B 398201
DIBELANT
COMBUSTION
CH BOOTH
·
ARTES
1837
LIBRARY VERITA'S
SCIENTIA
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
US
ZEPTURIQUE UMUNS
TCEBOR
SI-QUÆRIS PENINSULAM-AMŒNAM
CIRCUMSPICE
f
CHEM, LIBRARY
TP
}
355
.3725
LIQUID FUEL
AND ITS COMBUSTION
DEDICATED AS A MARK OF ESTEEM TO
T. E. GATEHOUSE, Esq., F.R.S.E., Assoc. Mem. Inst.C.E.,
M. Inst.M.E., M. Inst.E.E., etc.
Editor in Chief of the "Electrical Review," through whose kindness I have been
able to place on record my views on the combustion of fuels and the construction and
management of furnaces
LIQUID FUEL
AND ITS COMBUSTION
enry
By Wм. H. BOOTH
MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS; FORMERLY OF THE
NEW SOUTH WALES GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS
OF THE MANCHESTER STEAM USERS' ASSOCIATION, of
THE BRITISH ELECTRIC TRACTION COMPANY
WESTMINSTER
ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO LTD
2 WHITEHALL GARDENS
1903
BUTLER & TANNER,
THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS,
FROME, AND LONDON.
TH
Preface
HE subject of Liquid Fuel is one that has now been before the public about
twenty-five years, but little had been done in this country until about twelve
years ago, when Mr. Holden, of the Great Eastern Railway, began to use the tar of
his oil-gas process, and found many advantages in using this hitherto almost unsale-
able product. The success of this tar led him on to the use of creosote and other
hydrocarbon by-products, and now he is using Texas oil.
In this book the Author has endeavoured to put together what has been done
in the burning of liquid fuel, and at the risk of repetition has given descriptions of
various systems and apparatus; and while no statements have been accepted un-
considered, he has not hesitated to use descriptions and statements of manufacturers
in some cases with little alteration where such statements were sound and reason-
able. The Author is not only indebted to the many whose names appear in the text,
but also to many others who have furnished him with information, particularly
Professor W. B. Phillips, Ph.D., of the University of Texas, from whose bulletins
the author has drawn so copiously for information on Texas oil; to Mr. Thomas
Urquhart, of Dalny, who, as Locomotive Superintendent of the Grazi and Tsaritsin
Railway, first placed liquid fuel burning on a sound basis in locomotive work, and
whose papers on the subject may be found in the Proceedings of the Institution
of Mechanical Engineers; to his friend Mr. B. H. Thwaite, whose researches in
combustion have been so extensive.
The work of the United States Naval Department, under Rear-Admiral Mel-
ville, has been so valuable that special appendices have been devoted to a copious
abstract of the coal and oil tests made by the Bureau of Steam Engineering upon
a water-tube boiler as well as tests upon the ss. Mariposa.
The Author has also drawn liberally upon the bulletins of the U.S. Geological
Survey for information on petroleum production.
To Mr. Alfred J. Allen acknowledgment is due for information on tar and
creosote, and for tabular matter to Mr. Poole, whose excellent treatise on the
Calorific Power of Fuels deals so exhaustively with coal.
Appendices are added giving the Rules of the National Board of Fire Under-
writers (U.S.), and also the Rules of Lloyd's Register of Shipping.
Acknowledgments are due to the Electrical Review (London) for permission to
reproduce portions of the Author's articles in that Journal on questions of combus-
tion.
To Mons. L. Bertin, of the French Navy, the Author is indebted for informa-
tion as to the use of liquid fuel in the French Military Marine.
The means for utilizing Liquid Fuel are very varied, yet all practically result in,
or at least aim at, one end. It has been impossible within two covers to do more than
select a number of such apparatus to illustrate the principles which have been
followed in achieving success. The successful combustion of liquid hydrocarbon
391018
V
PREFACE
is but an extension of the principles necessary for bituminous or hydrocarbon coal.
The difference is that coal is burned partly upon the grate, and air, to burn the
hydrocarbon distillates, cannot well be introduced from below, as it can with liquid
fuel which is burned in a floating condition, and can be fed with air from below very
easily.
