-3 order the 3 dozen picked out
by some one else.
With the egg tester eggs of different qualities
such as fresh, stale, spot, rot, etc., should be learned.
Points of Information:
CANDLING:
A. When the candler tests the eggs he bases his judgment
on the following indications:
2
EGG PRODUCTION 179
1. Fresh.-Opaque, the contents should only show up
slightly, usually the yolk is only dimly visible. White
shelled eggs are much more opaque than brown
shelled ones. The air cell is about the size of a dime
in a strictly fresh egg. As the egg ages the water
evaporates through the shell and the air cell becomes
larger.
2. Stale or Held.—The air cell is larger than in a fresh egg.
The yolk may be more visible.
3. Heated.—The air cell may be small or large, but the
egg has a rather muddy or watery appearance and
the yolk is darker. Heated eggs are due to storing
in too warm a place or keeping in hot sun.
4. Developed Germ.—Dark spot visible, from which
radiates plainly visible blood vessels. The young
germ is sometimes referred to as looking like a
spider web.
5. Dead Germ.—When a germ dies the blood forms in a
ring around the germ. This ring may be quickly
visible around the dead germ, or the germ only
may show up. The radiating blood vessels are
always absent. Sometimes the germ sticks to the
shell.
6. Rotten.—Muddy or very dark in appearance, yolk
and white mixed. Air cell large and sometimes
movable.
7. Mouldy Eggs.-Show a distinct irregular black spot
on the inside of the shell. They may be very
small or cover the entire shell. Moulds often get
in through cracks and are thus often found in a
cracked egg.
8. Blood Clot.—Is a clot of blood on the surface of the
yolk? It is present when the egg is laid. Very
plainly visible, bright red. They may vary in
size, many are one-fourth inch in diameter.
GRADING EGG :
A. In grading eggs and considering weight and outside
conditions only, weight is the most important
factor and all eggs should weigh 24 ounces or more
per dozen. A. Eggs to grade best must be uniform
I80 EGG PRODUCTION
in size, shape and color and absolutely clean.
Next to weight, uniformity is of most importance.
In grading eggs commercially, eggs are tested or
candled, and all undesirable eggs rejected.
Reference: Farmers’ Bulletin 656.
HoME PRESERVATION OF EGGS
When eggs are plentiful in April and May they should be put
away to help overcome the shortage of supply in the fall and winter.
The housewife can buy when they are cheap and have eggs at a
time of year when retail prices are sometimes prohibitive.
MIXTURES TO USE
One of two methods of “preservation” can be used; Water Glass
or lime water. Water Glass is an almost translucent, odorless,
syrupy liquid. Any yellowness of color is generally due to the
use of a dirty container. The price varies with localities but
should be from 25c a quart to 85c a gallon. A pure undiluted
product should be asked for when a purchase is made as some
druggists dilute it before selling. Water Glass should be mixed
1 part to 10 or 15 parts of boiling, soft water and allowed to cool.
If lime water is used, 2 or 3 pounds of lime should be slaked
in a small amount of water and then added to 3 gallons of water.
Frequent stirring for a day causes a maximum amount of saturation
and after allowing the surplus lime to settle, the clear, but saturated
liquid, can be poured off ready for use.
KIND OF EGGS TO USE
Eggs to be “preserved” must be strictly fresh, clean, unwashed
and free from cracks with firm shells. The best eggs are laid in
April and May, but if there is a thorough knowledge of the origin
and care of the eggs used, June, July and August production may
be satisfactory. The physicial condition of spring eggs is usually
better than summer eggs, and they stand “preservation” better.
If thorough knowledge of the quality of eggs to be used is not
known they should not be used, as water glass and lime water
will keep good eggs good, but will not make bad eggs good.
WESSELS TO BE USED
Metal vessels should not be used, but earthenware, glass or
Wooden containers will prove satisfactory. They must be abso-
lutely clean, a thing which can be assured by thorough scalding.
EGG PRODUCTION 181
Below is a table showing the number of eggs which can be packed
in jars of different sizes and the amount of liquid necessary.
2 gallon jar— 65 to 80 eggs— 7% pints.
5 gallon jar—160 to 200 eggs—18% pints.
10 gallon jar—320 to 400 eggs—36% pints.
Earthenware jars usually cost 10 cents a gallon when over 5
gallons in size.
HOW TO PACK THE EGGS
Eggs may be put into the liquid “preservative” or the mixture
may be poured over the eggs. The former method is to be pre-
ferred as then any eggs showing slight staleness will float and may
be discarded. When the jar is full there should be at least two
inches of liquid above the eggs and if any evaporation takes place,
water should be added. Any sediment in the bottom of the water
glass or lime mixture or any crust on the surface of the lime water
is to be expected and will do no harm. After the jar is filled the
top should be covered tightly to prevent evaporation. Some-
times oiled or greased paper tied down over the top will keep the
eggs air tight. The eggs keep best in a cool cellar where the tem-
perature varies but little.
By these methods eggs will keep nicely for 5 to 9 months.
If good eggs are used, their quality and sweetness should remain
first class. Water Glass and lime water do not really “preserve”
the eggs, but rather fill and seal the pores of the shells, and pre-
vent evaporation. They tend to keep the eggs as they were when
put down in the liquids. Eggs do change with time, but in Water
Glass the change is largely physical and is indicated by an increase
of wateryness of the white and ease with which the membrane
covering the yolk is broken. These changes do not begin to show
until after five months and then will only influence the method
of use in cooking. The whites will not stand up, when broken out,
as well as if the eggs were fresh, but the flavor is good and they will
beat up stiffly. If eggs are to be boiled a hole should be pricked
in the large end to permit expansion inside the shell and prevent
cracking. Usually, “preserved” eggs can be used for the same
purposes that fresh eggs can. The longer eggs are kept the more
watery becomes their consistency.
At a cost of about one cent per dozen, exclusive of the container
it will pay to “pack away” or “preserve” eggs to be used for the
ordinary culinary purposes during the winter months.
Reference: (See Poultry Raising Project.)
Home Garden”
I. What the pupil should know.
A. What is a home garden. •
B. Value of a garden. •
1. Financial.
2. From standpoint of health.
3. From standpoint of pleasure.
4. From standpoint of society.
C. Where locate the garden.
1. For convenience.
2. Landscape effect.
3. Soil.
4. Sunlight.
D. The garden plan.
1. Its value.
2. How make it.
3. When make it. *
4. What it should include.
a. Dimensions of garden.
b. Distance between rows.
c. Names of vegetables for each row.
1a. Companion, succession and all-
Sè8,SOIl.
d. Planting dates.
e. Plan of rotation.
E. Kinds of vegetables to grow (In home garden, market garden,
truck garden.) -
1. How determine.
2. List from which to select.
a. Asparagus.
b. Beans.
1a. String beans. -
1b. Yellow pod or wax.
1c. Dwarf – Varie-
ties: Burpee
Kidney, Wa-
dell Kidney
Wax.
2c. Running.—Wa-
rieties: Gol-
denCarmine.
2b. Green pod.
1c. Dwarf. — Vari-
eties: Bur-
pee String-
less, Red
Valentine.
. *The following outline and subject matter can be used for market and truck garden
projects. For these projects the subject of marketing should be added.
(182)
HoME GARDEN 183
2C. Running—Varieties: Lazy
Wife, Kentucky
Wonder.
2a. Green shell beans.
1b. Lima.
1c. Dwarf – Varieties:
Henderson Bush
Lima, Fordhook,
Goddard, Green,
Shell.
2c. Running—Varieties:
Leviathan, Ideal.
2b. Miscellaneous types.
1c. Dwarf.
2c. Running.
3a. Dry shell beans—Lima or String
Beans.
1c. Dwarf.
2C. Running.
Beets. Early and late plantings.
la. Varieties: Crosby's Egyptian, De-
troit Dark Red, Eclipse.
Cabbage. Early and late.
1a. Varieties: Jersey Wakefield, Cop-
enhagen Market, Autumn Mar-
ket.
Carrot.
1a. Varieties: Danver's Half Long,
Golden Ball, Chantenay.
Celery.
1a. Varieties: Golden Self Blanching,
Giant Pascal.
... Sweet Corn. Early and late.
1a. Varieties: Golden Batam, Stowell’s
Evergreen, Country Gentle-
Iſlalºl.
Cucumber.
1a. Varieties: Emerald, Cumberland,
Chicago Pickle.
Lettuce. Early and late (Grow as companion
crop).
1a. Varieties: Black-seeded Simpson,
Morse, May King, Hanson.
Onion. -
1a. Varieties: Southport Yellow Globe,
Southport White Globe, Prize–
taker, Australian Brown.
Parsnip.
1a. Varieties: Offenham Market, Im-
proved Guernsey.
184 HoME GARDEN
1. Peas.
1a. Varieties: Nott's Excelsior, Cart-
er's Daisy, Maud S.
m. Potatoes.
1a. Early. Varieties: Irish Cobbler,
Early Ohio, Early Rose, Quick
Lunch.
1b. Late. Varieties: Rural New York-
er No. 2, Sir Walter Raleigh,
Carman No. 3, Burbank.
n. Radish. Early and late. (Grow as com—
panion crop.) -
1a. Varieties: Earliest White, Scarlet
Button, Lady Finger, White
Strasburg, White Chinese.
o. Salsify.
1a. Varieties: Sandwich Island Mam-
moth.
p. Spinach.
1a. Varieties: Long standing.
q. Sweet Potato.
1a. Varieties: Yellow Jersey.
r. Squash.
1a. Varieties: Hubbard, Fordhook,
Giant Summer Crookneck.
s. Tomato. Early and late.
1a. Varieties: Bonnie Best, Chalk's
Early Jewel, Langdon's Earl-
iana, Livingston’s Globe,
Stone.
t. Turnip. Early and late.
1a. Purpletop Strapleaf, Purple Top
Globe, White Egg.
F. Garden Seeds.
Where to purchase.
When to purchase.
Amounts to purchase.
Value of testing.
How to test.
When to test.
oil.
Type.
Condition. &
Preparation of seed bed.
Methods of cultivation.
Drainage.
Rotation of crop.
Fertility maintenance.
Supplying organic matter.
G. The
HoME GARDEN 185
9. For information on the above and additional topics,
See “Soils for Seventh and Eighth Grades,” out-
lined in this Course of Study.
H. Aids to early planting.
1. Hot bed.
2. Cold frame.
3. Seed box.
I. Diseases and pests.
1. How combat, prevent, control.
a. Fungi.
1a. External feeders—mildew.
2a. Within tissues of plant—bean an-
thracnose, potato blight, po-
tato scab. gº
b. Bacterial Diseases.
la. Black rot of cabbage, bean blight,
melon wilt.
c. Chewing Insects.
la. Caterpillars, beetles, weevils.
d. Sucking insects.
1a. Aphids or plant life.
J. Canning vegetables.
1. What to can.
2. How to can.
3. Importance of Canning.
K. Storing vegetables.
1. What to store.
2. How to store.
L. How keep records of all items of
1. Cost.
Labor—man, horse.
Manure, commercial fertilizer.
Seeds, implements, tools.
Cans and other containers.
Spray materials, powders, etc.
Rent of land, interest on investment, etc.
i
2. Income.
a. Amounts harvested.
1a. Used at home while fresh. Value.
2a. Stored for home use. Value.
3a. Canned for home use. Value.
4a. Sold—fresh, canned for storage.
Value.
II. What the pupil should do.
A. Early in the fall the pupil should begin to make plans for the
home garden the following summer. The soil should be
studied carefully. This can be done at school to some
extent by using in the laboratory samples of the types of
Soil found in the home garden. (See outlines for soils in
186 HoME GARDEN
gº
this Course of Study.) Drainage, organic matter, lime,
garden crop rotation, etc., should all be worked out on a
practical basis in their relation to the needs of the home
garden. Make the garden plan; procure and test seed;
study plant diseases and pests and preventive and control
measures; make collection of insects; make hot beds, cold
frames, seed boxes, if these are to be used.
B. All of the topics in the outline above should be studied from the
viewpoint of their direct bearing on the pupil’s home
garden. This study should be completed by the time the
ground is in condition to be worked in the spring. If
school has not closed by garden making time, arrange-
ments should be made whereby the pupil could be excused
from school one or two afternoons each week to work in
his or her garden.
C. Planting and cultivating the garden and harvesting, canning,
and storing the vegetables need not interfere with the
duties of the boy or girl who must assist with the daily
work on the farm and in the home. By spending from one
to two hours each day on this work, a garden of consider-
able size can be cultivated and the products harvested.
POINTS OF INFORMATION
(A brief discussion of the topics in the outline of a home garden
project.)
THE HOME GARDEN
The pupil who works out a project in home gardening will have
for his or her aim the growing of an adequate supply of vegetables
for the home table. Securing a financial return will be of secon-
dary consideration, although if properly managed the home gard-
en will materially reduce the cost of food. If the aim is to pro-
duce more vegetables than the family will need and thus have a
surplus to dispose of on the market, the project will include more
than a home garden.
VALUE OF A GARDEN
“The growing of vegetables at home to keep the table freshly
supplied during the greater part of the year is a matter of peren-
nial interest to all householders who possess a bit of ground which
can possibly be made suitable for garden purposes. The farmer
with his abundant opportunity fails quite as often as his city cousin
to provide an adequate supply of vegetables.
1 Purdue Experiment Station Bulletin 171.
HoME GARDEN 187
In earlier times when farmers were more isolated and inde-
pendent, the vegetable garden was a recognized institution and
the care and attention which it deserved were generally given it.
The farmer of Indiana is now tending to become a specialist, and
instead of growing nearly everything the family needs he devotes
his time and attention to two or three crops. Whatever economic
advantages there may be in this trend toward specialization there
is certainly one disadvantage in the decline of the home garden.
The tendency is not for the farmer to buy plenty of fresh vegetables
with the proceeds of his other crops, but to do without. As a
partial substitute for home grown produce, large quantities of
canned vegetables are purchased and consumed even during the
summer months. Canned vegetables are better than none, but
fresh vegetables from the garden are not only better to eat but
are much less expensive. It is very seldom that enough vegetables
are purchased, either canned or fresh, to supply the table as well
as the garden supplies it.
More vegetables in the diet mean better health and cheaper
living. With a well kept garden to draw upon, the problem which
perplexes the housewife of how to provide a variety of palatable
foods at a minimum cost will be solved.”
“*Vegetables and fruits furnish a large part of the essential
salts which are absolutely necessary to the well-being of the
human system, so that the value of vegetables in the diet is a
great deal more than the mere food or money value. The need
of tonics and other medicines in the spring is due largely to the
lack of vegetables and fruit in the winter diet. If more suc-
culent food were available, less money would be spent in doctor's
fee and for medicines.
Fresh vegetables from the home garden are not subjected to
exposure on the market and are not liable to infection. Many
vegetables lose their characteristic flavor within a few hours after
gathering. The home vegetable garden is worthy of greatly in-
creased attention and a larger number and greater variety of
crops should be grown in the garden.
LOCATION OF THE GARDEN
In selecting the location for a home vegetable garden the
question of proximity to the house should be given first consider-
ation. As the work of caring for the garden is usually done in
1 Purdue Bulletin 171.
2 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 647.
188 HOME GARDEN
spare time, the location selected should be as near the house as
possible. The slope and type of soil should be the next con-
sideration. A slope to the south or southeast is usually prefer-
able, because here the soil warms up early in the spring, which
permits early planting and stimulates the early growth of crops.
Practically any type of soil can be used for the garden, but a
sandy loam is to be preferred.
Good drainage is of prime importance. The land should have
sufficient fall to drain off surplus water during heavy rains, but
the fall should not be so great as to wash the soil. If the land
near the house is level, artificial drainage should be employed.
Open ditches or tile drains will be satisfactory. On level land
that is not artifically drained it is necessary to plant on ridges
or in beds to prevent drowning the crops during wet weather.
The ridges or beds should be as wide and flat as conditions will
allow, for narrow, sharp ridges dry out quickly.”
THE GARDEN PLAN".
“The greatest success with the vegetable garden can be obtained
only by the systematic following of a well thought out plan.
This should be made to scale on heavy paper and should be pre-
served from year to year for reference when making new plans.
The plan should be prepared early in January and should serve
as a guide for all garden operations. The outline is useless unless
followed and most garden failures are the result of poor planning.
On the plan should be indicated the location and amount of all
vegetables to be grown, dates of sowing or setting, companion
and succession of crops, and the direction of the rows and distance
between them.”
“”The first consideration in planning the garden is the kind of
cultivation to be given. Horse cultivation is recommended when-
ever possible, and where the work is to be done mainly by means
of horse tools the garden should be long and narrow with the rows
running the long way. The garden should have no paths across
the rows, but turning spaces should be left at the ends. For hand
cultivation the rows can be much closer together and may run
across the garden. If a hand cultivator or wheel hoe is not avail-
able the rows should be at least two feet apart to give sufficient
space for the horse cultivator.
The size of the garden depends upon the number of persons to be
1 Purdue Experiment Station Bulletin 171.
2 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 647.
HOME GARDEN 189
Supplied. One-fourth to one-half an acre is sufficient for an average
family and should produce enough vegetables for use throughout
the year. By close attention to the rotation of crops, the succes-
sion of crops, and interplanting, one-fourth of an acre may be
made to supply a family of six. Where land is plentiful it is
recommended that sufficient area be set aside to allow part of the
garden to be planted to a soil-improving crop each year.
The location of permanent crops, such as asparagus, rhubarb,
and small fruits, should be carefully considered. These crops
should be placed at one side, so that they will not be in the way
when the garden is plowed.
In planning the location of crops, consideration should be given
to the matter of succession, in order that the land may be occupied
as large a part of the time as possible. It is not advisable to have
a Second planting of the same crop or a closely related crop follow
the first. Cabbage should not follow cauliflower, Brussels
sprouts, mustard, or kale, for many of the same diseases and in-
sects affect all of these crops. Tomatoes, eggplants, and
peppers should not follow each other. In some sections
three or four crops can be grown on the same land each
year, while in other section two crops are all that can be
grown to advantage. When a crop is harvested early in
the season and it is not practicable to plant another vegetable
for two or three months, the land may be planted to cowpeas
or crimson clover. For example, after a crop of early cabbage it
may not be desirable to plant another vegetable crop until late
Summer or autumn. In this case it would be desirable to sow
Cowpeas or crimson clover, to be turned under in preparation for
the fall crop.
Rotation of crops is as important in growing vegetables as in
growing field crops, and the same principles can be applied.
Crop rotation is important in checking diseases and insects
and in keeping the soil in good condition. Where diseases are
very severe, the same crop should not be planted continuously
On the same area. Rotation of crops is one of the safeguards
against Soil infection. Land upon which a diseased crop has
been grown should not be used for the same or a closely related
crop oftener than once in three years. It is usually advisable to
rotate crops in such a way that foliage crops (such as cabbage,
kale, spinach, and mustard) follow root crops (Irish potatoes,
beets, parsnips, carrots, etc.) or those grown for fruits (tomatoes,
peppers, melons, etc.) This can be accomplished in a measure
190 HoME GARDEN
by changing the location of crops in the planting plan or by re-
versing the plan from year to year.”
KINDS OF VEGETABLES TO GROW!
“Just what vegetables are to be grown depends, of course, upon
the individual tastes of the family. In general the aim of the
home gardener should be to raise vegetables in which freshness
is an important quality. Peas, string beans, Lima beans, as-
paragus, and sweet corn, for example, lose much if they are not
cooked almost immediately after they are picked.
It will pay the home gardener to grow certain specialties of
which he may be fond, and which may be troublesome or expen-
sive to purchase. Okra is an example of this class, and little
beds of parsley, chives, or other herbs take up very little room and
provide the housewife with additions for her table, which are most
welcome if they can be picked at the right moment without
trouble.” *
Vegetables suitable for canning should be grown in the home
garden. Such vegetables include beans, beets, carrots, corn,
tomatoes, spinach and asparagus.
Potatoes, parsnips, turnips, carrots, sweet potatoes, onions,
cabbage and beets, can be stored for winter use.
For list of vegetables and varieties see the topical outline on
the home garden project.
GARDEN SEEDs”
“As soon as the garden plan has been prepared and the kind
and amount of each variety of vegetable decided, the seed should
be purchased. The amount to buy can be determined approxi-
mately from Table I, which indicates the amount of various
Seeds required for a given area. The approximate amount and
cost of the seed for a garden 50 ft. by 150 ft. is given in Table II.
Seed may be bought from seed firms by mail order, from local
dealers or it may be saved from year to year by the gardener.
As a general rule it is best to buy by mail, placing the order with
a reliable firm in February. Most houses publish an annual illus-
trated catalogue in which the seeds and plants are listed, de-
scribed and priced. With the garden plan and the catalogue
before one the order may be made out and placed early enough to
insure the seeds being on hand when needed. The growing of
Seed is in general a special business and unless the gardener has
1 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 818.
2 Purdue Experiment Station Bulletin 171.
HoME GARDEN 191
special skill and sufficient time, better seed can be bought than
can be grown in the home garden. There are some specialties
of the market gardner’s business on the other hand, in which home
seed growing is advisable. When buying seed, get only the best.
The viabilty of seed can be determined in advance by a germ-
ination test. This consists in counting out a certain number of
seeds (25 to 100, depending on the size) and placing them under
conditions favorable for germination. Two moist blotters be-
tween two plates makes a good germinator. Determine the
promptness and the total per cent. of germination by a daily in-
spection. With most vegetable seed 80 per cent. should germ-
inate in four to eight days to be considered a good sample.
The value of the germination test in gardening is just as great
as in growing farm crops and even greater in proportion since
gardening is the more intensive form of agriculture.
Table I.-Number of Seed Per Ounce and Amount of Space One
Ounce of Seed Will Sow.”

Number
Vegetable Amount of seed seed per Space
OUIn Ce
Asparagus 1 oz. 1400 50 ft. drills
Bean (dwarf) 1 pt. (25 oz.) 200 50 ft. drills
Beet 1 oz. 1400 50 ft. drills
Cabbage 1 oz. 8500 1500 plants
Carrot 1 oz. 19000 100 ft. drills
Cauliflower 1 OZ. 10000 1000 plants
Celery 1 oz. 70000 3000 plants
Corn 1 qt. (23 oz.) 140 200 hills
Cucumber 1 oz. 1100 50 hills
Egg plant 1 oz. 6500 1000 plants
Endive 1 oz. 18000 100 ft. drills
Kale 1 oz. 8500 150 ft. drills
Kohl-rabi 1 oz. 8500 3000 plants
Lettuce 1 OZ. 22000 150 ft. drills, 1000 plants
Onion 1 oz. 7000 100 ft. drills .
Parsely 1 oz. 150 ft. drills
Parsnip 1 oz. 6600 200 ft. drills
Pea, 1 qt. (25 oz.) | 60–140 100 ft. drills
Pepper 1 oz. 4200 1000 plants
Pumpkin 1 oz. 85 40 hills
Radish 1 oz. 7800 100 ft. drills
Salsify 1 oz. 2835 70 ft. drills
Spinach 1 oz. 2500 100 ft. drills
Squash 1 oz. 90–200 20 to 50 hills
Tomato 1 oz. 10000 1500 plants
Turnip 1 oz. 12700 150 ft. drills
2 Green’s “Vegetable Gardening.”
192 HoME GARDEN
Table II.-Amount and Cost of Vegetable Seeds Necessary for
a Garden Fifty by One Hundred Feet in Size.

Vegetable Variety Amount Cost,
Bean Burpee’s Stringless Green Pod 1 pkt. $ . 10
Bean Hodson Wax 1 plºt. . 10
Bean Burpee’s Improved Bush Lima 2 plºts. . 30
Beet Eclipse 2 plºts. . 10
Beet Detroit Dark Red 2 plºts. . 20
Brussels sprout Long Island Improved 1 plºt. . 10
Cabbage Early Jersey Wakefield 1 pkt. .05
Cabbage Danish Bald Head 1 pkt. .05
Cabbage Perfection Drumhead Savoy 1 plºt. .05
Carrot Golden Ball 1 plºt. ... 10
Cauliflower Early Dwarf Erfurt 1 pkt. ... 10
Cucumber White Spine 1 p.kt. ... 10
Celery Golden Self Blanching 1 plºt. ... 10
Corn Golden Bantam 1 qt. . 30
Corn Stowell’s Evergreen 1 qt. . 18
Egg plant Black Beauty 1 pkt. . 10
Endive Green Curled 1 plºt. .05
Horse-radish Maliner Kren 50 roots . 50
Rale Dwarf German 1 plºt. .05
Rohl rabi Early White Vienna 1 pkt. .05
Lettuce Grand Rapids 2 plºts. ... 10
Lettuce Big Boston 2 plºts. ... 10
Onion Prizetaker 2 plºts. . 20
Onion Southport Red Globe 2 plºts. ... 10
Onion Yellow Danvers 2 plºts. ... 10
Onion set White 2 qts. . 30
Parsely Dark Moss-curled 1 pkt. .05
Parsnip Hollow Crown 1 plºt. .05
Pea Thomas Laxton 3 plºts. . 30
Pepper Ruby King 1 plºt. . 10
Pumpkin Small Sugar 1 plºt. .05
Radish White Icicle 1 oz. . 07
Radish French Breakfast 1 oz. . 07
Radish Early Long Scarlet Short Top 1 oz. . 07
Radish Cincinnati Market
“Glass Radish” 1 oz. . 07
Swiss chard Lucullus 1 plºt. ... 10
Salsify Mammoth Sandwich Island 1 pkt. .05
Spinach Victoria, 1 pkt. .05
Squash Golden Summer Crookneck 1 pkt. .05
Tomato Sparks Earliana 1 pkt. . 10
Tomato Greater Baltimore 1 pkt. ... 10
Turnip White Milan 2 plºts. ... 10
Clover Red 1 lb. . 15
$5.06
Less 33% per cent, discount on packets. . 1. 11
Toal cost of seed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $3.95
HOME GARDEN 193
THE SOIL
Fertilizing.—The fertility of the soil to be used for gardening
purposes is an important consideration. In order to produce
high quality vegetables in the shortest time a sufficient amount
of available plant food must be present in the soil. This condi-
tion may be obtained by the use of well rooted stable manure,
composted soil or commercial fertilizers. Stable manure at the
rate of fifty tons to the acre is the most desirable when it can be
obtained, provided it is throughly rotted. This is applied as
a top dressing in the spring before plowing. After the garden
has been plowed an application of one thousand pounds to the
acre of commercial fertilizer should be made, testing 2% to 4 per
cent. available nitrogen, 8 to 10 per cent. phosphoric acid and 6
to 8 per cent. potash. The land will then need to be harrowed
until the fertilizer is thoroughly mixed with the soil to prevent
burning of seedling plants just after germination. With leaf
crops like lettuce and spinach it is often advisable to open a shal-
low trench three or four inches away from the row, apply sodium
nitrate and then cover it with soil. Plants set in hills, such as
the tomato, will also respond profitably to the above mentioned
complete fertilizer when a handful is scattered around the hill
a couple of weeks after the plants have been set.
The composted soil is sometimes used as a substitute for the
manure but this is not a general practice. If the garden soil
is heavy, composted soil may be added to increase its fertility
and to loosen it.
Fitting.—It has already been stated that the best type of soil
for gardening purposes is a sandy loam. Often this is not found
on the site where the garden must be located in order to have it
near the kitchen. Under these conditions especially with heavy
clays it will prove very profitable to haul in a layer of sand from
six to eight inches deep and work it into the soil by plowing and
discing. There are instances where farmers have hauled from
two hundred to three hundred loads of sand onto their gardens
and by this arrangement alone have been able to secure much
earlier and larger crops on account of the changed texture of the
surface.
With loose sandy soils the addition of large quantities of COIIl-
8345—13
194 HOME GARDEN
posted soil will be the remedy as these are not only loose but
are generally lacking in plant food as well.
As a rule, spring plowing is to be preferred in order that the
soil will be in fine tilth to a good depth when the seed is sown.
Heavy soils that do not dry out until late spring should probably
be plowed in the late autumn and then cross disced in spring.
The garden should be plowed to a good depth, eight to ten inches
being a fair average. The harrow should follow and the land
worked until perfectly level. On the surburban or city garden
the spading fork may be substituted for the plow and the garden
rake for the harrow. Although slower than horse tools, with a
little care, as good a seed bed can be made with these hand tools.
The condition of the garden soil at plowing time should be
just right in regard to moisture. In our haste to make early
garden the soil is often worked when too wet and as a consequence
it becomes cloddy and difficult to get in shape for seed sowing.
It is for this reason that the sandy loams are so desirable for garden
purposes as they can be worked almost any time without injury
to the soil texture and with this type less attention need be given
than is the case with heavy soils that have a tendency to bake
if worked when wet.
After the harrowing has been completed, the soil where seed
is to be immediately sown should be worked down with the
garden rake and all clods or rough material on the surface removed.
If the fine vegetable seed is to germinate immediately, the soil
must be free from clods or other materials in order that the
small soil particles may come in close contact with all portions of
the seed. Many poor stands and uneven development of plants
are due to poorly prepared seed bed. *
Laying Out.—The staking out of the garden is a simple matter
after the planting plan has been prepared. A permanent stake is
driven at each end of the rows to which is attached the garden
line when sowing seed. By stretching a tape line across the ends
of the garden and then following the plan as a guide, the proper
location of the stakes can be quickly determined and the stakes
set. The straightness and neatness of the rows will count for
much in the home garden and extra time spent in laying out will
mean greater ease in handling.
Sowing Seed.—Vegetable seed are sown by hand or with a
small drill. Unless root crops are grown outside of the garden
on rather large areas for stock feed or some other purpose, it will
hardly be advisable to purchase a seed drill. Only small quanti-
HoME GARDEN 195
ties of seed are sown at a time and this can be done more quickly
by making a shallow trench along the garden line with a sharp
Stick or the end of a hoe handle and then drilling the seed from
between the fingers and covering it with a hoe or rake.
The depth of planting depends upon the size of the seed and
the season. Small seeds such as lettuce and radish are sown from
one-half to three-fourths of an inch deep and pea and corn two
inches deep. Early in the season, when the ground is cold and
damp, plant seed shallow, while later they may be planted some-
what deeper.
In sowing seed a slightly larger amount should be sown than
the germination test indicates is needed. This will improve the
chance for a good stand and if the plants are too thick they may
be thinned later.
The dates of sowing the various vegetables should be given
on the garden plan. Where succession crops are to be planted,
the soil along the row should be spaded and raked until in first
class shape before the second crop is sown.
Thinning.—It has been previously stated that a larger amount
of seed should be be sown than just enough to produce the de-
sired number of plants. This is done to insure a good stand and
in a majority of cases more plants grow that are actually wanted
which makes thinning necessary. This practice resolves itself
into a process of selection. The weakest plants should be dis-
carded and only the most vigorous left to mature. With such
vegetables as radish, lettuce, and early beet, the plants may be
left until they are edible and then the thinning be done, as more
space is needed. With all other kinds, the thinning should be
done early before there is any danger of stunting those that are
to remain. Since thinning is tedious it is advisable to evenly
distribute the proper amount of seed as nearly as possible when
sowing.
Setting.—With plants started or transplanted into pots or dirt
bands in the hotbed, the only thing of importance to consider in
resetting in the garden is the probable temperatures for the first
couple of weeks following this operation. Cabbage, lettuce,
cauliflower and kohl-rabi will withstand quite cool weather in
the open while tomato, egg plant, and pepper should not be set
until the weather has become settled and warm. By consulting
Table III. the last date of probable frosts in spring can be approx-
196 HOME GARDEN
Table III.- Killing Frosts—Average Dates from 1903 to 1912
Inclusive. Compiled from Annual Summaries of the
Climatological Service of the Weather Bureau,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Stations Last in First in Stations Last in First in
Sprling all turn ºn Sprl Ing autumn 1
Anderson May 4 || Oct. 9 || Madison April 24 || Oct. 19
Auburn May 10 || Oct. 5 || Marengo April 27 || Oct. 10
Bloomington April 26 || Oct. 17 || Marion May 8 || Oct. 8
Bluffton May 6 Oct. 6 || Mauzy May 7 || Oct. 9
Butlerville May 2 Oct. 15 || Moores Hill April 30 || Oct. 16
Cambridge City May 8 || Oct. 12 || Mt. Vernon April 15 || Oct. 20
Columbus May 4 || Oct. 14 || Paoli April 28 Oct. 13
Connersville May 7 || Oct. 15 || Princeton April 23 || Oct. 19
Delphi May 6 || Oct. 4 || Richmond May 9 || Oct. 7
Evansville April 5 || Oct. 25 || Rockville April 27 || Oct. 11
Farmersburg April 19 || Oct. 19 || Rome April 19 || Oct. 17
Farmland April 28 || Oct. 15 || Salem April 30 || Oct. 9
Ft. Wayne May 10 || Oct. 12 || Scottsburg April 11 || Oct. 17
Greensburg April 28 Oct. 14 || Shelbyville April 23 || Oct. 10
Hammond April 30 || Oct. 18 || South Bend May 2 || Oct. 14
Huntington May 7 || Oct. 10 || Terre Haute April 10 || Oct. 20
Indianapolis April 16 || Oct. 18 || Veedersburg May 4 || Oct. 11
Jeffersonville April 13 || Oct. 19 || Vevay April 25 || Oct. 22
Kokomo May 7 || Oct. 6 || Vincennes April 13 || Oct. 19
LaFayette May 4 || Oct. 11 || Washington April 17 || Oct. 19
La Porte May 5 || Oct. 11 || Worthington April 27 | Oct. 12
Hºsport- May 6 || Oct. 11
* * º “.

imately determined for various sections of Indiana and this date
used as a guide in setting the warm weather plants.
For a few days previous to transferring the young plants
from the hotbed to the garden, give them little or no water and
then just before setting, wet them down thoroughly. When set,
the soil around the roots is taken with the plant and the whole
set a little deeper than the soil level, in an opening made with a
trowel or dibble. If the plants have been properly grown, water-
ing after setting will not be necessary nor will it make much dif-
ference as to the kind or time of day that the plants are set. The
ball of earth around the root system protects the plant so that the
change has little or no effect. If plants are pulled loose from the
soil it is necessary to water and to plant in the evening or on
cloudy days and even then many may perish.
HOME GARDEN 197
In setting, the plant should be placed firmly in the soil and
cultivation should follow immediately to loosen the packed sur-
face.
Cultivation.—Perhaps no other factor is more responsible for
poor returns in the average vegetable garden than a lack of proper
cultivation. Other work often claims attention at the time when
the garden should be receiving most care. The only way to
remedy this is by foresight in planning. If a garden is worth
having, it is worth its share of attention and when planning the
farm work a certain amount of time during the working hours of
the day should be given over each week to the care of the garden.
If properly handled an average of four hours per week will keep
a garden 50 by 100 feet in excellent condition.
The necessary tools for cultivating the garden are the hoe,
rake and two wheel hand cultivator. The garden rake is a very
handy and rapid tool to use in breaking soil crust and to provide
a dust mulch. The hoe and hand cultivator are used when the
soil needs loosening and if the cultivator is handled skillfully but
little hoeing will be necessary. With a large garden the horse
cultivator will be used but it is the writer’s opinion that extensive
areas are devoted to the growing of a home supply of vegetables
are never as successful as small areas handled in an intensive
Way.
The time and number of cultivations to give depend largely
upon the type of soil and the season. It should be the aim of the
gardener to keep the area devoted to vegetables free from weeds
at all times and to preserve a dust mulch during dry weather.
When these conditions have been provided regularly throughout
the season the grower has done his duty.
Irrigation.—With a small garden handled intensively a con-
servative amount of irrigation will always prove profitable.
There is rarely a season when a small quantity of water applied
intelligently during a dry period will not increase the yield and
quality considerably and in some instances prevent a complete
failure. In some homes there is no available water for this pur-
pose but with the advent of pneumatic tanks and water systems
in our country dwellings sufficient water can be easily provided
to irrigate a small garden three or four times during the summer
months when dry weather is causing injury.
There are three methods of applying water, sprinkling from
overhead pipes, surface applications or flooding by allowing the
water to spread by means of furrows, and sub-irrigation. The
198 Home GARDEN
sprinkling or Skinner irrigation system as it is commonly called
is well adapted to home garden conditions. A lead of one inch
galvanized pipe is fitted with a small nozzle every two feet on a
straight line on one side of the pipe. This pipe is extended across
the garden on wooden supports from four to eight feet above the
ground. It is then connected with water under pressure, and as
the water passes through the small nozzles it is broken up into a
fine mist which moistens the soil gradually and does not cause it
to pack or bake. When a certain strip of land has received a
sufficient amount the pipe is turned until the water is thrown in
a new position. With ordinary city water pressure a strip six-
teen feet wide can be irrigated in this manner without changing
the pipe and its support to a new place. A good length of garden
hose can be used to carry the water from the hydrant to the
pipe as the latter is changed and one length of pipe be made to
answer the purpose. With this sytem the water can be applied
at any time during the night or day. If one has water under
pressure at hand, the cost of installing and operating will be very
low. A piece of pipe of sufficient length to extend across the gard-
en, a nozzle costing five cents for every two feet in length of pipe,
a cap and three or four couplings and wooden supports make up
the outfit. After the connections have been made, the water is
turned on and the apparatus is in working order.
Surface irrigation or flooding the land may be practiced but
will not prove as satisfactory in the hands of the amateur as the
above method. The water is applied on the surface by means of
furrows and allowed to percolate into the soil until it is moistened
to a depth of four to eight inches.
Sub-irrigation is carried on by laying three or four inch tile
twenty inches below the surface with a fall of one inch to the hun-
dred feet. Parallel lines are laid twelve to fifteen feet apart
lengthwise of the garden and serve both for drainage and irriga-
tion purposes. An entrance to each line of tile at the upper end
and a means of stopping the lower end are provided. Water is
then admitted through the entrance and finds its way into the
soil between the openings at the ends of the tile.
The amount of water to apply can only be determined by
experience with the type of soil being used. A general rule to
follow is to water thoroughly but not often. Following the appli-
cation of water the land should be cultivated as soon as it is dry
enough to prevent the formation of a surface crust.”
HoME GARDEN 199
AIDS TO EARLY PLANTING!
“Seed Bow.—The flat or seed box which is kept in the house is
perhaps the most practical device for use by the home gardener
for starting early vegetables. By its use earlier crops of tomatoes,
cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, peppers, eggplant, and
lettuce can be had with little outlay for equipment. Early
potatoes sometimes are forced in the same way. Seeds so planted
germinate and are ready for transplanting by the time it is safe
to sow the same kind of seed in the open ground. When danger
of frost is over and the soil is dry enough to work, therefore, the
early garden may be started with seedlings well above the surface.
Transplanting, if properly done, instead of injuring seems to help
such plants to develop a strong root system.
Any sort of wooden box filled with good soil answers the pur-
pose, but the following specific suggestions for a box of convenient
size may be useful. Construct a box 3 to 4 inches deep, 12 to 14
inches wide, and 20 to 24 inches long. A layer of about 1 inch of
gravel or cinders should be placed in the bottom of the box. It
should then be filled nearly full with rich garden soil or soil en-
riched with decayed leaves or manure. The rich soil beneath
the family woodpile or around decaying logs is splendid for this
purpose. The soil should be pressed down firmly with a small
piece of board and rows made one-fourth to one-half inch deep
and 2 inches apart crosswise of the box. The seed should be dis-
tributed 8 or 10 to the inch in the rows and be covered. The soil
should be watered and the box set in a warm place in the light.
The best location is just inside a sunny window. Water enough
must be given from time to time to cause the seeds to germinate
and grow thriftily, but not enough to leak through the box. If
a piece of glass is used to cover the box, it will hold the moisture
in the soil and hasten the germination of the seeds.
When the plants are from an inch to an inch and a half high
they should be thinned to 1 or 2 inches apart in the row, so as to
give them space enough to make a strong stocky growth. If it
is desired to keep the plants which are thinned out, they may be
set 2 inches apart each way in boxes similar to the seed box.
When the weather becomes mild the box of plants should be set
out of doors part of the time so that the plants will “harden off.”
in preparation for transplanting to the garden later. A good
1 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 818.
200 HoME GARDEN
watering should be given just before the plants are taken out of
the box for transplanting, so that a large ball of earth will stick
to the roots of each one.”
“Hotbeds."—With the aid of the hotbed the season of some
vegetables can be lenghtened greatly, some can be produced quite
Out of their natural season, and superior plants of nearly all can
be grown for garden use. Care and attention to details will
enable anyone to manage the hotbed with excellent results.
Cold Frame.—The cold frame is constructed and managed the
same as the hotbed with the exception that no pit is dug and no
heating material used. The cold frame is used when starting
plants later in the season as in April and early May. It is also
employed for hardening off plants after they are removed from
the hotbed and before setting in the garden. In this climate the
hotbed must be used if earliness is to be secured and for the
home garden it can be made to serve the purpose of the cold frame
as well.
DISEASES AND PESTs
Insects.- Garden insects may be divided into two classes
according to their methods of taking food. They are termed
chewing insects and sucking insects. The former have chewing
mouth parts and eat various portions of the living vegetable
plants. These insects are controlled by covering the plants upon
which they are feeding with a thin coating of some poison such as
Paris green or arsenate of lead. These poisons when taken in-
ternally with the food cause death. The potato beetle, cabbage
worm and other insects that chew are controlled by spraying the
plants with arsenate of lead used at the rate of one pound in eigh-
teen gallons of water.
Sucking insects suck the juices from the plants upon which
they subsist, by means of a long beak which is pushed down
through the outer covering into the growing tissue. Here the
sap is collected and transferred through the sucking mouth parts
to the digestive system of the insect. Plant lice or aphids be-
long to this class and are controlled by spraying with one to two
teaspoonfuls of tobacco solution (40 per cent.) diluted with one
gallon of water.
Some insects may need further attention than that of spraying.
Cut worms are destroyed by placing balls of poisoned clover or
1 Purdue Experiment Station Bulletin 171.
Hom E GARDEN 201
bran dough between the rows on the ground. With transplanted
plants such as tomato, the stem may be wrapped with a band of
stout paper and the plant set with one inch of paper below ground
and two inches above.
The striped cucumber beetle is controlled to a certain extent
by dusting the vines and stems with air slaked lime containing a
little Paris green. Wire or gauze protectors may also be placed
over the plants when young.
The squash vine borer is held in check by destroying all dead
or withering vines. When the vines have first commenced to
wilt the borer may often be cut out by making a clean cut length-
wise of the stem and removing it.
Fungi.-Fungi are minute plants that live upon the plant food
which they appropriate from other plants. As a rule, in the
garden these troubles are not of a serious nature although they may
appear occasionally. Bean anthracnose, asparagus rust, potato
blight, and leaf spot of the tomato are somewhat common.
Funguous troubles are controlled to a certain extent by the
removal of all dead or dying plants affected with any funguous
disease. The principal means of control is by spraying with
Bordeaux mixture, this practice being a preventive and not a cure.
With most fungi the spray material must be on the leaves and
stems of the plants when the spore (seed) alights, in order to
prevent the spore from developing and penetrating the plant
tissues. After the spore has once germinated and the mycelium
or root-like parts of the fungus have entered the leaf tissues, they
cannot be completely eradicated since the spray material does
not pass into the interior of the leaf. However, in some cases
spraying aids somewhat by destroying that portion of the growth
on the exterior of the leaf. *
Bordeaux mixture is a sky blue solution prepared by using
one pound of copper sulphate, one pound of good stone (unslaked)
lime and twelve gallons of water. The lime is slaked and dissolved
in six gallons of water. The copper sulphate is also dissolved in
six gallons of water in a separate vessel. The two solutions are
then thoroughly agitated and poured simultaneously into a third
vessel and the combination thus formed is Bordeaux mixture.”
CANNING VEGETABLES"
“Not only from the standpoint of economy but also from the
standpoint of health should vegetables and fruit be put up for
*By emphasizing the canning and drying of vegetables, as well as growing them,
the project is Gardening and Canning.
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin 55.
202 HoME GARDEN
winter use. The mineral salts and acids found in them together
with the bulk they supply are essential to the well being of the
system. They supply necessary building material, assist in keep-
ing the blood in good condition and in regulating body processes.
“Fruit and succulent vegetables every day in the year” should be
the slogan of every housewife. As much as possible of this mater-
ial should be grown in the garden plot and canned at home.
To Avoid Canning Failures.—If canning is to be successful
two things are essential:
1. The can and contents must be sterilized. 4.
2. The can must be hermetically sealed to prevent entrance
of germs after sterilization.
In the open kettle method of canning, ordinarily used, the
sterilization presents the greatest difficulty. Cans having hot
or even boiling water poured into them are not necessarily steril-
ized. In putting the material into the can there is a possibility
that it becomes contaminated by the air in the room. If any air
bubbles are allowed to remain in the can the germs in them may
cause trouble. The spoon and other utensils used to put the ma-
terial from the kettle into the can may introduce germs. These
are some of the reasons that cans of fruit and vegetables put up
in the ordinary way ferment and spoil. Occasionally the trouble
is caused by using cans that are not air tight. As the contents
of the can cools contraction takes place and unless the top is
tight the germ-laden air will be drawn into the cans and may
cause spoiling. Testing cans takes a little time but it more than
pays in the long run. To test cans: Fill partially with water,
put on rubber, tighten cover, and invert for several minutes.
If the can leaks it can usually be remedied by changing tops or
adjusting rubbers. New rubbers of the best quality obtainable
should always be used. It is far cheaper to buy a dozen rubbers
than to have one can spoil.
Acids and canning compounds are sometimes used by people
to insure the keeping of products. The use of such things by
canning factories is prohibited by law, because they are detriment-
al to health. Their use by individuals is equally as dangerous
and at all times unnecessary and inexcusable.
The Cold Pack Process.-Failures in canning may be reduced to
a minimum by using the cold-pack process. In brief, it consists
of preparing the material, packing it in clean cans, covering it
with syrup or brine and sterilizing the can and contents at the
same time. Detailed directions for this are given later. If this
HoME GARDEN 203
method is followed and care taken to use new rubbers, test the cans
before filling, regulate the time for sterilizing correctly, no spoil-
ing will be found. Some fruits and vegetables shrink leaving a
Space in the can. This need cause no alarm as the air in the can
is sterilized and will do no damage.
Advantages of the Cold-Pack Way.—1. Fewer spoiled cans.
Can and contents are sterilized together and no germs are intro-
duced afterwards. r
2 Better flavor. Can is closed during sterilizing thus pre-
venting the escape of flavoring substances.
3. More pleasing appearance. Material is not handled so
much. - i
4. Less time and labor expended. One handling takes the
place of two and the tedious part of the work is at the beginning
rather than at the end. &
Cold-Pack Canning Outfits.—There are on the market many
commercial canning outfits of various sizes ranging in price from
ten dollars up. Each outfit has something to recommend it:
some may be used outdoors, some allow a large number of cans
to be sterilized at once, some permit sterilizing under pressure,
Some may be used for cooking as well as canning. If a commercial
outfit can be afforded the one which most nearly meets the indi-
vidual needs should be selected and directions accompanying
outfit followed.
Equally as satisfactory results will be obtained by using a
home-made outfit as by using a commercial canner. A home-
made outfit consists of L
1. A vessel with a tight fitting cover deep enough to allow
the cans to be completely immersed in water.
2. A false bottom or rack, which prevents the cans from
resting directly on the bottom and permits free circulation of
water about the cans.
A wash boiler, lard can, bucket or galvanized pail may be
used. Slats held together by cross pieces or some similar device
made to fit the vessel should be used as a false bottom. Heavy
wire handles may be attached to the ends of the rack so that the
cans may be lifted out at one time. A wire hook is a great help
in taking out those cans having a wire bale. A wire potato
masher may be used to take out other cans. As a rule it is well
not to allow the cans to cool in the water as this may result in
OVer cooking. Hot cans should not be placed in a draft when
cooling or they are liable to crack. •
204 Home, GARDEN
A steamer or fireless cooker may be used for sterilizing as
well as the oven. In the latter instance the cans must stand in
a pan of water or on a sheet of asbestos to avoid being cracked
by the heat. In these cases experience will soon determine the
time necessary for sterilizing.
Kinds of Cans.—Any tin or glass can which can be sealed air
tight may be used successfully. For home use glass is decidedly
preferable. Cans having metal tops are harder to keep clean
and are more likely to corrode than the all glass jar.”