The difference is but one of degree, but with liquid fuel the fact that all the fuel
is floating, and would produce a specially foul black smoke under the conditions.
in which coal is burned, has compelled the adoption of means that ought to be
adopted with coal-fired furnaces.
The Author has endeavoured to connect the two practices, for in the present
state of liquid fuel supply it is more than probable that its use will be parallel with
the use of coal, especially in dealing with the sudden and high load peaks of electric
stations. Liquid fuel cannot be universal unless the supply increases to many
times what it is at present, and this points to a good future for the mixed system of
firing, oil and coal being burned together in the same furnace.
It has been difficult to make a selection of apparatus to be described, but the
Author trusts that he has selected a sufficient number of types practically to cover
the ground and show the general trend of practice without unduly multiplying
examples. Indeed the tendency seems to him to be in the direction of one general
type. As regards special boilers, oil does not appear to require anything more than
what is required by coal, though coal is not treated to the necessary appliances, and
oil is so treated, and gains success where coal is allowed to fail.
Much that perhaps ought to appear in such a book as this has been omitted, as
it appears to the Author that the question of draught, for example, is not of the same
importance with liquid fuel as it is with solid fuels.
More might be said on the subject of flue-gas proportion, but this again has been
so fully treated by other writers that it did not seem desirable at present to deal with
it more fully. The most important detail of liquid fuel apparatus is the furnace and
the provision of air, and of means to secure combustion and conserve temperature
to enable combustion to be made perfect.
Mr. Horace Allen kindly revised the section on gas analysis. Students of liquid
fuel combustion will find enormous masses of information in the past volumes of
the Engineer, Engineering, and other technical papers. Much of this information
is duplicated and historical, and the Author has found it necessary to eliminate
almost all such matter and confine his space to systems now living or of recent use,
or of a form recognized as useful to-day. Undoubtedly Aydon and the late Admiral
Selwyn did much to urge the use of liquid fuel, but the latter injured the value of
his best work by regarding steam as a combustible.
The Author is also indebted to Messrs. Colonner and Lordier, the French engi-
neers, for excellent information on liquid fuel, and indirectly no doubt to many
others who are not directly traceable.
Finally, his grateful acknowledgments are due to his Publishers for the manner
in which they have facilitated his labours throughout.
DARTMOUTH HOUSE,
2 QUEEN ANNE'S GATE,
WESTMINSTER.
vi
ERRATA.
Table V.-Column 16, under B.Th.U., line 6. For 14415 9 read 4415·9;
Column 18, under Cal., line 7. For 2:1375 read 8·1375.
Preface
Table of Contents
PART I
CHAPTER I
Historical Notes; The present Production of Coal; Advantages of Liquid Fuel; Petro-
leum; General Notes; Economies possible by the use of Liquid Fuel; The present
Production of Petroleum .
CHAPTER II
The Economy of Liquid or Solid Fuel; The Dangers of Petroleum; Air necessary for
Combustion; General Principles of Liquid Fuel Combustion; Flame Analysis;
Refractory Furnace Linings; The Weir Boiler .
CHAPTER III
Liquid Fuels; The necessity for Atomizing; Varieties of Liquid Fuel; American Petroleum;
Russian Petroleum; Creosote Oils; Tar Distillates; Blast Furnace and Shale Oils
CHAPTER IV
Texas Oil; Rates of Carriage on Oil; The Analysis of Oil; Physical Properties: Russian
Oil; Calorific Capacity of Oils; Advantages of Liquid Fuel; The Use of Oil on
Locomotives; The World's Oil Production; The Limits of Liquid Fuel
CHAPTER V
Equivalence of Oil and Coal; Tests of Texas Oil
CHAPTER VI
Chemical and other Properties of Petroleum ; Water in Oil; Petroleums suitable for Fuel ;
Physical Properties of Petroleum; Specific Gravity of Petroleum
CHAPTER VII
Materials; Cast Iron; Steel; Firebricks; Fireclay; Clay Analysis; Special Forms of
Bricks; Classification of Clay Goods
PAGE
V
3
10
15
22
34
40
44
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER VIII
Combustibles and Supporters of Combustion. Carbon: its Forms and Origin; its Calorific
Properties; its Combustion and Chemistry. Hydrogen: its Physical and other
Properties; its Compounds with Carbon; its Combustion; Air; The Atmosphere;
Properties of Air. Oxygen: its Compounds with Carbon; its Properties.
PAGE
54
CHAPTER IX
Water; its Properties; Origin and Sources of Water Impurities; Solubility of Salts;
Sea Water; Useful Data
61
CHAPTER X
Purification of Water; Prevention of Scale in Boilers; The Clark Process; The Double
Process; The Economics of Water Softening; The Magnesia Salts; Iron; Acid ;
Tests; Boiler Compounds
CHAPTER XI
Calorific and other Units; Thermo Chemistry; Heat; Temperature; Thermometers ;
Specific Heat; Latent Heat; Dissociation; Units of Heat; Units of Work;
Units of Weight; Gravity; Compound Units
CHAPTER XII
Calorific Power of Fuels; Calculation of Temperatures; Effects of Dissociation and of
Variation of Specific Heat; Relative Volumes produced by Combustion; Evapora-
tive Power of Fuel; Temperatures due to Combustion ; Calculation of Calorific
Capacity of Fuels.
CHAPTER XIII
Smoke and Combustion; Varieties of Smoke; Its Prevention; Influence of Refractory
Furnaces; The Combustion of Bituminous Fuels; Carbon Vapour; Liquid Fuels;
Furnace Temperatures; Theoretical Flame Temperature; Total Heat generated;
Air Supply; The Heat Properties of Carbon; The Process of Coal Combustion;
Effect of Vaporizing Solid Fuels; Flame Analysis; The Principles of Combustion
The Necessity of Temperature; Smoke due to Loss of Heat of Burning Gases; The
Use of Coloured Glass for Flame Inspection; The Weir Boiler
;
·
PART II
CHAPTER XIV
Oil Storage on Ships; Example of Improvised Tank Steamer; Example of Cargo Steamer ;
Example of New Tank Steamer; Use of Liquid Fuel at Sea; Supply of Oil at
Ports; Safety and Flash Point; Advantages for War Ships; Economic Advan-
tages of Liquid Fuel
67
80
88
96
111
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER XV
Marine Furnace Gear; Arrangement of Shell Line Steamers; Interchange of Coal and
Oil; The Flannery-Boyd System; The Orde System; Results of Use of Liquid
Fuel at Sea; Wallsend Slipway Company's Arrangement; The Lancashire Boiler
with Orde's System; Körting System; Howden System.
PAGE
118
CHAPTER XVI
Liquid Fuel Application to Locomotives; The Holden System; Advantage of Oil; Method
of Working; Management of Fire; Particulars of Oil Burning Locomotive; Regu-
lation of Oil Supply; The Atomizer; Life of Fire Boxes; Heating the Oil; Air
Heater
CHAPTER XVII
138
Application of Liquid Fuel to Stationary and other Boilers; The Lancashire Boiler; Cor-
nish Boiler; Water Tube Boiler; Locomotive Boiler; Level of Atomizer in Mixed
System; Management of Fire; United States Navy Tests; The Meyer System 151
CHAPTER XVIII
The Mixed System of Coal and Liquid Fuel Combustion: its use in the Italian Navy ;
M. Bertin's Calculations.
CHAPTER XIX
Russian and American Locomotive Practice; The Baldwin Company's System; The Equiv-
alence of Coal and Oil; Comparisons of Cost of Liquid Fuel; The Danger of Crude Oil ;
The Urquhart System; General Arrangements; Management of Furnace; Firebox
Designs; Smoke Results on Grazi and Tsaritsin Railway
CHAPTER XX
American Stationary Practice with Liquid Fuel; The Billow System; Fuel Oil Pumping
Systems; Double Pumping Systems; Furnace Construction; Operating a Fuel
Oil Plant; Examples of Boilers with Liquid Fuel Furnaces
162
166
182
CHAPTER XXI
American Stationary Practice with Liquid Fuel; The Kirkwood System; Comparative
Values of Coal and Oil; The Aerated Fuel Process; Air Pressure; Comparison of
Oil and Gas Fuels; The Springfield System.