“Steps in Cold Pack Method of Canning.—By this method any-
one can can any vegetable or fruit grown in his garden or orchard.
1. Select a sound product. Wash thoroughly.
2. Have a pan or pail of boiling water.
3. Place vegetables in cheese cloth, dripping basket or col-
ander. -
4. Place in boiling water (after water reaches boiling point)
and blanch according to time take given later.
5. Blanching eliminates (a) objectionable acids and acid
flavors. (A vegetable may look good but have an acid flavor.
This is removed by this process). (b) During this blanching a
certain amount of shrinkage takes place and the can will be fuller
at the end of the processing.
6. Remove vegetables from hot water.
7. Plunge at once into cold water. This hardens the pulp
and also checks the flow of coloring matter. -
8. Have cans thoroughly clean but not sterilized, because can
and contents are sterilized at the same time.
9. Pack vegetables into can, leaving about 94 inch at top
of can. -
10. To each quart can add one level teaspoon of salt for
flavoring and boiling water to fill the can within 94 inch of top.
11. Place rubber (always a new one) and lid. If a screw top
is used, use the little finger and thumb tightening. If a bale jar,
snap the bale only. When the contents of the jar heats steam
forms and if the tops are too tight there is danger of the cans
breaking. t
12. Place filled cans on rack in wash boiler, lard can or pail.
Cover with hot water. Have the water come an inch above the
top of the cans. There will be some evaporation of water during
the processing. The water should at no time be allowed below
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin 54.
HOME GARDEN 205
the rubber. The cans are not tightly sealed and air would enter.
After the water reaches the boiling point, process according to time
table given later.
13. Remove cans from water at end of processing, tighten
the lid, invert to test for leakage. Be careful not to let the can
cool in a draft. The heat on the inside is so intense, the room
temperature so much lower, they are easily broken.”
RECIPES!
“Tomatoes.—Select ripe tomatoes, scald to loosen skins, plunge
in cold water, remove skins, pack, add tomato juice rather than
water, one level teaspoonful salt to quart, place rubber and put
top on loosely. Sterilize 22 minutes in boiling water. Remove
jars, tighten covers and invert to cool.
Peas, Beams, Okra.—Blanch 5 to 10 minutes in boiling water,
plunge in cold water. Pack, adding boiling water, and one level
teaspoon salt to quart. Place rubber, put top on loosely, sterilize
2 hours in boiling water. Remove jars, tighten covers and in-
vert to cool.
Sweet Corn.—Can as soon after picking as possible. Husk
and remove silks. Blanch 5 to 15 minutes. Plunge in cold
water. Cut from cob. Fill can. Pack as closely as possible
by shaking the can, leaving 9% inch of space at top. Add boiling
water to cover corn.
Add one teaspoon salt to quart. Place rubber, put top on
loosely. Sterilize 3 hours in boiling water. Remove jars, tighten
covers and invert to cool.
Greens.—(Spinach, Dandelion, Mustard, Beet tops, Swiss
Chard, etc.) Blanch by steaming 15 to 20 minutes. Plunge in
cold water. Cut and pack. Add 1 teaspoon salt to quart. Place
rubber, put top on loosely. Sterlize 1.9% hours in boiling water.
Remove jars, tighten covers and invert to cool.
Blackberries.—Can fresh sound berries same day as picked.
Place in colander. Pour water over to cleanse. Pack in contani-
er without crushing. Pour over medium thin syrup. Place
rubber, put top on loosely. Sterilize 16 minutes in boiling water.
Remove jars, tighten tops and invert to cool.
Windfall Apples.—Remove blemishes. Cut out cores. Blanch
for two minutes. Plunge in cold water. Pack in jars. Add
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin 55.
206 - - HOME GARDEN
very thin syrup. Place rubber and top on loosely. Sterilize 20
minutes in boiling water. Remove jars, tighten covers and in-
vert to cool.”
TIME TABLE
- Process in
Scald or blanch hot water bath
Asparagus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 minutes. . . . . . . 60 minutes
Beans (Lima and string). . . . . 5 minutes . . . . . . . . . . 90 minutes
Beets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 minutes. . . . . . . . . . 90 minutes
Corn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–15 minutes . . . . . . . 180 minutes
Tomatoes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 to 2 minutes . . . . . 22 minutes
Spinach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 minutes . . . . . . . 60 minutes
Other greens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 minutes . . . . . . . 90 minutes
Rhubarb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–3 minutes . . . . . . . . 15 minutes
Cauliflower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 minutes . . . . . . . . . . 60 minutes
DRYING FRUITs AND VEGETABLES"
“The preservation of fruit and vegetables by drying is almost
a lost art with the present generation. Because of the increased
production of food, the scarcity and high prices of cans, many
housewives will find it necessary to dry fruits and vegetables, in
order to conserve them.
Great care must be exercised in selecting fruits and vegetables
that are firm, ripe, and free from blemish. Care must be taken,
too, in the drying and storing. a
Fruits and vegetables contain a large percentage of water. By
reducing the natural water content below the minimum required
for the growth of micro-organism, even though other conditions
remain favorable to their growth, the product if properly dried
and stored can be kept indefinitely.
WAYS OF DRYING
There are three ways of home drying. Perhaps the oldest one
used by the housewife was that of drying in the sun. This was
a long drawn out process, therefore there was danger of the fruit
or vegetable souring. Then, too, the task of protecting these
from the dust and flies, as well as the time and labor in putting
them out in the sun and bringing them in at night was not a minor
OIlé. - -
Drying in the oven has proven a very staisfactory method.
A
1 Purdue Extension Leaflet 75.
HoME GARDEN - 207
Only small amounts can be dried, and care must be taken to keep
the heat low and even, and to stir often to insure even drying.
The third method is that of drying by means of a drier, either
Over hot water, or over the dry heat on the top of the stove.
DIRECTIONS FOR DRYING
Cherries.—Select firm ripe cherries. Wash thoroughly, seed
and drain. If drying in the oven, place clean, glazed unprinted
paper in the bottom of the pans to avoid sticking and discolora-
tion. Place in slow oven, stir occasionally to insure even drying.
When practically dry, a very little sugar sprinkled over the fruit
improves the flavor. When thoroughly dry, cool, air and store
in either sheer cloth bags protected from the dust and flies, or in
clean paper bags. Hang in dry place.
Apples.—Select ripe apples. Wash thoroughly, pare, remove
core and blemishes. Cut into quarters or pieces depending on
the size of the apple. Place in oven or drier, turn frequently
until thoroughly dry. Remove, cool, air and store in clean sheer
cloth bag protected from dust and flies, or clean paper bags.
Hang in dry place.
A pricots and Peaches.—Select firm, ripe fruit. Wash thorough-
ly, peel if desired, remove seed and proceed as with other fruit.
Peas.-Select fresh green peas, shell and blanch in boiling
water for 15 minutes. Cold dip. Dry in oven or drier until
thoroughly dry. Cool, air and store in clean paper bags. Hang
in dry place. - -
Beans.—Green beans old enough to partially hull are the best.
Select fresh, firm beans. String and cut as for table use. Blanch
by placing in boiling water 15 minutes. Cold dip, drain thorough-
ly, place in oven or drier, turn or stir often to insure even drying.
When thoroughly dry, cool, air and store in clean paper bags.
Hang in a dry place. Lima or navy beans are ripened on the plant,
then hulled and stored in a dry place.
Corm.—Sweet corn may be most satisfactorily dried. Women
who have had a great deal of experience in drying differ as to
preparation of corn.
Sometimes the corn is not blanched. Well filled corn, roasting
ear stage, is selected. The grains are cut quite close to the cob,
then the cob may be scraped. The corn is then placed in the drier
and dried as were the other fruits and vegetables.
Another method of drying corn is that of blanching long enough
208 HOME GARDEN
to cook the milk, afterward dipping in cold water. Cut from the
cob and dry thoroughly either in oven or drier. Cool, air, and
store in clean paper bag. Hang in a dry place.
Seasonings.-Celery leaves, parsley, sage, thyme, etc., can be
easily dried in the sun or oven and make good flavorings for
soups, meats, etc.
Pumpkin.—Sometimes it is necessary to dry pumpkin in order
to preserve it. This can be done by cutting the pumpkin in
halves, scraping and removing the seeds, placing in a slow oven,
and drying. When practically dry remove pulp by means of a
spoon, place in a pan, and finish drying.
Another method is that of cutting the pumpkin in sections,
removing the skin and seeds, cut into pieces, place in an iron pot
without water, stir occasionally to keep from sticking. When
practically dry place in a pan in a slow oven and finish drying.
When thoroughly dry, cool, air and store in clean paper bag.
Hang in dry place.
SUMMARY
1. With just a little labor many fruits and vegetables that
would otherwise be wasted, can be dried and thus conserved for
winter use. -
2. Select fresh mature products, cleanse thoroughly.
3. Protect from dust and flies during drying period.
4. Dry slowly but thoroughly, either in stove oven, sun or
in a drier.
5. When dry, cool and air. Store in clean thin cloth bags,
protected from the dust and flies, or in clean paper bags. Always
hang in a dry place.
6. Remember that dried fruit and vegetables are dry because
the water content has been removed. This water must be re-
placed before using, therefore place the dried product in tepid
water and soak until plumped. Cook slowly in the same water
in which they were soaked in order to retain all food nutrients.’’
STORING VEGETABLES"
“It is important that fruit and vegetables be stored or pre-
served during the summer or fall when the prices are lowest.
This is accomplished by storage in cellars or in pits and by canning.
Sweet corn can be cut from the cob and dried in the sun. This
dried corn can be put into sacks and suspended in a dry place.
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin 55.
Hom E GARDEN 209
Pit storage consists of excavating a shallow pit and putting a
thin layer of straw on the ground. The vegetables can be piled in
a heap and when the pile is complete it should be covered with a
layer of straw or clean dry leaves, which can be held in place by
Some boards. The vegetables should be allowed to cool for a
week or so before the dirt is put on and some sort of a cover should
be put over the pile to prevent rain from injuring the vegetables.
As the weather grows colder some dirt is shoveled onto the straw
covering and this is continued from time to time until the layer
of dirt is sufficient to protect against the severe freezes.
Care should be used to store only vegetables which are mature
and free from decay and which have been handled carefully.
Turnips, potatoes, winter cabbage, carrots and parsnips are
satisfactory for pit storage.”
REFERENCES.
Vegetable Growing—J. G. Boyle, Lea and Febiger.
Productive Vegetable Growing—Lloyd, Lippincott.
Diseases of Economic Plants—Stevens and Hall, Macmillan.
Injurious Insects—O’Kane, Macmillan.
Vegetable Gardening—Green, Webb Publishing Company.
Vegetable Gardening—Watts, Orange Judd Company.
Purdue University Publications.
Extension Bulletin 54—Helps on Gardening and Canning.
Experiment Station Bulletin 171—The Vegetable Garden.
Extension Bulletin 55—Canning by the Cold Pack Process.
Extension Bulletin 18—Tomato Production.
Experiment Station Bulletin 165—Tomato Investigations.
Extension Bulletin 20–Potato Production.
Experiment Station Circular 57—Commercial Onion Growing.
Extension Leaflet 75—Home Drying of Vegetables and Fruits.
U. S. Department of Agriculture Publications:
Farmers’ Bulletin 61—Asparagus Culture.
Farmers' Bulletin 157—Propagation of Plants.
Farmers’ Bulletin 220–Tomatoes.
Farmers' Bulletin. 231—Spraying for Cucumber and Melon Diseases.
Farmers’ Bulletin 232—Okra—Its Culture and Uses.
Farmers’Bulletin 255—Home Vegetable Garden.
Farmers’ Bulletin 254—Cucumbers.
Farmers’ Bulletin 282—Celery.
Farmers’ Bulletin 289—Beans.
Farmers’ Bulletin 324—Sweet Potatoes.
Farmers’ Bulletin 354—Onion Culture.
Farmers' Bulletin 359–Canning Vegetables in the Home.
Farmers' Bulletin 407—Potato as Truck Crop.
Farmers’ Bulletin 533—Good Seed Potatoes and How to Produce Them.
4583—14
210 HoME GARDEN
Farmers’ Bulletin 647—Home Garden in the South.
Farmers' Bulletin 818—The Small Vegetable Garden.
Farmers' Bulletin 660—Weeds; How to Control Them.
Farmers' Bulletin 839—Home Canning by the One-Period Cold-Pack
Method.
Farmers’ Bulletin 841—Drying Fruits and Vegetables in the Home.
Fruit Growing”
I. What the pupil should know.
A. Kinds of fruits.
1. Pome Fruits.
a. Apples—varieties.
b. Pear.
c. Quince.
2. Stone Fruits.
a. Plum.
b. Cherry.
c. Peach.
d. Apricot.
3. Grapes.
4. Small fruits.
a. Strawberry.
b. Currant.
c. Gooseberry.
d. Raspberry.
e. Blackberry.
f. Dewberry.
g. Cranberry.
h. Mulberry.
i. Persimmon.
B. Location of orchard.
1. Accessibility.
2. Soil.
3. Landscape gardening–relation to.
C. How to start the orchard.
1. Plan for setting trees.
2. Varieties to select.
3. How to set the trees.
4. Condition of the soil.
D. Soil management.
1. Clean culture.
2. Cover crop method.
3. Cover crops.
E. Pruning.
1. Tools.
2. How make the cuts.
3. Time for pruning.
F. Spraying.
1. Equipment.
2. Spray schedules for different fruits.
3. Spray materials.
*This one project may be divided into several, as, for example: Apple growing,
Strawberry growing, small fruit growing.
(211)
212
FRUIT GROWING
G. Injurious insects.
Codling moth.
San Jose Scale.
Aphis.
Curculio.
Bud moth.
Canker worm.
Tent-caterpillar.
Apple maggot or railroad worm.
Borers—flat-headed and the round-headed.
Shot-hole or pin borer.
Pear Psylla.
Leaf Blister Mite.
The Pear'Slug.
Peach tree borer.
The plum curculio.
The cherry aphis.
H. Diseases of fruit trees.
I.
J.
1
1.
Scab.
Rust.
Blotch.
Cankers.
Sooty Blotch and Fly Speck.
Fire blight.
Brown rot.
Peach scab.
Leaf curl.
Black-knot.
Harvesting Fruit.
1. When and how to pick.
2. How to store.
3. How to pack.
4. When and how to market.
Preservation of fruit.
1. How to can.
2. How to dry.
K. How to renovate an old orchard.
L. How to keep records of all items of cost and income.
II. What the pupil should do.
A.
If the object of the project chosen is to learn to manage a home
Orchard, then the pupil should study all of the above
topics as the regular school work in agriculture.
family should have for home use a supply of pome, stone,
If the object of the fruit growing project
is to learn to manage a commercial orchard, then the
fruit or fruits to be grown for commercial purposes should
©
B. All of the field laboratory work in connection with the project
should be done by the pupil at his home.
chard, or at least a part of it, should be operated by the
pupil.
and small fruits.
be selected and given special attention.
The home or-
FRUIT GROWING 213
POINTS OF INFORMATION.
THE HOME ORCHARD."
“The distinction between a home orchard and commercial
orchard is really based on the purpose for which the orchard is
maintained rather than on its size. An orchard of ten acres may
be a home orchard, and one of two acres may be a commercial
orchard, depending on the varieties, the management and the
disposition of the crop. In general, we mean by a home orchard
one which contains from ten to fifty varieties of apples, from
one to twenty-five trees of a kind, ripening during a long season.
The crop from such an orchard or such part of it as is not wasted,
is consumed at home; some of it is usually made into cider, vinegar,
and apple butter.
The home orchard containing not only apples but other fruits
as well, should find a place on most farms. It has been the observa-
tion of the writers that the use of fruit in the farmer's family is
greatly reduced unless the supply is grown at home.
Most home orchards are neglected. The owner is usually not
an expert fruit grower and is not prepared to harvest, grade and
market his crop in accordance with the requirements of a high
class trade. He is prevented from doing so by lack of equipment,
lack of skill, and lack of interest. In seasons of abundant produc-
tion, he has considerable fruit but in such seasons the local market
is abundantly supplied during the early part of the season and
prices are low. Fruit from such orchards is seldom grown and
harvested well enough so that it can be kept until the early season
glut has passed. In seasons of light production such orchards
have little or no crop.
The aggregate product of such orchards forms a large propor-
tion of the total crop in the State. It never finds its way to the
general markets and has little real effect on the market situation
after a few freezes have occurred in the fall. It helps to form
the basis of crop forecasts, however, and goes into statistics of
production. Recurringly it is used to point the moral in a reform-
er's discussion of the evils of the marketing system. The evils are
real enough but the reasons why the poorly grown, unprepared for,
unexpected farm orchard apple crop is not marketed to better
advantage, lie in the very conditions under which it is produced,
and not in any specific malpractice of the middleman or other dis-
tributing agent.
1 Purdue Experiment Station Bulletin 194.
214 FRUIT GROWING
Most home orchards would be improved if the number of trees
were reduced by half and these given the care necessary to make
them produce regular crops of first class fruit.
SOIL MANAGEMENT.
The system of soil management must be determined before the
growing season begins, since many items of farm and orchard
management and equipment depend on the plan adopted.
Any system of orchard soil management should have for its
objects the conservation of soil moisture and the maintenance or
increase of soil fertility. These objects may be accomplished either
through a mulch or by means of tillage and cover crops. Either
plan, in order to bring the best results, must be carried out
thoroughly. The choice between the two plans in a given case
will depend on the availability of an abundant supply of cheap
mulch material, the condition of the soil, and on whether or not
the orchard is so rough that cultivation would cause a disastrous
amount of washing.
It is practically impossible to grow sufficient mulch material
in a bearing orchard. What the ground produces must be sup-
plemented with outside material, consisting of straw, strawy
manure, mowings from stubble fields, etc. Where enough mulch
material is provided so that moisture is conserved as well as by
tillage it is questionable if the mulch plan requires any less labor
expense as a management system. Fire risks are greater, certain
insect pests are more difficult to control and the danger of injury
from mice is increased. In many orchards bad washes are likely
to develop in a very short time wherever the sod is cut through by
wagon wheels. If well mulched, the condition of the ground is
such during the spring spraying seasons that heavy outfits can be
hauled more easily. Considerable advantage is claimed by many
growers also because the apples which fall are not bruised nor
made dirty, and hence command a higher price. The mulch may
be applied whenever time permits and the ground beneath the trees
should be mulched heavily enough so that grass is killed. The
mulch should be kept a couple of feet away from the trunks of the
trees. In many orchards an application of five pounds of nitrate
of soda per tree per year is profitable where the mulch is some-
what deficient in quantity. In localities where there is no surplus
of straw or where eight to ten tons of strawy manure per acre
FRUIT GROWING 215
cannot be obtained it is difficult to follow the mulch system ef-
fectively.
Gullies and washes in orchards which it is proposed to mulch,
should be filled and plowed in smooth and seeded to oats, timothy
and orchard grass so that a sod may be formed as soon as possible.
Clean Culture, Cover Crop Method.—This method involves
the plowing or discing of the orchard every spring and cultivating
it like a corn field until time to sow the cover crop, which will re-
main on the ground throughout the winter and be plowed or
disced under in the spring.
This system is adapted to orchards that are level enough to be
free from danger of washing. If the orchard is slightly rolling, the
plowing should be done with the contour of the hills. Avoid plow-
ing with the slope on account of danger of washing.
Many orchards which are starved and set in a poor, weedy
piece of soil can be improved by shallow plowing (not more than
four inches deep) and then working the ground with a disc or
spring-tooth harrow until time to put in the cover crop.
This method may be followed with profit also, where the fer-
tility of the soil has not been seriously depleted. The tillage
method may be chosen because sufficient mulching material may
not be available, or becuase it can be followed more economically
than can the mulch system.
The plowing is done in the spring as soon as the condition of
the ground will permit. If the soil is very poor and the trees stunt-
ed, a limited amount of barnyard manure may be thoroughly
worked into this top soil with a disc immediately after plowing.
If the soil is in very fair condition, however, it would be advisable
to defer the application of manure until the second season, because
the first pruning and cultivation will stimulate the trees and too
much manure added the first season to healthy trees in a fairly
good soil might over stimulate them and make them more sus-
ceptible to blight and winter injury.
The cultivation of the orchard, following plowing, would con-
sist of discing or harrowing with the spring-tooth every week or
two to maintain a dust mulch, which will conserve the moisture and
aid in making plant food available, the same as such work in a corn
field would do. This work will aid in controlling certain injurious
insects, and as the original sod decomposes, the organic matter is
incorporated with the soil, thus improving its physical condition
and increasing its capacity for holding moisture.
216 FRUIT GROWING
A cover crop is sown in the orchard which is allowed to re-
main through the winter months. This is broken up in the spring
again and cultivation continued as described.
Care must be taken to prevent ridges from forming along the
tree rows. Discing and harrowing crossways will keep these fairly
level.
Cover Crops.-The purpose of the cover crop is to hold the
soil in the winter months, to take up available plant food and pre-
vent leaching and to add organic matter to the soil when turned
under. Many crops have been used for this purpose but in most
renovation work, rye has been the most satisfactory, because it is
adapted to a wide variety of soils; it can be planted late in the
season, if necessary; the seed cost is low, and it remains green
throughout the winter season.
Buckwheat is sometimes used and is very satisfactory but the
expense of putting it in is considerably more than that of rye and
it does not live through the winter.
Cowpeas do well if planted in June and have the ability to add
nitrogen to the soil but the seed is expensive and the first freeze
kills the plants.
Soybeans are more bushy than cowpeas but do not grow well in
the shade. Both soybeans and cowpeas do best on a fairly good
Soil but are susceptible to weather conditions.
German millet is sometimes used and, like buckwheat, can
make a vigorous growth in a few weeks but it does not grow well in
the shade made in a mature orchard and if a good growth is made
it is necessary to roll it down at harvesting time. This, however,
is not an undesirable feature with millet or buckwheat, because
they hold the ground firm.”
PRUNING.1
APPLE PRUNING.
“Pruning is an important factor in influencing yield and cost
of production of tree fruits. It influences the bearing habit of the
tree and is essential in controlling some diseases. Although prun-
ing has a direct bearing on the cash returns from orchards, it is
almost ignored by the majority of Indiana farmers. This neglect
is due to the fact that fruit is the money crop on only a small per-
centage of farms, and the pruning involved in fruit production is
the most difficult orchard practice to master. Again, concise
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin 45.
FRUIT GROWING 217
practical information is not easily obtainable. Few definite or
universal pruning rules can be laid down. Principles must be
understood and practical experience is necessary to obtain the
most satisfactory results. Cash returns from the orchard would
be greatly increased if Indiana farmers would give a little study
to fundamental pruning problems. The most common pruning
errors, such as removal of fruit spurs and lower branches could
then be avoided. Such mistakes are doubly costly because they
reduce yield and increase production cost at the same time. Trees
which are properly pruned at regular intervals yield fruit of better
size and bear more regularly than unpruned trees. Often trees
die for lack of intelligent pruning when fire blight or blister canker
attacks them.
Fundamental Considerations.—Among the important considera-
tions in practical pruning are: First, the conservation of fruit
spurs; second, shaping the tree for economical fruit production;
and third, right methods in making cuts. Other important phases
of the subject are treated briefly in this publication.
Conservation of Fruit Spurs.-The man who does not under-
stand the relation of fruit spurs to fruit production or who does
not recognize fruit spurs as the bearing parts of the tree is almost
certain to make mistakes in pruning.
Apples and pears are usually borne only on wood two or more
years old. This bearing wood when observed closely will be found
nearly always to be short crooked little twigs that continue bearing
fruit in alternate years. These small bearing twigs are fruit spurs.
They constitute the machinery of fruit production, and grow
either directly from main limbs or from smaller limbs and branches.
The most productive trees are those with the greatest number of
fruit spurs.
A fruit spur is the indicator of the bearing habits of the tree.
The close examination of a fruit spur will reveal (1) its age; (2)
the number of crops of fruit it has borne; and (3) the production
prospects for the coming season. The age is determined by the
number of annular growth marks or roughened ridges of bark.
The number of crops the spur has produced is indicated by the
number of fruit scars, where stems of the fruit have been removed.
Whether or not the spur is to bear fruit in a given season is deter-
mined by the character of its bud. These buds are, in alternate
years, leaf and fruit buds. The latter usually may be distinguished
from the former by being shorter, “fatter” and more fuzzy. The
218 FRUIT GROWING
more reliable test, however, is examination under a magnifying
glass of a vertical section in which embryo leaf or blossom clusters
may be seen after July or August or during the dormant season.
An individual fruit spur should rarely, if ever, be removed.
Such causes as spur blight, careless harvesting and pruning will
remove many spurs. Limbs or branches bearing fruit spurs must
be removed sometimes but it is better to remove a limb support-
ing a great many fruit spurs than to cut off individual spurs.
The removal of the limb, if rightly done, should relieve crowding
and give opportunity for the remaining branches on the tree to
develop more fully. A great many pruners cut off spurs from the
larger branches and the scaffold limbs of the tree under the er-
roneous impression that they are removing small branches which
will eventually become larger limbs. In pruning a tree, wherever
there is a choice between branches which are to be eliminated, it
is better to leave the branch, other things being equal, which has
the largest number of fruit spurs.
Pruning of Young Trees.—To obtain the most satisfactory
results in shaping a tree it is necessary to begin pruning when it is
transplanted from the nursery row and to prune annually there-
after. If trees are fall planted the initial pruning should be post-
poned until the following spring. All young trees, when trans-
planted to the orchard row, require heavy top pruning. This is to
restore the balance between the branch and root system which has
been disturbed when the great majority of the feeding roots are
inevitably broken as the tree is taken from the nursery. The roots
also should be pruned, not so much with the idea of shortening
them as with the view of removing the rough and injured tips so
that new growth may be made easily. One year trees should be
pruned to a whip two and a half to three feet high, when setting in
the orchard. The second season they should be pruned after the
manner indicated in the following paragraph concerning two
year trees.
The two year tree should be cut back severely at transplanting.
From three to five scaffold branches, which later will form the
frame work of the tree, are allowed to remain. It is usually well
to modify the central leader by cutting it back to a distance of
eight inches from the uppermost scaffold branch and to allow three
or four inches, and more if possible, between the remaining scaf-
fold branches. It is good practice to leave branches which are
well developed and which are arranged in such a way as to give the
tree the proper balance and symmetry. Each of the scaffold
FRUIT GROWING 219
branches allowed to remain should be cut back to about ten inches
in length, leaving from six to eight buds on each branch. The
heading of the young tree is a matter which once done can never
be undone and, therefore, the greatest care should be exercised
in the work. Enough space should be left between these frame
work branches so that no weak forks will menace the mature tree.
Pruning Old Trees.—It is impossible to give general directions
that will be applicable to the pruning of all old trees, since there are
so many variable factors that determine the pruning work which
may be advisable. There are, however, a few general suggestions
which will apply to a majority of the neglected trees in farm orch-
ards. Where trees have not been pruned for a number of years it
is well not to prune too heavily the first year. A safe practice is,
for the first season, to remove all dead wood and the most serious
of interfering branches. A common and serious mistake in renova-
tion pruning is the removal of too much wood at the first pruning.
The second and third year’s pruning of neglected trees should
put the “finishing touches” on the work begun the first year. Less
important cuts such as the removal of branches and limbs, which,
at the initial pruning did not seem to demand immediate attention,
are made now. Judgment, which is derived from experience alone,
will indicate which limbs should be cut out. Generally, the follow-
ing consideration determines the choice in such cases: Every
limb allowed to remain should be healthy and should have a definite
space for its free growth and the development of its branches and
fruit spurs.
The tops of old trees frequently are too high for economical
spraying and harvesting. The removal of tops of such trees is one
of the puzzling problems in renovation pruning. One of the most
common mistakes is simply to cut off the top of the tree without
regard to method. The profitable way is to cut out the upright
branches only at lateral limbs, making the cuts clean, close and in
a line with the lateral limb. The tips of side branches should be
rarely lopped off. If trees or rows are so close that the branches
of one tree interfere with those of another, it is usually a safer
practice to remove every other tree than to make heavy cuts in
each tree.
The matter of shaping the trees is important from the stand-
point of economic management. The tree with its fruiting parts
high above the ground is inefficient. On the other hand, a low,
220 FRUIT GROWING
spreading tree makes for economy of time and labor during the
spraying and harvesting seasons.
The lower trees are, of course, somewhat more difficult to
cultivate, unless an extension head disc is used. In such cases the
horses work between the rows and the discs cultivate well up to
the trunks of the trees. The increase in profit from low trees far
more than offsets the increased cost of cultivation.
How to Make the Cuts.-How to make cuts may best be stated
negatively—never leave a stub. The cuts should be made clean and
close to the parent branch and parallel to it—right through the
“collar” of the limb. Such wounds will heal rapidly because they
are in line with the sap flow where the growth cells can divide—
or where healing can take place. -
Treatment of Wounds.-Wounds under one inch and a half in
diameter usually need no treatment. If the trees are of vigorous
growth such wounds will generally heal in one season. Large
wounds, especially those having their surface exposed horizontally,
should be covered with thick lead paint made from pure white
lead and raw linseed oil. This is not so much to make healing more
rapid, as to protect the surface of the wound from decay until
healed permanently by the growth of callous from the margin.
Time of Year.—The late winter is the best time to do pruning,
the primary purpose of which is to modify the form of the head.
Thus the renovation pruning of a neglected orchard should if
possible be done at this time, also the regular annual pruning of
the young or bearing orchard to remove superflous limbs, correct
the crossing of limbs and relieve the competition between different
branches for the same space. If trees are on rich ground, making
a rapid growth and failing to bear though of bearing age, June
pruning, consisting of a moderate thinning and heading back may,
by checking the too great vigor of the tree, induce it to blossom the
following spring. Summer pruning, however, is a special practice;
it must be studied in relation to the needs of the individual orchard
and in relation to disease conditions, especially pear blight. It
can not be discussed adequately in the limits of this paper.”
GRAPE PRUNING."
“Importance of Pruning.—The grape vine is naturally a great
rambler, climbing to the tops of trees and bearing fruit at a great
distance from the ground. This habit of growth must be radically
changed when the vine is put under cultivation in order to make
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin 68.
FRUIT GROWING 221
vineyard operations easier. Systematic annual pruning is em-
ployed to keep the vines down within limits and is the basis of
successful grape growing. Other primary reasons for pruning
grapes are to prevent overbearing and to increase the size of bunch
and berry.
Manner of Fruit Bearing.—Before grapes can be intelligently
pruned the relation of wood growth to fruit bearing must be clearly
understood. Grapes are borne only on shoots of the current year's
growth arising from buds on canes that grew the previous year. To
Secure annual crops of good size and quality it becomes neces-
sary to limit the number of buds a vine can carry. The stronger
the vine the more buds can be left and individual judgment is
required in deciding upon the amount of bearing surface to leave.
In general, a mature vine can carry about thirty buds which are
best distributed among four or five canes, leaving six or eight buds to
the cane. In selecting these canes, good mature growths of average
size which arise near the trunk of the vine are chosen. Good
pruning consists in removing all wood except that needed to furnish
a sufficient number of canes to bear the desired amount of grapes
and to provide proper means for renewing these bearing canes.
The trunk is the main stem of the vine two or more years old.
An arm is a branch of the trunk two or more years old. A came is
a one-year old branch of an arm or trunk. A spur is a cane cut
back to 1-3 buds from which cane renewals are made. Spurs are
located as near the trunk as possible to prevent the bearing surface
from advancing far out on the trellis. A shoot is a leafy branch of
the current season's growth.
Time of Year for Pruning.—Pruning can be done any time
during the dormant season. Pruning ought never to be done
when the wood is frozen as canes are then too brittle to handle.
After the sap has started to rise in the spring pruning will be
followed by “bleeding” of the wounds which is generally regarded
as weakening to the plant and it is a better practice to do the work
earlier and so avoid such an occurrence. If pruning has not been
done early enough to prevent “bleeding” it is well to defer the
work until after the shoots have started, when danger of excessive
loss of sap in this manner is practically over.
How to Prune.—1. Eliminate all old wood except that which
is necessary to support the fruiting canes. An accumulation of old
wood stunts the vigor of the vine at a sacrifice of quality and
yield.
222 FRUIT GROWING
2. Thin out canes so as to leave the proper amount of bearing
surface.
3. Near the base of each cane and as close to the trunk as
possible provide a renewal spur. Cutting back to a spur in this
location at each annual pruning guards against the accumulation of
too much old wood and keeps the bearing canes near the trunk of
the vine.
The various systems used for training the grapes are too
numerous to discuss each in detail here. Some systems are adapted
to certain varieties and not as well to others. Some have the ad-
vantage of being easy to prune and not requiring tying up of the
shoots in summer. The matter of choosing a system for training
is largely a matter of individual preference. It is most important
to give the vines intelligent pruning regardless of the method used
in training.
A common method for training, using four canes, is known as
the four cane Kniffen system. A two wire trellis is used and the
trunk is allowed to grow to the top wire with a lateral fruiting cane
trained each way, from the trunk on both wires. This system is
easy to prune, distributes the fruit well, and does not require
summer tying. Mature canes arising near the trunk of the vine
that have made a moderate growth are selected. The upper canes
are left a little longer than those on the lower wire, eight or nine
buds being left on the upper ones and about six buds on the lower
canes. Renewal spurs of one to three buds are left near the base
of each cane. After this system is well established annual pruning
merely consists in cutting off entirely the cane which has just
borne and filling its place with the most promising new cane arising
from the renewal spur. Other competing canes are, of course.
taken off, being careful to arrange for future renewals.
A common mistake is to go over the vine, cutting back all
canes to two or three buds. There are two serious disadvantages
to this method. First, the old wood keeps accumulating from year
to year and secondly, a few long fruiting canes give eminently
better satisfaction than many short ones.
Pruning of the Young Vine.—At planting time the top is trained
to a single stem which is cut back to two or three buds. During
the first year the vines can be allowed to grow at random. The
first winter pruning consists in selecting the main stem and
eliminating the others. If the growth has been vigorous it may be
possible to carry up this stem and head it at the second wire. If
any canes have started which can be used to form the arms for the
FRUIT GROWING 223
lower wire they are headed back severely and left. In many cases
the first season's growth is too weak to handle in this way and the
main stem is again cut back to about three buds, in which case
another season is required to get the vine headed at the proper
height. During the second season's growth it is often advisable
to train the main stem to a stake to keep it erect. The arms on
the lower wire should become well established during the second
season, but it may take another year to get them in a similar con-
dition on the upper wire. During the first year's growth the vine
should not be permitted to bear as all the energy is needed for
vegetative growth.
Pruning Neglected Vines.—Frequently vines are found which
have been left unpruned for several years with the result that the
bearing wood is far out on the trellis. In such cases pruning con-
sists in severe thinning out and heading back to leave the proper
amount of bearing wood as near the trunk as possible. It may
take several seasons gradually to work the bearing surface back
to where it belongs. In cases where vines are in a deplorable
condition of neglect it may be advisable to cut them off a little
above the ground, and start over agin to train the vine properly.
Such treatment will, of course, sacrifice the crop for a year and
perhaps longer.
Arbors and Bowers.-With arbors and bowers the primary
purpose is to obtain shade, but by proper pruning crops of good
fruit can also be obtained. The vines should be spaced about
eight feet apart and the trunks carried up as single stems to the
top of the arbor. Arms and renewal spurs are used at the top of
the trunk and the bearing canes renewed from year to year. If
the annual pruning is severe enough grapes of good quality can
be grown in this way.
The Trellis.-The common trellis is made by using posts 6-8
feet long and setting these at regular intervals, usually one post
to every third vine. The end posts require strong bracing. With
the four cane Kniffen system two wires are used, the upper One
about 5% feet above the ground and the lower one 2 feet below
this. The staples are not driven in tight to enable drawing up
the slack in the wires whenever necessary.
Pruning Tools and Equipment.—Pruning is best done with a
pair of light, well made hand shears. The more expensive shears
are usually the cheapest and most satisfactory in the long run.
The canes are tied on the side of the wire toward the prevailing
224 FRUIT GROWING
wind, using No. 18 gauge annealed wire cut in four inch lengths.
Raffia may be substituted for the wire and is especially valuable
for doing summer tying in which case the tie is made loosely to
allow for the growth of the shoot.”
SPRAYING APPLEs.
“All sprays should be applied in a systematic manner. Slipshod
spraying is worse than useless—it does not secure results and wastes
time and material. Adopt a definite spray schedule and live up
to that schedule to the last letter. Thoroughness is an absolute
essential to spraying success. Apply the following materials, at
the times listed, in a thorough manner and a clean crep is as-
sured,
Dormant Spray.—Applied as a sanitary measure and for the
control of scale insects. Material used—concentrated lime-sulphur
diluted to test about 5° Baume. (See Leaflet 48.) Apply any time
from November until the following March—during the dormant
season. NOTE.-This application is both curative and preventive,
so great care should be exercised to cover completely every inch
of the trunk and limbs with spray material. Saving spray material
is false economy as one scale left alive may reinfest the entire
tree.
First Summer Spray.—Applied for control of scab, curculio,
canker worms, etc. Materials used—Concentrated lime-sulphur
diluted to test about 1° Baume and arsenate of lead at the rate of
two pounds of paste or one pound of powder to every 50 gallons of
dilute lime-sulphur. Apply just after the leaf buds burst but be-
fore blossoms open. NotE.—This is the most important spray in
the control of the curculio and scab and should be applied at the
right time and in a careful manner. When the apple aphis is pres–
ent in threatening numbers add 1–3 pint of nicotine sulphate
solution to every 50 gallons of combined lime sulphur and arsenate
of lead spray. Spray the twig ends carefully so as to strike newly
hatched aphids in the young unfolding buds.
Second Summer Spray.—Applied primarily as a control for the
codling moth. Materials used, same as first summer spray. Apply
just after petals fall, before calyx lobes have closed over calyx tube.
NOTE.-This is the most important spray for the control of codling
moth and should be applied just as soon after the petals fall as
possible. Where a large orchard is to be sprayed, it is often better
1 Purdue Extension Leaflet 50.
gº FRUIT GROWING 225
not to wait until all petals have fallen, though spraying in full bloom
is never advised. At this time a maximum amount of poison can
be forced into the calyx tubes. If aphids are still present add
nicotine sulphate solution as was suggested for the first summer
Spray.
Third Summer Spray.—Applied for codling moth, curculio,
lesser apple worm, scab, sooty blotch, frog-eye, rust, apple blotch,
bitter rot, etc. Materials used—Bordeaux mixture (4–6–50) (see
Leaflet No. 39) and arsenate of lead–2 pounds of paste or 1
pound of powder to every 50 gallons of Bordeaux. Apply three to
four weeks after petals fall. NOTE.-Where apple blotch and bitter
rot are not prevalent use same materials as for first summer
Spray.
Fourth Summer Spray.—Applied for late broods of codling
moth, lesser apple worm, curculio, scab, brown-rot, bitter-rot,
rust, sooty-blotch, apple blotch, etc. Material used—same as for
third summer spray. Applied about the first week in July. NoTE.
—This spray is primarily for the fruit and every apple on the tree
should be covered. Proper protection now means less rot at har-
vest time.
Fifth Summer Spray.—Applied for late codling moth, lesser
apple worm, bitter-rot, apple blotch, etc. Material used—same as
for third summer spray. Apply three to four weeks after the fourth
summer spray. NOTE:-This spray is generally necessary only in
commercial orchards in the southern part of the state.
If the orchard is to yield its best, a full complement of sprays
should be applied. When fruit is grown for the trade this is ab–
solutely necessary. For home orchards the latter summer sprays
may be omitted. The first two summer sprays, however, are es-
sential if even fair fruit is expected. Regulate your applications
of spray material by the quality of the fruit which you expect—if
you desire the best, spray as directed; if you will be satisfied with
fruit 50 per cent. Sound, apply only the first two summer sprays.
In the southern half of the state a mid-summer spray of Bordeaux
and lead should also be applied to the home orchard. Always
apply the winter spray in scale infested neighborhoods.”
SPRAY SCHEDULE FOR PLUMS, CHERRIES, GRAPES AND PEARS"
“The plum, cherry and grape are not of great commercial im-
portance in Indiana. They are, however, always found in the
1 Purdue Extension Leaflet 49.
8345—15
226 FRUIT GROWING
backyard or home orchard. Since they are infested with a score
or more of diseases and pests and are seldom sprayed, the yield is
generally greatly curtailed. It is estimated that the average crop
could be doubled by proper spraying.
PLUMs.
Dormant Spray-Applied for the San Jose scale, bladder plum’
black-knot and as a general sanitary measure. Material used—
concentrated lime-sulphur diluted to test about 5° Baume. (See
Leaflet 48.) Apply in late winter but before buds burst. NoTE.—
If black-knot is present all knots should be cut out at the time of
the annual pruning. Also destroy all mummy plums at this time.
First Summer Spray.—Applied for the control of brown rot
and curculio. Materials used—Bordeaux mixture and arsenate
of lead, two pounds of arsenate paste or one pound of powder, to
every 50 gallons of Bordeaux. Apply just after the buds burst.
NOTE.-Use either self-boiled lime-sulphur or a 2-4-50 Bordeaux
in place of the standard Bordeaux for the tender foliage types,
such as the Japanese varieties.
If aphids are present at this time add 34 pint of nicotine-
Sulphate to each 50 gallons of Bordeaux-arsenate of lead mixture.
Second Summer Spray.—Same as first. Apply just after petals
fall.
Third Summer Spray.—Applied for the control of the brown
rot, leaf spot, mildew and curculio. Materials used—same as
first. Apply three to four weeks after petals fall, depending on
weather conditions. Warm moist weather is very conducive to
the rapid development of the rot. NotE.-Thin fruits so that they
will not touch; at least to 3 inches apart. Fruits in contact general-
ly rot in spite of the spray. Pruning, thinning, cultivation and
general sanitary measures must go hand in hand with spraying
if the pests of the plum are to be controlled.
CHERRIES.
Dormant Spray.—Applied only to badly neglected trees as a
repellant for the shot-hole bark beetle. San Jose scale seldom
attacks the sour cherry. Material used—concentrated lime-sul-
phur diluted to test about 5° Baume. Apply in late winter. Take
great care to cover thoroughly the trunk and larger branches.
If the lime-sulphur does not repel the attacks of this pest apply a
coat of thick carbolated whitewash in June and again in August.
FRUIT GROWING 227
Use 1 pint of crude carbolic acid to 10 gallons of the whitewash.
Remove all diseased and insect riddled wood at the time of the
annual pruning and burn it. Cultivate and fertilize the trees which
are only moderately infested with the beetle so that they may
outgrow the attack. Clean healthy trees are seldom infested with
the shot-hole bark beetle.
Second Summer Spray.—Applied for the brown-rot, leaf spot
and curculio. Material used—same as first application. Apply
when cherries are about one-half grown or the size of buck-shot.
NOTE:-This is a most important spray as it prevents to a great
extent the yellowing and dropping of the leaves in mid-summer.
If this trouble is prevalent make a third summer spray soon after
harvest with Bordeaux mixture.
GRAPES
Dormant Spray.—Applied for scale and general sanitary rea-
sons. Material used—concentrated lime-sulphur diluted to test
about 5° Baume. Apply in the late winter after the vines have
been pruned. NOTE.—Spray thoroughly, giving trellis wires and
posts a good coating. Do not use lime-sulphur as a summer spray
for grapes. -
First Summer Spray.—Applied for the control of black-rot and
curculio. Material used—Bordeaux mixture plus two pounds of
arsenate of lead for each 50 gallons. Apply when the shoots are
from 8–16 inches long. NOTE.-Plan to cover every inch of young
growth so as to prevent early infection from black-rot. One
pound of powdered arsenate of lead may be used instead of two
pounds of paste arsenate of lead, in every case.
Second Summer Spray.—Applied for the control of black-rot,
anthracnose, grape-berry moth and curculio. Material used—
same as for first spray and apply just before or as near blossoming
time as possible. NOTE.-Cover all new growth and the clusters
of blossom buds. º
Third Summer Spray.—Applied for the control of black-rot,
anthracnose, mildew, grape-berry moth and curculio. Material
used—same as first application. Apply just as petals fall, when
the fruit is setting. NoTE.—Take great care to cover young fruit
so as to protect it from disease.
Fourth Summer Spray.—Applied for the control of the black-
rot, anthracnose, mildew, grape-berry moth, curculio, leaf-folder,
grape-vine flea beetle and the grape-leaf hopper. Material used—
228 FRUIT GROWING
the same as for the first application with the addition of 94 pint of
nicotine sulphate and two pounds of soap to every 50 gallons of
Bordeaux. Apply from one to two weeks after the third applica-
tion, depending on development of leaf hoppers. NoTE.—Plan to
apply this spray before the first brood nymphs of the leaf hopper
have developed wings. Generally applied during the first two weeks
of July. Direct the spray at the under sides of the leaves for this
is where the leaf-hopper hides. -
Fifth Summer Spray.—Applied for the black-rot, mildew, leaf-
folder and grape-vine flea beetle. Material used—same as for
first spray plus 34 pint nicotine sulphate to each 50 gallons of
Bordeaux. Apply about ten days after the fourth application.
Control of black-rot and the grape leaf hopper depends upon
Sanitation as well as spraying. Keep the vineyard clean-cultivated;
clean the fence rows, ditches, banks, and adjacent roadsides;
sucker vines early; tie vines to trellis wire so that they will not
rest on the ground and destroy all crop refuse and mummied grapes.
Spraying and sanitation go hand in hand in all pest control work.
PEARS
Pears are sprayed at practically the same stages of development
as apples. The dormant spray holds the blister-mite in check as
well as the scale. The first summer spray is applied just as the
buds burst but before the trees bloom. The second summer spray
is made as the petals fall and the third about three weeks after the
petals fall. Dilute lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead are used for
all summer sprays. Where sooty blotch is troublesome, apply a
mid-season spray of Bordeaux.”
BLACKBERRIES AND RASPBERRIES'
“Blackberries and raspberries should be more extensively
planted in this state. They are practically a sure crop. Our
home-grown berries, coming as they do after the bulk of the
Strawberries are off the market, command a ready sale. They are
comparatively easy to care for and there is little actual hand labor
connected with the cultivation. A patch will bear profitably
Seven or eight years without renewal.
They can be successfully grown on almost any well-drained
soil. The canes do not make such a heavy growth on the poorer
1 Purdue Extension Leaflet, 33.
FRUIT GROWING 229
soils and are therefore not so apt to winterkill on such soils, but
the fruit does not attain its maximum size and perfection except
on a deep, rich loam. Land inclined to be wet should be tile drain-
ed. When planting on hill land run the rows at right angles to
the slope of the hill, to prevent washing. Plantings in newly clear-
ed land where leaf mould is abundant do exceedingly well. As a
general rule, the heavier types of soil are better adapted to black-
berries and the lighter loams to raspberries.
PLANTING
Plow the land deeply, turning under barn-yard manure or a
leguminous crop, and work down to a fine pulverized condition
before planting. Where the soil is underlaid by a heavy clay, it
is advisable to use the subsoil plow. Spring planting is to be pre-
ferred, as the plants get a good start, become well established and
are better able to withstand the winter. Plants should be set
three feet apart in rows seven feet apart. Blackberries are often
set in check rows six to eight feet apart each way. Varieties which
do not throw up many suckers may be set 18 inches to two feet
in the row with advantage. Having the land in seed bed condi-
tion, open deep furrows every seven feet to receive the plants.
In setting, be sure to firm the soil well about the roots. A plant
that can easily be pulled up has not been properly planted.
CULTIVATING AND MULCHING
The patch should be plowed in the spring as soon as the
ground is fit to work. About every ten days thereafter, and es-
pecially after every rain, a cultivation should be given, thus
keeping a dust mulch on the surface which will greatly reduce
the evaporation of soil moisture. Such a practice is essential to
the securing of large, perfect berries throughout the season. If
the ground is allowed to become crusted over and bake, the berries
will soon go to nubbins and become dry and tasteless. Deep
cultivation, such as would be given by using a corn cultivator,
is not desired—it should be just deep enough to break the surface
crust. A spike or spring tooth harrow is suitable for this work.