194
CHAPTER XXII
English Stationary Practice with Liquid Fuel; The Kermode System; Analysis of Borneo
Oil; Tests of Borneo Oil; The Hydroleum System; Tests; The Sprayer; Results
with Automobile Car; Air Supply; Application of System to Internally Fired
Boilers
CHAPTER XXIII
The Combustion of Vaporized Liquids; The Clarkson-Capel Burner: its Various Applica-
tions; Starting Devices
199
208
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXIV
Comparison of Air and Steam Atomization; The Ellis and Eaves System; Steam Atomi-
zation; Air Atomization; Tests
PAGE
216
CHAPTER XXV
The Storage and Distribution of Liquid Fuel; Tanks; Piping; Ventilation; Great Eas-
tern Railway System: Grazi and Tsaritsin Railway System; Thwaite Tank; Oil
Pumps
CHAPTER XXVI
Flue Gas Analysis; Calculation of Volumes; The Orsat Apparatus: its Working; Gas
Calculations; Absorbing Solutions; Analysis; The Ados Recorder: its Action ;
Arndt's Econometer
CHAPTER XXVII
Compressed Air; Air Compressors; Reavell Compressor; Principles of Compression;
Weight of Air necessary for Liquid Fuel Atomization; Adiabatic Calculation of
Air; Compound Air Compression; Volumetric Efficiency; Power to Compress
Air; Outflow of Air
CHAPTER XXVIII
Calorimetry and Draught; Thompson's Calorimeter; The Berthelot-Mahler Calorimeter;
Calorimetric Determinations; Draught; Gauges ; Difference of Solid and Liquid
Fuel in Relation to Draught
CHAPTER XXIX
Atomizing Liquid Fuels; Various Atomizers; Elementary Forms; Vaporizers; The
Symon-House Burner; Atomizing Agents; French Trials
French Trials; Air Compression;
Certain Advantages of Steam; d'Allest Atomizer; Fvardofski System; Russian
Atomizers; Object of Atomizing; American Practice; Thwaites System
222
229
240
251
260
CHAPTER XXX
Application of Liquid Fuel to Metallurgy; Rivet Furnace; Assaying Furnace ; Crucible
Furnace; The Schwartz Oil Furnace for Melting Metals; Tests; Oil Consump-
tion; Tyre Heating Furnace; Forge Furnaces; Copper Smelting .
274
CHAPTER XXXI
Oil Carriage by Rail; Example of Oil Tank Wagon; Oil Carrying Steamer
CHAPTER XXXII
Ringelmann's Smoke Chart
285
་
290
X
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART III
APPENDICES
PAGE
Appendix No. 1. Extracts from Report of Chief of Bureau of Steam Engineering, U.S.
Navy, on Tests made upon a Boiler with Coal Firing
295
Appendix No. 2.
Report on Steamship Mariposa
313
Appendix No. 3.
poses (U.S.
Appendix No. 4.
Extract from Report of Board on Tests of Liquid Fuel for Naval Pur-
Navy)
324
Lloyd's Rules for Burning and Carrying Liquid Fuel
343
Appendix No. 5.
Appendix No. 6.
Rules and Permits of Various American Boards of Fire Underwriters 344
Extract from Report of Mr. Schoen on Oil Storage
348
Appendix No. 7.
Appendix No. 9.
Appendix No. 8.
Extracts from Report of Mr. Schoen on Installation of Fuel Oil
Rules and Requirements of National Board of Fire Underwriters
Controllable Liquid fired Steam Superheater
Appendix to Chapter XXXI. .
350
353
394
291
Tables and Data
PART IV
359
X1
FIG.
Index to Illustrations
0. The Weir Water Tube Boiler
1.
Oil Storage System, ss. Murex
2. Fuel Tanks. Ordinary Cargo Boat
•
3. Fuel Storage. Tank Steamer. Flannery-Boyd System
4. Oil Burning Furnace, ss. Murex
5.
Furnace Brickwork, ss. Murex
6. Atomizer, Rusden Eeles System
7. Furnace of ss. Trocas
8.