Cultivation should be kept up until after harvesting the crop
when cowpeas, crimson clover or other cover crops may be
planted and allowed to lie over winter. Where wheat straw is
plentiful, mulching can take the place of cultivation. Frequently
cultivation is given until the fruit is nearly ripe and then a mulch
230 FRUIT GROWING
applied. In any case, the plants should be protected by a mulch
or cover crop during the winter.
PRUNING
When the young shoots have reached a height of two feet,
they should be pinched back, causing numerous lateral branches to
push out, making the bush more stocky and self-supporting and
greatly increasing the fruiting wood. As soon as the crop is har-
vested, the old canes should be cut out and burned. This will help
to prevent the spread of anthracnose. In the spring, after any
injury from freezing is past, the new canes can be thinned out,
having in mind the probable crop.
PROPAGATION
The red raspberry and the blackberry are propagated from
suckers. Root sprouts one year old can be readily transplanted.
They may also be propagated by root cuttings. These may be
made in the fall and stored in sand in the cellar or buried outside
in a well-drained spot. Roots no smaller than a lead pencil are
chosen and cut three or four inches long. In the spring these are
planted out. The black raspberry is propagated from stolons. In
the late summer the long canes, touching the ground, can be
covered with a few shovelsful of dirt. They will soon take root
and can be transplanted in the spring.
FERTILIZERs
Barnyard manure where easily procurable is one of the best
of fertilizers. Apply about twenty tons per acre in the fall. In
blackberry and raspberry culture, moisture is more often the
limiting factor than plant food, hence it becomes highly important
to improve the moisture holding capacity of our soil. This is
exactly what manure does, and commercial fertilizers do not do.
Manure adds humus to the soil. Leguminous cover crops add
humus and nitrogen and should be used freely. The following
commercial fertilizer will be found valuable. Apply broadcast
when growth starts in the spring and harrow in:-nitrate of soda,
125 pounds; muriate of potash 125 pounds; acid phosphate, 250
pounds, using the combination at the rate of 500 pounds per acre.
This is merely a suggestion. It is not possible from present data to
make positive fertilizer recommendations for such a large area as
a state or even a county. This is a matter to be solved by each
individual grower.
FRUIT GROWING 23?
DISEASES AND REMEDIES
Anthracnose causes purplish spots on the canes, which soon
change to a grayish white and become slightly sunken. When
the disease is bad these spots become so numerous as to cover large
portions of the cane, causing the bark to scale off and the wood
to crack. Remedy—cut out all diseased canes and all old canes as
soon as the crop is harvested and burn. Spray—1. Before the
leaf buds open with copper sulphate solution, 1 pound copper
sulphate to 25 gallons of water; 2. When the leaves are out and
again two weeks later with 4-6-50 Bordeaux; 3. After the fruit
is harvested with same. -
Orange Rust.—This is easily recognized by orange red pimples
appearing on the under side of leaves. These burst and discharge
spores which spread the disease. The mycelium or root like parts
of the fungus, finds its way to the pith of the cane and even ex
tends below the ground, becoming a perpetual source of infection
to all future growth of the plant. Remedy—It will thus be seen
that it is impossible to reach this disease, so the only thing is to
dig up and burn all affected bushes, as soon as the disease is de-
tected. Bordeaux mixture applied early in the season will tend to
prevent the entrance of the spores into healthy leaves.
Crown Gall.—This disease affects a large number of different
kinds of plants, including most of tree fruits as well as raspberries
and blackberries. In the latter it is characterized by the develop-
ment of rough, knotty growths on the roots, usually at the crown
of the plant just below the surface of the ground. These galls
often involve practically the whole root system and may be several
inches in diameter. The disease is of bacterial origin and there is
no practicable method of control. All affected plants should be
dug out and burned.” -
STRAWBERRIES1
IMPORTANCE TO THE STATE
The strawberry is the most important small fruit crop in Indi-
ana. According to the late census reports there are 5919 acres de-
voted to the cultivation of strawberries, raspberries, blackberries
and dewberries, in this state. Forth-three per cent. of this acreage
or 2574 acres is given over to strawberries. They produce 50 per
cent. of the small fruit crop while occupying but 43 per cent. of the
1 Purdue Experiment Station Bulletin 164.
232 FRUIT GRowING
total acreage, thus being 7 per cent. more productive than the
average of the other small fruits mentioned above. The total
strawberry crop amounts to 3,759,132 quarts or an average of
1456 quarts per acre.
This is a very low yield, indeed so low that the profits would
scarcely be above those often realized from a corn or wheat crop.
Three times 1456 quarts per acre would not be a phenomenal
record for strawberries and no more than wide awake growers raise
every normal season. It is conservative to say that without any
increase in acreage the growers of the State could double their
output of this important small fruit by the judicious selection of
varieties and the use of proper cultural methods.
Soil, AND LOCATION
Strawberries have a wide adaptation to soil and climate and
may be grown on any soil suited to the ordinary farm crops.
New land which has recently been cleared of timber produces
large crops of berries as such land abounds in leaf mould and is
rich in humus. Commercial plantings are generally located on a
light or sandy soil which is mellow and “quick.” Soils of this
nature are chosen on account of their earliness and ease of
cultivation. For special purposes such a soil even though lack-
ing in fertility may be more desirable than a heavier soil of greater
richness.
Varieties vary considerably in their soil requirements, some
being particularly adapted to certain localities and there meeting
with great success, while in neighboring sections these same varieties
are not held in high esteem. There are varieties, however, which
are very cosmopolitan and enjoy wide popularity. These are the
safest varieties from which a prospective grower can choose. The
fact that a variety has given wide satisfaction indicates that it is
possessed of great vitality. -
While strawberries yield profitable crops on soils varying from
sandy, loams to clays, yet there are three important factors which
should be taken into consideration either in selecting or ameliorat-
ing a soil. Most important among these is the retention of moisture.
The soil should have such a moisture capacity that even in times
of dry weather it may be able to furnish sufficient water to mature
a crop of fuit. The soil should be well drained, free from any stand-
ing water, and drain off quickly after a rain to permit of frequent
cultivation. The soil should be rich in plant food, either naturally
FRUIT GROWING 233
or artificially supplied, and in such abundance as to furnish food
for a maximum crop.
Locate the patch on the higher lands so as to avoid injury from
late spring frosts. On clear, cold, still nights in early spring when
there is little air stirring, the warm air being lighter rises, and the
heavier cold air quickly settles to the ravines and valleys. The
result is frost in these low places, and if strawberries are here in
bloom their delicate flower parts will become so chilled as greatly
to impair their vitality if not to kill them outright.
As it is often highly desirable to get berries on the market as
early as possible, especially when a few days difference in time
means a considerable difference in profits, the choice of a slope be-
comes important. Berries will ripen their crop several days earlier
if given a southern exposure where they have the full benefit of
Sun. Likewise if it becomes advantageous to lengthen the season,
Select a northern aspect. The character of the soil also influences
the season of ripening. A light soil warms quickly in the spring
and hastens ripening, whereas a clay soil is heavy and cold and
retards the process.
PREPARATION OF BED
A thorough preparation of the soil before planting will save
much future disappointment. To be short sighted in this respect
is to defeat the purpose in hand, namely, to secure the best possible
returns. The strawberry grower should not be satisfied with giving
his land the ordinary preparation accorded farm crops. Straw-
berries yield large profits and will justify the additional ex-
pense of a thoroughly prepared bed.
If the soil is not already as well drained, moisture retaining, or
as fertile as desirable, we should turn our attention to its modifica-
tion. The drainage may be improved by tiling, but the land which
must be tile drained in order to render it susceptible of cultivation,
is not to be recommended for strawberries. It is advisable,
however, to tile the land for this crop which is not ordinarily wet
but only becomes so in a rainy season, or land which is heavy
and needs mellowing. In this last instance the tiling will improve
the aeration, making the soil more friable by hastening the process
of oxidation and nitrification.
Berries draw heavily upon the soil moisture in the maturing of
a crop of fruit. The soil should therefore be retentive of moisture,
but in no sense wet. It is necessary that a soil be well supplied
with humus in order that it may have a high moisture content and
234 FRUIT GROWING
yet not be wet. Humus is the great reservoir of soil moisture,
holding water much as a sponge. By turning under barnyard
manure or green crops we eventually add humus to the soil. The
improvement of the fertility of the soil is closely allied to the
problem of drainage and moisture. Humus is quite as important
in bettering the one as the other. Humus in the form of decaying
organic matter increases the available plant food in a soil by
stimulating chemical and bacterial action.
In preparing the land, plow moderately deep, if in grass plow
in the fall and plant to some cultivated crop the first year. Sod
land is likely to be infested with white grubs which injure and some-
times destroy strawberry plants by devouring their roots. If the
land is fall plowed, many of the pupae of this insect will be turned
up, exposed to the winter weather and die, and subsequent culti-
vation will destroy the remainder. The land, after plowing and har-
rowing, should be rolled or dragged to settle and pulverize the
soil. It is important to settle and work the land as deep as it is
plowed, otherwise the capillary rise of water from the subsoil
will be retarded and the plants wilt.
POLLINATION
In Setting out a strawberry patch, attention should be given the
matter of pollination. In a staminate strawberry flower there
can be seen projecting from the button-like center a number of
green filaments or pistils. This is the rudimentary strawberry,
which if it is to become a mature strawberry must receive pollen as
an impetus to further growth and development, otherwise it will
wither and die. The stamens surrounding the pistil are erect
whitish filaments bearing on their ends yellow, knob-like organs
called anthers. The anthers bear a fine yellow dust known as
pollen. When a pollen grain falls on a pistil it germinates, send-
ing a slender tube-like growth into the ovule, thus accomplish-
ing fertilization. The wind and insects act as agents in the
transference of pollen from one flower to another.
The strawberry flower that is devoid of stamens, but bears
pistils, is known as a pistillate (P), imperfect (Imp.), or female
flower. A flower of this nature must be fertilized by pollen from
a variety which has both pistils and stamens and is therefore known
as a staminate (S), perfect (Per.), or male variety. While all
pistillate varieties might be discarded and only staminate varieties
propagated, it would not be good policy to do so as many of our
best berries, particularly those classed as late, are pistillate sorts.
FRUIT GROWING 235
They are very prolific if interspersed every third or fourth row
with a staminate variety that blooms about the same time or
slightly earlier.
PLANTING
Planting may be done in the fall and is often successful, but
Spring planting, taking one year with another is less subject tc
failure. Work should be begun in the spring as soon as the ground
is fit. Plants set out early before they begin growth will sustain
less shock in transplanting and make a better start. Plants
received from a distance to be held before transplanting should be
unpacked and heeled in. Select a well drained spot, dig a trench
deep enough to receive the roots, separate the plants, spread the
roots out and firm the soil about them.
There are two systems of planting in vogue, the hill system and
the matted row. In the hill system the plants are set in hills and
cultivated both ways, allowing no runners to develop. The growth
all centers in the original mother plants, causing them to throw out
numerous lateral crowns at their own base. This is an intensive
system and produces more fancy fruit, being well suited to the sup-
plying of a home garden or a special local trade. Varieties which
make few runners such as Cheaspeake or Bubach are to be pre-
ferred for this system as they greatly reduce the labor of cutting
runners. The matted row is the rule among commercial growers.
The plants are set 15 to 24 inches apart in rows three to four
feet apart. • -
Before planting, if the roots are too long, they should be short-
ened in as it is no advantage to have them longer than four or
five inches. It is a well known fact that plants absorb water by
means of their roots and give water up to the air through their
leaves. In a newly set plant which has not yet become established
in the soil the absorbtion of water is very slow, but the loss of
water through the leaves continues. In a dry season, therefore, we
should reduce this loss to a minimum by removing all leaves which
have opened, when we transplant. Ordinarily two leaves are
left. It is important to set the plants at the proper depth. The
stem of the strawberry is very short and if set too deep the terminal
bud will be covered with earth causing it to rot, while if set too
shallow the roots at the surface will dry out. Set the plants so
that the roots are well covered and the crowns are level with
the surface. Press the earth firmly about their roots. Do
not expose the plants unnecessarily to the drying effects of the
wind and sun, but keep them shaded and moist while planting.
236 FRUIT GROWING
SOIL MANAGEMENT
Frequent and shallow tillage the first season is one of the secrets
of successful berry growing. Cultivate often enough to keep a
continuous dust mulch on the surface to conserve the moisture;
this will vary with the soil and season, from twice a week to once
every ten days. Cultivation after a rain is particularly important
as the soil runs together and forms a crust at such times, which
if not broken will soon evaporate more moisture than fell. Tillage
aside from conserving the soil moisture, liberates plant food and
keeps down weeds. Stir the soil close to the plants at first and
when the runners have filled up the space in the row, cultivate a
little farther from the rows each time, allowing the runners to set
until the rows are 14 to 20 inches wide. Then keep the runners
cut, either by hand or by attaching a rolling cutter to the cultivator
Of course some hand hoeing will be necessary to keep the weeds
and surplus runners out of the row. Runners should not set
closer than six inches apart, but with a vigorous plant maker
they will set much closer than this, necessitating their removal.
Blossoms should be kept pinched off as it is desired that the plants
put all their energy into growth this first season.
A mulch of two or three inches of some rather fine material,
such as clean straw or marsh hay should be applied to the patch in
early winter as protection against alternate thawing and freezing.
In covering a considerable area, the manure spreader is a most eco-
nomical way of applying this mulch. It is advisable to leave the
mulch undisturbed during a frosty spring to retard blooming and
thus avoid frost injury. As growth proceeds the straw can be
raised in places where it is too heavy for the plants to push through.
The mulch should be left on during the fruiting season. It con-
serves the moisture and smothers most of the weeds. The few that
come through should be promptly pulled. It is almost impossible
to cultivate during the fruiting season and have your berries free
from grit. With the mulch, however, clean attractive berries can
be produced.
PROPAGATION AND RENEWAL
Strawberries do not come true to seed, that is berries grown
from seed will not resemble their parents in the great majority of
cases. New varieties are therefore originated by planting seed.
Once a desirable variety appears it is thereafter propagated vege-
tatively by means of runners, without any fear of changing any of
its characteristics, as every subsequent plant grown is merely a
FRUIT GROWING 237
cut off or distantly separated portion of the original plant. A bed
intended to grow plants for setting should expend all its energies in
the production of young plants and not be allowed to fruit. In
setting out a new patch it is only these young plants which should
be used. They are recognized by their smaller crown and white
fibrous roots.
In renewing a patch, start as soon as the picking season is over
and mow off the old vines. The mulch can either be raked off
or when the vines get dry, burned off. Burning will destroy many
insects and fungous diseases and will seldom injure the plants if
done on a somewhat windy day when the patch will burn over
quickly. Then by plowing out the old plants in the center of the
rows, strips of younger plants are left to renew the patch. Just
how wide strips to leave will depend upon the age of bed, runner
making ability of variety, as well as upon the season. In an old
bed, or with a shy plant maker, or in a dry season, but few plants
should be plowed out. After plowing, harrow the land both ways
and continue cultivation as for a new patch. A bed may be re-
newed in this manner and fruited for several years, but weeds are
apt to become troublesome after two or three years, hence com-
mercial plantations are seldom fruited more than two seasons.”
VARIETIES OF FRUIT FOR INDIANA PLANTING"
“The following list of varieties of fruit has been compiled for
the benefit of Indiana farmers. The number of recommended
Śorts is relatively small and by no means includes every kind which
will thrive in the state. Only those are listed which in the exper-
ience of the fruit growers of the state, and in the tests made by
the Purdue Experiment Station, have been found most reliable.
The varieties which are recommended for commercial planting
are designated by an asterisk (*).
APPLES
Early.—Early Harvest, Yellow Transparent,” Red Astrachan,
Sweet Bough, Benoni. *
Mid-Season.—Duchess of Oldenburg,” Maiden Blush,” Jef-
feries, Wealthy,” Fall Pippin, McIntosh.
Late.—Wagener, Grimes,” Fameuse, Jonathan,” Delicious,”
Hubbardston, Esopus, Spitzenburg, Stayman Winesap,” York
Imperial,” Rome Beauty,” Winesap, * Northern Spy, Baldwin, R.
I. Greening.
1 Purdue Extension Leaflet 46.
238 - FRUIT GROWING
PEARS
Early.—Tyson, Clapp's Favorite, Bartlett.
Mid-Season.—Anjou, Bosc, LeConte, Vermont Beauty, Seckel.
Late.—Kieffer,” Lawrence, Winter Nelis, Danas Hovey.
Commercial pear growing in Indiana is in its infancy. The
blight (Bacillus amylovorous) has proved serious in many of the
smaller orchards in various parts of the state and its presence has
doubtless been a leading factor in restricting the number of com-
mercial pear orchards. The Kieffer, while of inferior quality, is
resistant (though by no means immune) to blight, and is at present
the leading commercial sort.
QUINCES
Early.—Rea (Rea's Mammoth), Champion,” Meech, Orange.”
PEACHES
Early.—Greensboro (free, white), Admiral Dewey (semi-
cling, yellow), Mountain Rose” (free, white).
Mid-Season.—Carmen (free, yellowish white), Champion (free,
white), Bell of Georgia” (free, white), Elberta” (free, yellow),
Engle (free, yellow), Old Mixon Free (free, white), Fitzgerald
(free, yellow). - -
Late.—Late Crawford (free, white), Smock" (free, yellow),
Salway" (free, yellow).
PLUMS
Early.—Abundance” (large, red, Japanese), Climax (very large,
dark purplish red, Hybrid Japanese), Burbank” (large, dark red,
Japanese). -
Mid-Season.—Lombard* (large, dark purple, European), Reine
Claude” (medium size, yellowish green, European), Monarch (large
purple, European), DeSoto (medium to small, yellowish red, Amer-
ican).
Late.—Golden Drop (large, light golden yellow, European),
Arch Duke” (large, dark purple, European), Shropshire” (small,
purplish black, damson, European), French” (damson, medium
size, bluish black, European).
CHERRIES
Early.—Early Richmond* (medium size, light red).
Mid-Season.—Montmorency” (large, medium red).
FRUIT GROWING . 239
Late.—English Morello (medium size, dark red).
The above are all sour cherries; the sweet sorts are evidently
not well adapted to our soil, for, though the trees grow luxuriantly,
they generally fail to set crops of fruit.
GRAPES
Early.—Brighton (red), Moore's Early (dark blue), Worden”
(dark blue), Diamond (white). - -
Mid-Season.—Delaware (red), Concord” (dark blue), Agawam
(red), Niagara (white), Pocklington (white). •
Late.—Catawba” (red). -
BLACKBERRIES
Early.—Early Harvest, Agawam.* -
Medium to Late.—Eldorado,” Stone's Hardy, Ancient Briton,
Snyder.” - -
- RED RASPBERRIES
Early King, Cuthbert,” Loudon.*
BLACK RASPBERRIES
Early.—Kansas,” Plum Farmer.”
Mid-Season.—Cumberland, * New Stone Fort.
Late.—Gregg. * -
CURRANTs
Wilder,” Red Cross,” Pomona.”
Goos EBERRIES
Downing,” Houghton,” Pearl, Josselyn.*.
STRAWBERRIES
Early.—St. Louis,* (Per.), Gill (Per.), Klondike” (Per.).
Mid-season.—Senator Dunlap.” (Per.), Haverland” (Imp.),
Grand Marie (Per.).
Late.—Black Beauty (Imp.), Chesapeake (Per.), Sample”
(Imp.), Gandy” (Per.),
NOTE.—In selecting, never choose Imperfect sorts alone, but
plant at least one row of Perfect to four of Imperfect.”
240 FRUIT GROWING
REFERENCES
Productive Orcharding—Sears, Lippincott.
Popular Fruit Growing—Green, Webb Publishing Company.
The Principles of Fruit Growing—Bailey, Macmillan.
Insects Injurious to Fruits—Saunders, Lippincott.
Fungous Diseases of Plants—Duggar, Ginn and Company.
Fruit Harvesting—Storing and Marketing, Waugh, Orange Judd Company.
The Pruning Book—Bailey, Macmillan.
The Spraying of Plants—Lodeman, Macmillan.
Purdue University Publications:
Experiment Station Bulletin 194—The Indiana Farm Orchard.
Extension Bulletin 45—Apple Pruning.
Extension Leaflet 46—Varieties of Fruit for Indiana Planting.
Experiment Station Circular 39—Packing Indiana Apples.
Extension Leaflet 37—The Use of Lime-Sulphur.
Extension Leaflet 39–Bordeaux Mixture.
Extension Leaflet 38—Lime-Sulphur Dilution.
Extension Leaflet 63—Fire Blight of Apples and Pears.
Extension Leaflet 68—Grape Pruning.
Extension Leaflet 49—Spray Schedule for Plums, Cherries, Grapes and
Pears.
Extension Leaflet 50—Spray Schedule for Apples.
Extension Leaflet 33–Blackberries and Raspberries.
Extension Leaflet 51—Supplementary Sprays.
Experiment Station Bulletin 164—Strawberries.
Extension Bulletin 55—Home Canning by the Cold Pack Process.
Extension Leaflet 75—Home Drying of Vegetables and Fruits.
U. S. Department of Agriculture Publications:
Farmers' Bulletin 839—Home Canning by the One-Period Cold-Pack
Method.
Farmers' Bulletin 631—Growing Peaches.
Farmers' Bulletin 650—The San Jose Scale and Its Control.
Farmers' Bulletin 722—The Leaf Blister Mite of Pear and Apple.
Farmers' Bulletin 727–Growing Fruit for Home Use in the Great Plains
Area.
Farmers' Bulletin 113—The Apple and How to Grow It.
Farmers' Bulletin 154—The Home Fruit Garden; Preparation and Care.
Farmers' Bulletin 157—The Propagation of Plants.
Farmers' Bulletin 181—Pruning.
Farmers' Bulletin 198—Strawberries.
Farmers' Bulletin 213—Raspberries.
Farmers' Bulletin 440—Spraying Peaches for the Control of Brown-Rot,
Scab, and Curculio.
Farmers' Bulletin 471—Grape Propagation, Pruning and Training.
Farmers' Bulletin 482—The Pear and How to Grow It.
Farmers' Bulletin 492—The More Important Insect and Fungous
Enemies of the Fruit and Foliage of the Apple.
FRUIT GROWING 241
Farmers’ Bulletin 643—Blackberry Culture.
Farmers’ Bulletin 675—The Roundheaded Apple–Tree Borer.
Farmers’ Bulletin 710—Bridge Grafting of Fruit Trees.
Farmers’ Bulletin 723–The oyster-shell scale and the scurfy scale.
Farmers’ Bulletin 776—Growing Cherries East of the Rocky Mountains.
Farmers’ Bulletin 804—Aphids Injurious to Orchard Fruits, Currant,
Gooseberry and Grape.
Farmers’ Bulletin 662—The Apple-Tree Tent Caterpillar.
Farmers’ Bulletin 763—Orchard Barkbeetles and Pinhole Borers, and how
to control them.
8345—16
Landscape Gardening
I. What the pupil should know.
A. How to make the planting plan for dooryard and barnyard, and
School grounds.
Size of the yards.
Kind of soil.
Exposure to sunlight.
Walks and drives.
Location of.
al. Trees.
a2. Shrubs.
a3. Flowers.
a4. Permanent vines.
a5. Annual vines.
6. Adjust planting to contour of ground, architecture of
:
buildings.
B. How to make and maintain the lawn.
1. The soil.
2. Soil improvement.
3. Seeding.
4. Care.
Trees suitable for planting.
Shrubs and Flowers.
Pruning and planting of trees and shrubs.
Diseases and insect pests.
How plants grow.
Propagation of plants.
Windbreaks.
How to keep records of plantings, all items of cost.
II. What the pupil should do.
A. The above and related topics on landscape gardening should be
studied at school.
B. The practical work in connection with the project should be
done by the pupil either at home or at school or at both
places. y
POINTS OF INFORMATION
THE PLANTING PLAN 1
“The first essential in the adornment of a home area is the
formation of a suitable plan. In making this plan the principal
things to be considered are the size of the area, the amount which
1 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 185.
(242)
LANDSCAPE GARDENING 243
the owner feels able to expend for the purpose, the climatic con-
ditions, the soil, the exposure, the peculiarities of the site, and the
style of treatment, whether formal or natural.
Small places, consisting of an acre or less, situated among
others of like dimensions, can only be appropriately improved
in a formal style. On the other hand, large suburban places
or country seats should, in order to maintain unity and
harmony with their surroundings, be treated in the natural
style. It is impossible to develop a forest, a park, or even
a grove on an area less than an acre in extent; and it is
equally impossible to maintain fountains, terraces, sheared
trees, hedges and carpet bedding over an area of several
acres. Hence the two general styles of landscape gardening have
been developed. One of these may be adopted, or both may be
combined to suit the circumstances.
Before a tree or shrub is placed in its permanent location an
outline map of the area to be treated should be made. This
map should locate all existing structures, indicate the direction
in which most pleasing outlooks are to be had, and also the con-
tour of the ground to be beautified. The aim should be to hide
by means of trees and shrubbery all objectionable buildings
or portions of the place, and also to shut from view all unsightly
objects maintained by neighbors; to locate the trees and shrubs
so as to allow an uninterrupted line of vision where the outlook
is pleasing, and to so locate the plantings on large estates as to
afford the greatest protection from winds and undesirable sur-
roundings consistent with good landscape effect.
A variety of trees and shrubs should be used. The plan to
be adopted and the selection of varieties must always depend
more or less on local conditions.
Where trees and shrubs are needed neither as screens nor
windbreaks, their disposition should be such as will afford a
pleasing effect and at the same time preserve as large an area of
unbroken greensward as practicable.”
“There are a few principles of good taste in landscape garden-
ing design which are universal in their application to the condi-
tions of the usual farm home and the usual town lot. For the
Sake of brevity and clearness these are stated as rules:
1. Arrange the planting so that there are large open
Spaces in the center of the yard.
1 Purdue Extension Bulletin. 29.
244 LANDSCAPE GARDENING
2. Plant in masses, rather than using individual shrubs
or flowers.
3. Avoid straight lines in planting.
4. Mass the shrubbery planting about the borders and
foundations.
In addition to these cardinal points the following hints and
suggestions will be found useful. The most beautiful effect
with flowers, especially perennials with a long blooming season,
often may be obtained by using them in borders in front of shrub-
bery. Arrange the flower garden to provide a succession of bloom
from May to September. By using bulbs it is possible to have
flowers in the yard from the middle of February, before snow
goes, till October or November, when the freezes cut off the late
chrysanthemums. Last year the snow-drops bloomed late in
January in Lafayette. Arrange the planting of shrubbery with
the taller growing plants at the back. Grow annuals to furnish
cut flowers for the house out in the vegetable garden where they
can be cultivated easily and where heavy cutting won't spoil
the effect in the yard. See that the premises are neat—that the
fences are in repair and that garbage and refuse doesn’t accumulate
in the back yard any more than in the front yard. Places that
cannot be made neat may be concealed by quick growing annual
vines. Undersirable views may be closed by plantings of shrub-
bery. Use some shrubs for the winter effect of bright bark or
red berries. Use “scale” in planting, i. e., don’t use large coarse
plants which should be seen from a distance in a small yard and
don't confine the planting in a large yard to small close growing
plants. Don’t plant closer than two or three feet from the house
wall. Make a plan to scale on paper and work to it. It is not
necessary to spend much money to succeed. Make the plan
and then do a little every year. Keep the planting simple—
don't try to grow everything in the list at once. In getting shrub-
bery get few kinds and a good deal of a kind; the results will be
better. Make the plan with reference to how it will look from inside
the kitchen and living room as well as to how it will look from the
road. In making the plan the most important feature to be con-
sidered is the dwelling and all plantings should be subordinate
to it. A simple style of home architecture is to be preferred with
wide porches and a floor not too high above the ground. A few
Specimen trees or shrubs of individual beauty may be planted on
the open lawn. For street or highway planting set only one kind
of tree in a row parrallel to the road way.”
LANDSCAPE GARDENING 245
WALKS AND DRIVEs!
“All walks and drives on small lots should be direct. The
planting of trees and shrubs or the placing of fountains and flag
poles in the course of a walk which will cause the traveler to deviate
unduly from his natural course is a common but objectionable
arrangement. On small areas walks and drives should be straight
unless there be good reason, because of the contour of the surface,
for making them curved. In more extensive areas, where the
grouping of shrubs becomes an important factor in the construc-
tion of the place, curved walks and drives are most pleasing and
effective.
THE GREENSWARD
With trees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous bedding plants,
pleasing contrasts can be produced. Each plant or group of
plants has an expression peculiarly its own, and when used with
suitable surroundings the effect is pleasing. While each of these
plants possesses an intrinsic decorative value, this value is en-
hanced in proportion to the perfection of the greensward in
which it is set. Green grass is not only useful as a covering for
the earth, but it is of itself beautiful. A perfect lawn is one of
the rarest possessions of either public or private establishments.
A good lawn demands great skill and judgment in its making
as well as in its maintenance.”
How To MAKE AND MAINTAIN THE LAWN”
“A good soil is at the foundation of all profitable farming.
It is just as essential in making a good lawn. We should re-
member that the farmer rotates his crops and gives his soil
plenty of tillage. Even then he does not expect good results
without plenty of manure and fertilizer. On the other hand the
lawn is cropped continuously without tillage and but little fer-
tilizer. Is it to be wondered at, then, that the lawn is some-
times a failure? Quite often one may see a beautiful house erected
at great expense, then the land surrounding it graded by scraping
the building refuse together and covering it with soil or subsoil
whichever is the handier. Such methods can only lead to failure
and disappointment.
1 U. S. D. A. Farmers’ Bulletin 185,
2 Purdue Extension Leaflet 41.
...sº
246 LANDSCAPE GARDENING
SOIL
It is absolutely essential in making a good lawn that there
be a surface layer of from five to ten inchés of good rich soil.
If such natural soil can be obtained, so much the better; if not,
then one must be made by working in manure and other soil
improvers. Many types of soil can be made into good lawns if
properly handled. It is essential that there be good moisture
holding capacity and an open texture to allow proper drainage
and aeration. If the subsoil is too impervious to allow good
natural drainage, then tile drains should be laid every fifteen or
twenty feet.
SoLL IMPROVEMENT
A soil must be sweet and well supplied with lime to be a good
soil, since blue grass, which should form the bulk of all lawn
grass mixtures, will not do well upon an acid soil, hence if there
is any doubt about this point, ten to fifteen pounds of slaked
lime should be well worked into each ten feet square.
Fresh stable manure should not be used, as it is apt to con-
tain many weed seeds and also because it is too rank in its ac-
tion. Well rotted manure, on the other hand, is mild in its ac-
tion, contains few live seeds and is essential for quick results
upon a soil of poor texture. Such manure should be applied at
the rate of ten to twenty tons to the acre and thoroughly in-
corporated with the soil, thereby furnishing plenty of plant food
and also sufficient organic matter to loosen heavy clays and in-
crease the moisture holding capacity of all types of soil.
An excellent fertilizer for the lasting improvement of the
lawn is bone meal. Another is unleached wood ashes. If a mix-
ture of one part bone and one part sifted unleached wood ashes
is applied at the rate of five to ten pounds per ten feet square,
there will be no need of further fertilization for a number of
years. The bone furnishes phosphoric acid and nitrogen, while
the ashes supply potash and lime. Two to three pounds per ten
feet square of a ready-mixed fertilizer containing one to two per
cent. nitrogen, eight to ten per cent. phosphoric acid and four to
six per cent. potash will also give immediate and lasting results.
Nitrate of soda at the rate of one-fourth pound per ten feet square
is often used as a quick fertilizer to produce a luxuriant growth.
Any of these fertilizers may be used as a top dressing upon an
established lawn. The application should be about one-half
the above recommendations in such cases and care should be
LANDSCAPE GARDENING 247
taken to sow the fertilizer when the grass is dry, or else imme .
diately give the lawn a good sprinkling to prevent any caustic
action.
SEEDING
Except in the case of steep terraces, where it is the best
practice to use sod, it is generally cheaper and more satisfactory
to use seed to start the lawn. The best recleaned seed should
be used as a matter of economy. The cheaper seeds contain
large quantities of noxious weeds, chaff and inert material, and
will not give satisfactory results. At least thirty or forty pounds
per acre of good seed should be used in making a new lawn.
Most writers advise still "heavier seeding. The seed can be more
uniformly distributed by hand if one-half is sown lengthwise and
one-half crosswise of the lawn. The seed should be thoroughly
raked into the finely pulverized surface, then rolled with a hand
roller. -
Grass seed may be sown any time except in winter, but the
spring and fall sowings are preferable, April and September
being usually the best months for Indiana. If the lawn is seeded
in the hot summer months it is necessary to sow about one bushel
per acre of oats with the grass seed, as a nurse crop to shade
the young grass from the sun. The oats in this case should be
clipped with the grass and will die out in the fall, giving the grass
full possession of the ground.
KIND OF SEED
Kentucky blue grass is the best all around grass for ordinary
soils and locations. It is true, however, that it takes a longer
time to establish a lawn with Kentucky blue grass than it does
with some of the quicker growing grasses, and for that reason it is
good practice to use a mixture of grasses for quick results. Mix-
tures are also desirable when there is doubt as to the kind most
suitable for any particular case. Well kept lawns that have been
seeded with a variety of grasses soon adjust themselves so that
the poorer grasses die out and the more desirable ones survive.
Considering all phases of the question, it is better for the amateur
to use a good mixture rather than attempt any one species of grass.
Seedsmen supply lawn mixtures for various purposes which may
be fairly well relied upon.
For sunny locations a standard mixture is often made up
of two parts by weight of Kentucky blue grass and one part of
248 LANDSCAPE GARDENING
red top. One part of meadow fescue may be added to this mix-
ture where quicker growth as well as permanent results are de-
sired. For very quick results the following mixture is recom-
mended: Meadow fescue, seven pounds; perennial rye grass,
ten pounds; timothy, three pounds; red top, eight pounds; and
Kentucky blue grass twelve pounds. Creeping bent grass is
especially suited to lawns and greens where there is much tramp-
ling. White clover is often used with these grasses, forming about
ten per cent. of the whole.
SHADY PLACES
Probably the most difficult places to get grass to grow are
the shaded portions of the yard. In such places the soil is liable
to be impoverished, cold and sour. For this reason such spots
should have a liberal supply of slaked lime or wood ashes well
worked into the surface, the drainage should be well taken care
of, and a liberal application of manure or fertilizer made. Plant
food is particularly needed in large amounts under trees and
shrubs, as in such cases both the trees and grass have to be fed.
Shady nook mixtures of grass seed are sold that will bring
good results if there is not too much shade. Of course there are
some densly shaded places where it is useless to attempt to se-
cure a lawn. Ferns and other shade loving plants can be used
where grass will not grow. Wood meadow grass should be used
in good shady nook lawn seed. As this grass is very high in
price, cheaper and poorer grasses are often used in such mix-
tures. The following mixture should give good results: Ken-
tucky blue grass, fifteen pounds; red top, six pounds; wood
meadow grass, ten pounds; various leaved fescue, nine pounds.
CARE OF THE LAWN
As soon as the grass gets two or three inches high, clipping
should begin. It should never be mowed too closely, or the vi-
tality will be affected, especially in times of drouth. Estab-
lished lawns should be rolled with a heavy roller each spring
as soon as the frost is out and the ground not too soft. This
is a very important factor in the care of lawns and one that is
generally neglected. During the freezing and thawing of win-
ter and spring the grass is lifted out of the ground. The rolling
presses the roots back into the soil and also smooths the sur-
face uniformly.
LANDSCAPE GARDENING 2.49
Weeds in a lawn may be kept down to a large extent by con-
stant mowing. Where mowing does not eradicate them, hand
work is the best remedy on small lawns, and in the case of large
lawns it is best to plow up and after thorough cultivation, re-
seed. Where lawns have been kept well seeded and fertilized
weeds will be kept crowded out by the grass, which will thrive
under the constant mowing. Crab grass is an annual grass often
seen in lawns. As it comes each year from seed it does not show
until midsummer, and then only when there is mositure. For
this reason many people call it “water grass” and think it is
caused by sprinkling. Crab grass should be lifted with a sharp
rake before mowing, then the same treatment that will keep
down other weeds will hold it in check, and it is a mistake not to
use the hose on this account. In fact, in times of drouth it is de-
sirable to soak the lawn thoroughly at intervals of several days.
A light sprinkling every day is worse than useless.
Ants may be driven out of lawns by making several small
holes in the ant hill about twelve inches deep with a stick or rod,
and pouring into each hole about an ounce of carbon bisulphide
and pressing the dirt down tightly with the foot. Carbon bisul-
phide is a very inflammable substance but can be used safely
with proper care. Earth worms in a lawn are a sign of poor
drainage. Thorough tiling will prevent them from working too
freely.
Constant care in fertilizing, re-seeding, mowing, and rolling
will make a lawn better and better the older it becomes. Some
of the best lawns of England are several hundred years old.”
RECOMMENDED LISTS OF TREES, SHRUBS AND FLOWERS FOR
HOME PLANTING!
DECID UOIUS TREES
American Elm—Ulmus Americana.”
A quick growing tree, long lived, prefers deep moist soil and is
easy to transplant.
Sugar Maple—A cer saccharum.
Clean, grows on wet or dry soils. Thin out branches when
young to prevent too dense growth.
Norway Maple—Acre platanoides.*
A round headed tree with brilliant yellow color in autumn.
1 Tree and shrub list prepared by Prof. J. G. Boyle, Purdue University. (See
Purdue Extension Bulletin 29).
250 LANDSCAPE GARDENING
Pin Oak—Quercus palustris.”
For shallow wet soils, grows rapidly, will stand heavy pruning
and is easy to transplant.
Horse Chesnut—Aesculus Hippocastanum.
Has large white flowers in May. Tree is dense and affords
generous shade. Not adapted to wet soils.
Sycamore–Platanus occidentalis.”
Broad spreading open habit. Bark almost white in winter
and of a mottled color in summer.
Tulip—Liriodendron Tulipifera.
A tall magnificient tree of rapid growth. Leaves large and
glossy. Large greenish yellow flowers in spring. Difficult to
transplant. -
European Linden–Tilia Europaea.”
Rapid growing tree, forming dense cool shade. Leaves lightish
green, flowers fragrant in June.
Gingko—Gingko biloba.*
An elegant Japanese tree of rapid growth. Leaves thick,
leathery, and shaped like the Maiden Hair fern.
Sweet Gum—Liquidambar styraciflua.
A fine specimen tree. Branches short and corky and corky-
winged, with lustrous leaves that color to an intense crimson
scarlet in fall.
EvKRGREEN LAWN TREES, SHRUBS AND HEDGE PLANTs
White Pine—Pinus Strobus.
Tall, stately and most beautiful of all our pines. Quick
growing and long lived.
Norway Spruce—Picea excesla.
Rapid grower, hardy and used for many purposes. If planted
too closely it loses its lower limbs. Desirable for background or
windbreak.
Colorado Blue Spruce—Picea pungens var. glauca.
The best blue spruce. Foliage a steel gray. Very hardy
but rather short lived. -
Arborvitae—Thuja occidentalis. -
Used as a screen and hedge plant. Can be pruned to any size
and shape.
LANDSCAPE GARDENING 251
Hemlock Spruce—Tsuga Canadensis.
Grown as a tree or hedge plant. Open, free and drooping in
growth, but very dense when pruned, forming a good hedge.
Mahonia—Mahonia Aquifolium.
Handsome everygreen shrub with shining prickly leaves.
Yellow flowers in May.
DECIDUOUS SHRUBS
N A M E FLOWER
Common Botanical Color Character Height Habit
APRIL– 3.
Japan Quince Pyrus Japonica Red Single 4–6 ft. Dense
Golden Bell Forysthia suspensa Yellow Single 5–8 ft. Weeping
Barberry Berberis Thunbergii Yellow Single 2–4 ft. Dense
Mº bush Exochorda grandiflora White Long plumes 2–8 ft. Open
Red-osier Cornus stolonifera White Small, dense 4–8 ft. Erect.
Silver Bell Halesia tetraptera ..] Whitc 2–3 flowered 5-10 ft. Bushy
Mock orange Philadelphus Coronarius White Small 5–10 ft. Upright
Snowball Viburnum plicatum White Spherical 3-8 ft. Spreading
Barberry Berberis vulgaris Yellow Slender 3–5 ft. Spreading
Spiraea Spiraea prunifolia var. flore pleno | White Double 4–6 ft. Upright
Qurrant Ribes aureum Yellow mall 3-6 ft. Bushy
Weigelia Diervilla florida Pink Few flowered 3–6 ft. Arching
Lilac Syringa vulgaris Purple Large 5-10 ft. Branching
JUNE–
Spiraea Spiraea Wan Houttei White Small, umbels 5–7 ft. Arching
Elder Sambucus Canadensis White Flat, dense 5–12 ft. Shrubby
Yucca Yucca filamentosa White Tall, loose 3-6 ft. Lily-like
Allspice Calycanthus floridus Red Single, large 3-6 ft. Erect
Smoke bush Rhus Cotinus Purple Feathery 4–10 ft. Branching
Hºneysuckle Lonicera Tartarica Pink Small, many 4–10 ft. Spreading
Snowberry Symphoricarpus racemosus Pink Loose 2-6 ft. Spreading
Sumach Rhus glabra Pink Large 6-15 ft. Branching
Spiraea Spiraea Bumalda White Spreading 2–3 ft, Spreading
AUGUST – - *
Tamarisk Tamarix hispida Pink Dense 3-6 ft. Upright
. Althea Hibiscus Syriacus Purple Single 6–12 ft. Branched
Hydrangea Hººge paniculata var. gran- White Large panicle 6–12 ft, Spreading
Oſa
HARDY PERENNIAL CLIMBERs
Boston Ivy—Ampelopsis Veitchii.
Self-supporting. Climbs by means of dish-like tendrils and
clings closely to walls. Used to cover brick or stone walls. Most
useful of all foliage vines.
Virginia Creeper—Ampelopsis quinequefolia.
Desirable for covering rough places, banks and walls where it
can hang down. Must be supported.
Japanese Clematis—Clematis paniculata.
Blooms in August, producing large masses of white flowers.
Must be supported. Excellent for screens and trellises and
draping walls and pillars.
252 LANDSCAPE GARDENING
Wistaria—Wistaria Simensis.
Woody twiner. Flower bluish purple in summer. Desirable
for covering screens and porches. Prune after blooming.
Bitter Sweet—Celastrus scandens.
A beautiful native vine especially attractive for its bright red
and yellow winter fruits; coarse in growth, rather hard to trans-
plant; hardy. -
Trumpet Vine–Tecoma radicans. (Bignonia radicans.)
Native. Large brick red flowers; coarse in growth but
very desirable.
ANNUALS
(Plants which live a single season only.)
Ageratum—(Dwarf blue.) Season early July.
Alyssum–Low, white, blooms all season.
Aster—There are many types and a long list of varieties of
asters, offering great variety of shapes, height, color and season.
Season from late July on. Study the catalog for varieties.
Balsam—About two feet high; wide range of color. Season,
midsummer till frost. Get named varieties.
California Poppy—One to two feet high; yellow. Season,
late July. -
Calliopsis—Two feet high; yellow. Season, July on.
Chinese and Japanese Pinks—One to one and one-half feet
high; variety of colors. Season, June until frost. 4.
Coreopsis—Two feet high; yellow. Season, from July on.
Corn Flower or Bachelor Button—Two to four feet high. Blue,
purple, pink and white. Season, from late July on. Self-seeds
very readily.
Cosmos—Tall, pink and white. Season, September.
Four O’clock—Two to four feet high; various colors. Season,
late July on. Opens toward sundown. -
Marigold—The French Marigold is small in plant and flower.
The African species is large in both. Various shades of yellow.
Season, July on.
Mignonette—About a foot high. Yellowish green. Season,
early July on. Good for borders.
Nasturtium—There are both dwarf and climbing sorts. The
latter is usually preferable if space enough is available. Various
colors, bright yellows and reds predominating. Season, late
June on.
LANDSCAPE GARDENING 253
Pansy—Low, various colors. Season depends on whether
grown from seed or from wintered over plants.
Phloa. Drummondii—One to two feet high; various colors.
Season, early July. Should be grown more.
Salvia—Two to four feet high; bright red. Season, August.
Scabiosa—Two to three feet high; variety of colors. Season
late July on.
Salpiglosis—Two to three feet high. Wide range of colors.
Season, late July on.
Shirley Poppy—Two feet high; very delicate colors, white and
pink. Short season in late July.
Snapdragon—Two to four feet high; various colors. Season
late July till frost.
Sunflower—There are many desirable varieties of the old-
fashioned sunflower which should be better known. Tall to
dwarf; yellow. Season, August and Spetember.
Stocks—About a foot high; variety of colors. Season late
June on.
Sweet Pea—Tall; variety of colors and types of blossom.
Season, mid June on.
Verbena—Low; variety of colors. Season July on.
Zinnia—Two to four feet high; variety of colors. Season,
Carly July on.
BIENNIALS AND PERENNIALS
(Biennials are plants which live but two years. Perennials a,I’e
plants which normally live several years.)
Bleeding Heart—Two to four feet high; pink. Season, May.
Chrysanthemum—Two to four feet high; variety of colors.
Season, October till hard freezing.
Columbine—This group of plants offers a great variety of
flower types and colors. The long spurred hybrids are among the
most beautiful. Two to four feet high. Season, May.
Cone Flower—Six feet high; yellow. Season, August and
September.
Dahlia—Four to six feet high; variety of colors and flower
types. Season, August on. The tuberous roots must be taken up
and kept in the cellar during the winter. Set out in early May.
English Daisy—Low; white and pink. Season, May.
Gaillardia—(Grandiflora)—One to two feet high; red and yel-
low. Season, June on.
254 LANDSCAPE GARDENING
Gladiolus—Two to three feet high; variety of colors. Season,
June on. Plant in early May.
Hollyhocks—Two to seven feet high; variety of colors. Usually
a biennial. Stalks should be broken off when seed is ripe and laid
along row that plants may self-seed. Blooming season, June,
July. -
Iris—There are several desirable species. The German iris
is easiest grown. Dwarf iris and Spanish iris are good for some
situations. Needs rather heavy most soil. Great variety of
colors. Season, May. -
Larkspur—There are a number of species and varieties of
larkspur from dwarf to six feet tall; colors, white and shade of
blue from azure to dark steel blue. Season, late June to August.
Oriental Poppy—Two to four feet high; bright red. Very
large flowers. Rather short season: Blooms in June. -
Peony–Three to four feet high. A great variety of this beau-
tiful group of flowers is now available, including fragment white
and shell pink sorts. Blooms in late May.
Sweet William—One to two feet high. Blooms second year
from seed, readily self seeds. Great variety of colors, mostly
pink and red. Season, June.
It should be understood that the blooming dates, size, etc.,
are only approximate. The season is several weeks earlier in
the southern part of the state than in the northern part. The
size to which the plants will grow is greatly influenced by the
richness of the soil and by the amount of water supplied.
Several good catalogs should be obtained in the winter and
varieties selected from them. *. -”
If it is desired to grow bedding plants such as geraniums,
cannas, coleus, caladium, etc., they may be obtained better from
local florists. If used they should be used in quantities rather
than single specimens. -
Wild cucumber, gourd, Japanese morning glories and climb-
ing nasturtiums are among the most valuable annual climbers.
No attempt has been made to discuss or describe varieties as
any adequate presentation is impossible in small space. Several
important plants and classes of plants have been omitted, among
them roses and bulbs. Spring flowering bulbs, of some of the
better varieties of daffodils, tulips, narcisses, hyacinth, etc.,
should be in every yard. They are set in the fall and bloom in
April.”
LANDSCAPE GARDENING 255
REFERENCES
School and Home Gardens—Meier, Ginn and Company.
Purdue University Publications:
Extension Bulletin 29—Planting the Home Grounds.
Extension Leaflet 41—How to Make and Maintain a Lawn.
U. S. Department of Agriculture Publications.
Farmers' Bulletin 185—Beautifying the Home Grounds.
Farmers' Bulletin 195—Annual Flowering Plants.
Farmers’ Bulletin 788—The Windbreak as a Farm Asset.
Farmers' Bulletin 750—Roses for the Home.
Farmers’ Bulletin 157—The Propagation of Plants.
Farmers' Bulletin 181—Pruning. .
Farmers' Bulletin 494—Lawn Soils and Lawns.
Potato Growing
I. What the pupil should know.
A. Soil to be planted to potatoes.
1. Types.
2. Condition as to drainage.
3. Fertility.
B. Preparation of seed bed.
1. Application of manure.
2. When to plow.
3. Depth to plow.
4. Pulverizing.
5. Use on fertilizer.
C. Planting.
1. Time to plant.
2. Depth to plant.
3. Distance between cows and in rows.
4. Seen.
a. Locality where grown.
b. Sprouting,
c. Cutting. *
d. Amount.
e. Treatment for scab and rhizoctonia (little
potato disease.)
D. Varieties.
1. Early.
2. Late.
E. Cultivation.
4. 1. Method.
2. Depth.
3. Frequency.
4. Number of times.
F. Diseases and pests and methods of control.
G. Hill selection of seed.
H. Storage.
I. How to keep records of all items of cost and income.
II. What the pupil should do.
A. Study the above and related topics at school.
B. Plant and cultivate at home one acre or more of potatoes.
POINTS OF INFORMATION
\
SOILS'
The type of soil considered best for this crop is a deep, mel-
low, free working loam. Clay loam and muck soils usually give
1 The subject matter for this project was prepared by Professor J. G. Boyle,
Purdue University.
(256)
POTATO GROWING 257
good results, although potatoes grown on the latter are not as
good quality as those secured from Sandy loams unless properly
fertilized.
Tile drainage should be resorted to if the water table is less
than three and a half feet from the surface.
Potatoes do especially well on recently cleared timberland,
but are commonly grown after potatoes, corn or clover sod. Un-
der these conditions, fall plowing is usually preferable. The
depth of plowing varies with the soil; it should be eight to twelve
inches if the subsoil is not too near the surface. Sometimes
Spring plowing is necessary and in some cases it will be desir-
able to replow if the soil has run together and packed during
winter.
PREPARATION OF SEED BED
Do not break the land when it is too wet. Test the soil by
taking a handful from the surface and closing the fingers tightly
On it. If the compacted earth is dry enough for plowing it will
fall apart upon opening the hand. Plow the land eight to ten
inches deep if the subsoil is not too near the surface. Not more
than one inch of raw subsoil should be turned up in one season.
If the land is to be spaded by hand, the depth should be governed
as just given and care taken to turn the earth bottom side up.
Immediately after plowing or spading the land, pulverize
it thoroughly in order to prevent the freshly turned soil from
forming clods and losing a considerable part of its moisture by
baking in the sun and wind. Where the land is spaded, pulverize
the soil with the spading fork as much as possible as the work is
being done and complete the preparation by raking thoroughly
with a steel garden rake. If horse tools are used, disc the land
after plowing, then use the spring tooth harrow and finish with a
smoothing harrow.
Land to be used for growing potatoes is fertilized by applica-
tions of commercial fertilizer and well rotted barn yard manure.
The manure is applied at the rate of about 20 to 30 tons per acre
and preferably to the crop which precedes the potato because
freshly applied manure increases the amount of scab present.
On poor land, however, it may be advisable to apply and work into
the soil a top dressing of well rotted manure after the land has
been plowed. An application of 300 to 600 pounds of acid
phosphate per acre after plowing is also desirable with soils lack-
ing in this element.
8345—17
258 t POTATO GROWING
PLANTING.
The date of planting is governed by climatic conditions. In
the northern half of Indiana early potatoes may be planted by
April 10 and should be of sufficient size to begin harvesting by
July 10. In the southern half of the State, the first planting of
early potatoes may be made by April 1 and harvesting begins
July 1. The main or late crop of potatoes is planted about June
15 to 20 and makes most of its growth in late summer and autumn.
If planted earlier than the date just given, the potato beetle may
do considerable damage and the size and number of tubers pro-
duced are often affected seriously by summer drouths.
The depth to plant depends upon the size of the cuttings,
and the type of soil. Small eye cuttings are planted from 2 to 3
inches deep and larger sets 4 inches deep. The lighter the soil the
deeper the potatoes should be planted.
An early variety cared for with hand tools may be planted in
rows as close as 26 inches apart and with horse cultivation, 30 to
34 inches should be allowed between rows. Late varieties are
planted in rows 34 to 36 inches apart and 12 to 15 inches between
plants in the row.
Seed.—Successful potato growing depends largely upon the
kind and quality of seed planted. Northern grown seed is pre-
ferred as it keeps longer without sprouting and is generally less
mature and consequently is thought to produce a larger yield.
Well selected and stored potato seed that is grown locally may be
used with satisfactory results.
Sprouting seed potatoes in a well lighted room or partial sun
light has been found to increase the yield and earliness and to
produce a more vigorous vine growth and a larger starch content.
The best method of sprouting is to place the potato seed in shallow
trays about 16x20 inches by 2 inches deep with the stem ends down.
Two to four sprouts will develop at the upper or seed end of each
potato. (End having large number of eyes.) The trays are placed
so that each will be in the light and the sprouts produced should
be about 34 to 9%" long, about 34" in diameter and of a dark green
color. Seed potatoes may also be spread on a barn floor but not
on the ground. It is best to place them only one layer deep. Since
only a few sprouts develop, the potatoes can be cut lengthwise
into only about two or four pieces. Potatoes about two inches
the long way and cut once lengthwise are most desirable for sun
sprouting. For early use, about a month of exposure before plant-
ing is required to secure strong sprouts and for main crop planting
POTATO GROWING 259
the seed may be put in the light two or even three months before
they are to be planted. They should be taken from the storage
room for sun sprouting before growth starts to avoid the long
slender white sprouts which decrease the vitality of the seed.
When seed is expensive, the gardener may cut out from po-
tatoes cone shaped pieces of flesh each containing an eye of the
potato. This will require only from one-fourth to one-fifth of the
flesh of the potato to provide seed and the remainder can be cooked
for table use. The cones will average about one-sixth of an ounce
in weight and when 15 bushels of seed or 900 pounds are used to
each acre, this method will make available about 600 pounds of
potato flesh for eating purposes. The cones for seeding can be
cut from the potatoes as they are prepared for the table. Store the
cuttings in a cool room (about 50° F.). With small sets, the land
should be prepared throughly and the distance of planting be not
greater than 12 inches in the row. The yields from one eye cuttings
cannot be expected to equal those from larger cuttings. This
method is not recommended because it is impractical under average
conditions.
Cutting seed potatoes is a practice that is varied in different
regions. The size to make the cuttings is largely a financial con-
sideration. When seed is not too expensive and the variety to be
planted has a medium number of eyes, we recommend that the
tubers be cut into pieces having at least two eyes each and weighing
an ounce, (about the size of a hen's egg.) The proper time to cut
seed potatoes is just before they are to be planted. From 12 to 18
bushels will be required per acre, depending upon the size of the
pieces planted and the distance.
The following table gives the amount of seed potatoes re-
quired for planting a plot 50x100 feet and a one acre tract.

Space Space Number Bushels seed
between between Size of Sets required of
TOWS plants plot required ! oz. cuttings
26 inches 12 inches 50 x 1001 2312 2.4
26 12 1 acre 20104 20. 9
30 12 50 x 1001 2000 2.08
30 12 1 acre 17424 18. 1
36 15 50 x 1001 1333 1 4
36 15 1 acre 11616 11.
260 POTATO GROWING
A plot of ground 50x100 feet in size may be expected under
average conditions to yield 12 to 15 bushels of an early variety and
considerably more of a late, providing good sized seed-pieces are
planted.
Treatment for Scab and Rhizoctonia.-The scab fungus will live
in the soil for five or six years after it has been introduced and when
such is the case rotation of crops is the only successful remedy.
Potato scab may be prevented by soaking the tubers just before
cutting and planting for two hours in a solution of formalin one
pound (one pint) to thirty gallons of water. If the seed are in-
fected with rhizoctonia it is considered a better practice by some
to soak the tubers one and a half hours in a corrosive sublimate
solution prepared by dissolving four ounces of corrosive sublimate
in thirty gallons of water or one ounce in 7% gallons of water.
The latter treatment will also control scab. If the corrosive sub-
limate solution is used it should not be handled in metal con-
tainers on account of its corroding action. This material is deadly
poison and every precaution should be taken to prevent animals
or children from getting to it. Thirty gallons of solution is suffi-
cient to treat 150 bushels of potatoes. -
VARIETIES
For eafly planting in Indiana the Irish Cobbler and Early
Ohio are generally preferred. Early Rose and Quick Lunch may
be regarded as second choices.
Late varieties that are to be recommended are Rural New
Yorker No. 2, Sir Walter Raleigh, Carman No. 3 and Burbank.
CULTIVATION
Thorough cultivation is important if large yields are desired.
The number of cultivations will depend upon the amount of rain-
fall, prevalence of weeds and whether the soil has a tendency to
bake after showers. Four to seven cultivations should be suffi-
cient. Practice level cultivation and use a cultivator having
several small teeth. Shallow cultivation should be given every
ten days or after every rain to maintain a dust mulch. Lack of
moisture seriously affects the yield.
Plant sufficiently deep so that the soil will not need to be turned
toward the vines to prevent sun burning.
POTATO GROWING 261
T)ISEASEs
The most serious diseases with which the grower has to contend
are the early and late blight and the scab. The two former are
controlled by spraying with Bordeaux first when the plants are 6
inches high and then every two weeks throughout the season
until harvesting time.
Bordeaux is made with freshly burned stone lime and copper
sulphate, using at the rate of six pounds of lime and four pounds
of copper sulphate to 50 gallons of water. The copper sulphate
should be dissolved in a wooden or earthen vessel as the solution
attacks iron. The lime should be slaked and diluted and the cop-
per sulphate dissolved and diluted before they are mixed together
The secret of making good Bordeaux is to mia dilute solutions.
As small a quantity as desired may be made up if the above pro-
portions are used and if each solution is diluted to one half the
whole amount of spray before mixing.
In practice arsenate of lead is often used with Bordeaux.
When this is done the arsenate of lead is mixed first with a small
quantity of water until it is a thin fluid and then put into the
Bordeaux and diluted further with it instead of hot water.
Scab can be controlled to a great extent by soãking the seed
tubers in a solution of farmaldehyde—one pint to thirty gallons of
water, for two hours just before cutting. Scab fungus will live in
the soil for a number of years. This fact emphasizes the desira-
bility of rotation.
INSECTs.
The potato beetle is the most serious insect pest of this crop.
It is controlled by spraying with arsenate of lead at the rate of
two pounds to 50 gallons of water at the time the beetles are hatch-
ing. A second application when the plants are larger is also often
desirable.
The sprayings for blight and potato beetle (“potato bugs”)
are often combined.
Large potato sprayers covering several rows at a time and
drawn by two horses are used in large fields. For contest plots a
bucket pump or a barrel pump is adequate.
HILL SELECTION OF SEED.
The value of potato seed depends more upon the care exer-
cised in the selection of the strain and the storage than the lo-
cality where it is grown. The proper time to select the seed is in the
262 POTATO GROWING
field by locating the large, vigorous growing plants and then when
digging, taking tubers only from the plants of this first selection,
which produce five or Siac good sized sound tubers that are without
prongs and have the proper shape and characteristics for the variety.
On account of the danger of introducing the potato wart dis-
ease, a fungous trouble which is exceedingly serious in Europe and
very difficult of control, the source of potatoes used for seed should
be known. No imported seed potatoes should on any account be
used.
The best method of holding seed potatoes is in a cold storage
at a temperature of 33° F. to 35° F. A cool, dry cellar or a root
house will prove quite satisfactory, or if these are not to be had
the tubers can be stored in pits. Potatoes that are to be used for
seed should never be allowed to send out long sprouts before
planting.
ROTATION
Potatoes may be grown for a period of years on the same
ground, but rotation is very desirable, as it lessens the attacks of
diseases and insects, helps to keep the soil in a suitable physical
condition and prevents the exhaustion of certain kinds of plant
food. Rotations that have proven successful in northern potato
growing regions are:
I. II.
1st year—Potatoes. 1st year—Potatoes.
2nd year—Oats. 2nd year—Wheat.
3rd year—Grass and clover. 3rd year—Clover.
4th year—Grass and clover. 4th year—Potatoes.
5th year—Potatoes. &
Other combinations may also be used, but it is usually best to
have a legume precede the potato crop if possible.
Poor sandy land, which is deficient in plant food, may be
greatly improved if two or more leguminous crops, such as cow-
peas, soybeans, crimson clover, etc., are grown and turned under
before potatoes are grown.
REFERENCES
Potato Culture—Frazier, Orange Judd Company.
Purdue Extension Leaflet 20—Potato Production.
Beekeeping
I. What the pupil should know.
A. The habits of bees and their likes and dislikes.
B. Personal characteristics of persons who can handle bees.
C. Management of bees.
1. Location.
i
g.
Nearness to food.
Nearness to market.
Protection from winds.
Ingress and egress free from, obstructions.
Sufficient shade but not too much.
Prevent being nuisance to people and live-
stock.
Plot free from weeds.
2. Equipment.
3.
b.
g.
:
Hives. *
a1. Boxes, hollow logs, etc., are not sat-
isfactory.
a2. Hives should have movable frames.
a3. Standard size of frame 9% by 17;
inches.
a4. Good material.
aş. Hive stands.
Smoker.
a1. Standard.
Veil.
Gloves.
Brush.
Feeder.
Comb-Foundation.
3. General manipulations.
i
g.
Be deliberate in movements.
Do not jar hives.
Striking at bees.
Time of day to handle bees.
How to open hive and use smoker.
How to handle the frames.
Placing frames in hive.
4. Transferring.
3.
b.
When to transfer.
How to transfer.
a1. From box to hive with movable
frame.
a2. By swarming.
a3. By removing bees along with comb.
(263)
264 BEEKEEPING
5. Uniting.
a. Queenless colony to normal colony.
b. Weak colonies.
c. From one hive to another.
d. At swarming time.
6. Swarming.
a. How bees swarm.
b. Why they swarm.
c. Best time for swarming.
° d. How to prevent swarming.
7. The queen bee.
- a. Use, habits, introducing to new colony.
8. Wintering bees.
9. Harvesting the crop.
D. Races of bees.
1. German or black bees.
2. Italian.
3. Caucasian.
4. Carniolan.
5. Banat.
E. Kinds of bees.
- 1. Queen.
2. Workers.
3. Drones or male bees.
F. Diseases of bees.
G. How to keep records of all items of cost and income.
II. What the pupil should do.
A. The above and related topics should be studied in school.
B. One or more hives of bees should be kept by the pupil.
POINTS OF INFORMATION
SUITABLE LOCATION'
“The question of a suitable location is of more importance to
the professional apiarist than to the amateur, who wishes to keep
only a few colonies for his own amusement and benefit. In the
first case, there are a number of considerations to be taken into
account—such as nearness to a good supply of nectar and pollen-
bearing plants; nearness to a good market which will not only
secure for him a ready sale for his products, but will also make it
possible for him to secure the necessary equipment easily and
1. Purdue Experiment Station Circular 61.
BEEKEEPING 265
quickly. There are many such locations in Indiana which have
not yet been occupied, even by the amateur. In general, then,
wherever there is a good supply of nectar-bearing plants, such
as linden, maples, fruit-trees, white clover, alsike clover, sweet
clover, alfalfa, and a good supply of wild flowers throughout the
Summer and autumn, and where the soil is well drained or naturally
dry, there is a good location for an apiary.
Locating the hives is a matter of considerable importance,
too. As a general proposition, the hives should face away from the
prevailing winds. In this state, the general direction from which
our winds come during the summer, is from the southwest and
west, and, during the cold season, from the north and northwest.
It would be better therefore, to face the hives towards the east
where that can be done conveniently. Then, too, they should be
placed far enough from the highway, and from all driveways,
where horses are used, so that the bees will not make themselves
objectionable to passers-by. It is also necessary that there should
be a clear space for a considerable distance in front of the hive,
so that the bees will not be obstructed in their outward and in-
ward flights. For example, there may be trees or a high board
fence behind or at the side of the hive, but not directly in front.
Then, too, the space immediately in front of the hive should be
kept free from tall grass or weeds by frequent mowings, as these
would interfere greatly with the work of the bees. Wherever
possible, the hives should be so placed as to secure the early
morning sun, never behind the house or barn where they will .
be shaded until towards noon. This would greatly retard the
early morning movements of the bees, and so shorten their work-
day. In case one lives in town where the buildings are considerably
crowded, the hives may be placed upon the tops of houses or other
buildings where their flight will not be interfered with, and where
they will not be a menace to the occupants of the house or adjoin-
ing houses. Then too, the hives should be placed far enough apart
So that they may be easily accessible to the beekeeper. The hive
should not be elevated more than eight or ten inches from the
ground. It is a great mistake to place the hives upon a shelf two
or three feet above the ground, unless there is provided a wide
shelf for the bees to light upon before entering the hive. This is
especially true if the bees are obliged to go long distances for their
Supplies. When they come in from the field heavily loaded, and
tired, they should be able to alight immediately in front of the
entrance so they will have no difficulty in getting inside the hive
with their loads. -
266 BEEKEEPING
SUGGESTED OUTFIT FOR BEGINNERs.
The following is a list of materials with approximate cost,
which a person will need to start with, under the supposition that
comb honey alone is to be produced:
One colony of Italian bees in a 10-frame 1%
story dovetailed hive, with 28 section
honey boxes and foundation starters. . . . . . $13.75
One Smoker (Standard). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
One hive tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
One pair of bee gloves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
One bee veil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
One Porter bee escape and board. . . . . . . . . . . . 30
One queen excluder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
One queen and drone trap (alley) . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Total cost for the outfit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $17,35
Extra 1-story hives, with frames and starters
(in flat). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.50
Extra dovetailed supers for comb honey, in-
cluding sections and 1-inch foundation. . . . 1.00
100 extra Hoffman frames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 50
1 Boardman feeder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
$ 7, 16
In case one wishes to produce extracted honey, which would
not be advisable at first, he would need:
One extractor (two-frame). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $16.00
One Bingham uncapping knife. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
One spool tinned wire for holding foundation. , 30
$17.05
Other apparatus could be added as needed.
BEES.
Number of Colonies.—Unless one has had some experience in
handling bees, he should start in a small way. A half dozen
colonies would be ample. Three or four would answer very well.
These should be purchased near at home if possible, providing one
can be sure of getting those that are free from disease. Of course,
they may be shipped hundreds of miles, but there is always danger
of more or less loss in shipment. We have had good success in
BEEKEEPING 267
procuring nuclei of three frames each, sent from Alabama to
Lafayette, Indiana, in small crates. The bees were liberated into
regular eight-frame hives as soon as they arrived and they soon
increased to good, strong colonies. If purchased near home they
may be already in Standard hives, or they may be in box hives or
“gums.” If in either of the latter, they should be transferred into
a Standard movable frame hive as soon as possible. It does not
matter very much whether the bees are the black or Italian variety,
as they may be easily changed from one to the other by introduc-
ing a pure-bred queen. It should be borne in mind that the worker
bees which one purchases in the spring will all be dead before mid-
Summer, so it becomes of great importance to know that the new
queen has been fertilized so that she can begin laying fertile eggs
at once. It may be well to explain here that unfertilized eggs
always hatch into drone or male bees, while the impregnated eggs
hatch into workers under ordinary circumstances. The extra-
ordinary circumstance occurs when the worker bees build a
queen cell around a worker egg, and feed the young larva on a
richer and more abundant food material, called “royal jelly,”
when a queen is formed. In order to show that the kind and
amount of food are the determining factors in the production of a
queen bee, it may be said that, when suddenly deprived of a queen,
the workers will often take a worker larva which is not more than
four days old, and tearing down the cells which surround it, build
a queen cell in their places, and, having placed the necessary
amount of food within, cap it over with a mixture of wax and
pollen and in due time a queen comes out. The object of doing
this is to secure a queen quicker than they would otherwise be
able to do.
All this changing into new hives and the introduction of new
queens should be done as early in the season as possible so that the
colony may settle down to work and take advantage of the early
spring bloom. Then, too, the queen must get to laying as quickly
as possible in order to keep up the supply of worker bees, and pro-
vide for the increase in colonies which naturally follow in a pros-
perous season of honey supply.”
GENERAL MANIPULATIONS.
“Bees should be handled so that they will be little disturbed in
their work. Superflous quick movements tend to irritate the bees.
1 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 447.
268 BEEKEEPING
The hive should not be jarred or disturbed any more than neces-
sary. Rapid movements are objectionable, because with their
peculiar eye structure bees probably perceive motion more
readily than they do objects. Persons not accustomed to bees,
on approaching a hive, often strike at bees which fly toward them
or make some quick movement of the head or hand to avoid the
sting which they fear is to follow. This should not be done, for
the rapid movement, even if not toward the bee, is far more likely
to be followed by a sting than remaining quiet.
The best time to handle bees is during the middle of warm
days, particularly during a honey flow. Never handle bees at night
or on cold, wet days unless absolutely necessary.
Before opening a hive the smoker should be lighted and the
veil put on. A few puffs of smoke directed into the entrance will
cause the bees to fill themselves with honey and will drive back the
guards. The hive cover should be raised gently, if necessary being
pried loose with a screwdriver or special hive tool. When slightly
raised, a little more smoke should be blown in vigorously on the
tops of the frames, or if a mat covering for the frames is used, the
cover should be entirely removed and one corner of the mat lifted
to admit Smoke. It is not desirable to use any more smoke than
just enough to subdue the bees and keep them down on the frames.
If at any time during manipulation they become excited, more
Smoke may be necessary. Do not stand in front of the entrance,
but at one side or the back.
After the frames are exposed they may be loosened by prying
gently with the hive tool and crowded together a little so as to
give room for the removal of one frame. In cool weather the
propolis (bee glue) may be brittle. Care should be exercised not
to loosen this propolis with a jar. The first frame removed can be
leaned against the hive, so that there will be more room inside for
handling the others. During all manipulations bees must not be
mashed or crowded, for it irritates the colony greatly and may
make it necessary to discontinue operations. Undue crowding
may also crush the queen. If bees crawl on the hands, they may
be gently brushed off or thrown off.
In examining a frame hold it over the hive if possible, so that
any bees or queen which fall may drop into it. Freshly gathered
honey also often drops from the frame, and if it falls in the hive
the bees can quickly clean it up, whereas if it drops outside it is
untidy and may cause robbing. If a frame is temporarily leaned
against the hive, it should be placed in a nearly upright position
BEEKEEPING 269
to prevent breakage and leaking of honey. The frame on which
the queen is located should not be placed on the ground, for fear
she may crawl away and be lost. It is best to lean the frame on the
side of the hive away from the operator, so that bees will not
Crawl up his legs.
In handling frames, the comb should always be held in a vertical
position, especially if it contains much honey. When a frame is
lifted from the hive by the top bar, the comb is vertical with one
side toward the operator. To examine the reverse side, raise one
end of the top bar until it is perpendicular, turn the frame on the
top bar as an axis until the reverse side is in view, and then lower
to a horizontal position with the top bar below. In this way
there is no extra strain on the comb and the bees are not irritated.
This care is not so necessary with wired combs, but it is a good
habit to form in handling frames.”
TRANSFERRING!
“Transferring bees from old box hives, “gums,” barrels, and the
like, to modern movable frame hives is a necessity for efficient
honey production. To effect this change, prepare the new hive
and place in it a few frames of brood or drawn comb, or if neither
of these is available, put in full sheets of foundation. Then remove
the top from the new hive, and the bottom from the old one.
Place the old hive on top of the new one with a queen excluder
between them. Now remove the top of the old hive and drive the
bees into the new one by smoking them. After the majority has
been driven down, examine the queen excluder for the queen.
Place the queen in the lower hive, return the queen excluder and
old hive to their former positions (above the new) and allow them
to remain twenty-one days. At the end of this time the larvae in
the old hive will have matured and no broods will be lost. Drive
all of the bees into the new hive and remove and destroy the old
OI)63.
UNITING
It very often happens that colonies become queenless, and as
a result of this are soon depleted and become very weak; also,
during the swarming season, some of the swarms are small. Small
colonies are undesirable; therefore, when two weak colonies are
present, they should be united to make one strong colony. This is
1 Purdue Experiment Station Circular 61.
270 - BEEKEEPING
easily accomplished by killing the queen of the weaker colony's
removing the top from the stronger hive, and placing the queenless
hive, minus the bottom board, on it with two thicknesses of news-
paper between them. After twenty-four to forty-eight hours they
will have gnawed through the paper. By this time, they will have
become reconciled and accept each other as a matter of course.
After four or five days, remove the top hive and the scraps of
paper.”
SwARMING!
“The excessive rearing of brood at the wrong season or increase
in the number of colonies greatly reduces the surplus honey crop
by consumption. The ideal to which all progressive bee keepers
work, when operating simply for honey, is to stimulate brood rear-
ing to prepare bees for gathering, to retard breeding when it is less
desirable, and to prevent swarming. Formerly the measure of
success in beekeeping was the amount of increase by swarming,
but this is now recognized as being quite the contrary of success.
The stimulation of brood rearing in the spring, however, makes
it more likely that swarming will occur; so that the operator must
counteract the tendency to swarm. This is especially true in
comb-honey production. Very few succeed in entirely preventing
swarming, but by various methods the situation can be largely
controlled. t
When a swarm issues, it usually first settles on a limb of a tree
or bush near the apiary. It was formerly common to make a
noise by beating pans or ringing bells in the belief that this causes
the swarm to settle. There is no foundation for such action on
the part of the bee keeper. If the bees alight on a small limb that
can be spared it may simply be sawed off and the bees carried to
the hive and thrown on a sheet or hive cover in front of the en-
trance. If the limb can not be cut, the swarm can be shaken off
into a box or basket on a pole and hived. If the bees light on the
trunk of the tree or in some inaccessible place they can first be
attracted away by a comb, preferably containing unsealed brood.
In these manipulations it is not necessary to get all the bees, but
if the queen is not with those which are put into the hive the bees
will go into the air again and join the clutser.
If a queen is clipped as recommended under “Spring Manage-
ment” the swarm will issue just the same, but the queen, not being
able to fly, will simply wander about on the ground in front of
1. U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 447.
BEEKEEPING 271
the hive, where she can be caught and caged. The parent colony
can then be removed to a new stand and a new hive put in its
place. The bees will soon return and the queen can be freed among
them as they enter. The field bees on returning will enter the
new hive with a swarm, thus decreasing still more the parent
colony and making a second swarm less probable. To make sure
of this, however, all queen cells except one good one can be
removed soon after the swarm issues. Another method of pre-
venting second swarms is to set the old hive beside the swarm and
in a week move the old hive to another place. The field bees of
the parent colony then join the swarm and the parent colony is
so much reduced that a second swarm does not issue.” -
THE QUEEN BEE.1
“Whenever it happens that the old queen becomes unable to
lay fertile eggs, or possibly some accident happens to her, it then
becomes necessary to procure a new queen as quickly as possible,
in order that the supply of worker bees may be kept up to the
limit. A new queen is purchased, but she is an entire stranger
to the colony, and bees are usually a bit suspicious of strangers.
It is, therefore, necessary that they become acquainted before
coming into direct contact with her. It is usually best to wait a
few days before introducing the queen, until the workers have
become aware of the fact that they are queenless. They are then
anxious to have a queen, and will more readily accept her, but
even then some caution is necessary. The queen is usually shipped
in a small wire cage, with a plug of honey or rock candy in the
end for her to feed upon. This cage should be suspended between
two brood frames until the bees have eaten their way through this
plug and liberated the queen. By this time they will usually ac-
cept her without question.
WINTERING BEES.
Much of the loss from wintering bees comes from one of three
or possibly four causes; viz.: lack of sufficient food, unwholesome
food, extremes of temperature, or long continued cold. It occa-
sionally happens that, owing to excessive dry weather during the
fall, the nectar producing flowers are cut short and the bees are
not able to store enough honey to last them through the winter.
1 Purdue Experiment Station Circular 61.
272 BEEKEEPING
At such a time, too, the bees are very likely to gather honey-dew,
which comes from plant lice, and they will also visit cider mills,
and manufacture the refuse cider into honey and store it for the
winter. All this makes very unwholesome food, either for the
adult bees or the brood, and much loss will occur in consequence.
Extreme heat and extreme cold during the winter is also detri-
mental, as it tends to keep the bees in a state of unrest, whereas
they should be kept as quiet as possible. If the temperature rises
too high, they will eat too much and then as the temperature
falls, they cannot get out of the hive, and as a result they are liable
to become diseased and die. If, at such a time, the weather is
warm enough so that they can get outside and take a flight, for
even a few moments, all will be well. On the other hand, if the
temperature drops very low, in order to keep up the animal heat,
the bees must take more food, they become uneasy, and exhale
more moisture; this freezes on the outside combs and prevents
the bees from getting enough food. In such a case, dysentery is
liable to set in and the colony is greatly reduced if not eliminated
altogether.”
FEEDING!
“During spring manipulations, in preparing bees for winter, and
at other times it may be necessary to feed bees for stimulation or
to provide stores. Honey from an unknown source should never
be used, for fear of introducing disease, and sirup made of granu-
ulated sugar is cheapest and best for this purpose. The cheaper
grades of sugar or molasses should never be used for winter stores.
The proportion of sugar to water depends on the season and the
purpose of the feeding. For stimulation a proportion of one-fourth
to one-third sugar by volume is enough, and for fall feeding,
especially if rather late, a solution containing as much sugar as it
will hold when cold is best. There seems to be little advantage in
boiling the syrup. Tartaric acid in small quantity may be added
for the purpose of changing part of the cane sugar to invert sugar,
thus retarding granulation. The medication of sirup as a pre-
ventive or cure of brood disease is often practiced, but it has not
been shown that such a procedure is of any value. If honey is fed,
it should be diluted somewhat, the amount of dilution depending
on the season. If robbing is likely to occur, feeding should be done
in the evening.
Numerous feeders are on the market, adapted for different
1 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 447
BEEKEEPING + 273
purposes and methods of manipulation. A simple feeder can be
made of a tin pan filled with excelsior or shavings. This is filled
with syrup and placed on top of the frames in a super or hive body.
It is advisable to lean pieces of wood on the pan as runways for
the bees, and to attract them first to the sirup, either by mixing
in a little honey or by spilling a little sirup over the frames and
sticks.
It may be stated positively that it does not pay financially,
or in any other way, to feed sugar sirup to be stored in sections
and sold as comb honey. Of course, such things have been tried,
but the consumption of sugar during the storing makes the cost
greater than the value of pure floral honey.”
HARVESTING THE CROP"
“Strong Colonies.—Strong colonies are the secret of success.
As the bees come through the winter their numbers are very often
reduced to such an extent as to require some time and effort on the
part of the bee keeper to bring them up to standard strength of
from 40,000 to 50,000 worker bees. This may require stimu-
lative feeding. As it requires twenty one days to produce a
worker from the egg, and two weeks or more before it will take
its place among the gatherers in the field, it will be seen
that the queen should begin laying eggs five weeks or more before
the honey flow begins. During the period of nectar flow from the
early flowers, the queen will not require any stimulating, but there
are always periods when flowers are scarce and honey flow natually
ceases, when feeding must be resorted to in order to keep the colony
up to its full strength.
Honey.—The first and most important product of bees is honey,
and its natural use is to feed the bees. What is honey? Cook says
it is digested nectar, a sweet, neutral substance gathered from the
flowers. The chemical composition is very varied, owing to the
large number of different kinds of flowers from which it is gathered.
Then, too, the thoroughness of the digestion will affect the composi-
tion of honey. The longer it remains in the honey stomach,
within certain limits, the better is the quality. That is, if the
bee pasture is located a mile or even two miles from the apiary,
the honey will be of better quality than if the bees had to go only
a few rods after it. In the latter case, the honey is manufactured
too rapidly for best results.
1 Purdue Experiment Station Circular 61
8345—18
274 BEEKEEPING
Waa..—Next to honey in importance is wax. Unlike honey,
which is gathered from flowers and manufactured by the bees,
wax is secreted by the bees. It is formed in scales underneath
the abdomen. There are four of these scales on each side of the
abdomen, hence there may be eight wax scales on each worker.
At times of abundant harvest, nearly every worker bee, except
possibly the very oldest, will be found to contain these wax scales,
unless more new comb is rendered unnecessary by extracting.
Thus it will be seen that compelling bees to secrete their own wax
and build their own comb, and then to expect them to store a
maximum amount of honey, is much like expecting a cow to lay
on fat and give a maximum quantity of milk at the same time.
Hence the large apiarist uses the extractor. The use of the wax
is to build the comb, and mixed with pollen, to construct the
queen cells. As a commercial product, it stands next to honey.
RACES OF BEES
It may be of interest to know that all of our races of domesti-
cated bees have been imported from the old world; none are natives
of this country. Of the half dozen varieties which have been given
a trial by American beekeepers only two have withstood the test of
time, and only one has become truly popular with the average bee-
keeper.
Italian Bees.—The Italian Bees have been in this country less
than sixty years. They were originally found in the central part of
Italy where they had been hemmed in by mountain ranges and
natural barriers, until their racical characteristics had become
fixed. Partly for this reason, and partly because they are
naturally more docile and easy to handle, later beekeepers have
given more attention to selecting and breeding this race than any
other. At all events, it is the most popular breed now kept in this
country. They are known by the bright-yellow bands across the
abdomen. If the colony is pure, each worker bee will have three
of these yellow bands. Occasionally, one finds what is known as
“five-banded” bees, but they are in no wise superior to the others.
German or Black Bees.—This race was introduced into this
country by the early settlers in 1638. It is therefore more widly
scattered over the United States than any other. The race has
never been improved to any extent, and is now kept only by
amatuer beekeepers who keep only a few colonies, simply to
supply their own needs. They combine many of the undesirable
BEEKEEPING 275
qualities of the other races, hence are rather irritable and diffi-
cult to handle. They do make beautiful comb honey when given
an opportunity, but that is about their only redeeming quality.
KINDS OF BEES
In every well organized colony there are three classes of bees,
viz.: the queen, workers, and drones or male bees. Each class
has its special function to perform, and we cannot say that one
is more important to the colony than the other, as all are necessary
to the well-being and success of the colony.
The queen is the only perfect female, and, of course, she is the
mother of all the other bees in the colony. Her duty is simply to
lay eggs to keep up the supply of bees in the hive. Cook reports
having seen her lay over 3000 eggs per day. These eggs are
placed on one end in the bottom of the brood cells, and whether
they are to hatch into drones or workers depends solely upon the
wishes of the queen. If conditions of the weather are such as to
affect the nectar flow so that the workers are off duty for a time, she
will almost invariably lay drone eggs. If the colony becomes too
densly populated, she will lay drone eggs. This is accomplished
by simply witholding the male, or fertilizing fluid, and allowing the
eggs to pass out unimpregnated. This operation is entirely
within her control. On the other hand, when everything in the hive
is running under normal conditions, with an abundant nectar
flow and plenty of room, she lays fertile eggs in worker cells,
which hatch into undeveloped females or workers; i. e., the
reproductive organs are undeveloped.
The time required to produce a queen, a worker, and drone
from the egg is sixteen, twenty-one, and twenty-four days res-
pectively. sº
The function of the queen is solely to lay eggs. The function
of the drone is to impregnate the queen, while the function of the
workers is to do all of the manual labor, both inside and outside the
hive, such as gathering the nectar and pollen, manufacturing them
into bee bread for the young bees, placing it where the young bees
can get it without much effort; secreting the wax and building the
comb, and sealing up the cells when they have been filled with
honey and this has sufficiently ripened.
The cells which are built by the workers are not all of the same
size; those which are to contain drone bees and the honey cells
are about one-fourth of an inch in diameter, while those which
276 BEEKEEPING
contain the workers are only about one-fifth of an inch in diameter.
The relative amounts of drone and worker cells can be controlled
to a certain extent by the beekeeper, by the use of artificial comb
foundation as a starter. This consists of thin sheets of pure
bees wax which have been run through a stamping machine,
similar to a clothes wringer, which makes an impression on both
sides of the sheet of wax of the exact size and shape of the bases
of the cells. On this foundation the bees draw out and build up
the cells in both directions. If they wish drone cells they simply
enlarge the cells to the required diameter.
The queen cells are constructed independently of the others,
and only when they are needed to produce new queens. These are
much larger than the other cells, resembling small peanuts in
size and shape, and are usually placed on the edge, or in an opening
in the comb. te
DISEASEs AND ENEMIES
Diseases of bees may be divided into two classes; namely,
those affecting the larvae and those more intimately related to
the adults. Of these, the brood diseases are the more important.
They are very widely disseminated and are the cause of the
greatest loss to beekeepers.
BROOD DISEASEs
Of the brood diseases there are three well recognized ones,
known as American foul brood, European foul brood, and sac-
brood. All of these are bacterial in nature, and the effect on the
colony is practically the same in each instance. The larvae are
killed and the colony is greatly weakened, or entirely destroyed,
if treatment is not given, by reducing the numbers of young
emerging bees which should take the place of the adults that die
from natural causes.
The bacteria are introduced into the cell containing the larva
in the food (honey or bee bread) of the bee, or through contact
or other means. They are taken into the system and in a short
time cause the larva to die. Some kill the young in early stages;
others are content to wait until the cell is capped over to deal
the death blow. The odor and the condition of the larva after
being dead a short time will indicate which disease is present.
American Foul Brood.—This disease is characterized by an
odor similar to that coming from a cooking glue pot; the comb is
brown, or coffee colored; a large percentage of the cells are capped
BEEKEEPING 277
Over, and the dead larvae are ropy. When a stick is inserted into
the cell and withdrawn, portions of the larva adhere in a sticky,
ropy condition. Most of the young are attacked about the time
the cell is ready to be capped.
European Foul Brood.—This is recognized by a sour odor,
which reminds one of yeast fermentation; dark comb, similar to
that found in American foul brood; a small percentage of the cells
capped, and an absence of the ropy condition of the dead larvae.
Sacbrood.—This disease is very similar in appearance to Euro-
pean foul brood.
Treatment.—The shaking treatment is the most widely used
and the most successful method of treating these diseases. This
consists of shaking the bees from the frames occupied, into a
sterilized hive containing a few frames with a one-fourth inch
foundation. As rapidly as the frames are cleared of bees, they
should be placed in a third hive body and the lid put on. This is
to prevent the bees from the other colonies carrying the disease
back to their hives. After all the bees have been shaken into the
new hive, place it where the old hive stood and allow them to
draw out the comb for three or four days. At the end of this
time, shake them a second time, as before, into a sterile hive con-
taining frames with full sheets of foundation.
As these are bacterial diseases, they spread rapidly where the
combs and honey are exposed to the bees from other colonies. To
prevent the spread, destroy all old comb and honey by burning
or burying. This honey may be used for table purposes, but it
should never be fed to the bees. The hives should then be sterilized
by charring. This is easily done by burning the inside with a
plumber's torch, or by placing the hive bodies one on top of another,
spraying the inside with kerosene and touching a match to it.
Let them burn until they are well charred, then place the lid
on top to smother the flame. After charring, the hives are ready
to be used again. It is not recommended that the brood frames,
sections and smaller articles of equipment be sterilized; they should
be destroyed and replaced by new ones.
It is the opinion of our best beekeepers that the Italian bees are
more resistant to and will recover more quiclky from an attack of
these diseases than any other race of bees. This is especially
true of European foul brood. Therefore, it is recommended that
requeening with pure Italian stock be practiced along with the
shaking treatment.
278 BEEKEEPING
DISEASES OF ADULTS
The diseases of the adult bee are less serious than those of the
brood. They do not seem to be widely disseminated; the attacks
appear less virulent, and the mortality is not so great.
Dysentery.—This disease appears chiefly in late winter. It is
caused by the consumption of poor stores. Ordinarily, the bee
does not void its feces in the hive. During the wintering period,
the indigestible material eaten is retained in the alimentary tract,
and voided on the first spring flight. If poor honey, such as that
made from honey-dew (a product of the plant louse which contains
a large amount of indigestible material), is used for winter stores,
the ailmentary tract reaches its capacity before spring comes and
this disease results. Excrement is voided in the hive, and the
disease is manifested by the appearance of the brownish yellow
spots on the walls of the hive.
To prevent this condition, see that the bees have good stores
for the winter. Sugar syrup is one of the best winter foods. It is
Sometimes recommended that each colony be given eight or
ten pounds of granulated sugar in the form of syrup at the close
of the season.
Spring Dwindling.—If brood rearing is stopped early in the
fall, the over-wintering bees have passed their period of usefulness
by the time spring has come, and consequently die off faster than
they are replaced by the new brood. This is called spring dwindl-
ing. It can be remedied to a certain extent by encouraging the
colony to develop brood by feeding after the greater honey flows
have materially subsided.
ENEMIES OF BEES
Our chief enemy of the bee is the wax moth. This is a small,
grayish moth which lays its eggs in cracks or crevices in or on the
hive. The larvae find their way to the wax, where they tunnel
through the comb, spinning a web after them. This ruins the
comb for further use by the bee, and if unchecked, they will ulti-
mately take possession of the hive.
To prevent this trouble, keep the colonies in a strong condition.
It is only the weak stands that are attacked. If the colony is
Strong, all intruders are kept out. -
In treating infested hives, remove the bees by shaking them
into a new hive. Then tier the old ones one above another and on
top place an empty hive or super. In the latter, place a Saucer
BEEKEEPING & 279
containing carbon bi-sulfide; put the lid in place and do not
disturb them for twenty-four hours. This treatment does not
destroy the eggs, so the operation should be repeated at intervals
of two or three weeks, until all eggs have hatched.” .
REFERENCES
Productive Bee Keeping—Pellett, Lippincott.
Bee Keeping—Philips, Macmillan. - -
Quinby’s New Beekeeping—Root, Orange Judd Company.
How to Keep Bees—Comstock, Doubleday, Page and Company.
Purdue University Publications:
Experiment Station Circular 61—Bees for the Farmer.
U. S. Department of Agriculture Publications.
Farmers' Bulletin 447—Bees. -
Farmers' Bulletin 695—Outdoor Wintering of Bees.
Farmers' Bulletin 653—Honey and Its Uses in the Home.
Corn Growing
I. What the pupil should know.
A. Seed corn.
i
How and when to select in the field.
How to store.
How to choose or judge.
How to test.
How to grade for the planter.
Variety to grow.
The place of corn in the rotation.
B. Cultural methods.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Kind of soil.
Condition of soil as to
a. Drainage.
b. Organic matter.
c. (For a complete outline of topics, on soils see,
pages 304-347).
Preparation of seed bed.
a. Plowing.
al. When to plow.
a2. Disking before plowing.
a3. Depth to plow.
a4. Importance of good plowing.
b. Preparing the ground after plowing.
b1. Disking.
b2. Harrowing.
b3. Dragging.
b4. Rolling.
Planting.
a. When to plant.
b. How to plant.
c. Depth to plant.
Cultivation.
a. Purpose.
b. When.
c. Depth.
d. Kind of implements.
e. Number of times.
C. Methods of harvesting. f
1.
2.
:
Harvesting ears only.
Harvesting entire plant.
a. Silage.
d. Fodder—either shredded or husked by hand.
Hogging down.
Stripping.
Topping.
(280)
CoRN GRowING - 281
D. Improvement and adaptation of corn.
Type of ear to select.
Type of plant.
Mass selection.
Pedigree selection.
Breeding–Plat.
a. How lay it out.
b. How conduct.
:
E. Diseases of corn.
1. Smut.
2. Ear rot.
F. Animal and insect enemies.
Birds.
Squirrels.
Cutworms.
Grubworms.
Wireworms.
Corn rootworm.
Corn root-louse.
Corn ear worm.
Chinch bugs.
Army worms.
1
G. How keep records.
1. Items of cost.
a. Labor—man, horse.
b. Rent of land.
c. Manure, commercial fertilizo...
d. Seed.
e. Harvesting.
f.
Interest on investment.
2. Items of income.
a. Total yield—dry corn.
a1. Select seed corn.
a2. Common corn.
H. How determine yield.
II. What the pupil should do.
A. The above and related topics should be studied in school, be
ginning in the fall and Gontinuing until school closes.
B. All of the practical work in connection with the project should
be done at home. The pupil should actually do or direct
all the work in connection with growing a field of corn on
the home farm. To make the school room and laboratory
exercises worth while the practical application of the
lessons must be made in growing a field of corn at home.
C. A part of the seed selected in the fall should be brought to
school to be used in judging corn. Seed corn should be
tested at school in the spring. Samples of soils from the
field to be planted to corn should be collected early in the
282 CoRN GROWING
fall and brought to school to be used in the laboratory
during the winter. Specimens of insects injurious to corn
should be collected for use in the laboratory during the
winter. Specimens of diseased corn should be collected for
the same purpose.
POINTS OF INFORMATION
WHEN AND How TO SELECT SEED CORNI
All seed corn should be selected directly from the stalk. A
little thought will show any intelligent corn grower that the
best seed can be secured only by field selection, because the char-
acter of the stalk upon which the ear is produced is of great im-
portance.
After the corn is mature and some time before the general
husking begins, take a basket or sack and go through the best
portion of your corn field and select good looking, well matured
ears that are held in good position on clean, thrifty looking stalks
that stand up well, have a good leaf development, and are
of medium size. Rather short, strong stalks growing
under normal conditions of stand should be preferred. Almost
any kind of a plant can produce a good ear if there are no others
near it, but it takes a good plant to produce a good ear when there
are no gaps in the stand, and the characteristics of such a plant
will be inherited by the ear it produces. The ears selected should
be of a size suitable for the local conditions. There is a limit to the
size of ear that can be expected to ripen in an average season.
Many farmers make the mistake of growing corn that is really too
large and too late for their conditions. It often lacks in quality
and they are the losers in the long run. *
The ears selected should be strong and symmetrically devel-
oped, with straight rows of even sized, well dented kernels. The
seed ears should always be a little rougher than the average
of the crop, otherwise the variety will become smoother each
year and the kernels shallower. The dent, however, should run
squarely across the kernel and there should be no sharp or pointed
margins.
No farmer can afford to neglect this field selection of plenty
of good seed ears for his own planting.
A really well selected and well preserved bushel of seed corn
may be worth $25.00 more in its producing power than a bushel
1 Purdue Experiment Station Circular 2.
CORN GROWING - 283
selected from the crib in the spring, when we consider that it may
easily give us ten bushels more per acre in the crop it produces.
The quantity of seed corn selected from the field should
always be considerably more than will be required for planting,
so as to leave room for more critical selection later on.
It is poor business practice to leave the seed corn selection
until the general husking, when every time you stop to examine
an ear you keep a team and perhaps another man waiting.
DRYING AND STORING SEED CORN
The best seed corn is that which matures and dries maturally.
Much corn that is intended for seed is injured by improper meth-
ods of drying and storing. It is most liable to injury during the
first month or six weeks after husking. The outside of the ear
may be dry and hard but the cob and points of kernels still con-
tain much excess of moisture, and it is this which so easily causes
moulding, fermenting, growing, or injuring from freezing.
As the seed ears are brought from the field they should be put
in a dry, well ventilated place, and in such a way that there will
be a free circulation of air around each ear. If the ears can be
kept completely separated and free, so much the better. There
are many good ways of storing seed corn. One bundle of ordinary
plastering laths and a few pieces of old fence boards will make
a rack that will hold about six bushels of seed ears, and can be
constructed in an hour or less time.”
FINAL SELECTION OF SEED EARs'
“The fall selection should include considerably more ears than
will be needed for planting so as to leave room for culling. Dur-
ing the winter or early spring the ears should be carefully examin-
ed, culled, tested and reculled so that only the best may go to
the planter. Before the outdoor work begins to press for time,
this final selection and testing for vitality can be made comfort-
ably and it should not be delayed beyond the middle of March.
A good way to proceed is to lay the ears out in rows on a table
in a well lighted place and go over them one at a time, throwing
out all that are defective in any way. It is a good plan to hold
a specially fine ear in one hand as a sort of pattern to select to.
In attacking the problem of corn selection it must be clearly
understood that the best sample of corn for show purposes is
1 Purdue Circular 18.
284 CoRN GROWING
also the best sample for use as seed, and that every competent
corn judge will place his awards upon the samples of corn that, -
if used for seed, will give the best results. Bearing this in mind
we must consider not only the superficial points of the ears se-
lected, which make for fine outward appearance, but also those
qualities of maturity, size of ear, quality of grain, purity, pro-
portion of corn to cob and germinating vigor, that indicate adapt-
ability to the farm conditions where the corn is produced.
The following corn score card and explanations of points
and rules for judging are those employed by the Indiana Corn
Growers' Association.
Before the score card can be intelligently applied it must be
clearly understood that its purpose is merely to serve as a syste-
matic guide to the judge or student in corn judging. Its use
enables the judge or student to properly weigh and balance the
various points of the ear or exhibit in the effort to arrive at a just
conclusion as to which is the best sample of corn. -
Nothing but patient practice and the exercise of sound sense
will enable one to use the score card correctly.
CORN SCORE CARD OF THE INDIAN A CORN GROWERS’
ASSOCIATION.
Name of Variety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table No. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Name of Scorer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Samlpe No. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I 2 3 | 4. 5 6 7 8 9 I 0.
1. ºity of to
2. Shape of Ears 10
3. Length of Ears 10
4. Color of Grain
and COb
5. Tips of Ears 5
6. Butts of Ears 5 \
7. Kernel—
a Shape 10
b Indentation 5
c Uniformity 10
8. Seed Condition 15
9. Proportion of
Grain to Cob 10
Total. . . . . . . . . . . 100


CoRN GROWING 285
ExPLANATION OF POINTS OF SCORE CARD*
Note A. Cuts.--Where the number of points to be cut is not
specified, the scorer must use his best judgment and cut off each
ear according to its degree of variance from the standard and the
value of the perfect ear.
Note B. Disqualification.—A white cob in yellow corn or a
red cob in white corn shall disqualify the exhibit. One or more
dead ears shall disqualify the exhibit. One or more ears having
12 or more crossed kernels shall disqualify the exhibit.
Note C. Size of Ea:hibits.-Each exhibit shall consist of 10
€2,I’S.
Note D. In selecting show ears, exhibitors may remove two
kernels side by side in the same row at between three and four
inches from the butt of the ear. -
1. Uniformity of Ea:hibit. 10 Points.--All the ears in the
exhibit should be similar in size, shape, color, indentation, size
and shape of kernel, and other characteristics.
2. Shape of Ears. 10 Points.—In variety classes the shape
of the ear should conform to the variety standard. In general
classes the shape of the ear should be cylindrical or nearly so; it
should be full and strong in the middle portion, and the circum-
ference should be approximately three-quarters of the length.
The rows of kernels should be straight and not less than 16 or
more than 22 in number.
3. Length of Ears. 10 Points.-In variety classes the length
should conform to the variety standard. In general classes the
length should be 8% inches in Section 1; 9% inches in Section 2;
and 10 inches in Sections 3, 4 and 5 (see page 287); for deficiencies
in length, cut at the rate of one point for each inch.
4. Color of Grain and Cob. 10 Points.-The color of the grain
should be true to variety, even in shade, and free from mixture.
White corn should have white cobs and yellow corn, red cobs. For
each mixed or crossed kernel on an ear a cut of two-tenths of a
point should be made. Varying shades of color in grain or cob
should be cut according to the degree of variance from the stand-
ard.
5. Tips of Ears. 5 Points.-The form of the tip should be
regular and not too tapering. It should be well covered with
straight rows of regular kernels, of uniform size and shape. Pro-
portion of tip covered must be considered, but irregular, shallow
*All specific rules for scoring based on ten-ear exhibits.
286 CoRN GROWING
or small kernels may be more objectionable than uncovered tips.
Cut one-half point for each tip exposed one inch. For irregu-
larities and lesser exposures cut from one-tenth to one-half point
according to judgment.
6. Butts of Ears. 5 Points.—The rows of kernels should
extend in regular order over the end of the cob, leaving a de-
pression when the shank is removed. Open, swelled, expanded,
flattened and pinched butts are objectionable. Cut from one-
tenth to one-half point according to judgment.
7. Kernel. (a) Shape, 10 Points.-In variety classes the shape
of the kernel should conform to the variety standard. In general
classes the shape of the kernel should conform to the “General
Standard of Perfection for Indiana.” The tips of the kernels
should be full and strong, leaving no space between them near the
cob. Towards the crowns the edges of the kernels should be so
shaped as to leave merely enough space between the rows to facil-
itate drying. Shrunken or pointed tips and badly rounded crowns
should be heavily cut.
(b) Indentation. 5 Points.-The crowns of the kernels should
be rather deeply dented but not pinched or chaffy. The dent
should extend evenly across the kernel and there should be no
sharp or pointed margins. .
(c) Uniformity. 10 Points.-Whatever the character of the
kernel, it should be uniform for each ear and throughout the ex-
hibit. .
8. Seed Condition. 15 Points.-The ears should be well
matured, firm and sound. The germ should be uninjured, large,
bright, fresh and vigorous looking.
9. Proportion of Grain to Cob. 10 Points.—In variety classes
the proportion of grain to cob should conform to the variety stand-
ard. In general classes it should be not less than 86 per cent.
For each per cent. below standard, cut the exhibit two points.
GENERAL STANDARD OF PERFECTION FOR INDIANA
A perfect ear of corn should be cylindrical or nearly so in
shape. The circumference of the ear should be about three-
fourths of its length. The rows should be straight and not less
than 16 or more than 22 in number. The kernels should be well
formed, (about five-sixteenths of an inch wide by five-eighths
of an inch long), uniform in size and shape, and six to the inch in
the row.
CoRN GRowing 287
INDIANA SECTIONS BY Counties
For regular corn shows held under the auspices of the Indiana
Corn Growers’ Association the State has been divided into sec-
tions by counties as follows:
Section 1. Standard length, 8% inches. Counties—Lake,
Newton, Jasper, Porter, Laporte, Starke, Pulaski, Fulton, Mar-
shall, St. Joseph, Elkhart, Kosciusko, Whitley, Noble, LaGrange,
Dekalb, Allen, Steuben.
Section 2. Standard length, 9% inches. Counties—Benton,
Warren, Tippecanoe, White, Cass, Carroll, Clinton, Tipton, How-
ard, Miami, Wabash, Grant, Delaware, Blackford, Huntington,
Wells, Adams, Jay, Randolph. -
Section 3. Standard length, 10 inches. Counties.—Fountain,
Vermillion, Parke, Putnam, Montgomery, Boone, Hendricks,
Morgan, Johnson, Marion, Hamilton, Madison, Hancock, Shelby,
Rush, Henry, Wayne, Fayette, Union.
Section 4. Standard length, 10 inches. Counties.—Vigo,
Owen, Clay, Sullivan, Knox, Daviess, Greene, Martin, Lawrence,
Monroe, Brown, Bartholomew, Jennings, Ripley, Decatur,
Franklin, Dearborn.
Section 5. Standard length, 10 inches. Counties—Gibson,
Posey, Wanderburg, Warrick, Pike, Dubois, Spencer, Perry, Craw-
ford, Orange, Washington, Harrison, Floyd, Clark, Scott, Jeffer-
son, Switzerland, Ohio.”
THE GERMINATION TEST"
“No farmer can afford to neglect testing the vitality of his seed
corn, no matter how carefully it has been stored. There are so
many ways in which the vitality of seed corn may be injured that
it is never safe to assume that all of it is in good condition. There
may not be a single ear that will not grow, but there are very likely
to be odd ones that are weak, and these are the ones which the germ-
imation test will help to weed out. Any one familiar with corn
can detect a dead germ and pick out the ears that have been fatally
injured, but a weak germ cannot be detected by any other means
than the actual germination test. Every weak ear that goes to
the planter means several hundred of weak plants, or vacant
places in the field, and a corresponding loss in yield.
The germination test may be made in various ways, but in all
cases each ear should be tested by itself. Experiments have
1 Purdue Circular 25.
288 CoRN GROWING
amply shown that as a rule the testing of a few kernels, picked at
random from different parts of the ear, will safely determine wheth-
er or not the ear should be used for seed. The individual ear test
is the only means of finding out which are the poor and which
are the really good ears.
The requisites for germination are moisture, warmth and air.
Any convenient receptacle in which these can be provided will
answer the purpose.
A GOOD TESTER
A convenient tester, and the kind we would strongly recom-
mend every farmer to use, consists of a wooden tray about
two inches deep, two and a half feet long and two feet
wide, strung with light fence wire, one and three-quarter
inches apart each way, and an inch and a half above the bottom,
and filled up to the wires with moist sand. The cross wires per-
manently mark off the surface of the sand into one and three-
quarter inch squares. Each square serves to hold the kernels to
be tested from a single ear. If much corn is to be tested several
of the testers should be provided. They are easily made and
with good care will last for many years. For the average farmer
one will be sufficient as about three bushels of seed corn can be
tested at one time.
When making tests, some convenient system of arranging the
ears on a rack, table or floor must be employed, so that the ear
corresponding to a certain square in the tester may be readily
located. The test should be made with about five kernels per
ear, and they should be taken from various part of the
ear. One should look out for elevated or swollen spots when
selecting kernels for the test, because wherever these occur
the cob is probably more or less spongy and retained moisture
after the rest of the ear was dry and out of danger of being injured.
After the kernels have been placed, the material in the tester
must be kept thoroughly moist. Sand is preferred because it is
clean and easily kept in good condition. The kernels should be
pressed well into the sand, but they need not be buried out of
sight. The important thing is to keep them thoroughly moist.
Some kind of cover for the tester must be provided, so as keep the
surface from drying. A couple of panes of window glass make the
most satisfactory cover. With the glass cover, the soil needs to
be moistened only once for each test. The cover should not fit
too closely, as the germination kernels must have some air.
CORN GROWING 289
When moistening is necessary after the kernels have been placed,
a towel or other cloth should be spread on the surface, and the
water poured gently on top. If this is not done, the water poured
on will move many of the kernels out of place.
The filled tester should be placed in a room where the temper-
ature ranges around 70 degrees F., but not too near the stove.
The ordinary living room is about right, provided that it does not
become colder than 55 degrees during the night. All kernels
which do not send out vigorous root and stem sprouts within four or
five days, under these conditions, should be considered as too weak
to germinate properly under ordinary field conditions and the ears
from which they came should be discarded.
PREPARING THE SEED FOR PLANTING
After the seed ears have been properly selected and tested,
they are ready to be shelled and the grain prepared for planting.
The small and irregular kernels at the tips of the ears and the
large irregular ones at the butts must be shelled off first and dis-
carded. Irregular kernels in the body of the ear should also be
discarded as completely as possible, so that only those kernels
which are of uniform size and shape may go to the planter. This
discarding of the small tip, large butt, and other irregular kernels
is very important, because it is impossible for any planting machine
to regularly drop the required number of grains per hill if they are
not of the same size and shape. Many a poor stand of corn is
due solely to ununiform seed. w
Each ear should be shelled by itself and the grain spread out
thinly and carefully examined for broken, mouldy, or otherwise
damaged kernels. It is a good plan to use a set of screens of two
sizes through which to pass the shelled corn, discarding that which
is retained on the larger and that which passes through the smaller.
When seed of uniform size must be used, it should be graded
into large, medium and small sizes, and a suitable planter plate
used for each.
There are now on the market a number of simple machines for
grading seed corn which are very useful when large quantities of
seed are to be graded, but for the farmer who has only a few
bushels of seed to prepare, the eyes and hands are the best graders.
TESTING THE PLANTER
Having graded the corn and made it as uniform as possible,
we must next find the set of planter plates that will drop the re-
8345–19
290 CoRN GROWING
quired number of kernels at least ninety-five times in every hun-
dred. The planter should be set up in a convenient place and
operated by hand, running through a sample of the corn to be
planted and using plates with different sized openings until a pair
is found that will drop the desired number of kernels every time,
if possible. If the best plates available are not quite satisfactory,
the notches must be filed until they do the work as required. All
up-to-date planters are supplied with a number of plates of
different sizes, so that it is only necessary to select the right set
for the corn to be planted.
To some of our readers it may appear that what we are herein
recommending is a little too much trouble, but they may rest
assured that the matter has been carefully investigated and tested
and that it will pay well to give such careful attention to the Se-
lection and preparation of corn for planting.
THE WARIETY OF CORN
In testing the relative productiveness of varieties of corn under
the same conditions, enormous differences have been found.
Such differences are inherent in the variety; they are varietal
characteristics just as much as color, size of ear, or shape of ker-
nel. There are many different varieties, or strains of corn,
differing very much in yielding power. By selecting a high yield-
ing variety, or strain of corn, that is adapted to his soil and climatic
conditions, the farmer can add much to his crop yield without
additional expense. It costs no more to tend a good variety
than it does to tend a poor one. Good varieties can easily be
secured. No one has a patent or monoply on them.
In selecting a variety, care must be exercised to get one that
will mature properly. Much loss has been occasioned by attempt—
ing to grow varieties that are too large and late for the locality.
There is a wide range of difference between varieties produced in
different latitudes as regards the length of season required for
their proper development. The larger varieties of the southern
portion of the State will not mature in the northern portion and
the northern varieties will not occupy the full season, and are
too small for southern Indiana. Seed corn should always be
secured as near home as possible, or at least in the same latitude.
Indiana has good varieties for every section, or at least as good
as can be found anywhere. Nothing better can be secured by
going to other states.
CORN GROWING 291
There are, doubtless, many good varieties or strains of corn in
Indiana, with which we are not acquainted, but in the thousands
of tests that have been conducted throughout the State by the
Purdue Experiment Station certain varieties have been found to
be uniformly superior to others. Among these, the following
may be named:
For the northern counties of the State: Early Yellow Dent,
Wabash Yellow Dent, Dunn's Yellow Dent and Anson's White
Dent. -
For the north central counties: Reid's Yellow Dent, Hudson's
Leaming, Pulaski County Golden Dent, Riley’s Favorite and Sil-
ver Mine.
For the central portion of the State: Reid’s Yellow Dent,
Leaming and Boone County White. *
For south central and southern Indiana: Johnson County
White Dent, Vogler's White Dent, Pride of Indiana, Alexander's
Gold Standard and Johnson County Yellow Dent.
These varieties are all more or less adapted to the sections
under which they are named, the main differences arising in their
relation to extreme soil types.
The farmer who has reason to be dissatisfied with the corn he
is raising should look about for something better, and in this
connection the Station may be able to give valuable assistance in
Suggesting a suitable variety.
After determining upon a suitable variety, the next step is to
Secure good, pure seed to start with by going to a good grower who
has given some attention to corn improvement and who makes
a practice of producing good seed. Here, again, the Station may
assist by pointing out the best sources of supply.
HOME GROWN SEED
The ideal way to secure good seed corn is to produce it at home.
No purchased corn can be as well adapted to the home conditions
as that which may be developed on one's own farm, provided, of
course, that one starts with a good variety. Corn is more sensi-
tive to changed conditions than any other crop. The man who
Secures a good variety and then gives it careful attention, year
after year, planting only the best ears out of the best part of his
crop, has a much better chance of success than the man who de-
pends upon purchased seed, unless, perhaps, in a case where a
neighbor upon whom he can always depend, is giving special at-
tention to the production of good seed,
292 CoRN GROWING
THE PLACE OF CORN IN THE ROTATION
To get the most profitable returns, corn must never be grown
on the same land continuously. The only exceptions to this rule
are the bottom lands which regularly overflow, and perhaps some
peat and muck soil, upon which the field crops cannot be regularly
rotated. On all other lands, continuous corn cropping soon re-
sults in a marked decrease in production. All experiments in
continuous corn cropping on lands other than the exceptions men-
tioned above have shown that the practice is ruinous, no matter
what the system of manuring or fertilizing may be. Corn has
shown itself more sensitive to the ill effects of growing continu-
ously on the same land than any other of our common field crops.
Corn is by far the most important crop grown in this state and
on practically every farm it is likely to retain its present promi-
nent position. What other crops should be rotated with it is a
problem which every farmer must largely work out for himself
according to his particular conditions, remembering that to get
the best results a rational rotation must be practiced; that is,
the corn crop must be alternated with some other suitable crops.
What these other crops should be and how many different ones
should be included in the rotation will depend upon a number of
factors, among which are the kind of farming carried on, the kind
of soil and its degree of fertility, the kinds of crops which the local
conditions will best produce and the extent to which they may
be profitably used in the system of farming followed. One
cardinal principle, however, must never be forgotten, and that is
that some kind of a legume, usually clover, should have a prominent
place in the rotaion.
Broadly speaking, the three-course rotation of corn, wheat or
oats, and clover will usually be found most suitable on the better
class of soils, using cow peas in the place of clover when the latter
fails, putting manure on the corn, and commercial fertilizer on
the wheat. In order to provide the necessary manure and pro-
fitably use the legume, every corn grower should be a feeder of
live stock. On the less fertile soils, or those otherwise not so well
adapted to corn, a longer rotation may be advisable, as for in-
stance, corn, Small grain, clover and grass, using legume cover
crops and liberal application of manure and fertilizer. Another
rotation, and one which is well adapted to keeping up or improv-
ing the fertility of the soil and seems well worth trying wherever
soybeans or cow peas will do well, is a four-course one consisting
CoRN GROWING 293
of corn, soybeans or cow peas, small grain and clover. In this
case both corn and small grain may follow legumes which are
admirably adapted to precede them. There is abundant evidence
which goes to show that whatever rotation is adopted, the corn
should always follow a legume, as there is nothing else that will
So well or so cheaply fit the soil to produce corn.
SOIL PREPARATION
The first requisite for profitable corn culture so far as the soil
is concerned, is good drainage. It is folly to attempt to produce
a good corn crop on wet ground, no matter how careful the tillage
Operation may be. If the ground is not naturally well drained, it
must be carefully tiled. A good system of underdrains on nat-
urally wet or close textured soil will soon pay for itself and should
in no case be neglected.
The ground for corn must be made loose and mellow by deep
plowing and careful harrowing. Corn requires a deep, mellow
and warm seed-bed. The plowing must be done in such a way
that the furrow slice will be thoroughly broken up and mellowed
from top to botton. Ground for corn should never be plowed
when wet. This is especially important in the case of heavy soils
as no amount of later working will bring the soil back into proper
tilth. Too many farmers make this mistake.
The best time to plow ground for corn will depend upon the
local conditions as to the character of the soil, lay of the land,
climate and previous crop. In localities where there is much
winter rain, or the land is hilly or inclined to puddle, fall plowing
is not advisable, although an exception may be made of tough sod.
On reasonably level lands that will not wash, the question of
whether to plow in fall or spring is largely one of convenience, as
no definite effect upon corn yields has been observed. Grass
lands, however, may be profitably plowed in the fall as this helps
to kill injurious insects, unless it is desired to apply manure during
the winter. In the northern counties of the State where there is
much freezing and little winter rain, fall plowing will be more
beneficial, and especially if it will hasten drying and getting the
Soil into condition for planting in the spring. In fall plowing,
the furrows should be well set up and the land left as rough as
possible for the frost to act upon it.
Where corn follows clover, as should usually be the case, and
especially where manure is to be applied during the winter, the
294 CORN GROWING
plowing should be done in the spring and then as soon as the soi'
is dry enough. The furrow slice should never be thrown down
flat and a jointer should always be used, especially for sod. If
manure is to be turned under, a drag chain should be used to get
it well covered. On stubble land, and even clover sod, whether
manured or not, discing ahead of the plow in spring should be
practiced to more thoroughly pulverize the furrow slice and mix
some soil with the manure or other organic matter before it is
covered, thus preventing any tendency to cut off the capillary rise
of moisture. Spring plowed ground should always be dragged or
harrowed at once to prevent the formation of clods and loss of moist-
wre. It is a true saying that the farmer can do more to insure a
good corn crop by thorough soil preparation before planting than
by any amount of later cultivation.
TIME OF PLANTING
The best time to plant corn will depend upon the weather
conditions and the condition of the seed-bed. The soil must be
mellow and warm. Corn is a warm weather plant and must never
be planted in cold or wet soil. In southern Indiana, on well
drained soil, the planting can usually be done in the last few days
of April or the first few days of May, while in northern Indiana
where spring comes later, it will usually be the middle of May be-
fore conditions are favorable. The only rule that can be followed
is to plant as soon as the weather becomes warm and the seed-bed
can be put into good condition. Corn needs a long season of
growth in order to do its best and planting should always be done
as early as the soil and weather are fit. Good drainage and
proper tillage methods will do much to make early planting pos-
sible.
CULTIVATION OF CORN
In cultivating corn, the prime objects to be attained are to
keep the soil mellow and free of weeds. Unless the ground is
too wet, the first operation after planting should be to give the
field a general harrowing. If the ground has become at all crusted,
this should be done before the corn comes up. Otherwise, it may
be done after the corn is well up, and preferably during the heat
of the day, when the leaves are not so brittle. This general har-
rowing will do much to destroy the small weeds that have started.
The first regular cultivation should then be given as soon as the
rows can be easily followed. The intervals between subsequent
CORN GROWING 295
Fºr
cultivation must be timed according to the condition of the soil
and the danger of trouble with weeds. Whenever a crust forms
on the soil, it should be cultivated no matter how soon that may
be after the last previous cultivation. In cultivating corn, the
ground should always be kept as level as possible.
No definite rule can be laid down as to frequency of cultiva-
tion. The condition of the soil, the character of the season, and
the trouble with weeds must be considered as guides. The cardi-
nal principles of keeping down weeds and preserving a loose soil
mulch must ever be kept in mind. Cultivation may profitably
continue until tassels begin to show. When the corn becomes too
large for two-horse cultivation, a one-horse, harrow-tooth culti-
vator should be used. Dragging a mower wheel between the rows
in place of the last cultivation with the harrow-tooth cultivator
is recommended by some and answers the same purpose. Under
ordinary conditions about six cultivations will be found profitable.
In a recent experiment, continued for four years by this station,
six cultivations, four ordinary and two one-horse, gave the best
results.
As to the depth of cultivation, it seems advisable under ordi-
nary conditions to cultivate deep the first time and then go a little
shallower each time until the third cultivation is reached, after
which it should be as shallow as possible, in order to prevent in-
jury to the roots. When the soil is in good condition and there
is no trouble with weeds, the cultivation may be shallow through-
out the season. If the soil is well prepared before planting, it seems
that the main benefit of cultivation is to be derived from keeping
down weeds and preventing baking of the soil.
Ordinarily, the kind or type of cultivator that should be used
does not seem to be important. More depends upon the skill
with which the implement is used than upon its kind. In the four
years of experimental work referred to above, which included a
test of the various kinds of cultivators, no definite conclusions
could be drawn as to the choice of cultivator, except, perhaps,
that the exclusive use of the one-horse cultivators does not seem
advisable. If the weeds become large, the disk and the larger
shovel cultivators are most servicable in destroying them. For
Ordinary work, beginning the two-horse cultivator with one of the
medium sized shovel cultivators or a disk and ending with a small
shovel seems to be most advisable. If only one cultivator is to
be used, it should probably be a four-shovel gang or a disk.
296 CoRN GROWING
HARVESTING THE CORN CROP
Without discussing the large subject of how to utilize the corn
crop, probably the only thing that need be said here is that farm-
ers should make betters use of the stalks. An enormous amount
of good forage is annually wasted in Indiana by leaving the corn
stalks standing in the field. The use of the silo for a part of the
crop is to be recommended. The rest should be cut and shocked
as soon as it is ripe, It may then be either put through the
shredder or husked from the shock and the stover fed as it is,
or first shreded. All must admit that the stalks contain a large
amount of valuable feed which should not be wasted.”
HOCGING OFF CORNI
“The practice of turning hogs into the corn field to harvest the
crop, when the corn is matured, is one that is common on many
good farms. In the corn belt farm labor is scarce and costly,
especially at corn husking time. By allowing hogs to harvest
part of the crop the work of husking and cribbing the corn is
saved as well as that of feeding the hogs. The importance of
hogging off corn in its relation to the labor saved depends largely
upon the number of hogs used and the amount of corn hogged off.
The opinion that hogging off corn is a wasteful and shiftless
practice has been more or less common among good farmers.
Feeding tests conducted under average conditions, however, prove
quite the opposite. Rapid and economical gains are made by the
hogs and satisfactory cash returns received for the corn crop
consumed. *
The number of hogs per acre to be used in hogging off corn
depends largely upon two factors, namely, the size of the hogs,
and the yield of corn. It is better to have too many hogs per acre
than too few. If not enough hogs are used in hogging down
corn, part of the crop may be lost, especially if the winter should
begin early. The following table shows the approximate number
of 125 pound hogs that may be pastured on an acre of corn.
If larger or smaller hogs are to be used in hogging down corn an
allowance should be made in estimating the feeding capacity of
an acre of corn.
1. Purdue Extension Bulletin 48.
- CORN GROWING 297
NUMBER OF 125 POUND HOGS PER ACRE
Yield of Corn - 15 days 20 days 25 days 30 days
40 bu, per acre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 18 14 12
50 bu. per acre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 23 18 15
60 bu, per acre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 28 22 18
70 bu, per acre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 33 26 21
Size of Hogs: Hogs weighing 100 pounds or over are better
for hogging off purposes than smaller hogs. They can more
readily break the stalk and get at the ear. Larger hogs will make
more rapid gains than smaller ones, provided they do not become
too fat. This fact is shown in the following table, taken from the
result of hogging down corn demonstrations conducted through-
Out Indiana. -
SHOWING THE NUMBER of Hogs, AvH.RAGE WEIGHT AT BEGIN-
NING, AND THE AvH.RAGE DAILY GAIN
No of Hogs Ave. Wt. Ave. Daily Gain
50 69.0 .90
61 84.6 1.16
247 118.0 1.40
36 147.5 - 2.22
For best results the hogs should not only be of good weight but
they should also be of a growthy type and in medium flesh.
Growing Corn and Soybeans for Hogs: Early maturing va-
rieties of corn and soybeans should be used for hogging off pur-
poses so that the crops will mature early and the hogs will have
more time in which to consume them before bad weather sets in.
By following this plan a larger area of corn may be safely hogged
off each year than if later maturing varieties are grown. If the
area of corn to be hogged off is large some late maturing corn may
be grown and hogged off in connection with early maturing corn.
Time to Turn Hogs in Corn: It is safe to turn hogs into the
corn field when the corn has passed the dough stage and is begin-
ning to harden and dent. Before this stage of maturity has been
reached by the corn it is liable to cause the hogs to scour. Bad
effects do not always result from hogging off corn that is immature
yet as a rule it is an unsafe practice. An advisable practice to
follow is to accustom the hogs to the new corn by feeding daily a
small amount of it at first, gradually increasing the amount until
the hogs are receiving practically all they will clean up at the
298 CoRN GROWING
time they are turned into the field. In doing this it is well to
cut the corn and feed both ear and stalk.
A supply of Salt should be kept before the hogs at all times.
Salt had best be furnished to hogs in the field in a sheltered box.
Some hog feeders use the following mixture which they keep be-
fore their hogs at all times, believing that it tends to keep their
hogs healthy and thrifty:
3 bushels charcoal 2 quarts air slaked lime
8 pounds salt 1 bushel wood ashes
Powder the above ingredients and mix well; add 1% pounds
copperas dissolved in 1 gallon of boiling water and sprinkle over
the above ingredients and mix thoroughly.
ADVANTAGES OF HOGGING OFF CORN
1. More pork produced from the corn crop.
2. Rapid and economical gains are made by the hogs.
3. Labor and expense is saved in harvesting and marketing
the corn crop.
4. Crib space is saved because corn that is hogged off does
not have to be stored.
5. The corn stalks are in better condition for the growing of
next year's crop.
tº 6. The corn crop is fed in the field where grown, thus the plant
food contained in the crop is, to a large extent, returned to the soil.
7. The manure produced by the hogs is evenly scattered
over the land.”
CORN IMPROVEMENT"
DIRECTIONS FOR PLANTING AND CONDUCTING A “SEED CORN PATCH.”
“1. Select twenty-five of the best and most typical ears of
corn from the seed which you aim to plant this year.
2. Make a germination test of each ear, in order that no
weak ears may be planted.
3. Shell off and discard the small and irregular grains from
the tips and butts of the ears.
4. Shell the ears together and mix thoroughly.
5. Test the planter with this corn, and adjust the plates
until the desired number of kernels can be secured 90 to 95 times
out of the 100 drops.
6. At the usual time of planting, plant this corn on the
south or west side of the field to be planted with the same variety.
Note—Do not plant on south or west side if that is near a cornfield planted with
another variety.
1 Purdue Circular 25.
CoRN GROWING 299
7. Give usual good cultivation, keeping the ground free of
weeds, and preserving a loose soil mulch.
8. After the corn is five or six inches high, go through the
patch and remove all the weak and backward plants.
9. When the tassels begin to appear, remove them from all
stalks which are either weak, barren, smutted, badly suckered,
or for other reasons undesirable.
10. When the corn is mature, and not later than October
15th, the seed should be harvested. These seed ears should be
taken only from the strongest stalks, and those bearing the ear
from four to five feet from the ground, and holding it in the
right position.
11. The corn should be put in a dry place, where each ear
will be subjected to a constant circulation of pure air. It should
be thoroughly dry by the first of December, and should be pro-
tected throughout the winter from all sudden or extreme changes
of temperature or humidity. It must be kept above the freezing
point writil thoroughly dry.
CORN INSECTs
There are many species of insects which attack corn in one
form or another, some feeding upon the roots, others on the stems
and leaves and still others attaching the grain. The life histories
of most of these species have been pretty definitely worked out
and remedies prescribed which are more or less successful, accord-
ing to the way they are administered. Owing to the fact that the
corn crop in the middle west usually covers such a large territory,
the common methods of dealing with insects by the application of
poisonous solutions with the spray pump are not only impractical,
but in many cases impossible. For example, those species which
feed upon the roots of the corn plant are, in most cases, entirely
beyond the reach of insecticides, other than repellants. Hence,
the remedies generally recommended for these species consist
for the most part in shifting the common methods of general
farm practice, so as to interfere as much as possible with their
natural habits of feeding and breeding.
Generally speaking, one of the most important factors in deal-
ing with insects of this nature is a well planned rotation of crops.
The farmer who practices a systematic rotation, not growing any
crop two years in succession, will suffer much less from injurious
insects than will the farmer who specializes in one or two crops.
As their favorite food plants are shifted frequently to new ground,
300 CoRN GRowING
they do not have sufficient time to accumulate to any great extent.
On the other hand, allowing the land to remain in sod for a num-
ber of years furnishes a fine breeding ground for such insects as the
white-grub, wire-worms, cut-worms, etc. The effectiveness of crop
rotation is well illustrated in the case of the corn root-worm, which is
strictly a corn insect. Those who practice growing corn after
corn for a number of years in succession, will suffer more or less
from the attacks of this insect. Such other measures as changing
the time of planting, early or late fall plowing, clean culture and
burning up of weeds and trash, are all more or less effective, ac-
cording to the particular case to be dealt with.
The different species of cut-worms pass the winter in the larval
stage, coming out in the spring after their long fast to begin their
feeding with renewed vigor. This is kept up until June or a little
later, when they become full grown and change to the pupa stage.
Where they are known to be present in troublesome numbers,
they may be largely avoided by delaying the planting for a couple
of weeks, as they will then have nearly completed their growth be-
fore the corn is sufficiently developed for them to feed upon it.
For infested sod ground, another remedy is late plowing, thus
turning under a quantity of green stuff, which furnishes food for
the worms until they become full grown.
Such species as the wire-worm and corn ear-worm go into
the ground to pass the winter in the larva or pupa state. Fall
plowing will expose many of these insects to the birds, or their
winter quarters will be so broken up that they will be unable to
re-establish themselves and so will perish. Others will be buried
so deeply that they will be unable to work their way out in the
Spring.
The development of the corn root-louse in destructive num-
bers is largely due to ants, hence remedial measures must be largely
directed against the latter. By late fall plowing, after the ants
have gone into their winter quarters, their nests will be broken
up and they will be unable to re-establish themselves before
winter sets in.
Such insects as the army-worm and chinch-bug pass the win-
ter in dead grass and various other rubbish which affords them
protection. By burning over waste places just before winter Sets
in, many of them will be destroyed.
As regular farm practices, late planting, late spring and early
fall plowing, can hardly be recommended, but in bad cases they
may have to be resorted to. It is better by far to avoid such trouble
CoRN Growing 301
by constant care to prevent the conditions which favor the de-
velopment of the insects in the first place. To be effective, the
whole neighborhood must cooperate in measures of this kind.
The practice of crop rotation, keeping the land free of weeds
and trash of all kinds, late fall plowing of infested lands, and prop-
erly nourishing the corn plant, are about the only practical pre-
ventive or remedial measures that can be applied. To what extent
the effectiveness of certain fertilizers is due to their action as re-
pellants has not been definitely determined, but the application of
manures and fertilizers which produce vigorous growth will at
least help the plants to withstand the injury.
CORN SMUT
Corn Smut is present more or less throughout the State and in
Some cases produces considerable losses.
NATURE OF THE DISEASE
Corn Smut is a disease caused by a specific fungus. This
fungus has the ability of attacking any growing part of the corn
plant with which its spores (the smut dust) may come in contact,
the fresh tassels, the young ears, the green leaves and stalks. The
spores of the fungus live over winter in the old smut masses left
in the cornfield or near by, and the following early summer are
carried by the wind to any corn growing in the vicinity, and there
reproduce the disease. The characteristic, perverted growths,
(the Smut masses), are at first whitish but soon turn grayish, then
black and become changed to masses of black dust, the spores of
the fungus. These spores are distributed by the wind, and may
infect others plants of growing corn from time to time the same
Season, or may live over winter on the ground or on the dead corn
stalks, ready to infect the subsequent corn crop.
CONTROL OF THE DISEASE
From the habits of the fungus causing the disease it is clear
that no seed treatment will be of any service. The disease is not
carried over from year to year on the seed. Treating the seed
does not prevent corn smut. The fungus causing the disease is
carried from one year to the next by the old smut masses lying
in the fields or near by, ready to attack the new crop of corn,
to which it is borne by the wind.
Corn Smut can be entirely eradicated in the course of one or
302 CoRN GROWING
two seasons, or at least reduced to a minimum, by gathering the
smut masses and destroying them. In practice, it has been found
best to go through the fields once or twice during the growing
season and gather all Smut balls, both young and mature, and
again at husking time to collect any that may be found. These
should be completely destroyed by burning or burying. Boys,
or other cheap labor, can usually be employed for the work.
Although the loss from smut rarely rises to as much as five per
cent., yet in practice it has been found that this method of de-
stroying it much more than pays for itself, and does so even if
scarcely one per cent. is present. When smut is cleared from a
farm or its vicinity, it will be slow to appear again.
Animals eating it in ordinary amounts are not injured.”
HOW TO DETERMINE YIELD!
“A record of a big yield to be of value must be honestly and
accurately determined according to standard methods of measure-
ment. -
It is easy to weigh the corn when it is full of water and to
measure a smaller area than that which produced the crop, but
to do so makes the weighing and measuring a mockery and the
record of no value.
Green, sappy ears may weigh twice as much as when dry.
A plat consisting of four corn rows 4,400 feet long and 3.3 feet
apart occupies 1 acre if measured from one outside row to the
other, but by correct measurement it occupies 1% acres of land.
The number of rows must be multiplied by the average width
between rows and this product multiplied by the full length of the
plat to obtain the true area from which the corn received benefit.
To make the records of value and have them comparable from
year to year it is necessary to consider the moisture in the corn
when harvested and weighed. To accomplish this, 100 pounds
of ears should be weighed when harvested, put in an airy place
till as dry as old corn, and then weighed again and shelled. The
weight of shelled corn is the percentage of dry shelled corn, and
multiplying the total pounds harvested by this percentage gives
the yield in pounds of dry shelled corn.
If the acre was harvested directly after the seed was selected,
the harvest weights of all can be reduced to pounds of dry shelled
1 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin 537.
CoRN GROWING 303
grain by the one calculation. But if the seed was selected while
in a sappier condition, a similar process is necessary to determine
the pounds of dry shelled grain taken from the acre for seed.”
REFERENCES
Productive Farm Crops—Montgomery, Lippincott.
The Corn Crops—Montgomery, Macmillan.
Field Crops—Wilson and Warburton, Webb Publishing Company.
Field Crop Production—Livingston, Macmillan.
Cereal Crops—Carleton, Macmillan.
Diseases of Economic Plants—Stevens and Hall, Macmillan.
Injurious Insects—O’Kane, Macmillan.
A Manual of Weeds—Georgia, Macmillan.
Soil and Soil Fertility—Whitson and Walster, Webb Publishing Company.
First Principles of Soil Fertility—Vivian, Orange Judd Company.
Manures and Fertilizers—Wheeler, Macmillan.
Land Drainage—King, Macmillan.
Purdue University Publications:
Experiment Station Circular 25—How to Grow More and Better Corn.
Experiment Station Circular 18–Corn Shows and Selecting, Preparing
and Scoring Exhibits.
Experiment Station Bulletin 110–Corn Improvement.
Extension Leaflet 36—Helps for Corn Club Members.
Extension Leaflet 23—Examine the Condition of Your Seed Corn.
U. S. Department of Agriculture Publications'
Farmers’ Bulletin 537—How to Grow an Acre of Corn.
Farmers' Bulletin 617–School Lessons on Corn.
Farmers' Bulletin 733—The Corn and Cotton Wireworm.
Farmers’ Bulletin 415—Seed Corn.
Farmers' Bulletin 414—Corn Cultivation.
B. P. I. Bulletin 320–Farm Practice in Corn Cultivation
Farmers’ Bulletin 773—Corn Growing under Droughty Conditions.
Farmers' Bulletin 553—Pop Corn for the Home.
Farmers’ Bulletin 554—Pop Corn for the Market.
Soils
SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES*
Material and Equipment—
Samples of clay, loam, and sandy soils, muck, a hand
lens for each pupil, pans or heavy paper on which to place
samples of soil. Note book for each pupil.
Method of Procedure—
Demonstration Exercises:
Have pupils secure samples of four particular
kinds of soil—Sandy, clay, loam, muck.
Other samples should be secured in the com-
munity by the teacher if possible and studied in
class room for further identification.
Examine with the fingers and note differences
in the grittiness of these different types.
Explain the reason for the differences in texture
and color.
Study under a hand lens each type and note
differences in size, shape and arrangement of
particles.
Home Projects:
Each pupil should make a diagram of the home
farm and mark on the diagram the location of the
garden, and the field or fields to be used for wheat,
corn, and alfalfa. The samples of soils to be used
in the laboratory during the year should be secured
by the pupils from these fields and gardens.
Pupils should study the formation of soils as
now taking place in these fields and gardens.
September.
A. Soil Types.
I.
II.
8.
b.
III.
Points of Information—
All soils except muck or peat are derived from the
breaking down and decomposition of rocks. This break-
ing down and decomposition leaves the rock particles of
*The subject matter, under “Points of Information” in this course was Written
by Prof. M. L. Fisher, Purdue University.
(304)
SOILs 305
various sizes. When the particles are rather coarse so
that they can be easily felt and seen, they are called sand,
and a soil made up largely of such particles is called sandy
soil. When the particles are so small that they seem like
powder, the soil which they make up is called clay or clayey.
When fine and coarse particles are about evenly mixed,
the soil thus formed is called loam. Muck or peat soils
are derived from a decay of plants in swamps or shallow
lakes. These soils are the accumulation of ages of growth
and decay. The mass of the soil is almost entirely vege-
table matter, but it contains more or less of rock particles
which have been washed in to the depressions from which
the muck has been formed.
There are several agencies which help in the formation
of soils. Water is perhaps the most active agent. When
it soaks into the rock and is frozen, it has a tendency to
break the rock into particles. When it runs over the rock
surface or rolls rock particles over each other, there is a
wearing away of the rock particles into smaller particles.
When ice and snow accumulate into a glacier and move
over the surface of the earth there is a grinding and crush-
ing of the rock particles until they are so fine that when
the glacier melts they remain behind as soil. Quick
changes of temperature in some parts of the world affect
rock particles in such a way as to burst them apart.
The throwing out of the dirt from burrows by burrowing
animals is also an agency in the formation of soils.
The different kinds of soils mentioned above have dif-
ferent properties of weight, color, temperature, size of
particles, power of retaining moisture, etc. These prop-
erties are called physical properties. Two words are
used in connection with physical properties which should
be thoroughly understood. The term “texture” refers to
the character of the particles whether they are fine or
course. The term “structure” refers to the arrangement
of these particles in crumbs. In sandy soils there is prac-
tically no structure because the particles do not stick
together, but in loams and clay soils the particles stick
together easily and have crumbs of various sizes. Large
crumbs are called clods.
8345—20
306
SOILs
B. Temperature of Soils.
I. MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT
One or more thermometers. Price of each about $1.00.
Clay, loam, sandy soils; one gallon of each.
Boxes, 10 inches long, 8 inches dep, 6 inches wide.
Lime, 1 pint; lamp black, 1 box; tip cups.
One-gallon buckets (one or two with small holes in bottom).
II. METHOD OF PROCEDURE
a. Demonstration Exercises—
1.
i
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Temperature of clay, loam and sandy soils in boxes,
buckets or cans.
Clay soil covered with lime.
Clay soil covered with lamp black.
Loam soil covered with lime.
Sandy soil covered with lamp black.
Loam saturated with water and not drained.
Loam saturated with water and then drained. (Use
box or can with perforated bottom.)
Soil with slanting exposure to the sun.
Soil with vertical exposure to the sun.
Soil with compact surface (both field and laboratory).
Soil with loose surface (both field and laboratory).
Clay soil with which sand (half and half) has been
mixed.
Clay soil with which decayed vegetable matter has been
mixed.
Sandy soil with which loam has been mixed (half and
half).
For each of the above exercises place the soil in the containers
provided (boxes or buckets). Place in the sun and leave from two
to four hours. Insert the thermometer about four inches. With-
in 15 or 20 minutes, or as soon as the liquid in the thermometer
has risen as high as it will, record the reading.
b. Home Project—
The soils used in the laboratory should be collected by
the pupils from plots on the home farms. The plots from
which soils are taken should be those that are to be used
by the pupils for growing vegetables or some farm crops,
such as corn or alfalfa.
SOILs 307
At the time when the demonstration exercises are being
carried out at school, the pupils and their parents should
be taking temperature measurements of the soils on the
plots which the samples were collected. Readings should
be taken once or twice per month during the fall and spring,
and during the winter, when possible. Measuring soil tem-
peratures should not be limited to the selected plots but
should be extended so as to include all conditions affecting
temperature of soils. Complete records of the thermometer
readings should be kept by the pupils. This home work is
important and should not be neglected.
Parents and children should be encouraged to attend the
monthly township institute and discuss with the teachers
the results of the month’s work in agriculture and make
plans for the next month's work. Community betterment
clubs could be organized and in the regular monthly meet-
ings the parents, pupils and teachers can discuss together
the agricultural work.
III. POINTS OF INFORMATION
The germination of seeds is dependent on three conditions:
moisture, heat, and air. The temperature of the soil very greatly
influences the germination of seeds as well as the growth of the
plants. Some seeds germinate best at a rather high temperature
while others germinate best at a lower temperature. The seeds of
plants which were tropical in their origin require high tempera-
tures, corn for example. Crops which originated in temperate re-
gions, like wheat and oats, germinate at lower temperatures. As
a general statement, we may say that a temperature of 85 degrees
Fahr. is most favorable for the germination of common seeds.
As a matter of fact, however, the temperature in the soil of a
field is rarely so high as 85 degrees at planting time. This
partly accounts for the fact that the stand of plants is not in pro-
portion to the amount of seed sown, seeds of low vitality not
germinating. It can be demonstrated in the laboratory that
wheat and oats will germinate at temperatures of 60 degrees Fahr.
quite readily, while corn will scarcely germinate at that tempera-
ture and melons not at all. Clover seed will germinate at still
lower temperatures. Some of the weed seeds will germinate at a
temperature close to freezing. t
Several things affect the temperature of the soil:
308 SoLLs
1. Moisture. When soil is water soaked it will have a low
temperature, due to evaporation of the water from the surface of
the soil. Also the presence of water keeps the warm air from
entering the pores of the soil and warming it.
2. Color. Dark colored soils are warmer than light colored
soils, due to the fact that black absorbs heat.
3. Texture. Coarse, sandy soils are warmer than fine clay
or loam soils, due to the fact that they are well drained and have
large pore spaces for the circulation of the warm air.
4. Slope. Land which slopes to the south is warmer than
that which slopes in another direction, due to the fact that it re-
ceives the rays of the sun more directly.
5. Compactness. A compact soil will become warmer in the
summer months than a less well pulverized soil. This is because
a compact soil will conduct heat better and also because it dries
out more thoroughly than the well pulverized loose soil.
Land well underdrained and well supplied with organic matter
will have a more uniform temperature during the growing season
than soils not in such condition because the moisture content will
be larger and more uniform. The presence of moisture in the
soil has a tendency to keep it cool.
October.
A. Weight of Soils.
I. Material and Equipment—
One gallon buckets or cigar boxes, pair of either spring
or balance scales, one gallon of each type of soil.
II. Method of Procedure—
a. Demonstration Exercises:
Weigh a measured quantity of the different
types of soil.
Calculate the weight per cubic foot of each type.
How does the structure of good soil affect the
weight?
Explain why sandy soils are considered “light.”
What effect does organic matter have on the
actual weight of a soil?
b. Home Projects:
The samples of soils should be those collected
from the home fields and gardens. Plans should be
made for adding organic matter to the clay and
sandy soils in the gardens and in the fields to be
used for corn or alfalfa.
SoLLs 309
III. Points of Information.
Soils are usually spoken of as being “heavy” or “light.” These
two terms do not refer to the actual weight of the soil in pounds,
but to the ease of cultivating. Soils which contain a good deal
of sand are called light soils because they are easy to plow and
cultivate and never produce clods. Soils which have a large
amount of clay material and not much vegetable matter in them
are spoken of as heavy soils. These soils, when they are dry,
form hard clods and are difficult to plow and cultivate. Light
soils being sandy, usually drain quickly and warm up early in the
Spring and are adapted to early crops like vegetables. Heavy
Soils drain more slowly and do not warm up so quickly and are
s better adapted to summer crops like corn.
In actual weight sandy soils are the heaviest and muck or
peat soils lightest. Loams and clay soils are medium weight.
Sandy soils often weigh as much as 100 lbs per cubic foot, while
garden loam soil will not weigh more than about 70 lbs. The
amount of vegetable (organic) matter in the soil not only affects
its actual weight but also affects the ease with which it can be
tilled. The more organic matter, the lighter its weight and the
easier it is tilled.
B. Moisture in Field Soils.
I. MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT.
Six tomato cans with string bails.
One spring scales with gram and ounce graduations.
Composite samples of soils to depth of six inches.
Two quart samples each of the clay, loam and sand.
Two half-gallon buckets or glass jars.
Plants with heavy foliage (whole plant) (corn, flower or
weed).
II. METHOD OF PROCEDURE.
a. Demonstration Exercises—
1. Weigh composite sample of each of the three soils.
2. Weigh samples of each after having been thoroughly
dried. (If samples are dry when procured, moisten
for the first experiment.)
3, Set plants in buckets or jars three-fourths full of water.
From one plant strip the foliage. Cover the con-
tainers with heavy paper to prevent evaporation.
Which plant uses the greater amount of water?
How is the water taken up?
310 SoLLs
4. Plant beans, radishes or turnips in loam soils. Use
boxes at least ten inches deep. Bore holes in bottom
of boxes. Set on small sticks so that air can circu-
late through the soil. Keep the soil in one box
thoroughly saturated with water. Keep soil in the
other box normally moist. Note in which soil the
plants grow better.
5. Twice each week for three weeks stir, to the depth of
three inches, wet clay soil, in a box about 2 feet long,
1% feet wide and 1 foot deep.
Through the school and home work, information should be
obtained on (a) amount of water used by plants, (b) why water
is necessary, (c) how plants feed, (d) why plants sometimes wilt
when there is some moisture in the soil, (e) why plants die when
there is an excess of moisture, (f) kind of water which plants use,
(g) effect on tilth of soil of too great or too small an amount of
water, (h) best soil for proper moisture content under natural
conditions.
b. Home Projects—
Soil samples should be taken from the plots referred to
under the topic for September. The parents should co-
operate in the manner suggested in the discussion of “Tem-
perature of soils.” Pupils should report in writing the
results of their observation of germination of seeds and
growth of plants in soils of different kinds and of different
degrees of moisture content.
The home work is more important than the school
laboratory exercises and should not be neglected under any
circumstances. The facts that the pupils are to use the
home plots for practical work during the summer should
be given proper emphasis at all times.
III. POINTS OF INFORMATION.
In order that a plant may grow well, it needs to have a suffi-
cient supply of moisture. The water makes the cells of the plant
turgid. This turgidity keeps the plant erect and thrifty. When
plants begin to wilt it is due to the lack of sufficient water in the
cells to keep them turgid or completely full. The plant obtains
this moisture from the water in the soil. In the soil the water is
contained on the surface of the soil particles and in the very small
SOILs 3 : 1
pore spaces between them. The very fine roots of the plant come
in contact with this moisture and absorb it and pass it upward to
the leaves of the plant. This moisture not only keeps the cells
turgid but it also carries the plant food in solution. This plant
food is nitrogen, phosphorous, potash, iron, etc. In the leaves
these various elements are combined with the carbon which the
leaves have taken from the atmosphere, and the various tissues
which go to make up the plants are thus formed.
It has been noticed that some plants withstand dry weather
better than others. This is due to the fact that they can obtain
moisture from the soil where other plants cannot. Also to the
fact that they do not use as much moisture as others. Plants
which have deep roots, like alfalfa, scarcely ever suffer from dry
weather while plants with their roots near the surface, like grass,
dry up in a dry period.
It is also true that it is easier for plants to get the moisture
which is contained in sandy soils than to get the moisture contained
in clay or loam soils. A clay or loam soil may have ten or twelve
per cent. moisture in it when the plant is wilting while in a sandy
soil when the plant begins to wilt, the moisture may be as low as
three or four per cent.
g
*
November.
A. Porosity of Soils.
I. Material and Equipment—
One half gallon of each type of soil thoroughly dried and
pulverized, bottles with bottoms removed, racks for bottles
four glass tumblers, one graduate, one lamp chimney.
II. Method of Procedure—
a. Demonstration Exercises:
Remove the bottoms from four quart bottles and
make a rack for holding these inverted. Fill each with
a given amount of each of the four soils. Add a defi-
nite amount of water simultaneously to each of the
four bottles and note time necessary for the water to
percolate through the soils in each bottle.
Note total amount of water each percolates from the
time the first drop falls until dripping ceases.
Compact sand and clay soils in these bottles for a
second phase of the exercises and add a definite amount
of water as before. Take readings and compare with
the first part of the exercise.
312 SOILs
Why does the water percolate faster through sand
than clay soil?
Does compacting affect the rate of percolation in
sand? In clay? Why? What effect does the soil
type have upon drainage requirements?
b. Weigh the chimney before it is filled. Also, weigh the
dry soil before it is filled in. After the water has risen to
the top of the soil, lift the chimney out of the water and
suspend it over night so it can drain. Cover the top
to prevent evaporation. The next day, or in a couple
of days, weigh the chimney and the soil. Subtract the
weight of the chimney and dry soil. The remainder is
the amount of capillary water taken up by the dry soil.
Determine the per cent of water taken up by dry soil.
If muck and sand are used the extremes of capillary
retention will be shown.
A number of problems can be made out of this
exercise. Suppose that a cubic foot of dry sand weighs
95 pounds; black loam, 75 pounds; clay loam, 85 pounds;
and muck 40 pounds. Determine the weight of the
soil over an acre to the depth of 12 inches. At the per
cent of moisture found in the above experiments, how
many pounds of water in an acre of soil seven inches
deep?
An inch of rainfall means 5.2 pounds of water on a
sq. ft. of surface. How many inches of rainfall is repre-
sented in the above cases?
If 20% of the capillary capacity is best for growth,
how many inches of rain will it take to make a real dry
soil nice and moist to depth of seven inches?
c. Home Projects:
The pupils should make a study of the soils and
drainage conditions in the home fields and gardens.
Does the water percolate down through the soil after
a rain or does it pass away over the surface to a great
extent? Plans should be made to improve the porosity
of soils through which the water will not percolate.
III. Points of Information.
If a tumbler be filled with shot, it can easily be seen that there
are spaces left between the particles. If shot are of different sizes,
the spaces will be different. If the tumbler be filled with shot of
SOILs 313
various sizes, the nature of the spaces will be still different. These
different sized shot may be used to represent the different sized
particles that go to make up the soil. When these different sized
particles of soil are massed together, there are spaces left between
them. These are called pore spaces. Now the pore spaces in the
soil are influenced not only by the size of the particles making
up the soil, but by the amount of organic matter in the soil and
the way in which the soil is compacted. A loose soil will have more
pore spaces than a compact soil.
A soil which has large pore spaces takes up rainfall very
quickly while one with small pore spaces allows a dashing rain to
run off its surface before it can soak it up. It can be seen, there-
fore, that a sandy soil, which has large pore spaces, will absorb a
rain quickly and let it percolate down through its mass without
much resistance, but in the case of a clay soil, the pores are so
small that the water cannot enter readily and a great deal of the
rainfall will run off the surface and such as does enter the soil will
percolate slowly, due to the small sized pores. Thus it can be seen
that a sandy soil does not require much tile draining, while a clay
or loam soil will require more drainage.
B. Capillary Water in Soils.
I. MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT.
Clay, sandy, and loam soils, muck (1 qt. of each)
four lamp chimneys (or 1%" to 2" glass tubes from 2
feet to 5 feet in length.)
Muslin and twine string.
Shallow pans.
Racks for chimneys or glass tubes.
II. METHOD OF PROCEDURE.
a. Demonstration Exercises—
1. Fill one chimney or tube with clay soil, one with
loam, one with sand and one with muck. Muslin must be
tied over the bottoms of the containers to prevent the dirt
from falling through. Set the chimneys or tubes in pans
containing an inch of water, or suspend them in racks and
set under them cups or pans containing water. In which
soil does the water rise most rapidly? Why? If long tubes
are used, in which soil does the water rise highest? Why?
314
SOILs
b.
What is capillary water? What is free water? What is
hydroscopic water? Form of water used by plants. Why
free water is harmful. Relation of this exercise to practical
farm problems.
2. Thoroughly mix a pint of loam with a pint of sand,
a pint of clay with a pint of loam, three-fourths of a quart
of clay with one-fourth of a quart of vegetable matter
fully decomposed and finely pulverized, one pint of sand
with one pint of pulverized, decomposed vegetable matter.
Continue as under exercise No. 1. Can clay and sandy
soil be improved for upward movement of water?
3. Fill a chimney or a tube half full of loam, then put
in an inch of wheat, oats or clover chaff, and then fill with
loam. In another sample use small clods instead of chaff.
Continue as under exercise No. 1. What effect does the
seed bed have on the capillary movement of water?
Home Projects—
Have the pupils study the conditions of the soil in the
fields and the home gardens in which the corn and vegetables
are to be grown next summer. In the light of information
gained from the laboratory experiments, have the pupils
determine whether or not the soils in the fields and gardens
are in condition to facilitate both the downward and up-
ward movement of water through them, and whether or
or not the soils can be improved in these particulars. How
can they be improved?
III. POINTS OF INFORMATION.
Water exists in the soil in three conditions:
1. Free, or hydrostatic.
2. Capillary.
3. Invisible, or hygroscopic.
Capillary water is so called because it exists in the very small
(capillary) pore spaces of the soil. It not only fills the small pore
spaces but it also covers the surface of the small particles with a
thin film of moisture. While the capillary water is thus contained
in the soil, free water is that which may exist in the large pore
spaces of the soil and is free to drain away if there is opportunity
for it to escape, as for example, through tile drains or a gravelly
subsoil. Free water does not remain if there is opportunity for
SOILs 315
it to escape. Capillary water remains until it is used up by plants
or carried away by evaporation.
Capillary water moves in the soil by creeping over the surface
of the particles. The movement is toward the place of less moist-
ure. Everyone has observed how the oil moves upward in the lamp
wick or how the chunk of loaf sugar sucks up water. Both these
cases are instances of capillary movement. The action in the soil
is similar. -
The capillary water in the soil is the only one of the three
forms that is useful to plants. It is the moisture which the plant
roots absorb and it contains the plant food in solution which the
plant uses for building up its tissues. Ordinary soils will hold cap-
illary water to the extent of about 35% of their volume. This
percentage of capillary water is more than is good for the growing
of plants and seeds. About 15 to 20% of the capillary moisture
is best for the growing of plants. Free water in the soil is likely
to be harmful because it closes up the large pores of the soil and
prevents its aeration and if it has to escape by evaporation it
keeps the temperature of the soil reduced.
December.
A. Physical Effect of Lime on Soils.
I. Material and Equipment—
One quart of clay soil.
One-fourth pint of slaked lime.
Two 8-inch test tubes or two long olive or pickle bottles.
Two tin pie pans.
One tablespoon, one teaspoon.
One fourth pint of decomposed, pulverized organic
matter.
II. Method of Procedure—
a. Demonstration Exercies:
1. Add a tablespoonful of lime to a half pint of clay
soil. Mix with water to the consistency of a thick
batter. Mix another half pint of clay soil to the con-
sistency of a thick batter, without adding lime. Have
both samples equally wet. Dry both samples thor-
oughly and note which can be pulverized most easily.
With a half pint of clay soil mix one-fourth pint of
Organic matter. Make a batter. Does this sample
crumble as readily as the sample containing lime?
Would it be advisable to add either organic matter or
316 SoLLs
lime to heavy clay soils? Why? Which would be
better for permanent improvement? What is an eco-
nomical way of adding organic matter to soils?
2. Fill each of the test tubes or long small bottles
with water. Into each container put one tablespoonful
of clay soil. Into one of the containers put one tea-
Spoonful of lime. Shake each container vigorously.
Set them aside and note results. In which does the
water clear up first? Why?
b. Home Projects:
Have the pupils study with their parents the clay
soils to be used for growing corn or vegetables. If
these soils need organic matter, provision should be
made for supplying it. If organic matter cannot be
supplied, lime should be used. Care must be taken in
applying lime, because there is danger of burning out
the organic matter already in the soil. -
III. Points of Information—
Under the natural conditions the soil particles cling together
and form crumbs of varying size. It is this crumb structure of
the soil, which when it is plowed and cultivated, at proper moisture
conditions, makes the soil mellow and easily pulverized. A soil
which has good crumb structure is easily drained because the water
finds it easy to move downward through the soil to the tile. Of
course in sandy soils we find no crumb structure, but most of the
loam soils and the better clay soils have a good crumb structure
which enables them to permit drainage to good advantage.
Where the soil lacks good crumb structure it is possible to bring
about a better condition. Two or three things are necessary to do
this.
1. The ground should be plowed and cultivated
only when the moisture condition is right. This condi-
tion can be determined only by the farmer who is hand-
ling the particular soil.
2. The introduction into the soil of organic matter
in the form of stable manure or green manure will have
a tendency to improve the crumb structure.
3. The application of lime to the land will have a
decided effect upon its flocculation. One can observe
the effect of lime by taking a teaspoonful of soil and
stirring it thoroughly in a pint of water, then putting
in about a teaspoonful of lime and stirring it thoroughly
Soi LS 317
and letting it settle. If observed closely, it can be seen
that the particles of soil are settling in little flakes or
floccules. The lime has a tendency to bring the in-
dividual particles together into little flakes. A similar
action takes place in the soil when lime is applied. If
lime is applied to the land for the purpose of influencing
its granulation, as much as two tons to the acre should
be used.
Soil Work for December.
1. Have some of the different forms of commercial
lime to show to the class. Get these from your county
agent. Try to have the pupils understand something
of the chemistry of the different forms of lime. Refer
to Indiana Circular No. 33, pages 1, 2 and 3.
2. Marl is more or less abundant in some counties.
Figure out how much air-dry marl would be equal to
3,000 pounds of ground limestone (common application.)
Suppose the air-dry marl to have 45% of calcium car-
bonate and the usual condition of ground limestone
to have 95% calcium carbonate. Indiana Circular No.
33 will suggest other problems if they are desired.
3. Try the acid test given on p. 263 of Indiana
Bulletin No. 157.
4. If you have a good place to keep them, take
three flower pots and grow alfalfa or clover (preferably
clover) in them. In one pot have a soil that tests sour;
in the second have a soil that does not test sour, ap-
parently neutral; and in the third use a soil that has
been well limed. Try to have the soils as near alike in
other respects as possible.
B. Soil Acidity.
*
I. MATERIAL AND Equipm ENT.
Clay, Sandy, and loam soils, muck (% pt. of each),
four glass tumblers, blotting paper, red and blue litmus
paper, fresh rain water, 94 pt. of lime.
II. METHOD OF PROCEDURE.
a. Demonstration Exercises—
Take a glass tumbler and fit a circular piece of clean
blotting paper in the bottom, lay under this strips of
3.18
SOILs
b.
blue and red litmus paper, add a handful of soil from the
home field, saturate with fresh rain water. After half
an hour note the effect upon the litmus paper by re-
moving the soil and the blotter.
Test samples of the four types of soil in this way.
To another sample of soil prepared in the tumbler
for the litmus test in this way, add a sprinkling of lime.
What effect does this have on the red litmus paper?
Did any of the samples turn the blue litmus red? What
does this indicate? How would you correct this condi-
tion.
Soil may be tested for acid by thoroughly moistening
it and placing it in a piece of blue litmus paper.
Try to grow radishes, clover or beans in boxes con-
taining acid soil.
Home Projects—
The samples of soils to be used in the above exercises
should be collected from the home fields and gardens.
These samples should be taken from about two to four
inches below the surface. Each should be carefully
labeled as to field or garden and exact location from
which taken. The samples should be secured before the
ground freezes.
The fields or gardens that have acid soils should be
visited by the class. Every member of the class should
make a list of the plants found growing there. (In most
cases, perhaps, this can not be done in December, but
the visit can be made in the spring.) They should ex-
amine the texture of the soil, classify the soil, note
drainage conditions, study ventilation of soil, and
observe whether shaded or not. Could the conditions
be improved? How?
III. POINTS OF INFORMATION.
Soils are said to be sour, neutral, or alkaline. The neutral or
slightly alkaline condition is the desirable one for practically all
farm crops. Nearly all of the plants that we call legumes will not
thrive on soils that are called sour, especially clovers and alfalfa.
It is not easy to explain just how a soil is made sour, but some
of the conditions which produce sourness are, lack of drainage,
close, compact nature of the soil, continuous cropping, and ab-
SoLLs 319
sence of lime. Many of the muck or peat beds are sour, due to the
constant decay of vegetable matter, absence of lime, and lack of
aeration. -
Whether the soil is sour or not can be determined fairly ac-
curately by the use of the litmus test. Litmus paper can be ob-
tained from the druggist. When the blue litmus paper turns to a
pinkish color after being in contact with damp soil for a short time,
it is a pretty sure indication that the land is acid. To grow clovers
and alfalfa successfully, it is desirable that the acidity be removed.
This can be done by an application of lime to the land. Crushed or
ground limestone is most commonly used for this purpose and
under ordinary conditions, an application of 2,000 to 3,000 lbs. per
acre is sufficient to correct acidity. It is best to apply this lime to
the surface after the land has been plowed and work it in with
harrowing and disking.
January.
A. Physical Effect of Organic Matter on Soils.
I. Material and Equipment.
One half gallon of clay, one half gallon of muck, six
small tin or galvanized troughs, 1 pint of lime.
II. Method of Procedure—
a. Demonstration Exercises:
Make a batter of clay soil. To one-half of the batter
add one-half as much muck soil. Mix thoroughly. Fill
a small tin or galvanized trough with the batter of clay
and dry thoroughly. Do the same with the mixture of
clay batter and muck. Remove from the troughs and
note how much more easily the sample containing muck
may be crumbled than the sample without the muck
soil added.
Repeat exercises, using lime instead of muck. Would
* it be advisable to add organic matter or lime to heavy
clay soils? Why?
Suggest an economic way of introducing organic
matter into soil.
Explain the effect of the lime in this exercise.
b. Home Projects:
If there are plots of clay soil in the gardens, or the
field to be used for corn or alfalfa, plans should be
made for supplying organic matter to be plowed under.
320 Soils
Pupils should report on information obtained from
parents and neighbors as to their experience in plowing
under clover, alfalfa, rye, cowpeas, or soybeans.
III. Points of Information—
The term organic matter refers to any body which has or has
had life. When speaking of the organic matter in relation to soils,
we refer to plant bodies. The decay of plant bodies or vegetable
matter in the soil is highly beneficial to the physical character of
the soil and to the production of crops. Where there is a good deal
of organic matter in the soil, the land will plow easily, hold moisture
well and be easy to cultivate. The decay of the organic matter
also adds plant food to the soil.
Organic matter can be added to the soil in the form of manures
from the stables or sheds, or, by plowing under green crops of rye,
clover, cowpeas, soybeans, etc., or, by the plowing under of the
stubble which remains from a previous crop residue. Perhaps the
best method of getting organic matter added to a large area in
a uniform way is to plow under a green crop. . Few farmers have
enough stable manure to cover a large area.
B. Fertility of Soils and Subsoils.
I. MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT.
1 quart of clay soil and 1 quart of subsoil.
1 quart of loam soil and 1 quart of subsoil.
1 quart of sandy soil and 1 quart of subsoil.
1 quart of muck and 1 quart of muck sub-soil.
6 tomato cans.
II. METHOD of PROCEDURE.
a. Demonstration Exercises.
Plant beans in 1 qt. of clay and 1 qt. of subsoil.
Plant beans in 1 qt. of loam and 1 qt. of subsoil.
Plant beans in 1 qt. of sand and 1 qt. of subsoil.
Allow plants to grow. Which produce the largest
plant? A.
Why is this soil darker than the sub-soil?
Which is more fertile and why?
Should large quantities of subsoil be turned up by
the plow at any one time? Why is this so?
SOILs 321
What is the effect of the character of subsoil on
drainage?
Mix with a quart of muck, also with a quart of
muck sub-soil a half teacupful of lime. Air-slaked lime
will probably be the easiest to obtain.
Fix up another set of cans and mix about a teacupful
of wood ashes with each cupful of mucky soil. The wood
ashes should be unleached. Cob ashes will be better
than wood ashes. The ashes supply potash as well as
some lime. In these muck cans plant corn instead of
beans. Of course, there should be two cans, one of top
soil and one of sub-soil to which no lime or ashes have
been added.
Get some soil from a ditch bank that has been
lying out for a couple of years and compare it with the
sub-soil, using beans the same as indicated in the outline.
b. Home Projects—
Secure the samples from the home fields and gardens.
Study the characteristics of soil and sub-soil to a depth
of two or three feet in the places from which samples are
taken. This field work will have to be done in the fall
or spring. Pupils should make inquiry of parents and
neighbors as to their experience in plowing up two or
three inches of subsoil at one time.
III. POINTS OF INFORMATION.
Everyone has observed that where the soil has been thrown
out from a deep ditch or excavation, that very few plants grow
on it for two or three years, but gradually this soil becomes cov-
ered with all the plants that naturally grow in the vicinity. The
reason so few plants grew in this soil the first year was because the
subsoil was too raw, in other words, had not become weathered.
This raw soil that has been thrown out of the excavation is sub-
soil. The same result would likely happen in our fields if we were
to plow several inches deeper than usual and throw up on the sur-
face three or four inches of the under soil. This under soil con-
tains about as much plant food as the upper soil, especially of those
elements we call minerals. It does not contain so much nitrogen.
After this subsoil has been subjected to freezing and thawing, its
plant food becomes more available and will support plant life.
8345—21
322 SOILs
There is also another factor which influences the productive-
ness of the sub-soil that we have not spoken of heretofore. The
subsoil does not contain nearly so many soil bacteria as the upper
soil. The presence of these bacteria have a decided effect upon
the value of the soil as a place for plants to grow. After the raw
soil has been on the surface for a year or two it becomes infested
with the bacteria the same as the other top soil and so becomes
available for plants. The introduction of organic matter into this
sub-soil also makes it more useful for plant growing.
The nature of the subsoil very greatly affects drainage. Where
the subsoil is hard and compact, the water moves through it very
slowly and it takes some time before tile drains become effective
in such soils. In sandy and gravelly sub-soils the water moves
through very easily and if the sand or gravel layer is very deep,
the water may escape so quickly that the upper soil will be the
sufferer on account of it.
February.
A. Drainage.
I. Material and Equipment—
Four tomato cans, clay, sandy and loam soils (1
quart each), muck, radish, lettuce, or clover seed.
II. Method of Procedure—
a. Demonstration Exercises:
Demonstrate the bad effects of free water on plant
growth by planting seeds in soil which in one case is
kept saturated with water and in another where only
enough water is added to keep the soil nicely moist.
A couple of old tin cans filled with soil will answer
very well for this exercise. Punch holes in the bottom
of one to afford drainage and leave the other without.
In which case do the seeds germinate most readily?
After standing for sometime, note the relative condi-
tions in the plant growth. Why these conditions? Ex-
plain the effects of drainage.
b. Home Projects:
Have pupils observe growth of crops over or near
tile drains and compare with growth of crops on un-
drained areas.
Have pupils plan a system of drainage for the un-
drained fields at home. Have them draw plans of the
tile drains that have been laid in the fields at home.
SOILs 323
III. Points of Information—
By drainage is meant the removal of the surplus water from the
soil. This may be done either by means of open ditches or by
means of tile drains. There are several reasons for draining the
land.
1. The land is ready for tillage earlier in the spring.
2. Larger yields are produced.
3. The quality of the crop is better.
4. The land is easier plowed and cultivated.
Drainage also affects the temperature, aeration, moisture
and available plant food in the soil. Well drained lands have a
higher temperature than soils that are not drained, consequently
a well drained field can be planted earlier in the spring than an
undrained field. Where the land is drained the air has a chance
to get into the soil and aerate it. This aeration will furnish better
conditions for the growth of the plant roots and helps to make the
elements of plant food available. In a drained field the roots of the
plants can extend throughout a larger volume of soil and thus
come in contact with a larger amount of plant food and moisture
and consequently the plants will thrive and withstand dry weather
better than on undrained land. The fact that the roots can grow
throughout a larger volume of soil enables the plants to have a
larger supply of moisture for the dry seasons.
The depth to which land should be drained varies somewhat
but it should be drained deep enough so that the roots of the plants
may have three feet or more of soil to grow in. -
B. Effect of Mulch in Preventing Evaporation.
I. MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT
1 gallon loam soil.
12 flower pots.
Clover or alfalfa seed.
Two J/3 gallon buckets, or 6 tomato cans.
Clay, loam and sandy soils and muck.
Pair of scales weighing to 1 gm.
Sawdust, chaff or finely cut straw.
II. METHOD OF PROCEDURE
a. Demonstration Exercises—
1. Fill two flower pots with loam soil and plant seeds
in each. Do not cover the flower pots. Keep the soil
324
SOILS
in each pot in proper moisture condition for the germina-
tion of seeds and the growth of plants. Be sure to put
equal amounts of water in each pot. After the plants
have obtained a growth of about two inches, cover the
soil in one pot with a one-inch layer of dust. Place the
pots in a window and note which plants first show the
need of water.
2. Fill half-gallon buckets or tomato cans with soil,
two with loam, two with clay and two with sand. Sat-
urate with water the soil in each container. Weigh con-
tainer and soil. After the top soil has become dry enough
to be worked, stir to the depth of one inch. Weigh con-
tainer and soil. Cover one sample of loam, one of sand,
and one of clay with dust to the depth of one inch.
Every twenty-four hours, for 10 to 14 days, weigh the
samples covered with dust and those not covered.
Record weights. Which loses the greatest amount of
moisture?
3. Use one pot for mulching with finely cut straw
or chaff. Mulch another with sawdust and mulch, a
third with fine sand and a fourth with dry muck, then
take note of the sign of need of water from the different
pots. If scales are convenient, it will be best to weigh
the pots every few days for at least three weeks. Keep
a record of the weights.
4. It would be interesting to have one or two pots
prepared like the others, but having no plants growing
in them. A comparison of a loss of moisture from the
pots with no plants in and those in which plants are
growing, will show how much plants lose by evapora-
tion from their leaves.
b. Home Projects—
As soon as the soil is ready to be worked in the spring
the pupils should try out on the farms the value of a
dust mulch.
Explain the meaning of a soil mulch. What is a
“dust mulch”? What is the proper depth for a soil
mulch? How often should a soil mulch be renewed?
Why should soil be cultivated after a rain? Methods
of producing a “dust mulch”. Other soil mulches.
SOILs 325
III. POINTS OF INFORMATION.
A soil mulch is a loose layer of soil an inch or two deep cover-
ing the surface. This layer, by reason of its looseness, prevents
the movement of capillary water through it. As the capillary
water cannot move through this loose layer, there can be no loss
from evaporation except such as takes place from the surface of
the leaves of the plants growing in the soil. Because of the effect-
iveness of a mulch in preventing evaporation, farmers are recom-
mended to cultivate their crops in such a way as to produce a loose
covering of a couple of inches in depth in order to conserve the
moisture in the soil for the use of the plants during the warm and
dry months of summer. The best depth of mulch is about two
inches. A shallower depth will not hold the moisture so well and
to make a deeper mulch will destroy a good many of the roots of
the corn or potato plants.
When once a good mulch has been made it will last for ten
days or two weeks without being renewed unless there is a shower
or rain. The heavy soils need to have the mulch renewed oftener
than light soils, because they will establish capillary connection
with the under soil quicker. After a shower of rain it will be
necessary to renew the mulch because the shower will have com-
pacted down the mulch and established the capillary connection so
that evaporation will take place without hindrance.
There is a difference between a dust mulch and a soil mulch.
A dust mulch refers to a very fine condition of the soil in a mulch
while a soil mulch refers to a condition composed of small clods
and crumbs. The soil in most cases will be more effective than
a dust mulch.
It should be noted that moisture may be lost from the soil,
not only by evaporation from the surface but also by evaporation
from the surface of the leaves of the plants growing in the field.
If one stops to consider the large amount of surface presented by
all the leaves on the plants growing in the field and remembers
that each of these leaves is evaporating some moisture into the air,
one can understand that a very large drain is being made on the
Soil for moisture by the plants alone. Experiments have shown that
a corn plant at tasseling time will evaporate a quart or more of
Water a day from its leaves, depending upon the atmospheric
conditions.
326 - Soils
March.
A. Seed Bed Preparation.
I. Material and Equipment—
Four lamp chimneys, two gallons of sandy soil, some
fine clods, one pint of wheat chaff, one quart of loam,
four shallow pans or one long pan.
II. Method of Procedure—
a. Demonstration Exercises:
Demonstrate the effect of plowing under cloddy soil
or large amounts of undecayed organic matter, on the
rise of capillary water. Also the effect of disking or—
ganic matter into the surface soil before turning under.
Use four lamp chimneys, numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4. Fill
all to a depth of five inches with a sandy soil. Finish
filling No. 1 using good loam soil. On top of the sand
in No. 2 put one inch of wheat chaff well packed down.
In No. 3 put two inches of fine clods. Finish filling
Nos. 2 and 3 with loam soil. Complete the filling of
No. 4 by using a mixture of loam and the same amount
of chaff used in No. 2. Set all chimneys in about one
inch of water. Observe and explain results.
b. Home Projects:
The pupils should follow instructions carefully in
the preparation of the seed beds for their home project
work with corn, alfalfa, or vegetables.
III. Points of Information—
If conditions are favorable it is advisable to plow your ground
in the fall, especially in the northern part of the state. The frost
will help to mellow it. Ground that will puddle or ground that
will wash during the winter, should not be plowed before spring.
Spring plowing should be done as early as possible. The depth of
plowing should be determined by the character of the soil, and, to
Some extent, by the previous crop. Double disk the land before
plowing to insure the most thorough pulverization of the whole
furrow slice, and so that large air spaces may not be left under-
neath.
The ground should be thoroughly pulverized. Make the seed
bed for your corn as good as the expert gardener makes for his
garden seed.
SoLLs 327
B. Working Soil When too Wet.
8.
I. MATERIAL AND EquiPMENT.
One pt. each of clay, loam and sandy soil.
Four tin pie pans.
II. METHOD OF PROCEDURE.
Demonstration Exercises—
1. Stir enough water in a half-pint of clay to make
a thick paste. To another sample add just enough
water to make the soil crumble nicely when handled.
Dry both in the sun or by fire. When dry which can
be pulverized most easily?
After the mixture of water, as described in the exer-
cise, wet up both soils again, but make the puddled soil
only moderately wet. Let that dry then pulverize and
see what changes have taken place. Repeat wetting,
drying, and pulverizing several times and see if the
puddled soil will regain its original character.
Also, take some of the puddled soil, wet it up moder-
ately wet and set it out to freeze over night. Thaw it
out during the day, then freeze again. Do this a
number of times and note what effect freezing and
thawing has on restoring soils to their proper texture.
Take two lamp chimneys, or glass tubes, fill one
with soil moist enough to crumble nicely and fill the
other with soil in a puddled condition; let them both
stand for several days in a warm room where they will
dry out, then place both tubes in a pan, or dish of water
and see in which one the capillary moisture will rise
the faster. This will show something of the effect of
working the land too wet on capillary moisture supply
to plant roots later in the season.
2. Mix thoroughly equal amounts of clay and
sand. Make a thick paste out of one sample. Wet
another sample just enough to make the soil crumble
nicely. Which can be pulverized most easily when dry?
Compare samples made of clay and sand with samples
having only clay.
3. Repeat the exercises, using clay and loam.
b Home Projects—
Experiment with small plats in field and gardens.
328 SoTLs
Explain “puddling” of soils. Note relative damage to
clay and Sandy soils by plowing or cultivating when
wet. What can be done to improve naturally wet
soils?
III. POINTS OF INFORMATION.
Every farmer knows that when he cultivates or plows his land
too wet, he produces clods which become very hard. He knows
too, that where his land has been plowed or cultivated too wet, the
plants do not thrive well. This condition is due to the puddling
of the soil by breaking it too wet. Puddling is a condition brought
about by handling the soil when there is so much moisture that
the particles, instead of sticking together in their natural crumb
structure, slip over each other and produce a smeary, sticky mass.
When the soil dries, these various masses remain “smeared” to-
gether and are very hard and compact. That part of the soil not
exposed to the drying of the sun becomes tough and waxy and
the roots are unable to penetrate it and when rains come again the
water does not soak into the mass readily. Thus it happens that
plants growing in such soil are not well supplied with plant food
and capillary moisture and become unthrifty. Where soils have
been puddled by working too wet, there is very little to be done
except to wait for the loosening effect of freezing and thawing.
Frequently it takes more than one winter's freezing and thawing
to render a soil in good condition again. Where there has been
a road or lane through the field, the land is likely to be cloddy in
that place for several years after it is plowed up.
Clay and loam soils are damaged most by plowing or cultivating
too wet. Sandy soils and peaty soils are not much harmed by
being plowed wet.
Soils that are naturally wet should be improved by drainage,
the introduction of organic matter, and plowing only when they
are in the right moisture condition.
April.
A. Commercial Fertilizers.
I. Material and Equipment—
Samples of different kinds (not brands) of commer-
cial fertilizers, tomato cans.
II. Method of Procedure—
a. Demonstration Exercises: O
Study the characteristics of the different kinds of
SOILS 329
fertilizers until the pupil can recognize each kind by
sight, taste or smell. Many of the large fertilizer man-
ufacturers will furnish samples in small bottles at cost
of transportation.
Fill two tomato cans with muck. Mix a small amount
of potash with one sample before filling the can. Plant
seeds in the muck. In which do the seeds germinate
better and in which do the plants grow better?
Use samples of different kinds of fertilizers on clay
and loam soils.
b. Home Projects: -
Make fertilizer tests on soils in the gardens and
fields at home. For this purpose use plots about 1 rod
wide and eight rods long. Leave an unfertilized space of
about three feet between each plot. The diagram that
follows shows the arrangement of the plots and the
kind and quantity of fertilizing material to be used.
This may be varied, of course. -
(See Vivian, pages 226-227).

No Fertilizer.
15 lbs. Nitrate of Soda.
15 lbs. Sulphate of Potash.
30 lbs. Acid Phosphate.
30 lbs. Acid Phosphate.
15 lbs. Sulphate of Potash.

No Fertilizer.
15 lbs. Nitrate of Soda.
15 lbs. Sulphate of Potash.
15 lbs. Nitrate of Soda.
30 lbs. Acid Phosphate.
No Fertilizer. "
330 SoTLs
III. Points of Information—
Do not attempt to build up your soil by the use of commercial
fertilizer alone. If used in connection with the rotation of crops,
drainage, legumes, and manure, a formula containing ten per cent.
available phosphoric acid and two to five per cent. potash is recom-.
mended. Two hundred pounds per acre may be applied when
planting the corn by distributing it along the entire row with a
fertilizer attachment on the planter. If heavier applications are
to be made they should be made with a wheat drill before the corn
is planted. -
Crop rotation is necessary to soil improvement. Plan to have
for your corn ground a field having produced a legume the year
before. Corn should not follow corn as a rule.
Manure is excellent material for soil improvement. This may
be applied at the rate of from 10 to 15 two-horse wagon loads (10 to
15 tons) per acre. It should generally be applied before plowing
and the land disked so as to somewhat mix the manure with the
surface soil before plowing it under. If applied after the ground has
been plowed, it should be thoroughly worked into the soil before
the corn is planted. Reinforce each ton of manure with 50 pounds
of acid phosphate (14%), which may be spread on the top of each
load and spread on the ground along with the manure. This
treatment will render the use of large amounts of mixed fertilizer
unnecessary.
B. Aeration of Soils.
I. MATERIAL AND Equipment.
2 tomato cans.
21-qt. Mason jars.
Clay and loam soil.
Radish, clover or turnip seeds.
2 deep cigar boxes. .
II. METHOD OF PROCEDURE.
a. Demonstration Exercises—
1. Plant seeds one inch deep in puddled clay soil
and in good loam soil in good condition to work. In
which do seeds germinate and plants grow the better?
2. Plant seed in loam soil in Mason jars. Keep
one jar tightly sealed, and leave the other uncovered.
Soils 331
Note results in germination of seeds and growth of
plants. 4
3. Fill with clay soil to within an inch of the top a
tomato can with small holes in the bottom. Fill another
with loam. Weigh separately. Saturate each sample
with water. As soon as the water ceases dripping from
the bottom of cans, weigh again. Which retained the
greater amount of water? Which will contain most air?
4. Plant seeds in loam soil in a tomato can with
perforated bottom. Plant seeds in loam soil in a tomato
can without perforations. When adding water from
time to time put equal amounts in each can. What are
the results in germination of seeds and growth of plants?
Why do plant roots need air? What effect on soil
bacteria has the presence or absence of air in the soil?
Amount of air space in soils? Effect of the excess of
water on the admission of air to the soil. How to secure
proper aeration.
III. POINTS OF INFORMATION.
Air is as essential for plants as it is for animals. The oxygen
of the air is the element needed. Unless there is oxygen in the
soil, seeds will not germinate nor will plants grow after the seeds
have germinated. It is as necessary that air should circulate
through the soil to keep it pure as it is that air should circulate
through our rooms. The winds blowing across a field have the
effect of sucking the old air out of the soil and permitting new air
to enter. Tile drains in the soil also greatly assist in the aeration
of it.
The presence of air in the soil is also essential to the develop-
ment of the soil bacteria. Some bacteria live in the absence of
air and maintain themselves with oxygen by destroying various
compounds in the soil which contain oxygen, but the beneficial soil
bacteria need fresh air.
The amount of air in the soil will depend upon the amount
of pore space as has been stated in previous lessons. Some of the
pore space is filled with capillary moisture and if free water is
present, the larger pore spaces are also filled. The more space
filled by water the less room there will be for air. Under good
condition in the soil the air spaces may amount to 15 or 20% of
the volume of the soil.
332 SOILs
Soils which are heavy and compact need to be so handled that
their aeration will be improved. This improvement can be brought
about by drainage, by careful plowing and by the introduction of
organic matter in the form of stable manure or green manure. Also
the flocculation of the soil by liming will improve its aeration.
SOILS AND SOIL FERTILITY.”
HIGH SCHOOL AND VOCATIONAL GRADEs.
(18 Weeks.)
(1) SPECIAL TOPICs For STUDY.
1. Conditions Necessary for Plant Growth.
A. Essential factors:
(a) Moisture.
(b) Warmth.
(c) Air.
(d) Plant food.
(e) Mechanical support.
B. Essential plant food elements:
(a) Those derived from the air (organic).
(b) Those derived from the soil (mineral) (plant-
ash).
(c) Relative proportions from air and soil.
2. Origin and Formation of Soil.
A. From what are soils derived?
B. How soils are formed:
(a) Decomposition of rocks.
(b) Disintegration of rocks.
C. Influences of composition of rocks on character of soils.
3. Agencies of Soil Formation.
A. Water:
(a) Chemical action.
(b) Mechanical action.
B. Temperature:
(a) Heat and cold (expansion and contraction).
(b) Freezing and thawing.
C. Glaciers:
(a) Action of glacial ice.
(b) Extent of glaciers.
(c) Influence of swollen glacial streams.
*This outline was prepared by Prof. R. C. E. Wallace, Purdue University.
SOILs - 333
D. Atmosphere:
(a) Chemical action.
(b) Mechanical action.
E. Plants and Animals:
(a) Effect of plant roots and root excretions.
(b) Earthworms, ants, moles, etc.
4. Physical Properties of Soils.
A. Mechanical Composition:
(a) Texture of soils.
(b) Importance of size of soil particles.
(c) Classification of soils.
1. How soils are named:
(d) Relation of size of soil particles to:
1. Water in soils.
2. Plant food.
3. Air and temperature.
4. Adaptation of crops.
B. Structure of soils:
(a) Meaning of the term:
1. Granulation.
2. Flocculation.
(b) Effect of structure on:
1. Porosity (aeration).
2. Available water holding capacity.
3. Percolation of water.
4. Weight.
5. General tilth of clay and sandy soils.
C. Methods of modifying structure:
(a) Tillage.
(b) Addition of organic matter.
(c) Freezing and thawing.
(d) Drainage.
(e) Use of lime.
5. Soil Water.
A. Functions of water in the soil.
B. Amount in soils.
C. Per cent. of water in green plants.
D. Amount transpired by leaves to produce one pound of
dry matter.
6. Control of Soil Water.
A. How water is lost from soils:
(a) Percolation.
(b) Evaporation.
334 Soils
B. How to increase the available water supply of soils:
(a) By drainage (where needed).
(b) Increasing organic matter content.
(c) By tillage.
C. How to reduce the loss of water from soils:
(a) By tillage.
(b) By keeping down weeds.
(c) By increasing organic matter content.
7. Drainage.
A. Methods:
(a) Tile drains.
(b) Open ditches.
B. Effect on soil structure.
C. Effect on soil temperature.
D. Effect on soil aeration.
E. Effect on soil washing.
F Effect on available water supply.
G Effect on available food supply.
H. Depth of drains.
8. Tillage.
A. Plowing:
(a) Parts of the plow.
(b) Attachments for plow.
(c) Different kinds of breaking plows.
(d) Depth to plow (factors which determine).
(e) Spring and fall plowing. (Effect on moisture
content).
B. Subsoil plowing:
(a) The subsoil plow.
(b) Purpose of subsoiling.
(c) When subsoiling is necessary.
(d) Best time to subsoil.
(e) Effect on the absorption and retention of
moisture.
(f) Effect on capillary rise of water.
(g) Precautions to be observed.
C. Harrowing:
(a) Kinds of harrows.
(b) Use of different types.
(c) Why the plow should be closely followed by
the harrow.
Soi LS 335
D.
Rollers and clod crushers:
(a) Reasons for compacting the soil.
(b) Effect on moisture content and capillary rise
of water.
(c) Danger of losing moisture after rolling.
(d) Why follow the roller with the harrow?
(e) Kinds of rollers and clod crushers.
(f) Use and purposes of clod crushers.
9. Soil Mulches.
i
10. Ro
t
i
11. Organi
J
E.
What is meant by a “dust mulch”?
How to establish a mulch.
Purpose.
How a mulch reduces evaporation.
Depth.
Frequency of renewal.
Why ground should be stirred after every rain.
ation of Crops.
Meaning of “rotation of crops.”
Why crops should be rotated.
Bad effects of continuous culture.
Use of legume and cover crops in a rotation.
Rotations in your home county.
c Matter of the Soil.
As a source of nitrogen for plants.
Effect on water holding capacity, temperature, and
structure of soils.
As food supply for bacteria.
How humus supply is reduced:
(a) By continuous growth of tilled crops.
(b) By cropping without grasses or legumes.
How humus may be increased:
(a) By proper crop rotation.
(b) Use of farm manure.
(c) Green manuring.
12. Farm Manure.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Production.
Value:
(a) Chemical.
(b) Physical.
Care and management.
Reinforcement.
336
SOILS
E.
Application:
(a) Season of the year.
(b) Amount per acre.
13. Green Manure.
A.
B.
C.
Meaning of the term.
Value.
Best crops to use.
D. Precautions to be observed in using.
14. Commercial Fertilizers.
A.
B.
C.
E.
Complete fertilizer.
(b) Raw materials.
Raw materials.
Sources of:
(a) Nitrogen.
(b) Potash.
(c) Phosphorus (phosphoric acid).
Value depends on:
(a) Per cent. of plant food present.
(b) Relative availability.
Adulterations and fillers.
Home mixing.
Relative cost per pound of plant food.
Reason for use of lime.
Different forms used in agriculture.
(a) Quick or burned lime.
(b) Air or water-slaked lime.
(c) Ground limestone.
Composition of different forms.
Relative efficiency of different forms.
Precautions to be observed in use of quick lime.
16. Bacteria.
A.
Tº
What bacteria are:
(a) Size.
(b) Rate of increase.
Conditions effecting growth and development—
(a) Aeration. (Character of soil.)
(b) Moisture.
(c) Temperature.
(d) Organic matter.
(e) Lime.
SoTLs 337
C. Nitrification:
(a) What it is.
(b) Importance.
(c) Causes,
17 Inoculation.
A. What is meant by inoculation.
B. Reasons for.
C. Methods.
D. Crops which may be improved by.
LABORATORY ExFRCISES IN SOILs FOR USE IN HIGH SCHOOLS*
(1) A Study of Soil Types in the Field—
In communities where a variety of soil types exist,
located conveniently to the school, pupils may be taken
out into the field, and the various types of soil studied.
Attention should be called to differences in color, depth
of soil and to variations in texture.
The general physical character of the surface soil and
the sub-soil should be studied and compared. Time may
also be taken to secure samples of both soil and sub-soil
for later study in the laboratory.
(2) Determination of the Approximate Proportions of Coarse
and Fine Particles in Soils—
Samples of Sandy and clay, or clay loam soils are desir-
able for this experiment. Place a small quantity of each
Sample of soil to be tested in a wide mouth bottle holding
approximately a pint of water, or an ordinary Mason fruit
jar may be used. Fill the jar about three-fourths full of
distilled water if available,(rain water will answer the
purpose if distilled water is not available) and shake thor-
oughly. Allow it to stand for three or four minutes until
the coarser particles have subsided, and pour off the muddy
liquid. Repeat this operation until the water in the jar
is comparatively clear. The finer particles have then been
removed and the coarser sandy material remains in the jar.
By using a known quantity of soil the relative amount
of coarse and fine material may be readily calculated. In
Order to do this the amount of fine material will be ascer-
tained by saving the part poured out of the jar, evaporating
to dryness and weighing, or it may be determined by
difference.
*These exercises were prepared by Professors M. L. Fisher and R. C. E. Wallace,
Purdue University and Z. M. Smith, State Supervisor of Agricultural Education.
8345—22
338
SoLLS
(3)
(4)
(5)
The Effect of Texture on the Capacity of Soil for Available
Water—
For carrying out this experiment, ordinary lamp
chimneys with a cloth tied over one end, or tomato cans
with holes punched in the bottom will serve the purpose.
Use Several types of soil, such as clay, loam, and sandy.
First of all, weigh the container empty, put in about a
pint of soil or less and weigh again. Wet the soils until
they begin to drip and when dripping has ceased, weigh
and determine the percentage of water retained by each
type of soil.
The Effect of the Addition of Organic Matter on the Availa-
ble Water Capacity of the Soil.
A rather sandy soil will be found best for this exercise,
although loam or clay loams will answer, using the same
apparatus as suggested in Exercise (3). Use one series of
soils in the natural condition, and another series containing
ten per cent (10%) of organic matter, such as chaff or peat.
The latter being preferable. Conduct the experiment in the
same way as suggested in Exercise (3). In connection with
this exercise attention should be called to the value of care-
fully saving and applying to the ground all farm yard
manure and crop residues.
Showing How Soils May Absorb Plant Food from Solution.
Use soils of different texture, such as sandy, and clay
soils, and peat, or muck, if available. If the latter cannot
be secured, five or six percent of organic matter may be
mixed with the sandy soil for the purpose of showing the
effect of organic matter on the absorption of substances
from solution. Weigh about fifty grams of soil into a
Small dish and thoroughly saturate with a solution of
diamond dye. Stir thoroughly for a few minutes and pour
off the liquid from each soil into a small glass funnel
containing a piece of filter paper. Collect the filtrate from
each sample in a small bottle and note differences in the
color of each.
Make the practical application of this exercise to the use
of soluable fertilizing materials, and the relative probability
of their loss from the different kinds of soil, calling attention
to the effect of organic matter in absorbing the soluble
Substances from solution.
SOILS 339
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
The Effect of Drainage on Temperature of Soils.
Fill a couple of tin cans with soil, one can being provided
with drainage by having holes punched in the bottom.
The other can without drainage. Wet both soils thoroughly
to the point of saturation. Insert a thermometer with a
bulb about one inch beneath the surface and take tem-
perature reading from day to day, noting differences in
temperature.
The Effect of Slope on the Temperature of Soils.
Where suitable conditions are available temperature
readings may be taken on a piece of land having a southern
exposure and on another having a northern exposure.
Noting carefully differences in the temperature of the soil.
The bulb of the thermometer should be inserted from an
inch to two inches beneath the surface. This exercise can
be very nicely carried out in the spring at the time when the
frost is leaving the ground.
The Effect of Drainage on the Germination of Seed.
Proceed as in Exercise (6), but before moistening or sat-
urating the soil, plant a few grains of wheat or corn. Place
in a warm, well lighted location and observe the germination
of seed and growth of the plants.
The Effect of Depth of Planting on the Germination of
Seeds.
Using a large Mason jar, or preferably a box five or six
inches wide and twelve to fifteen inches long. Fill the
vessel with good loam soil and plant seeds. Plant from
one inch to six inches respectively, beneath the surface.
The boxes should be at least eight inches deep and the seed
placed next to the glass so that the sprouting and growth
may be observed.
To show that Air is Necessary for the Germination of Seed.
A tightly stoppered bottle, freshly boiled water, and
seeds of corn or wheat are required for this exercise. Place a
Small quantity of the seeds in the bottle and fill completely
with the boiled water after it has been cooled. Stopper the
bottle tightly and note results. The same results may be
observed also, in connection with Exercise (8).
To Compare the Fertility of Soils and Sub-soils.
Secure small quantities of good surface and of yellow
compact subsoil if available. Fill one or two ordinary six or
340
SoTLs
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
eight inch flower pots with each kind of soil. Plant seeds
and note the effect on growth.
To become Familiar with the Characteristic Properties of
Common Fertilizing Materials.
Nitrogenous materials.
Have small quantities of nitrate of soda, sulphate of
ammonia, dried blood and concentrated tankage.
Pupils should become familiar with the usual color of
these substances by frequent examination and observation.
In the case of the nitrate and ammonium salts, they should
learn to recognize them by taste; placing a small bit on the
tongue. The relative solubility of the materials should
be studied by placing a small quantity of each substance
in a test tube or a small bottle and adding water. Other
substances besides those mentioned may be utilized, for
example, ground leather, tobacco stems, cotton seed meal,
etc. Note the relative solubilities of the various substances.
A Continuation of Exercise (12).
Potash Materials.
Use small quantities of muriate of potash, sulphate of
potash kainit, and any other available materials which may
serve as a source of potash for plants. Observe their rela-
tive solubilities, color, taste, etc., as directed in Exercise
(12).
A Continuation of Exercise (14).
Phosphatic Materials.
Using acid phosphate, rock phosphate, steamed bone
meal, raw bone meal, and basic slag. Study their character-
istic properties as directed for Exercise (12), and in addi-
tion determine the relative per cent of rock phosphate which
will pass through a screen having eighty to one hundred
meshes to the inch. The finer rock phosphate is ground
the more readily will it become available to plants.
A Continuation of Exercise (16).
To Become Familiar with the Appearance, Properties and
Commercial Names of the Various Forms of Agricul-
tural Lime.
Have on hand a small quantity of quicklime (calcium
oxide), slake lime (calcium hydrates) and ground limestone
(calcium carbonate). Apply a few drops of dilute hydro-
chloric acid to each of the above named materials. Note
SOILs 341
(19)
(20)
what happens. To a small lump of quicklime, the size of an
egg, add water slowly until the lump crumbles or falls apart.
Explain this process of water slaking. Using a known
weight of ground limestone, determine the relative propor-
tion of the various sized particles by sifting through a series
of sieves having, forty, sixty, eighty, and one hundred
meshes to the inch respectively. At least fifty per cent
(50%) of ground limestone intended for agricultural use
should pass through an eighty mesh sieve.
To Test Soils for Acidity.
Place a piece of bluelitmus paper in the bottom of a tum-
bler. Cover the litmus with one or two thicknesses of
filter paper or one of white blotting paper. On top of the
filter paper put about an inch of soil to be tested and
saturate with distilled water. Similarly prepare a second
tumbler as a check, leaving out the soil. Set both tumblers
aside for twenty or thirty minutes and examine the litmus
paper through the bottom of the glass. If the litmus paper
in the glass containing the soil has become perceptibly red-
dened, add ten to fifteen drops of lime water and again ex-
amine the litmus for any change of color. -
Second Method.
Place a heaping tablespoonful or two of soil in a small
dish, add enough distilled water to make the soil plastic.
Insert a piece of blue litmus paper into the soil, pressing the
soil down firmly upon it. Set aside for thirty or forty min-
utes, and examine the litmus for any change of color. Red
indicates acidity, blue, or no change indicates alkalinity or
neutrality.
To Show the Effect on Soils by Working Them. When Too
Wet.
Place a large tablespoonful of clay soil in each of two
Small dishes. Add water to one of them slowly until just
enough is added to moisten it nicely. To the other add
water until the soil becomes plastic or sticky. Allow to
stand for ten to fifteen minutes. Then with a stick or
with the fingers stir up both samples thoroughly. Set in
the sun or an oven to dry, and when dry note the difference
in character between the moderately wet soil and the sample
which was moistened in excess.
342
Soils
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
Calculating the Amount of Plant Food Removed from the
Soil by Average Yields of the Common Farm Crops.
Ascertain the average per cent of nitrogen, phosphoric
acid, potash and lime contained in the grain, straw and sto-
ver of the more common farm crops, such as wheat, oats,
corn, rye, etc., and also, in clover, alfalfa, timothy, soy
beans, or any crop which may be of special interest in the
community. Using the average yields per acre for these
crops, calculate the amount of plant food removed from
the soil by any crop or rotation of crops.
Continuation of Number (21).
To Show the Saving of Plant Food by Feeding the Crops
Grown on the Farm, and Returning the Manure to
the Land, as Compared by Selling the Crop Directly.
Assume that the corn crop yields fifty bushels of grain
and fifteen hundred pounds of stover, containing twenty-
four pounds of nitrogen, nine pounds of phosphoric acid,
and five and one-half pounds of potash in the grain; and
fifteen pounds of nitrogen, four and one-half pounds of
phosphoric acid and twenty-one pounds of potash in the
stover. There would thus be a total of seventy-nine pounds
of actual plant food taken from the soil. Unless this is
returned in some other form, the soil is poorer to the extent
of seventy-nine pounds of plant food than it was before,
in case the crop is sold directly. On the other hand if all
the crop is fed on the farm and the manure produced is
carefully saved and returned to the land, approximately
eighty per cent of the plant food contained in the ration
would be saved, and instead of losing seventy-nine pounds,
there would be a loss of only 15.8 pounds and the remain-
ing 63.2 pounds would go back to the soil in the manure.
This calculation may be simplified by merely calculat-
ing the amount of nitrogen alone in both the grain and
Straw or by calculating all three of the elements, nitrogen,
phosphoric acid, and potash in the grain alone, or in the
Straw alone and still give the pupils a good practical idea
of this sort of calculation.
Continuation of Number (23).
To Study the Capillary Rise of Water in Natural Soils of
Different Texture. -
Use ordinary straight lamp chimneys, or glass tubing,
two inches in diameter and twelve inches long. Tie a
SoTLs 343
(26)
(27)
(28)
(29)
piece of muslin over one end of each tube and fill with the
soils to be used. Place the tube in a pan containing water
to the depth of about one inch. Observe and explain
results. A sandy, a clay and a loam soil will give very
good results.
Capillary Rise of Water as Affected by Plowing Down
Large Quantities of Undecayed Organic Matter.
Use glass tubes or chimneys. Prepare in the same way
as indicated in Exercise (25). Insert into each tube three
to five inches of sandy soil if available. On top of this put
about one inch of chaff or finely cut straw and complete the
filling of the tube with loam soil. Place in a pan of water
as indicated in Exercise (25). Observe the results.
Additional interest may be derived from this exercise by
having one tube containing sand in the bottom and loam on
the top, without the intermediate layer of chaff.
Capillary Rise of Water as Affected by Plowing Under an
Unpulverized or Cloddy Surface.
This exercise may be carried out in exactly the same way
as Number (26), except that cloddy soil is used in place of
chaff or other forms of organic matter.
Weight of Soils Per Cubic Foot.
Use any sort of available container (not too large) the
cubic content of which is known. Fill with soils of different
kinds; ascertain the weight of the known volume and cal-
culate the weight per cubic foot. For this purpose the soils
should be thoroughly aired dry and the computation made
on the basis of the dry weight of soil.
Percolation Experiment of Natural Soils of Different Tex-
ture.
Use lamp chimneys, two-inch glass tubing, or beer bottles
with the bottoms cut off. Tie a piece of muslin or cheese-
cloth over the mouth of the bottle or one end of the tube,
or chimney, and fill with different kinds of soil to within a
couple of inches of the top. Add water to the surface and
note the rate of percolation through the different types of
soil. After filling with soil, the bottle or tube should be
jarred lightly to settle the soil in each. It is well to note
the amount of water added to each kind of soil and the
amount which drips through in a given time, say two
periods of twenty to thirty minutes each.
344
Soils
(30)
(31)
Physical Effect of Lime on Clay Soils.
Use three portions of 150 grams each of clay soil. Add
to one about two per cent of lime (calcium oxide), and to
another about five per cent, and leave the third without
anything. Add water in excess to all three samples and
stir each one to a good, stiff mud. Mould into small cakes
with the hands and dry in the sun or in an oven. When
they are thoroughly dry, crumble with the hands and note
differences in the ease with which they may be pulverized.
How to Conduct a Fertilizer Plot Test.
If sufficient land is available, this exercise may be carried
out under actual field conditions. Where this is possible
plots of one square rod in size or larger should be layed off
accurately. Care should be taken to have the plots on soil
which are as uniform as possible, and fertilizers applied to
the plots as follows:
Plot No. 1. Nothing.
Plot No. 2. Nitrate of Soda at the rate of 160 lbs. per
3, CI’é.
Plot No. 3. Acid phosphate 320 lbs per acre.
Plot No. 4. Muriate of potash 80 lbs. per acre.
Plot No. 5. Nitrate of soda 160 lbs., acid phosphate 320
lbs. per acre.
Plot No. 6. Nitrate of Soda 160 lbs., muriate of potash
80 lbs. per acre.
Plot No. 7. Nothing.
Plot No. 8. Muriate of potash 80 lbs., acid phosphate 320
lbs. per acre.
Plot No. 9. Nitrate of soda 160 lbs., acid phosphate 320
lbs. per acre.
Plot No. 10. Barn yard manure 12 tons.
Plot No. 11. Nothing.
This plan may be expanded or contracted to conform
with given conditions in different localities.
Where sufficient ground is not available or the proper
fertilizing materials may not be conveniently secured the
pupil may be given practice in planning such test by draw-
ing a series of plots on paper, making drawings to scale, and
then computing the amount of each of the fertilizing ma-
terials which would be necessary to apply to a plot of any
SoLLs 345
(32)
(33)
(34)
given size in order to secure the same rate of application
per acre as above indicated.
Calculation of Fertilizer Formulas.
In calculating formulas for home mixed fertilizers it is
necessary to know the percentage composition of the fer-
tilizing materials which it is desired to use. The following
example will serve to illustrate the method of calculation.
Assuming that it is desired to compute a fertilizer formula
having two per cent of nitrogen, ten per cent of phosphoric
acid and four per cent of potash. We would first ascertain
the number of pounds of each of these ingredients that a
ton of such fertilizer would contain. This would be forty
pounds of nitrogen, two hundred pounds of phosphoric acid
and eighty pounds of potash. Assuming again that we are
going to use as sources of these materials, nitrate of soda
containing fifteen per cent of nitrogen, acid phosphate con-
taining fourteen per cent of available phosphoric acid and
muriate of potash equivalent to fifty per cent of actual
potash. With these materials available, how much of each
must be used to make a fertilizer having the desired compo-
sition? This is ascertained by dividing the pounds of each
ingredient that would be contained in the ton of fertilizer
by the percentage composition expressed decimally as fol-
lows:
40 + .15 = 266 pounds of nitrate of soda.
200 + .14 = 1,430 pounds of acid phosphate.
80 + .50 = 160 pounds of muriate of potash.
This gives a total of 1,856 pounds, which is 144 pounds
less than a ton. So to make out the 2,000 pounds we may
add 144 pounds of clean sand or dried screened soil or any
such material to make weight. This will then give us a
ton of fertilizer containing forty pounds of nitrogen, 200
pounds of phosphoric acid and eighty pounds of potash
which in per cent would be 2-10-4 respectively.
In making these calculations decimals have been disre-
garded, but the computation is sufficiently accurate for all
practical purposes.
Continuation of Number (32).
Make various compositions and from various ingredients.
Practice in Home Mixing.
Where facilities are available and the actual fertilizing
materials can be secured, it is highly desirable to give the
pupils some actual practice in mixing the materials in
346
SOILS
(35)
(36)
(37)
(38)
proper proportions for fertilizers of various compositions.
The practice being based on the formulas calculated in
Exercises (32) and (33). The conditions necessary for this
practical mixing are a tight floor, a pair of platform scales
the necessary fertilizing materials, a sand screen, and a
hoe or shovel with which to do the mixing.
Determination of Moisture in Field Soils.
Secure samples of soil from the field, weigh the samples,
dry thoroughly, weigh again and determine the per cent of
moisture, based on the dry weight of soil, the working con-
dition of the soil should be carefully noted at the time the
samples are taken. The samples should also be placed in a
tight jar, such as a Mason jar and quickly covered to pre-
vent loss of moisture by evaporation.
To Show the Shrinkage of Clay Soils on Drying as Com-
pared with Sandy Soils.
For this exercise shallow tin boxes three inches or more
in diameter may be used. Wet the soils until they are in a
plastic condition. Fill the pans, pressing the soil down
firmly and dry thoroughly, preferably in an oven. When
the soils are thoroughly dry, measure the diameter of the
pan and of the soil mass. The difference is due to shrink-
age. This should be calculated in per cent and attention
called to the tendency of clay soils to crack when dried in
the field.
To Show that Organic Matter is an Aid in Reducing the
Tenacity of Clay Soils.
Follow the instructions given in Exercise (30) except
that instead of adding lime add fifteen per cent of organic
matter; otherwise proceed as outlined in Exercise (30).
Effect of Mulches on the Evaporation of Water.
Punch five or six holes in the bottom of several empty
tomato cans with a nail. Fill each can with fine loam soil
from the field. Saturate the soil with water and allow it to
drain until the soil is in a workable condition. Weigh the
cans. With a sharp stick stir the soil in one can to a depth
of three-fourths of an inch. Stir the surface of the second
can to the depth of an inch and a half. Leave a third can
without any surface treatment. Expose all cans to the same
conditions of sunlight and air currents. Weigh every other
day for a week or more, and note carefully the losses in
weight from the different cans. This is due to the evapora.
tion of moisture. * -
SOILs 347
(39)
(40)
Effect of Different Kinds of Mulches.
Proceed as in Exercise (38), and when the soils are dry
enough to cultivate, remove an inch of soil from the sur-
face in all the cans but one. Replace this inch of soil as
follows:
In one can place dry sand or dry sandy soil. In a second
use a fine, dry clay, in a third use very finely cut straw, or
chaff. Proceed and note results as directed in Exercise
(38).
Additional cans and other mulching materials may be
used according to the needs and facilities available. If
larger cans are available, the experiment will be more accu-
rate. This is also true in Exercise (38).
To observe the Effect of Having a Loose Soil Surface on
the Absorption of Rain Water.
Use a half dozen straight lamp chimneys, or two-inch
glass tubes, ten or twelve inches in length. Tie a muslin
dam over an end of each tube. Fill two tubes with clay,
two with loam and two with sand. With a wooden stick
compact the sand in one tube, the clay in one tube, and the
loam in one tube. Leave the soil in the other tubes
unpacked. Add exactly the same amount of water to
each tube and note the time necessary for the water to
disappear beneath the surface.
Call attention to the practical application of this exer-
cise to field practice. It shows the ability of a loose surface
to absorb rainfall as compared with the same ability where
the soil is close and compact.
REFERENCES
Manures and Fertilizers—Wheeler, Macmillan Co.
Soil and Soil Fertility—Whitson and Walster, Webb Publishing Co., St. Paul,
Minn.
First Principles of Soil Fertility—Vivian, Orange Judd Co., New York.
Fertilizers and Crops—VanSlyke, Orange Judd Co.
Farm Manures—Thorne, Orange Judd Co.
Land Drainage—King, Macmillan.
Soils and Permanent Fertility—Hopkins, Ginn Co.
Fertilizers—Voorhees, Macmillan.
Soils–Lyon, Fippen and Buckman, Macmillan.
Soils and Plant Life—Cunningham and Lancelot, Macmillan.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' B. 761.
Purdue Publications:
Extension Bulletin No. 31. (Available in quantities for class use.)
Experiment Station Circular 33—Bul. 155, 157, 187 and 198.
CROPS*
SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES
September. -
A. Corn.—Seed Selection.
Material and Equipment—
1. As many types of racks for drying seed corn as you
can devise or find. Other methods of caring for
corn as hanging from rafters, etc.
2. A few stalks that are as near the ideal as possible,
before visting the field.
3. Some good seed ears.
Demonstration Exercises—
1. Go into the field and study types of stalks and ears.
This may be preceded by a laboratory period in the
school.
2. Gather ears for seed and use racks and other devices
for hanging to dry.
3. Compute area planted by one good ear of corn.
Points of Information—
Seed corn may be selected (1) early in the fall before it freezes,
usually in September or October. (2) At the time of husking
by having a box or bag for the best ears. (3) In the spring from
the crib. - 4. *
All three methods are practiced but with different results.
The first method has several advantages over the other two. The
corn should not be left to freeze in the field and the stalk should
be considered in making the selection. The work is of sufficient
importance, as may be seen by Exercise 3 above, to give one's
whole attention to the matter, which is not possible at husking
time.
In selecting the corn, consider the following points: (1) The
ear should be from a stalk standing erect. (2) The ear should hang
about midway of the stalk at convenient height for husking.
(3) The ear should point slightly forward, not downward nor
straight up. (4) Seed corn should be selected from stalk growing
under normal conditions, by which we mean that when a stalk
... *The subject matter for this course was prepared by Prof. M. L. Fisher, Purdue
University. (348)
CRoPs 349
produces a better ear than those about it, and no good reason can
be assigned, it is probably one of more inherent merit than where
unusual space or excessive fertility explains the good ear. (5)
Finally the ear should be so suspended that it will get a good cir-
culation of air and should not be subjected to extreme heat or
cold. Dry cellars, basements or attics, if free from mice and
rats, may be used for storing corn. The use of screen wire to keep
away mice and rats, and moth balls or naphthalene to protect
from grain moths, is recommended when the corn is finally stored
for the winter.
B. Wheat Seeding.
I. MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT
Map of U. S.
Some wheat stubble with larvae of Hessian fly.
A sample of wheat.
Two boxes, 16" x 20' and 6” deep.
z Enough soil to fill the boxes.
Samples of fertilizers.
II. METHOD OF PROCEDURE
Demonstration Exercises—
1. Study the climate conditions for growing wheat
and the time when the fly works on the wheat.
2. Study the difference between pastry flour made
from Indiana wheat and the best bread flour made from
selected spring wheat.
3. Fill one box with well pulverized loam soil pre-
pared as a model seed bed for wheat and the other box with
cloddy soil not well worked. Two small plats on the school
grounds or on a farm nearby would be better for the pur-
pose and should be sown in wheat at proper time.
4. Look for Hessian fly pupae in old wheat stubble.
Examine fertilizer by smell, taste and touch. (Note the
tag attached). Study grain drill as to method of adjusting
to sow different quantities of seed and fertilizer.
5. Note and record the date that first field of wheat
in the community was sown; also the last field.
6. How many farmers in the community used ferti-
lizers on their wheat ground? What brands of fertilizers
were used? How much was applied per acre?
350 CROPs
7. Examine fertilizers by smell, taste and touch.
Secure tags from sacks containing fertilizer. Of what
value are these tags to buyers of fertilizers?
8. Visit a farm and study grain drill as to method of
adjustment to sow different quantities of seed and ferti-
lizers.
9. To demonstrate the effect of fertilizers, two boxes of
convenient size might be prepared and sown to wheat. On
one of these a small quantity of fertilizer might be scat-
tered, say a teaspoonful to a square foot. Keep the boxes
out of doors under favorable conditions and note the
difference in growth. If the fertilizing materials are avail-
able, boxes for testing the single elements of plant food
like nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash might be tried.
10. Make problems in arithmetic by having the pupils
figure the amount of each element of plant food in a ton,
according to the analysis given on the tag. Have them
determine how much of each element is applied per acre
when 200 pounds of fertilizer is used.
III. POINTS OF INFORMATION
Time to Sow—Danger of Hessian fly—Rate of seeding—Use of
fertilizer.
A. Indiana is in the semi-hard winter wheat region of the
United States. Our wheat is sown in the fall, while in Minnesota
they sow wheat in the spring. Give some reasons why this is so.
Pupils should talk to their parents, to millers and grocers con-
cerning the reasons why wheat needs rather cool weather for best
quality, and why our summers are not adapted to wheat growing.
What dangers do our farmers in Indiana meet from winter killing?
Bring out clearly the differences in color and hardness between
our wheat and the spring wheat of the northwest.
Some of the factors entering into the question of when to sow
wheat are: (1) The need of the plant to get well started before
winter sets in. (2) The kind of soil and plant food present.
(3) The character of the seed bed. (4) The lateness of the season.
(5) The Hessian fly. Purdue Circular No. 23 gives information
relative to the time recommended for the different sections of
Indiana.
Since there are several factors to be considered, is it possible
to have an exact date that is always best for sowing wheat? It
will be difficult to find wheat stubble in the fields after school
CROPs 351
begins and the fly ravages can hardly be detected at that time.
It will be wise to collect some stubble and watch the development
of the fly before school begins. The life history of the fly can be
left for the November study.
Six pecks of wheat are generally sown on an acre. How does
this compare with our corn or oats? What effect does the stooling
of wheat have upon the quantity sown? How does the number of
stalks or plants to the square yard compare with the number of
stalks of corn?
Learn what compounds of fertilizer are recommended for
wheat. Write to a fertilizer company for samples of acid phos-
phate, dried blood, bone meal, muriate of potash, rock phosphate
and other fertilizing materials, if these can not be obtained from
some local agent. Have pupils examine these carefully. Purdue
Circular No. 23 will be helpful in working out the proper formula
or proportions to be used. If possible have some pupils fertilize
plats at home with different fertilizing compounds.
B. The time for sowing wheat in Indiana varies considerably
according to the part of the State. In the northern part of the
State wheat is sown about three weeks earlier than in the south-
ern part. The time of sowing is regulated somewhat by the time
of appearance of the Hessian fly. The Hessian fly lays its eggs
early in September on the young wheat plants. If there are no
young wheat plants, the eggs will be deposited on grass or weeds
where the young insect will about all perish. A study of the habits
of the Hessian fly indicate that it is safe to sow wheat in the north-
ern counties of the State after September 15th; in the central part
of the State after September 25th; and in the southern counties
about October 1st.
The best rate of seeding seems to be about six pecks to the acre.
Many farmers sow only five pecks and a few sow only four pecks.
If the growing season is cool and moist, the wheat plants will
stool out (produce extra shoots). In such case, one bushel of
seed is likely to produce just as good a crop as six pecks, but it is
safer to use the larger quantity of seed.
Many farmers now use commercial fertilizer at the time of
sowing their wheat. Experience shows that the use of about 200
lbs. to the acre of a fertilizer containing from 9%% to 2% of nitro-
gen, 8% to 10% phosphoric acid and 2% of potash is about right.
A light top dressing of stable manure after the land is plowed is
also a good fertilizer for wheat.
352 CRoPs
October.
A. Corn—Harvesting.
Material and Equipment—
1. A stalk of corn with ear or ears.
Demonstration Exercises—
1. Inspect a field being hogged off to note the amount
of waste.
2. Inspect the harvesting of corn as silage.
3. Study the amount of plant food lost by letting corn
stand in the field.
4. Inspect the corn being harvested in shocks. Meas-
ure and calculate difference in surface area between large
and small shocks. Why make large shocks?
5. Examine corn in field and in shock at this date to
note degree of dryness. Is it dry enough to crib?
Points of Information—
1. Husking from the standing stalk is the most common
and most wasteful method of harvesting corn, but it is probably
the most economical of labor and time and permits larger areas
of corn than any other method. Little use can be made of the
stalks, and such use as is made by pasturing the stalks is not
economical of feed or live stock. Some experiments have been
made as to making silage from the dried stalks, which would
make such feed more palatable. It may be that such a waste
as this keeps the farmer from making money or it may be that
the labor saving feature is making the farmer money, depending
upon the situation. Discuss this point in class. With higher
priced land and more complex industrial conditions the farmer
is being forced to change his methods of corn harvesting.
2. The second method of harvesting most used is cutting
and shocking the corn. This is done when the lower leaves and
husks show signs of ripening. Why is there greater waste of
feed in small shocks than large ones? Are the dried stalks re-
garded as feed of high quality? What change of method in har-
vesting does this suggest?
3. The soiling method is cutting and feeding the corn while
green. This is done just after the roasting ear stage and makes
use of more of the stalk. e
4. Hogging off corn is coming into greater use every year
and is recommended by the results from several experiment
CROPs 353
stations as economical. It is best to use fences and pasture a
small area at a time. Twenty to twenty-five hogs per acre is
about the best number. Begin about September 1. Dry autumns
are more favorable for this method than wet autumns. The
economy is in having the hogs do the harvesting, leaving the stalks
and fertilizer distributed over the field.
5. Siloing has three advantages.
a. Saves entire crop.
b. Enables farmers to handle larger number of live
stock.
c. Convenient method of handling the crop. No
more work to put in silo than in shock.
B. Nodules of Legumes.
I. MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT
Several clover roots showing nodules, some roots of
alfalfa, soybeans, cow peas or sweet clover that may be in
the neighborhood.
A lens of pocket size or a tripod lens.
II. METHOD OF PROCEDURE
Demonstration Exercises—
1. Dig up as many kinds of legumes as can be found
and examine roots for nodules, e. g., the clovers, cowpeas,
soybeans, vetch, etc. Make sketches showing attachment
of nodules to roots and their comparative size. Use care
not to strip off nodules.
2. Make drawings of the nodules found on the roots of
the legumes. Show the attachments of the nodules to the
roots and the length and size of the roots.
3. Having obtained specimens of plants and nodules
on the roots, put them in pint glass jars. Fill nearly full
with water and to each jar add about a tablespoonful of
formaldehyde. Close the jar by screwing on the cap.
Label the jar and set aside for future reference.
4. Some soil from a field containing nitrogen-gathering
bacteria may be collected and the method of inoculation
shown.
8345–23
354 CRoPs
III. POINTS OF INFORMATION
Appearance and contents of the modules—Function of modules—
Inoculation.
A. Farmers have always known clover as a crop for improving
the soil, but not until recently have they known a great deal
about why it is good for this purpose. Note the expense of add-
ing nitrogen to the soil in the form of commercial fertilizer. The
air is the source of all nitrogen. Some weeds and some crops
have the power to draw this important element from the air and
leave it in the soil. What are legumes? Learn the names of as
many leguminous plants as possible.
By the use of a variety of plants and good drawings get the
appearance of the nodules and their purpose as clear as possible.
People generally talk a great deal about bacteria and the
children have little idea of what they are. Many are useful as
nitrogen-gatherers, while others are harmful. Some bacteria
work in the soil without the nodules to work on, but we usually
must have the legume crops to keep up the soil fertility. Should
our clover fail, what can be done?
B. Such plants as clovers, cowpeas, soybeans, hairy vetch,
and in fact all of the legumes, have enlargments on their roots,
called nodules or tubercles. These nodules have various shapes
and appearances. On the cowpea and soybean they are nearly
spherical. On the alfalfa and hairy vetch they are very much
branched. On the clovers they are cylindrical in shape. In
size they are as variable as in shape, those on the clovers being
quite small while those on the cowpea are relatively large. The
color of the nodules is usually white or flesh colored.
An examination of these nodules under a compound micro-
Scope shows the presence of a large number of small bodies, called
bacteria. These bacteria are beneficial to the plants. They
gather nitrogen from the air that circulates through the soil and
fix it in their tissues. When the plants begin to blossom these
bacteria begin to die off and give their nitrogen content to the
plant. The plant changes this nitrogen to the organic compound
called protein, which is a valuable feeding element. Plants that
have nodules on their roots are richer in protein than plants
which do not have them.
On land where a particular legume has never grown before,
the bacteria which will make the nodules on its roots are usually
not present and they must be introduced into the soil in order to
CROPs 355
have nodules produced. This is called inoculation. This inocu-
lation is accomplished by taking soil from a field in which the
particular legume has grown successfully and had nodules on its
roots and scattering the soil over the field to be planted. The
soil should be covered at once by harrowing. Various commercial
firms manufacture artificial cultures of bacteria for the inoculation
of the different species of legumes. Directions for using these
cultures always accompany the package.
November.
A. Corn—Shrinkage.
Material and Equipment—
1. Ears of corn from field, some dry ears from last
year's crop.
2. A pair of balances, or spring scales, if the former is
not available.
3. A tapeline.
Demonstration Exercises—
1. Get ears of corn from the field. Weigh at once.
Hang up and let dry. Weigh again after three or four
weeks.
2. Measure accurately the length and circumference
of the ears when gathered and again after drying for three
or four weeks.
3. Get a quart of shelled corn from the elevator or
home. Weigh, dry by the furnace for a few days and weigh
again.
4. Calculate the percentage lost in weight in several
of the tests above and determine the comparative prices
of corn held through the winter.
Points of Information—
Some careful experiments have been made to determine
if any definite data could be given out regarding the percentage
of shrinkage, but different seasons and soils and strains of corn
make considerable fluctuation. Bowman and Crossley indicate
that an average of 16% between November and March for usual
conditions could be used as a basis for computation at least. The
breeders of different kinds of seed corn will often give some good
data in their advertising circulars. This shrinkage is due to the
presence of moisture that disappears slowly until the minimum is
356 CRoPs
approached in the following Summer. To be sure, the shrinkage
continues very slowly a second or even a third year but is of
little consequence. At the Iowa Station the shrinkage was great-
est in November, and then with little loss until March. The
shrinkage for that month, April and May are the high months for
the year. After November the practical side of this work is
evident when we compare price quotations for a few years, and
the question that comes to the farmer is when to market his corn.
B—Wheat Stooling and the Hessian Fly.
I. MATERIAL AND Equipm ENT.
1. A few wheat plants gathered from the field at this time.
2. A few specimens of the fly in the flaxseed stage.
II. METHOD OF PROCEDURE.
Demonstration Exercise—
1. Visit the wheat field and examine the wheat stems
for stooling and evidences of the fly. Count the number
of stems from one root.
2. Show pictures of the fly in different stages. (See
Purdue Bulletin No. 30).
3. Show “Fly free date” for your part of the state.
4. Make examination and drawings of the “flaxseed”
fly and of plants affected by the fly.
5. Secure the name of the varieties of wheat sown by
the farmers so as to determine whether the variety has
anything to do with the amount of stooling.
6. Examine fields sown at different dates to see if
early or late sowing makes any difference in the amount of
stooling, or presence of the Hessian fly.
7. Examine different varieties to see if variety differ-
ences affect the amount of stooling.
8. If different varieties are available, notice how the
leaves of the plants are carried. In some varieties the
leaves begin to lie flat on the ground late in November,
while in other varieties the leaves remain more or less
erect. Varieties whose leaves lie flat on the ground
usually stand the winter better than those with erect
leaves. Also, such varieties usually have leaves quite
narrow, and very dark green in color.
CROPs 357
III. POINTS OF INFORMATION.
Weather conditions favorable to stooling—Advantage from stooling
—Evidence of the presence of the Hessian fly—Pupa stage
—Life history of the insect.
A. The stooling characteristic is common to many plants,
particularly the grasses. When the weather is cool and moist
we find the wheat and rye sending out many shoots. Wheat
usually does more stooling than oats, and it is due to this mainly
that we need to sow more seed of the oats. Have the pupils
go to the field for observations and comparisons.
While the stooling usually occurs mainly in the fall, it may also
continue in the spring, especially when there is a light stand due
to winter killing, etc.
It will interest the history class to know that the Hessian
fly was first found in the United States in 1779 near the landing
place on Long Island of the Hessian soldiers, who were hired
by King George III to help subdue his rebellious colonists.
Undoubtedly this little fly, which has generally been charged to
them, did far more damage almost at once than did the soldiers
themselves.
At this time of the year it will be possible to learn whether
the fly is working on the wheat. The fall brood begins to lay
eggs early in September on the volunteer wheat and volunteer
oats; also on the new wheat when it has been sown so early.
The old stubble is filled with spring brood which at this time are
in the flax seed stage.
The adult fly is a tiny, long-legged gnat, not very different
from the gnats common to the wheat fields. The egg which is
usually deposited upon the upper surface of the leaf close up to
the stem is very small and barely visible. These eggs hatch
slowly in dry weather, but come on quickly after a rain. The
larva or maggot stage passes with little attention from the farmer,
since they are very small. The maggot passes down between
the stem and the leaf sheath and lodges at the joint. Here the
maggots feed, grow, reach maturity as maggots and pass into the
pupa or flax seed stage, in which stage they usually pass the
winter. In Indiana there are two broods, one in the spring and
another in the fall. It is the maggot stage that damages the
wheat. This damage is done in the fall from the summer or fall
brood or in the spring from eggs deposited by the spring brood.
The wheat affected in this way is first a darker green and then
358 CROPs
becomes yellow. It fails to fill with grain and may die. The best
way to control the fly has been suggested as, first, burn or plow
under deeply the old stubble; second, destroy all volunteer
wheat and oats, so that the eggs will not be deposited in time to
reach the pupa stage before winter; third, sow your wheat after
the “fly free” date.
The need of cooperation among farmers should be urged in the
matter of late sowing and control of old stubble, etc., since one
farmer may cause damage to a whole neighborhood by failing
to take precautions.
B. It was stated in the lesson on wheat seeding that if the
growing season was cool and moist the plants would produce
extra shoots and thus make a thick stand. It has been often
observed that wheat which has been somewhat winter-killed
and this followed by a damp, cool spring, was almost as
good in yield as where a thick stand of plants lived through
the winter. This good yield is due to the fact that such
plants as remain behind produce several stems to each plant and
consequently give almost as thick a stand as if only one or two
stems had been produced from each seed sown. The production
of extra shoots is called stooling; sometimes the term tillering is
used. These extra shoots appear in other plants besides wheat.
Oats, rye, and barley and in fact all the grasses produce these
extra shoots. In the case of corn they are called suckers. The
stooling of wheat or rye may take place in the autumn as well as
in the spring. Frequently most of the stooling is done in the
autumn.
Late in the autumn is the time to look for the presence of the
Hessian fly. As stated in a previous lesson, the Hessian fly
lays its eggs early in September on wheat plants, if they can be
found. The eggs are laid on the upper surface of the leaf and soon
hatch. The young insect does not have any legs and resembles
a maggot in appearance. It wriggles itself down the blade to
the base of the sheath. Here it absorbs the juices from the plant
and causes an unthrifty condition of the plant. The plant usually
produces some extra shoots to offset the harm being done to the
main shoot by the insect. After living for a short time in this
way the larva changes to a flat, brownish condition. This is
called the pupa state. In this condition it remains through the
winter. In the spring this brown pupa hatches out into a small
blackish fly. This is the adult insect. This fly soon lays eggs
again and we have the process repeated. It thus happens that
CROPs 359
wheat may be attacked by the fly both in the autumn and in the
spring. Usually the spring attack is worse than the autumn
attack because there are so many more insects.
December.
A. Purity of Seeds.
Material and Equipment—
1. Samples of clover, alfalfa and timothy seed.
2. Any weed seed collection available, or get a few
buckhorn, pigweed and other common seeds that may
be identified. This should be provided in the fall months.
Demonstration Exercises—
1. From one hundred clover or other seeds count the
weed seeds and determine percentage of purity.
2. Put 200 pure seeds to germinate to see what
percentage will grow.
Points of Information—
The importance of good seed should be impressed. It is funda–
mental as the source of the new crop. It should contain vitality;
it should be free from weed seeds and other foreign materials;
it should be true to name, free from disease and well bred. There
are many things, we see, to be considered. It will be seen from
Exercise 1, above, that farmers sow every spring very many
weed seeds with their grass seed. By purity of seed we mean only
that the seed be free from foreign material, but it is a good time
to impress the importance of good seed as well.
B. Rotation.
I. METHOD OF PROCEDURE.
Demonstration Exercises—
1. Plot a farm into fields and plan a fixed rotation
scheme. Follow this through for several years. Repeat
this exercise for other farms of different sizes and take
typical farms in the neighborhood.
2. Draw a plan of the home farm, noting the size of
the fields and mark the crops which have been grown dur-
ing the past five years. Compare with the ideal relation
in Exercise 3.
3. Have plans drawn showing ideal arrangement of
the farm with proper rotation for the next three years.
360 CRoPs
II. POINTS OF INFORMATION
Definition—Eacamples–Points necessary to observe in the selec-
tion of crops, viz., adaptation to climate, labor, market—
A good rotation should have a soil cleansing crop, soil ren-
ovating and a money crop–The Norfolk rotation; the Terry
Totation; the cornbelt rotation.
A. Study the reasons for a rotation of crops. Get ten or
twelve good reasons and note that soil fertility is not improved
by rotation alone. This discussion should have plenty of time
and both sides of the question should be considered.
The essentials of a good rotation are that it should contain
(1) a cultivated crop like corn and potatoes to kill the weeds,
(2) a cash crop, (3) a legume to act as a nitrogen gatherer, (4)
a crop to furnish feed for live stock.
One crop might be classed in more than one of these groups
In fact a crop like soybeans might cover all these groups.
Note some of the successful rotations in other countries and
other times. Would a rotation that was successful in England,
where roots are fed largely to live stock, meet the requirements
of the corn belt?
Study especially the corn belt rotation of corn, oats, wheat and
clover and modifications of this order. Try to improve either
the order or the choice of crops. When clover fails what should
be done to hold the rotation?
B. A rotation is the growing of crops in a systematic order.
Usually three or four crops are grown in a series. A common
farm rotation is corn, wheat, and clover, each crop occupying
the land during a season and following each other in the order
named. The kind of rotation practiced in any given section is
determined by the climate, labor supply and market facilities,
and to some extent the character of the soil. Crops which re-
quire long seasons for maturing cannot be grown in northern
climates. Crops which require a great deal of hand labor can
be grown extensively only in those sections where abundant and
cheap labor can be easily had, as for example, the growing of
Sugar beets for sugar production. Again, unless it is possible
to market the product easily and quickly, a crop suited to the soil
and climate may not be a profitable one. Sometimes the farm
is located at a distance from the shipping point and this shipping
point is also at a considerable distance from a big market.
There are three rotations which have become more or less
noted.
CROPs 361
1. Norfolk rotation. This is one of the oldest systems of
cropping and has been extensively used in Great Britain. It
consists of four crops, turnips, barley, clover, and wheat. An
examination of this rotation in relation to our climate and labor
supply would indicate that it is not suited to Indiana.
2. Terry rotation.—This rotation was originated by Mr. T.
B. Terry, of Ohio. It consists of potatoes, wheat, and clover.
It will be noticed that in this rotation the ground needs to be
plowed but once in three years, and that there is a clover sod for
the potatoes.
3. Corn belt rotation.—This consists of four crops, corn, oats,
wheat, and clover. Frequently either the wheat or oats is omitted
and the rotation becomes a three crop one. This rotation is
practiced throughout all the central states in which corn is
extensively grown. -
The reasons for practicing a rotation are briefly as follows:
1. The different crops draw upon the plant food in the soil
in unusual amounts.
2. The root systems have different characters. Some are
near the surface while others extend deeply into the soil.
3. Some of the crops in the rotation use nitrogen while others
gather nitrogen and leave it in the soil for future crops.
4. The rotation helps the farmer to hold in check weeds, in-
Sects, and plant diseases.
PROBLEMs
1. Why does the Norfolk rotation have no corn in it?
2. Is the corn belt rotation applicable to North Dakota?
Why?
3. Which will give a better money return, a rotation of corn,
corn, wheat, and clover. or one of corn, oats, wheat, and clover?
Which would be better for the tenant farmer to practice? Why
doesn’t the tenant farmer usually want to practice a rotation of
crops? -
4. Many problems can be made on the amount of plan
food removed from the soil by crops. Tables of fertilizing con-
titutents can be found in appendices of books on feeding animals.
Suppose that a corn, wheat, and clover rotation is practiced
and all the clover growth is plowed under. How near will the
nitrogen content of the soil be maintained, supposing that the
clover tops amount to one and one-half tons. Also, suppose that
the clover roots have 30 per cent as much nitrogen in as the tops.
Common yields of corn and wheat can be used.
362 CROPs
January.
A. Clover.
Material and Equipment—
1. The teacher should have dried specimens of as many
kinds of clovers as are obtainable, such as Little Red,
Mammoth, White, Alsike, Crimson.
2. Get seeds of each kind of clover from a grain dealer.
3. Metric scale.
4. Small lens.
Demonstration Exercises—
1. A simple drawing of the root system should be made
of each plant.
2. With the metric scale and under the lens measure
each different kind of seed and record. Make drawing
of same and note the characteristic color.
Points of Information—
A brief description of each kind of clover should be had. This
may be found in many places but Purdue Extension Leaflet 31,
Chapter XIII of Fisher and Cotton’s Agriculture for Common
Schools, Wilson and Warburton’s Field Crops, Chapter XVIII,
will be found satisfactory. Note the kind of soil, preparation
of seed bed, use of nurse crop, etc. Note that some clovers like
Little Red are biennial, while the White and Alsike are perennial
and the Crimson is an annual. What effect would that have
upon their use in a rotation?
Discuss why the red clovers are most common. Note the
differences in quantity of seed and the price of same.
Emphasize the need of clover and its use as soiling crop and
soil builder. Does alfalfa take the place of clover?
B. Cowpeas and Soybeans.
I. MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT
1. A few specimens of these plants should be collected
for class use if accessible. They may be taken from some
hay in the neighborhood possibly.
2. Interest will be increased by getting from dealers
in seeds as many varieties of the seed of both cowpeas
and soybeans as possible. Collect in glass bottles so they
may be seen without handling.
CROPs 363
II. METHOD OF PROCEDURE
a. Demonstration Exercises—
Study dry specimens. Also secure the seed of both of
these crops. Note the different varieties of each. Secure
as many as possible. Determine amount of each of these
crops grown in the community. For what purpose are
these crops grown?
III. POINTS OF INFORMATION
The cowpea has been raised in the Southern States for some
time but is not very well known as yet in Indiana. Both cowpeas
and soybeans have come into much prominence in the last few
years since there has been so much trouble in getting other
legumes, particularly the clover upon which the farmer had
depended. It is important that when clover fails another legume
should take its place. These crops are worth special study. They
māy be used for seed crops, forage and hay crops and soiling
crops. They have also considerable range of adaptability of
soil. You will note that soybeans will grow upon almost any
good corn soil but that cowpeas do best upon a sandy loam.
Note the seed bed is about the same as for corn and either fall
or spring plowing is practiced. The soil should be limed for soy
beans, especially, but the cowpeas will grow upon slightly acid
soil.
The time of sowing and quantity of seed will depend upon the
purpose of the crop. If the crop is to be harvested for seed or
is to be used for hay the seeds should be sown as early as May 15
to June 1. When used as a soiling crop the seed may be sown as
late as July 15—thirty pounds of seed for rows 24 inches to 32
inches apart and about 60 pounds where drilled solid. The latter
case is when the crop is for hay or soiling.
Inoculation is necessary for the same reason as in the case of
alfalfa. The bacteria used by these crops as nitrogen-fixers
are different bacteria than are used by the clover plant and so
must be introduced into the soil. One bushel of soil is sufficient
for eight times that quantity of seed where the soil is distributed
with the seed in the drill.
The varieties of cowpeas usually grown in Indiana are Whip-
poorwill, New Era, Michigan Favorite and Early Blackeye. The
varieties of soybeans most common are Early Brown and Ito
San in the northern part, and Holly Brook, Sable, Mikado, Black
364 CROPs
Beauty and Medium Green for the remainder of the State. The
last named shatters easily, a rather common fault of many varie-
ties. The seed used should be Indiana grown if possible, and in
general should be raised to the north of us rather than south, in
order that early maturing qualities may be maintained.
A leaf disease often results from cultivation of these plants in
the early morning before the dew has evaporated.
These crops are of Asiatic origin and have been grown and
used in that part of the world for a long time. They are com-
paratively recent crops in Indiana. Only within the last few years
has interest in their growing been widespread. The two crops
have quite similar characteristics. Both are legumes and good
for soil improvement as well as excellent feed. They are well
adapted to ordinary corn land. The cowpea will grow on sandier
soil to better advantage than the soybean. The same is also true
with regard to the heavy soils like clay loams. The seed bed
should be prepared the same as for corn. The planting is done in
the spring after corn planting. The seed may be distributed in
rows 24 inches or more apart or drilled solid like wheat. When
sown in rows cultivation should be given the same as corn. The
seed can be distributed with an ordinary wheat drill or with a
corn planter. In using the corn planter, special soybean plates
should be used. If these crops have never been grown before on
the land, they should be inoculated the same as described before.
When using the corn planter, inoculating soil can be mixed with the
seed and distributed in that way very effectively.
If these crops are to be used for soil improvements, it is eco-
nomical to pasture them down before plowing under. Hogs will
derive more benefit from the pasturing than other animals.
Soybeans are ready to cut for hay when the pods are about
two-thirds grown and before the leaves have begun to turn yellow.
Cowpeas are ready to cut for hay when the first pods begin to
show ripeness. Soybeans are ready to cut for seed when they are
fully ripe and the leaves have fallen off; cowpeas, when the maxi-
mum number of pods are ripe, and before the early ripening pods
have begun to burst open. Both cowpeas and soybeans make
excellent hay for all kinds of live stock.
Both cowpeas and soybeans may be sown after wheat has
been removed, especially in the southern half of the state. If
they can be sown by the middle of July and favorable weather
conditions result, a good growth will be obtained, sufficient to
pay for the cost of the seed and labor. These crops sometimes
CRoPs 365
are Sown in standing corn and furnish organic matter for plowing
under for the next crop.
ADDITIONAL SUGGESTIONS
1. Get a few copies of the Indiana Experiment Station
Bulletin Number 172 and use it for reading lessons. This bulletin
deals with cowpeas and soybeans and is the latest thing on the
subject from the Indiana standpoint. Also, get copies of Ken-
tucky Bulletin No. 161. This is an excellent bulletin on soy-
beans. º
2. If a sufficient quantity of cowpeas and soybeans, either
or both, can be obtained they might be cooked like ordinary beans
and the class allowed to eat some of them. Soybeans and cow-
peas are both widely used for human food in various parts of the
world.
February.
A. Alfalfa.
Material and Equipment—
1. About the same as in the clovers. Have some dried
specimens and some seed. If possible get some sweet
clover specimens and make comparison.
Demonstration Exercises—
1. Study the root system of the alfalfa and compare
with the clovers.
2. Make the test for purity of seed as done in Decem-
ber, also the germination test.
3. With the metric scale and lens study and measure
the different shapes of seeds and note color.
Points of Information
There is a great abundance of material in books, agricul-
tural papers, pamphlets and bulletins upon alfalfa. Enough
should be secured to get an idea of the general importance
attached to this crop. Note its perennial character, its value as
a silo builder, its importance as a hay crop or cash crop. Learn
the quantity of seed to sow and where it is best to get the seed.
Let some pupils get the opinion of some of the local farmers who
have tried the crop.
The important things to consider are (1) Seed bed prepa-
ration. (2) Liming the soil. (3) Inoculation. (4) Plant food.
(5) Kind of seed. (6) Time of sowing. (7) After treatment.
366 CROPs
B. Oats.
I. MATERIAL AND Equipm ENT
1. As many varieties as possible should be secured
from dealers or others.
2. Blotting paper and plates or some other arrange-
ment for germination.
II. METHOD OF PROCEDURE
a. Demonstration Exercises—
1. Hull some of each variety and note the different
weights and thickness of the hulls.
2. Make germination tests, counting the grains and
taking careful notes on all the work.
3. Secure a number of varieties of oats in the com-
munity and study same, noting difference in size, color,
thickness of hull and presence of beards and long points
On the grains.
How many acres of oats will be sown in the community?
What is the average yield of oats per acre?
Which method, broadcasting or drilling, is used?
4. Try to get oats which is more than one year old.
If possible get oats which is two years old and three years
old and make germination tests of each and compare the
percentage of germination with that obtained from one
year old seed.
5. If fanning mill is convenient run some oats through
it to determine the effect of careful cleaning upon the
Quality of the oats. The procedure should be about as
follows: Measure out a given quantity and weigh it for
absolute weight, then run it through the fanning mill a
couple of times giving it sufficient blast and proper screening
to take out small grains and light grains, then weigh the
oats remaining and that which has been fanned and screened
out to determine the percentage of loss by the cleaning
process. If a warehouseman's tester can be had, deter-
mine the weight per bushel before cleaning and that of the
clean seed. Other things equal the heavy seed will be
better for sowing than the light seed.
CROPs - 367
III. POINTS OF INFORMATION
A. The oats crop in Indiana has about the same acreage as
wheat but ranks below that crop usually in value. It is very im-
portant to our farmers because of the ready adaptability of oats
to the corn belt rotation. It requires little attention and will grow
on nearly all varieties of soil, although it does best on the heavier
types of soil. There is great variety of yield, ranging from a few
bushels to 60 to 70 bushels; and even 150 to 200 bushels per acre
have been recorded in the Rocky Mountain States. In Indiana
the yield will improve with a little more care taken in “getting in.”
the crop or particularly in preparing a seed bed. Where the seed
is sown upon the snow in February or thrown broadcast over the
hard ground without any disking before the sowing, the farmer
is depending upon favorable rains to do his work for him. If
the rains come in season, he often gets a good crop, but again he
often fails to get a crop when he could have one with a little more
work. This does not mean that the ground should be plowed,
for generally the disk harrow will get the ground in good shape.
In dry seasons it pays to drill, but of course one can not tell
whether a season will be dry at oat seeding time.
The oats should be seeded as early as the ground can be pre-
pared, since cool, moist weather is best for their growth. Farmers
vary much in the quantity of seed used, but in general 2% bushels
per acre will be found about right. Compare the stooling habits
of wheat with oats and the seed sown. The varieties that seem
to do best in Indiana are the Big Four, Silver Mine, Napoleon,
Great Dakota. These are spring varieties. The winter varieties
grown in the Southern States are usually gray or black. There
is a marked preference in the market for white oats.
Some attention can be paid to the smut in oats if there is time.
Find out what the disease is, and the treatment, from Purdue
Cir. 22.
B. The oat crop is quite generally grown in Indiana. It
is a more certain and profitable crop in the northern half of the
State than in the southern half. It is greatly influenced by the
climatic conditions of the growing season. In cool, moist Seasons
the oat crop is a very satisfactory one but in seasons of high tem-
perature and small amounts of rainfall, the yield is usually less
than enough to pay the expenses of producing.
Most of the oats in Indiana are spring sown and are usually
Sown on land that was in corn last year. The seed bed is usually
prepared by disking and harrowing. When so prepared the seed
368 CRoPs
is distributed by drilling. In many cases the oats are sown broad-
cast with an end-gate seeder or other means of broadcasting.
The seed is then covered by disking and harrowing the ground.
The broadcasting method is adapted to cornstalk land where the
stalks would be in the way of drilling.
The amount of seed sown varies greatly. Some farmers sow
as little as 1% bushels to the acre, while others sow as much as 4
bushels. The majority of farmers, however, sow from 2 to 2%
bushels to the acre. It is desirable that the seed be run through
a fanning mill and that all the light grains and chaff be removed.
Oats are usually not fertilized. Fertilizing will show an in-
creased yield but since the crop is a low priced one per bushel,
the increased yield may not pay for the fertilizer.
In some of the southern counties of the State winter varieties
of oats are sown about the first of September. These live through
the winter and produce good oats next spring. However, in severe
winters there is likely to be large loss from winter-killing.
Occasionally a farmer sows oats in February on the frozen
ground. Sowing at that time requires no seed bed preparation.
If a damp spring follows, this method of sowing usually gives
satisfactory yields, but in dry seasons the sowing is a failure.
There are many varieties of oats. The following varieties are
quite well adapted to Indiana conditions: Silvermine, Big Four,
Great Dakota, Swedish Select, Joannette. A medium early matur-
ing variety seems to be better for Indiana than the very early
maturing or late maturing ones.
March.
A. Corn—Germination.
Material and Equipment—
1. The seed corn gathered in the fall.
2. A rectangular box tester and as many other kinds
of testers as can be secured.
Demonstration Exercises—
1. Review the exercises in September on Seed Corn
Selection.
Make tests of the corn gathered in the fall.
Make tests of corn for farmers.
4. Calculate the loss in yield when one bad ear is used
in planting one acre.
:
CRoPs 369
Points of Information—
The opening of spring is a very busy season for the farmer.
He cannot afford to make an individual ear germination test
unless it is shown to be important. What evidence can you bring
to bear upon the question? Can he have this work done before
the season opens? Has there been any change in the general
practice of farmers as to making the ear test? One may get
some information by testing a few ears that farmers have passed
upon favorably by the method of examining the germ as to color,
etc. A good description of a germination box is given in Wilson
and Warburton, pp. 68–70, in Purdue Bul. 110, and other places.
Show the pupil that weak vitality as brought out in the germina-
tion test is little better than no vitality.
The emphasis should be placed upon the relation of good
seed to yield. Yield means results, the object of all the effort.
If a little time in the spring devoted to the individual ear test
counts appreciably toward greater yield in the fall, then it is
worth knowing and worth practicing.
ADDITIONAL SUGGESTIONS
In the exercises outlined above about all of the work easy to
handle in the class room has been suggested. The urging of home
project work in this connection is highly desirable.
It is suggested that in addition to the work outlined, work
be given in testing seeds, especially clover and alfalfa. The seed
grown by neighboring farmers can be tested out. The clover seed
which they sow can be examined for weed seeds and other impuri-
ties as well as making germination tests. While this work is
similar to that given for December, it is work that should be
repeated every year.
B. Potatoes.
I. MATERIAL AND EquTPMENT
1. Secure a few potatoes from each home and get as
many known varieties as possible.
II. METHOD OF PROCEDURE
Demonstration Exercises—
1. Group the varieties into Early and Late.
8345—24
370 CROPS
2. Study the form, size, character of the skin and
texture. -
3. Study buds (eyes) and note number and depth.
- Have some pupils try experimental plats to report
in the fall. Have whole potatoes, small pota-
toes, thin cuttings, etc., tried in these plats.
III. POINTS OF INFORMATION
Potatoes are native to Peru and Chili, where the Spaniards
found them growing. It was introduced into Ireland in 1586 and
Soon became so important an article of food that the common
name “Irish’’ was applied. -
It is fairly well known that a well-drained sandy loam well sup-
plied with organic matter is best adapted to potatoes. Yet a fair
return can usually be had on a considerable variety of soils.
Note the method described in Ext. Bul. 30 for planting the crop.
Deep plowing and a five or six-inch furrow with the seed planted
about two inches is recommended. Medium sized potatoes are
the desirable ones and hence the seed should be of that size.
Early varieties such as Early Ohio, Early Rose, Irish Cobbler
should be planted usually before April 15. The late varieties
represented by Rural New Yorker, Sir Walter Raleigh, Carman
and Burbank are planted by May 15 and sometimes later.
Notice the general instructions for destroying the potato bug.
A mixture of Bordeaux mixture and Paris green will serve as a
spray that will kill the two most common insects that infest our
potatoes. Purdue Leaflet No. 29 tells you how to make Bordeaux
mixture. -
Potatoes are adapted to a wide range of soils but grow best
On Sandy loam soil, well drained, and well supplied with decayed
Organic matter. The seed bed should be prepared by deep plow-
ing, as deep as 8 or 9 inches. In Indiana potatoes are planted
“early” or “late.” Early planting means not later than the mid-
dle of April while late planting means about the middle of May.
It is best to put the seed pieces in furrows four or five inches deep.
The seed piece should be covered with about two inches of soil
and when the potatoes are up, the furrow is filled by the cultiva-
tion given the potatoes. It is desirable to have the seed pieces
four or five inches below the level of the surface for the new po-
tatoes are formed above the seed pieces. If the seed piece is
planted shallow, the new potatoes will likely stick out of the
ground and become green, thus spoiling them for table use.
CRoPs 371
For seed pieces, one should select medium sized potatoes and
cut them in about four pieces so that each piece has at least two
buds. A good seed potato is of medium size, smooth and proper
shape for the variety, with a corky, netted skin, indicating good
maturity. It requires about fifteen bushels of potatoes cut in
quarters to plant an acre, if the rows are three feet apart and
the pieces dropped 12 to 15 inches apart in the row.
Potatoes should be cultivated the same as corn and until they
begin to blossom. The cultivation should be shallow and level.
There are two insects that attack the potato plant. The first
to appear in the early summer is the Colorado potato bettle.
Later in the season the blister beetle is very destructive to the
tops. Both of these insects can be controlled by spraying with
arsenate of lead or Paris green. Potatoes are also attacked by
the blight. This can be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux
mixture. It is probably best to mix the Bordeaux mixture and the
Paris green and by one spraying save the potato from both the
blight and the insects.
April.
A. Corn—Seed Bed.
Material and Equipment—
Access to at least one type of corn planter.
Plowed land in different stages of preparation.
Demonstration Exercises—
1. Visit one field that was fall plowed and compare
with fields recently plowed.
2. Get ears of corn representing different sized grains
and by means of planter plates show necessity of grading
corn and adjusting plates to size of kernels.
3. Have reports made by each member of class on the
steps taken at home to get the seed bed prepared.
Points of Information—
Fall plowing for corn gives the soil a chance to mellow and
decay. It aids in time saving in the busy spring season. If the
soil is inclined to run together or wash away, spring plowing is
the better.
Since the ground is apt to be easily puddled by tramping at
this season, care must be exercised in saving as much trampling
as possible. Some soils once puddled require several years to
recover their proper granular condition.
372 CRoPs
Care should be exercised that the plowed land should not
be allowed to crust over and lose by evaporation much of the
supply of moisture. This is true especially of the fall plowed
land.
The seed bed for corn should not be loose but firm, well pul-
verized not merely on the surface but by disking and harrowing
should be made in good condition throughout the furrow slice.
Farmers always like a clover sod for corn because the legume
has left nitrogen in the soil. No fixed rule can be given for
fertilizing, but barnyard manure has no substitute. This manure
when mixed with raw rock phosphate is more complete. Complete
commercial fertilizers are often used in various ways. Probably
the application along the row is growing in use. Bowman and
Crossley in their book “Corn” give much valuable help in describ-
ing tools and discussing this subject.
B. Corn Cultivation.
I. MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT
1. A few of the tools, particularly the two-horse cul-
tivator, in common use in cultivating corn.
II. METHOD OF PROCEDURE
a. Demonstration Exercises—
1. Make a study of the adjustments for deep and shal-
low cultivation, weight of driver, width of rows. Study
also the two-row cultivator.
2. Study the two purposes of cultivation and make
out a plan that will serve this end. See if implements are
the best possible. Take one apart and put together again.
III. POINTS OF INFORMATION
Object of cultivation—Use of harrows—Depths of cultivation—
Number of times to cultivate—Use of mower wheel or drag
late in season.
There are two objects in cultivating corn.
1. To destroy the weeds which would take up moisture and
plant food. *
2. To make a mulch of loose soil one or two inches deep on
the surface to conserve the moisture. It is some times necessary
CRoPs 8 373
to cultivate in order to loosen the soil but if the breaking has
been well done and there has not been excessive rainfall, this should
not be necessary.
Cultivation usually does not begin until after the corn is two
or three inches tall. However, time can be saved and effective
work done by harrowing the field with a spike-tooth harrow before
the corn comes up. This harrowing will also tend to break any
crust that may have formed and permit the corn to come up more
uniformly. The kind of tool to use in cultivating is not as im–
portant as the way in which it is used. It is desirable that the
cultivation should be shallow after the first and second times
and that it should be level cultivation. Shallow cultivation is
usually thought of as being about 2% to 3 inches deep, while deep
cultivation is more than 3 inches deep. Corn should be cultivated
often enough to destroy the weeds and to preserve a mulch.
This may be three or four times and it may be six or seven times.
It is usually desirable to go through the corn once or twice after
it is too large to go under the arch of the cultivator. For such
cultivation a harrow-tooth cultivator may be used but care should
be taken that the outside teeth do not cut too deeply. It is fre-
quently better to use a drag of some kind. Many farmers use
a mower or corn planter wheel or make a short plank drag. The
drag breaks the crust on the surface and leaves a nice loose mulch
behind.
Locate, if possible, in the community a two-row corn cultivator.
Compare this with the single row or two-horse cultivator.
How many times does the average farmer cultivate his corn?
Secure as far as possible the first day and the last day of cultiva-
tion.
The study of agriculture has done much to change the plan
of corn cultivation. It is no longer so common to go into the
cloddy field just as the corn is getting through and try to plow
the corn. The clods if they exist at that stage should be rolled
and the spike-tooth harrow applied until the corn is two or three
inches high, when the cultivator will be much easier to use.
Note the two uses for cultivating corn. Of these the conser-
vation of moisture needs most emphasis. We usually try to keep
the weeds from “choking down” the corn, another way of saying
that the weeds are consuming the plant food intended for the
corn, but it is not so certain that we keep the crust broken and a
good dust mulch on top. The past two seasons in Indiana have
done much to give our farmers training in the uses of the dust
374 - CRoPs
mulch in conserving moisture. We are sometimes told that a third
purpose of cultivation is aeration of the soil, but this does not cause
any change from the two given.
Shallow cultivation has finally won all farmers to its practice.
The roots of the corn gradually occupy about all the space be-
tween the rows and the later plowings will do much harm unless
the farmer keeps on top of the ground or nearly so. The season
may require very frequent workings of some sort to keep the weeds
down or the mulch prepared, or a dry season will need but a few
plowings or workings, hence there is little to be said about how
many times the corn should be plowed.
FARM CROPS*
HIGH SCHOOL AND WOCATIONAL GRADES
(18 Weeks)
TOPICS FOR STUDY
1. Seeds and Crops.
A. Importance of Good Seed.—Discuss purity of seeds;
vitality as affected by age, weather, time of harvest-
ing, plant diseases, etc. Difficulty of getting good
seed of grasses and other small seeded plants.
B. Classification of Crops.-Define terms: Grain crops,
forage crops, cover crops, catch crops, small grains,
cereals, legumes. Forage crops may be used in the
form of silage, soiling, hay, pasture.
C. Classification (continued).-Explain tubers, roots,
bulbs; miscellaneous crops, like pumpkins, cabbage,
hops, tobacco. Illustrate and note botanical rela-
tionships. -
D. Principles of Planting Seeds.-Proper seed bed as to
pulverization, moisture, warmth. Depth of planting
governed by size of seed, condition of soil, time of
the season. Rate of seeding affected by condition
of soil, time of sowing, method of distributing, pur-
pose of crop. -
2. Grain Crops.
A. Corn.—Origin. Geographical range. Kinds of corn
and description, viz: Dent, flint, pop, sweet, soft
and pod. Varieties due to climate, color, com-
position.
*This course was prepared by Prof. M. L. Fisher, Purdue University.
CROPs 375
B. Corn.—Soils. Preparation of seed bed: (a) Fall
and spring plowing. (b) Fitting. (c) Manuring
and fertilizing—time, manner and amount. -
C. Corn.—Planting. Time. Manner. Hills or drills.
Use of furrow opener; listing; surface planting.
Rate. Depth to cover.
D. Corn.—Cultivation. Object. How often. How long.
Harvesting—5 ways, viz. –shocking, soiling, siloing,
hogging, husking from stalk. Shrinkage in crib.
3. Grain Crops (Continued).
A. Corn.-Silage. When to cut. How to put in silo.
Outfit and machinery necessary. Amount per day.
Changes taking place in silo.
B. How to Make a Silo.-Merits of the different kinds.
Care of silo. Capacity of silos.
C. Corn.—Seed selected. Time and manner. Character
of stalk from which to select. Storing seed. Test-
ing: Time and methods.
D. Corn.—Grading after testing. Regulating the planter.
Varieties.
4. Grain Crops (Continued). -
A. Wheat.—Origin. Geographical range. Wheat types
(botanical). (Illustrated by specimens grown in
school garden.) - -
B. Wheat.—Varieties in grade of wheat in United States
caused by climate conditions. Wheat soils.
C. Wheat.—Seed bed preparation: Breaking, discing, etc.
Value of early breaking. Corn ground vs. oat Or
other stubble ground.
D. Wheat.—Manures and fertilizers for wheat. Kind,
time to apply.
5. Grain Crops (Continued).
A. Wheat—Time to sow. Danger from Hessian fly.
Method of sowing. Rate to sow. Depth of cover-
ing. Quality of seed. How to prevent Smut and
Scab. Insects.
B. Wheat.—Varieties. Harvesting: When, how. Thresh
ing. Sweating of wheat. Principles of flour-mak-
ing.
C. Oats.-Origin. Geographical distribution. Climate
adaptation and influences. Winter oats. Spring
Oats.
376 CRoPs
D. Oats.-Soils. Seed-bed preparation. Preparation of
corn stubble by discing. Advantage of plowing.
sº Fertilization for oats.
6. Grain Crops (Continued).
A. Oats.-Time to sow. Methods of distributing the
seed. Rate of sowing. Depth to cover seed. Har-
vesting and threshing similar to wheat. Varieties.
B. Rye.—Origin. Soil adaptation. Seed-bed prepara-
tion; sowing, harvesting, threshing (same as for
wheat). Use of grain; of straw.
C. Barley-Same as oats.
D. Market Grades of Grain.—Necessity for inspection of
grain. Influence of moisture content in case of corn.
Sulphured oats. Weight of wheat. Explanation
of the various grades.
Work up this lesson from information gained from
grain dealers, also, Bureau of Plant Industry,
Bulletin No. 99 and Circulars Nos. 32, 74. Get
copy of rules through county Superintendent
from Chicago Board of Trade.
7. Grain Crops (Continued).
A. Soybeans.—Origin. Geographical distribution. Soil
adaptation, good corn land. Seed-bed preparation,
same as for corn. Fertilization, minerals only.
Being a legume it supplies its own nitrogen.
B. Soybeans.—Inoculation with soil or pure culture.
Time to plant. Distribution of seed and methods of
planting; drills or broadcast, using corn planter or
grain drill. Should be covered two inches deep.
C. Soybeans.—Rate of planting, according to the method.
Planting as a catch crop in corn or after some other
crops. Cultivation similar to corn. Harvesting:
Time (a) for seed, (b) for hay, (c) as pasture. How
to cut.
D. Soybeans.—Threshing; regulating machine. Uses of
soybeans: Hay, pasture, grain, production of oil,
soil improvement. Varieties: Considerable atten-
tion should be given to varieties.
8. Grain and Forage Crops.
A. and B. Cowpeas.-Similar in almost every respect to
soybeans, and should be covered in two lessons.
CROPS 377
Forage Crops: Soybeans are usually classed as forage
crops, but because of the large use made of the grain,
they have been included under grain crops.
C. and D. Clover.—Definition of the true clovers. Kinds
and description of each. Soils and climatic adapta-
tions. Peculiar adaptation of each.
9. Grain and Forage Crops (Continued).
A. Continuation of C. and D. under Topic 8.
B. Clover.—Time and rate of sowing. Methods: Sowing
with wheat or oats, alone, in corn, etc.
C. Clover.—Harvesting for hay; for seed. Principles of
curing hay. Cause of clover failures in Indiana.
Danger of bloating when pasturing. Any legume
will cause bloating.
D. Alfalfa-Origin and distribution. Soil adaptations.
Conditions of soil favorable to success. Physical
preparation of the seed bed.
10. Forage Crops.
A. Alfalfa.-Liming for alfalfa. Kinds: When and how
to apply. Inoculation: Why, when and how.
B. Alfalfa.-Sowing: Time and rate. Spring, summer,
autumn, with and without a nurse crop. Clipping
first year. -
C. Alfalfa.-Making hay: When ready to cut. Curing,
not specially different from clover. Be sure to save
the leaves. Number of cuttings per season. Relative
value of such yield.
D. Alfalfa.-After treatment—harrowing or discing after
cutting. Fertilization—use of minerals only—ma-
nure too weedy. What to do when growth turns
yellow.
11. Forage Crops (Continued).
A. Alfalfa.-Varieties. Source of seed. Uses: Hay, pas-
ture, soiling, silage, ground for various commercial
stock foods.
B. Sweet Clover.—Origin and distribution. Botanical re-
lationships and characteristics. Probability of its
becoming useful. Time, method and rate of seeding.
Uses: Hay, pasture, soil improvement.
C. Canadian Field Peas.-Botanical relationships. Soil
and climatic adaptations. Time, method and rate
378 CRoPs
of sowing. Uses: Soiling and hay. Usually sown
with oats.
D. Vetch.-Botanical relationships. Kinds. Hairy
vetch the only one useful in Indiana. Soil adapta-
tion. Seed bed preparation. Time, method, and
rate of sowing.
12. Forage Crops (Continued).
A. Vetch.-Uses: Soil improvement, soiling, pasture,
hay. Best sown with rye or wheat. Time to cut.
Danger of reseeding and appearing as a weed in
wheat.
B. Grasses.—Distinguish from clover. Explain charac-
teristics requisite for a good hay grass; for a good
pasture grass. Seeds, usually chaffy and low in
vitality.
C. Timothy.—Soil and climatic adaptation. Time,
method and rate of seeding. Harvesting for hay
and seed. Why a popular grass?
D. Orchard Grass.-Same as timothy.
13. Forage Crops (Continued).
A. Red Top.–Same as timothy.
B. Kentucky Blue-grass.-Same as above, except used
almost entirely as a pasture grass.
C. Canadian Blue-grass and English Blue-grass.-Special
adaptation. Note botanical distinctions.
D. Brown Grass, the Rye Grasses.— Same as C.
14. Forage Crops (Continued).
A. Making a Pasture.—Mixture preferable to single
species. Sow large quantities of seed. Give time
for sod to form. Fertilization of pastures. Occas-
ional harrowing or discings good.
B. Treatment of Meadows and Pastures.—Similar to
pastures. Usually last only two or three years.
Fertilization should furnish nitrogen. Liming may
be beneficial, especially for Kentucky blue-grass and
timothy.
C. Sorghum.—Culture similar to corn. Amount of
seed per acre. Time to sow; time to cut. Uses:
Mainly for soiling.
D. Rape.—Description of plant. Soils: Good corn land.
Preparation of seed bed. Time, method, and rate of
CROPs 379
sowing. When ready to use, mostly used for pasture.
Injurious effects: sore ears, bloating, tainting milk.
15. Forage Crops (Continued.)
A. Millett.—A term applied to several species of plants.
Used as human food in the Old World, forage in
America. Groups: Foxtail, barnyard, broom corn,
cat-tail. Foxtail group: Adaptation, seed bed
preparation, time, method and rate of sowing.
Harvesting before seed forms. Varieties.
B. Millet.—Barn yard, broom-corn, and cat-tail groups.
Same outline as for fox-tail group. Uses of millets,
hay very little, value for pasture or green feed.
Why? -
C. Combination Crops.-Rye and hairy vetch, or wheat
and hairy vetch. Canadian field peas and oats.
Oats, rape and clover. Corn and soybeans, or corn
and cowpeas. Millet, sorgum, and cowpeas or Soy-
beans. Millet and soybeans or cowpeas. Barley
and Canadian field peas. Time, method and rate
and usage of each. -
D. Cover Crops.-Crops sown to cover the ground dur-
ing winter, preferably something that will remain
green. Rye, or rye and vetch. Crimson clover.
Red or mammoth clover. Cowpeas or soybeans.
Oats. Time and rate of sowing.
16. Potatoes.
A. Succession of crops either for complete or partial soil-
ing. *
To supply green feed for summer pasture.
To supply green feed for cattle, sheep and hogs.
Potatoes.—Botanical relationships. Origin. Impor-
tance as a food crop. Soil adaptation. Seed-bed
preparation. Fertilization. Time to plant for
early use; for late use. -
17. Potatoes, Root Crops, Sugar Beets, Flaac.
A. Potatoes.—Rate and method of planting. Planting
under straw. Cultivation. Spraying. Harvesting.
Storing. Varieties—give special attention.
B. Root Crops.-General conditions—rich, deep soil.
Seed bed preparation, thinning cultivation. Roots
grown: Carrots, parsnips, turnips, mangel wurtzels
.
380 CROPs
(mangels). Time, method, and rate of sowing each;
harvesting and storing. Uses; yields. •
C. Sugar Beets.-Grown both for food and for sugar pro-
duction. Requirements of soil and climate. Seed
bed preparation, sowing, cultivation, etc. Harvest-
ing, yields. Sugar manufacture.
D. Flax.-A fiber and seed crop. Climatic and soil con-
ditions. States raising flax. Not grown in Indiana
to any extent because other crops more profitable.
Time, method, and rate of sowing. Harvesting,
retting, yields.
18. Hemp, Cotton, Rice, Sugar Cane.
A. Hemp.–States growing it. Soil adaptation. Time,
method and rate of sowing. Harvesting, retting,
breaking, yields.
B. Cotton.—Strictly a Southern crop. Importance of
crop. Soil. Seed-bed preparation. Time, method
and rate of planting. Cultivation, harvesting,
insects.
C. Rice.—A grain crop. Section of the United States to
which adapted. Soil requirements. Preparation
of seed-bed. Time, method, and rate of sowing:
(a) on small areas; (b) on large areas. Flooding,
harvesting, threshing, polishing. -
D. Sugar Cane.—A tropical crop. Parts of the United
States to which adapted. Seed-bed preparation.
Method of planting. Irrigation in certain sections.
Harvesting. Crops obtained. Sugar manufacture.
DEMONSTRATION ExERCISES IN CROPS FOR HIGH SCHOOLS
The accompanying exercises are not specially arranged in any
logical order, except the grain sorting. Conditions will differ in
each community and the instructor must be the judge of the appro-
priate time to present each exercise. While sixty-three exercises
have been planned, it is doubtful if they can be covered with any
degree of completeness in that number of periods.
(1) Determining Stand of Corn in the Field—
Definite areas should be studied. Each student should
count the stalks as they stand in row. A full stand should
be regarded as two stalks per hill or, in case of drill corn,
one stalk every fifteen inches. Three different areas should
be counted by each student and the average taken.
CRoPs * 381
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Finding Average Leafage and Calculating Leaf Areas—
Count the number of leaves on fifty (50) different stalks
as they run, and take the average. Estimate the leaf areas
of an average leaf. On the basis of the stand already deter-
mined, calculate the leaf area per acre. Suppose that each
fully grown stalk were to evaporate from its leaf surface,
two pounds of water each day, from July 20th to August
20th, what number of inches of rainfall would be repre-
sented?
Finding the Average Height of Stalks—
With a graduated staff, measure and record height of two
hundred (200) stalks as they run in the field. Three repre-
sentative areas should be measured, and the average of the
three taken. Note also, extremes of height.
Determine Per Cent. of Barren and Nubbiny Stalks—
Take five hundred (500) stalks as they run in the field,
count the stalks which are destitute of ears, and also those
which have ears less than four inches in length. Estimate
the per cent of barren stalks, also the per cent of stalks
with nubbins. The remainder bear merchantable ears.
Estimate Yield per Acre—
On the basis of the data obtained in the last exercise cal-,
culate the yield per acre, supposing that each stalk has a
merchantable ear which weighs twelve ounces (12 oz.).
Suppose that every stalk in the field bears a twelve-ounce
ear, on the basis of the stand what would be the yield per
acre? Estimate the yields for sixteen ounce (16 oz.) ears.
Also for the full stand.
Selecting Ears for Seed in Field—
Students should study stalks and ears as they stand in the
field. Select ears from stalks of medium height, strong at
the base, and tapering gradually at the top. The ears should
be borne about three and half or four feet from the ground,
have short shanks, and be inclined downward at the tip.
Stalks from which ears are selected should not have special
advantage of space in the row or hill. Good size and well
shaped ears should be selected. Maturity as indicated by
the husks should be studied. Each student should select
Or mark at least one hundred (100) ears.
382
CROPS
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
Methods of Storage—
Class should place ten or more ears under various con-
ditions for winter storage. A lot should be stored in a
warm, dry basement. Another lot in a well ventilated
room where there is no heat. Still another lot should be hung
over a pole in an open shed, or hung to rafters in a barn or
shed. Another lot should be hung in the open, with the
husks left intact. These lots of corn are to be tested for
germination in February or March.
Seed Corn Testing—
The lots of corn stored in the fall should be tested for
germination the latter part of February or March, using not
less than five kernels from each ear. Corn should be ob-
tained from the home or other farmers and tested.
Grading Seed and Calibrating Planter—
The ears selected for seed should have butts and tips re-
moved. Why? Ears should then be shelled so as to put
kernels of the same size and shape together. If a mechan-
ical grader is at hand, this should also be used and the re-
sults compared with hand selection. Tests should be made
to find the size of planter plate which will drop the right
number of grains of the different sizes, also planter plate
should be regulated to drop the right distance apart when
drilling. Seed containing both butts and tips should also
be used in testing and the results compared with graded
seed.
Corn Scoring-Shape of Ears—
Class should measure the length and the circumference
of a large number of ears, say twenty-five (25). Number
the ears and tabulate the measurements. Measure the
circumference in two places, one about two inches from the
butt, and the other about three inches from the tip. The
proportion of length to circumference should be tabulated
for each measurement. Do not use fractions smaller than
eighths.
Corn Scoring—Various Items—
Using the same twenty-five ears, count the rows per
ear and tabulate the results, also determine the number of
kernels per inch in row and tabulate. Look for crossed
grains and cobs off color. Take a hundred kernels from
CROPs 383
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
as many different ears and determine the percentage
that meet the standard proportion, that is, twice as long
as wide. Study the germinating quality of fifty (50)
different ears by dissecting out the growing part of the
germ.
Corn Scoring—Proportion of Grain—
Study the proportion of grain to total weight by weigh-
ing and shelling a number of ears, at least ten. Before
weighing and shelling the student should guess what
percentage of the total weight will be grain. If measure-
ments of ear and grain are made and all data tabulated,
the exercise will be more valuable.
Corn Scoring—Applying the Score Card—
The regular corn grower's association score card should
be used, and each student have at least five ears which are
distinguished from each other by labels. A mathematical
value should be given to each ear for each point on the score
card, except Uniformity of Exhibit. This value should be
entered in the square opposite the point considered and in
the column corresponding to the number of ear. For
example, say the score is six for “shape” of ear number one,
the figure six should be entered in the square opposite the
item Shape of Ear and in column one. Enter the score for
each of the five ears on Shape of Ear before passing to the
next point, Length of Ears. Proceed in this way with each
of the various points in the score card, keeping in mind all
the time that there are few perfect ears and that the value
of the different points is not the same. The student should
score a considerable number of samples. After using two
or three five-ear samples, increase the size of samples to
ten ears.
Same as (12), Using Different Samples.
Same as Above, Using Different Samples.
Corn Scoring—Ten-Ear Lots—
In the previous exercises the scoring has been on the
basis of individual ears. The student should now learn
to size up an exhibit of ten ears as a whole, expressing the
value of the entire ten ears with one number for each of
the points of the score card, beginning with Uniformity of
Exhibit. Previous practice should enable a student to
384
CROPs
(17)
(18)
See at a glance the defects of the various ears and to be
able to determine the composite value quickly. A con-
siderable number of samples should be worked with in
this manner.
Same as (16).
Corn Scoring—Comparative Judging—
A number of samples of ten or more ears should be pro-
vided for the use of the pupils. These should consist, as far
as possible, of different varieties and different colors.
All ears should be labeled and the lots numbered. In
most cases, one period for each item of the score card should
be given to the placing of the ears in their relative order of
merit. For example, under Shape of Ear, the best ear
so far as the shape is concerned, all other points ignored,
should be placed first and then follow with the second best
ear, so on until all the ears of the lot are placed in their
order. Follow this procedure for each of the points of
the score card. The instructor should previously place
the ears according to his judgment.
(19) to (26) Same prodecure as in (18).
(27) and (28) Scoring Wheat and Oats—
(29)
(30)
(31)
Using the Indiana Corn Growers’ Association score card
for wheat and oats, score several samples of these grains.
The explanation on the score card should not be followed
too literally except in case of Weight. The rule here should
be applied strictly.
Preparing Seed Grain by Use of the Fanning Mill—
Have students clean and grade several samples of wheat
and oafs Students should understand the use of the differ-
ent screens and should have practice in adjusting the mill
for the different grains.
Treating Seed Wheat for Stinking Smut—
Before giving this exercise, the teacher should have
Circular No. 22 from Purdue University. Pupils should
bring a bushel or two of wheat to the school. The cement
floor of a basement or porch can be used for spreading out
the grain.
Examining for Hessian Fly—
This exercise should be performed either in November
or late in April. It will be necessary to take pupils to the
CRoPs 385
(32)
(33)
(34)
field to make examinations. Individual plants should be
dug up and carefully examined by stripping down the
leaves. If the insect is present the larval, or chrysalis
form, will be found near the base of the leaf sheath. The
teacher should have carefully read Newspaper Bulletin
No. 194 Purdue. University, or Circular No. 23, the same
place. - .
Studying Stooling Habits of Wheat—
This exercise should be performed in November or
April. Individual plants should be dug up and the number
of plants which have started from the original shoot
counted. If the digging is carefully done, the grain of
wheat from which the plants started can be found. The
more stools or tillers which have started from one seed the
better is the prospect for a large yield. See if there is
any difference in stooling between places where the plants
are thick and places where they are thin on the ground.
A couple of plats in the school garden will be very ad-
vantageous for this study.
Estimating the Per Cent. of Winter-Killing and Studying
Protective Conditions—
This study may be made either in the field or in garden
plats. A large area is preferable. For the most part
the per cent. of winter-killing is usually estimated by tak-
ing an area on which the stand is practically perfect, and
compare other areas with it. There should be an average
of one plant for each inch in the drill row for a perfect
stand. -
The study should be made of the various areas where
winter-killing is most apparent, and see if a reason for such
condition can be found. Poor soil, depression in land where
water stands, and extreme exposure are some of the causes
of winter-killing.
Determining the Stand in the Field and Height of Plants—
It may be necessary to use this exercise as a home study
project. The pupils should note whether the stand at
maturity is different from the stand in April. By means of
a graduated staff the height of one hundred (100) plants
should be obtained and average height should be deter-
mined and note made of the estimates.
8345—25
386
CRoPs
(35)
(36)
(37)
Per Cent. of Smutted and Scabbed Heads in Wheat—
This also should be a home project. At about the time
wheat has come into full head, there frequently appears a
number of heads, black in appearance. These have been
attacked by loose smut and ruined. After a few days the
Smutty parts blow away and the naked stems remain.
Take a barrel hoop and fasten three legs to it. Set this
down at random in the field. Count all the stems enclosed
and find what per cent. Smutted stems are of the total.
Repeat this for several areas.
Scabbed heads are white in appearance and appear to be
mature several days before the general crop; an examina-
tion will show that the grains are shriveled and are covered
with a pinkish mold. This is the wheat scab, a fungous
disease. Determine the per cent, of scabby heads in the
same way as the Smutted heads were determined.
A Study of Mature Heads of Wheat—
The heads of wheat used should belong to the same
variety. However, more than one variety may be studied.
Measure not less than twenty-five heads and tabulate the
length. Notice the arrangement of the spikelets—alter-
nating on each side of the single stem (rachis). Note
how the grains are enveloped by the chaff. If the variety
is bearded, observe which chaff bears the beards. Care-
fully shell out the grains from each spikelet and lay them
in order so that the product of each spikelet can be seen.
Study the grain as to size, length, color and hardness.
Observe the small tufts of hairs at the end of the grain.
Make a drawing of the grain showing the germ, the crease
and the tufts of hairs.
A Study of Mature Heads of Oats—
Try to have both open-panicle and close-panicle (side)
varieties; note the number of grains per spikelet. Deter-
mine the average number of grains in five heads (panicles),
note the difference in size of the grains in the spikelets. De-
termine the per cent. of hull in oats, this is done by weigh-
ing one or two grams and then stripping the hulls from the
kernels and reweighing; this will require a balance which
will weigh accurately tenths of a gram. More than one
variety should be studied.
CROPs e 387
(38)
(39)
(40)
(41)
(42)
(43)
A Study of Mature Heads of Rye and Barley—
Try to have both two-rowed and six-rowed varieties of
barley. Study carefully the arrangement of spikelets
in the rye and barley and compare with wheat. Observe
that there are three spikelets at each joint of the rachis
in the case of barley and but one in the case of wheat and
rye. The barley spikelet is definitely one-grained, the rye
two-grained, while the wheat spikelet has two or more
grains. Make drawing illustrating these differences.
Comparison of the Grain of Wheat, Oats, Rye, and
Barley—
Select five or ten grains of each kind, study these grains
with reference to size, shape, weight, and color. Note
that the grains of oats and barley are composed of two
parts, namely, the hull and the kernel proper. Make
drawings of the different grains, and record carefully the
data relating to the other points.
Preparing Seed Oats, Estimating the Stand and Deter-
mining the Per Cent. of Smutted Heads in Oats—
Follow the directions given under exercises (30), (33),
and (35).
Field Study of the Leaves of Different Clovers—
This exercise should be prepared for by sowing some
months before in small plats as many different kinds of clov-
ers as can be had. Students should make drawings of the
leaves of the different clovers, noting carefully the shape of
the leaflets, the serrations of the margins, and the attach-
ment of the terminal leaflet. Besides the drawings there
should be written descriptions.
The Leaves and Inflorescences of Different Grasses—
This must also be previously prepared for. At least
Kentucky blue grass, timothy, red top, orchard grass,
and tall oat grass should be studied. Make drawings
and measurements of the leaves and inflorescences (pan-
icles). Determine the average number of leaves on ten
stems of each species. Determine the average height of
plants. Also, the proportion of inflorescences to total
height.
Estimating the Clover Seed Crop—
Gather ten representative ripe heads of clover. Care-
fully shell out each head and count the seeds. Determine
388
CROPs
the average number of heads on several different areas as
indicated in exercise (35). On this basis how many heads
per acre? What number of seeds per acre? Counting
eighteen million seeds per bushel, how many bushels per
acre? If convenient, weigh the seeds and count (450)
grams per pound, and thus determine the yield.
(44) and (45) Collecting Weed Seeds—
(46)
(47)
(48)
(49)
Each pupil should collect the seeds of at least twenty-
five (25) different weeds common in the community.
Small two-dram bottles properly labeled are best for
holding seeds. Make measurements, descriptions, and
drawings of representative seeds of each species.
A Study of Clover Seeds—
Collect, label, measure, describe and draw representa-
tive seeds of all the different clovers obtainable. Include
in this collection sweet clover, alfalfa, and, if obtainable,
bur clover.
Germination and Purity Test of Clover Seed—
Take such samples of clover or alfalfa seed as are obtain-
able in the neighborhood or from the warehouse and deter-
mine what species of weed seeds are present. If they can-
not all be named, at least determine how many kinds of
foreign seeds are present. Weigh out a definite quantity,
say one gram, and determine the percentage of weed seed
by count. Count out two lots of (100) seeds each and
germinate. Multiply the per cent. of purity by the per
cent. of germination. The result is the per cent of pure
and germinable seed. See Farmers’ Bulletin Number 260.
Inoculating Legumes—
Write to some of the firms advertising inoculating ma—
terial for sample lots. Prepare small areas of ground and
treat according to directions sent with the sample packages.
On some similar areas use soil inoculation as described in
Purdue Extension Leaflet Number 44. Small areas
should be left untreated for checks. Before the plants are
mature they should be carefully dug up and the roots
examined for nodules.
Field Study of Cowpeas and Soybeans—
Examine fully developed plants and note characteristics
with regard to the following points: character of growth,
CROPs 389
(50)
(51)
(52)
whether direct or trailing; hairiness of the plant; color of
blossoms; length of pods; average number of seeds per
pod; and character of foliage. Make such drawings as
will show differences.
Weed Eradication—
Plants which propagate themselves by means of seeds
only may be eradicated by preventing their seeding.
Plants propagate by means of underground rootstocks
must be starved out by preventing the growth of above
ground parts. Of the first group such plants as ragweed,
foxtail, smartweed, and butterprint are examples. In
the second class we have Canada thistles, horse-nettle,
quackgrass, trumpet vine, wild onion, etc.
Some or all of the above named plants should be studied
in the open field in order that the student may fully under-
stand the method of propagation. He should see how the
underground parts give rise to new plants; he should under-
stand how cultivation tends to scatter and increase plants
of the second group rather than to eradicate them.
Spraying as a method of eradication should be demon-
strated, using sprays for dandelion, mustard and wild
onions. Reference should be made to the following
Bulletins: Purdue Extension Bulletin No. 24, Purdue
Extension Leaflet No. 22, Purdue Circular No. 32,
Purdue Bulletin No. 176, Wisconsin Circular No. 48.
ADDITIONAL ExFRCISES IN CROPs
Proportion of Grain to Cob—
Shell an ear of corn, tabulate the following: Total
weight, weight of kernels, weight of cobs, per cent. of cob.
Get the average for several ears. Compute the same for
one bushel of corn.
Shrinkage of Corn—
Take ten ears of corn from field. Weigh. Weigh
every ten days for two months. Calculate loss of moisture
in 1,000 bushels.
If corn is worth sixty (60) cents at husking time what
price must it be two months later to bring the same amount
as at husking time?
390 - CRoPs
- (53), To Show How Food from the Soil Gets to the Leaves—
Secure a growing stalk of corn, and cut at first node
above the adventitious roots. Cover cut end with vase-
line as soon as cut. Remove the vaseline, put cut in red
ink or red dye. Allow to stand for twenty-four hours.
Note results. Sketch a cross section of the stalk.
What is the inference?
(54) To find volume of Soil to Nourishment— -
- Dig up a corn plant, get as many of the roots as possible.
Using the means of the three longest roots as a radius,
calculate the volume of soil from which the plant received
its nourishment.
# 7 D3
- - 2
(55) Study of Varieties of Corn—
Secure several samples of different varieties.
Formula—
Compare—
1. General shape of ear and size.
2. Proportion of grain to cob.
3. Shape of kernel.
(a) Length.
(b) Width.
(c) Thickness.
4. Contents of kernel. -
(a) Much or little protein.
(b) Shape and size of embryo.
5. Indentation.
(56) Effect of Fertilizer on Early Growth of Oats Plants—
Fill ten jars (or buckets, 3 gallons is best, a one gallon
will do) with field loam. Apply fertilizer as follows:
Check. -
Potassium.
Nitrogen.
Phosphorus.
Check.
Potassium }%, nitrogen 9%.
Potassium }%, phosphorus 3%.
Nitrogen 3%, phosphorus 3%. -
Nitrogen #, phosphorus 3%, potassium }%.
10. Check.
Allow to grow for three weeks, watch results with reference to
germination, growth, size of blade and color. -
CROPs 391
(57) To Test Wheat for—
(58)
(59)
1. Starch, add a drop of diluted iodine. Make en-
larged sketch of grain, shade part affected most by iodine.
(Where is most of the starch in the wheat located?)
Material (Iodine H. N. O. 3.) (Seed should be soaked
for several hours.)
2. Protein, cut a lone section at right angles to the
groove, add a drop of nitric acid. (H. N. O., 3.)
(Sketch seed and shade part most affected by the acid.)
(Do you find as much protein as starch in wheat?)
Varieties of Potatoes and Treatment for Scab–
Secure samples of seed potatoes.
Record—Length, shape (cylindrical or flattened),
color, general appearance, size of eyes, depth of eyes, color
of eyes, variety—early, late or medium.
For scab treatment dissolve 2 oz. of corrosive sublimate
in 15 gallons of water, soak whole potatoes for six hours.
Effect on Germination of Treatment for Smut in Oats—
Part 1. Treatment.
(A) Weigh out four lots, any weight (2 oz. or 57 grs.)
or 9% bu.
Lot 1. Formalin treatment: Take one lot, sprinkle
or dip oats in 2% parts formaldehyde to 1,000 parts water
or formalin at rate of 1 lb. to 50 gallons of water. Soak for
thirty minutes, then dry.
Lot 2. Hot water treatment: Take a second lot,
soak for ten minutes in water 133° F. Spread out to dry.
Lot 3. Copper sulphate. (Rate 1 lb. to 5 gallons
water.) Soak for ten minutes.
Lot 4. Untreated.
Part 2. Using 50 grains from each lot, 25 hulled, 25 un-
hulled, germinate seeds. Tabulate—
GERMANITION TEST
Number of hours. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lot 1 Unhulled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lot 1 Hulled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lot 2 Unhulled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lot 2 Hulled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lot 3 Unhulled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lot 3 Hulled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lot 4 Unhulled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lot 4 Hulled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
392
CROPs
(60)
(61)
(62)
(63)
From data obtained how much seed should be sown of
each of the treated lots to get the same rate per acre as
the untreated lot?
Make a collection of hays or go to several barns, Score
hay under following classes—
Choice Timothy:
Not over 1/20 other grasses, properly cured, bright
natural color, sound, well baled.
No. 1. Not over 1/8 other grasses or clover, properly
cured, good color, sound, well baled.
No. 2. Not over 1/4 other grasses or clover, fair color,
sound, well baled.
No. 3. Shall include all hay not good enough for other
grades, sound and well baled. e
No grade. Shall include all hay badly cured, stained,
trashed or in any way unsound.
For grades of clover, address—
National Hay Association,
Chicago, Illinois.
Make a sketch of your home farm or imagine an eighty-
acre farm of six fields, make
1. A three-year rotation.
2. A four-year rotation.
Make a test plat on a wheat or oats field where clover is to
be sowed. This should be laid off about the middle of
February. The manure, lime and potassium applied a
little later.
Make a list of farm crops for your community.
Secure the following data.
(a) Number acres in township.
(b) Valuation of crop. January 1st.
(c) Number acres in state.
(d) Average yield per acre.
(a) and (b) can be secured from the Township Assessor.
(c) and (d) can be secured from the State Statistician,
Indianapolis.
REFERENCES
Productive Farm Crops—Montgomery, Lippincott.
Field Crops—Wilson and Warburton, Webb Pub.Co., St. Paul, Minn.
Field Crop Production—Livingston, Macmillan Co.
Corn Crops—Montgomery, Macmillan.
CROPs 393
New Creations in Plant Life, Harwood, Macmillan.
Forage Crops and Their Culture—Piper Macmillan.
Cereal Crops—Varleton, Macmillan.
Forage and Fiber Crops—Hunt, Orange Judd Co.
Forage Crops—Voorhees, Macmillan Co.
Field Crops for the Cotton Belt—Morgan, Macmillan.
A Text-book of Grass—Hitchcock, Macmillan Co.
A Manual of Weeds—Georgia, Macmillan Co.
Crops and Methods for Soil Improvement—Agee, Macmillan.
Plant Breeding—Bailey & Gilbert, Macmillan.
Disease of Economic Plants—Stevens & Hall, Macmillan.
Plant Physiology—Dugger, Macmillan.
Injurious Insects—How to Recognize and Control them—O’Kane, Macmillan.
Grasses and How to Grow Them—Shaw, Webb Pub. Co., St. Paul, Minn.
Crop Production—Weed & Riley, D. C. Heath.
The Wheat Industry—Bengston and Griffith, Macmillan.
U. S. Department of Agriculture—Farmers’ Bulletin No. 640.
Purdue Extension Bulletin No. 30, (Available in quantities for class use.)
Corn—Indiana Bulletin 110, Cir. 25.
Wheat—Indiana Bulletin 114, U. S. D. A. Farmers' B. 596.
Oats—U. S. D. A. Farmers’ B. 420, 424.
Barley—U. S. D. A. Farmers' B. 518.
Rye-U. S. D. A. Farmers’ B. 758.
Alfalfa–Indiana Cir. 36.
Clover—U. S. D. A. Farmers’ B. 455, 550, 579, 646, Indiana. Extension
Leaflet 31.
Sweet Clover—U. S. D. A. Farmers' B. 485.
Cowpeas and Soybeans—Indiana B. 172.
Vetch—Indiana Extension Leafletiz9, U. S. D. A. Farmers’ B. 515.
Millet—U. S. D. A. Farmers' B. 101, 168.
Farm Mechanics
Farm mechanics as a part of high school and vocational ag-
gricultural courses should include mechanical drawing, wood
working, architecture as applied to farm buildings, cement work,
farm carpentry, care and use of machinery and implements,
lighting and heating of buildings, water supply, sewage disposal,
fence building, etc.
REFERENCES
Farm Machinery & Farm Motors—Davidson & Chase, Orange Judd Co.
Agricultural Engineering—Davidson, Webb Co.
Farm Gas Engines—Hushfield & Ullbricht, John Wiley & Sons.
Farm Motors—Potter, McGraw, Hill & Co.
Handy Farm Devices—Cobleigh, Orange Judd Co.
Electricity for the Farm—Anderson Macmillan Pub. Co.
Country Plumbing Practice—Huttin, David Williams Pub.Co.
Farmers Electrical Hand Book—Western Electric Co., Chicago.
Farm Structures—Ekblaw, Macmillan Pub. Co.
Concrete Construction for Rural Communities—Seaton, MacGraw Hill.
Concrete Silos—Universal Portland Cement Co.
Rural Hygine—Ohden, Macmillan & Co.
Practical Farm Drainage—Elliott, John Wiley & Son.
Engineering for Land Drainage—Elliott, John Wiley & Son.
Text Book of Land Drainage—Jeffery, Macmillan & Co.
Land Drainage—Parson, The Myron Clark Pub. Co.
Agricultural Wood Working—Bruce Pub. Co., Milwaukee.
Practical Talks on Farm Engineering—Clarkson, Doubleday Page Co.
TJ. S. Department of Agriculture Publications:
Farmers' Bulletin 638—Laboratory Exercise in Farm Mechanics for
Agricultural High Schools.
Farmers' Bulletin 487—Water and Lighting Systems, Plumbing and
Sewage Disposal for Country Homes.
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Farm Management and Marketing
We have not outlined projects in farm management and
marketing, because we believe these can be studied to good ad-
vantage in connection with other projects. Both are important
and should be given due consideration. They can be carried out
on a more extensive scale by high School and vocational pupils
than by pupils in the seventh and eighth grades.
REFERENCES
Farm Management—Warren, Macmillan Co.
Co-operation in Agriculture—Powell, Macmillan Co.
Marketing Farm Products—Weld, Macmillan.
Laboratory Exercises in Farm Management—Warren and Livermore.
Macmillan.
. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 49.
. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 370.
. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 511.
. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 572.
. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 614.
. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 635.
. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 661.
. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 704.
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