Service Tank, Flannery-Boyd System
•
9. General Arrangement of Water Tube Boiler, Orde's System
9a. Bunker Pipes of Oil Supply
10.
Atomizer, Orde's System
11. Atomizer Trunnion, Orde's System
12.
Furnace Brickwork, Wallsend Slipway Co.
13. Typical Oil Fuel System, Wallsend Slipway Co.
14. Lancashire Boiler Arrangement, Wallsend Slipway Co.
General Arrangement, Körting System
15.
•
•
16 and 16a. Detail Arrangement Marine Boiler, Körting System
Design for Oil Furnace, Körting System
17.
18.
•
Oil Furnace, ss. F. C. Laiesz, Körting System
19. Atomizer, Körting System
19a. Atomizer, Körting System
20.
General Arrangement, Howden System
21.
Atomizer, Holden's System
22.
Great Eastern Locomotive, Holden's System
23.
Great Eastern Locomotive, Oil Regulator, Holden's System
24. Atomizer, Stationary Form, Holden's System
25. American Locomotive Firebox for Liquid Fuel
26. Great Eastern Locomotive, Holden's System
27. Atomizer, Locomotive Type, Holden's System
28. Macallan Variable Blast Pipe Cap
•
•
•
•
29.
30.
Lancashire Boiler, Holden's System
Cornish Boiler, Holden's System
31. Locomotive Type Boiler, Holden's System
Water Tube Boiler with Grate Bars
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
Water Tube Boiler without Grate Bars
Oil Burning Firebox with Small Coal Grate
Locomotive Furnace, Southern Pacific Railroad.
The Meyer System of Liquid Fuel Burning
Atomizer, Baldwin System
38. Regulating Cock for Oil, Baldwin System
39. Locomotive Firebox, Baldwin System
40. Vanderbilt Firebox, Baldwin System
•
•
•
PAGE
107
111
112
•
112
118
119
120
•
121
122
123
•
124
125
126
•
128
129
130
•
131
132, 133
134
135
•
136
136
137
•
•
141
•
•
•
142
144
145
146
148
150
151
152
153
•
154
155
156
•
157
•
158
•
•
161
166
•
167
•
168
•
168
xiii
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG.
41.
42.
43.
44.
Locomotive Firebox, Urquhart System
Fuel Tender, Urquhart System
Locomotive Firebox, Urquhart System
Locomotive Firebox, Urquhart System
45. Atomizer, Urquhart System
45a. Lancashire Boiler Furnace, Urquhart System
46. Performance Curves, Urquhart System
47. Atomizer, Billow System
47a. Underfired Tubular Boiler, Billow System
476. Water Tube Boiler, Billow System
47c. 500 HP. Heine Boiler, Billow System
48.
Double Pumping Plant, Billow System
48a. Air Tuyere, Billow System
486. Air Regulator, Billow System
48c. Tank-hose Connection
•
49. General Furnace Mouthpiece Arrangement, Billow System
50. Atomizer, Aerated Fuel Process
51. Liquid Fuel Furnace, Kermode's System
51a. Enlarged Details, Kermode's System
•
•
•
•
•
•
52. Liquid Fuel Furnace, Kermode's System
53. Furnace Arrangement, Hydroleum System
53a. Furnace Arrangement, Hydroleum System
536. Furnace Arrangement, Hydroleum System
54. Clarkson Capel Preliminary Heater
55. Clarkson Capel Burner for Fire Float .
56. Clarkson Capel Burner for Automobile
57. Clarkson Capel Burner, Open Tank System
58. Clarkson Capel Canoe Boiler
59. Clarkson Capel System. Small Vessel
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
•
Clarkson Capel System, Automobile Starting Device
Air Heating System, Ellis & Eaves System
Furnace Arrangement, Ellis & Eaves System
Great Eastern Railway. Oil Storage Tanks
Oil Supply Tank, Urquhart System
Storage Tank, Thwaite System
Orsat Gas Analysis Apparatus
Ados "Automatic CO₂ Recorder
“Ados " Automatic CO2 Recorder
The Econometer CO₂ Recorder
70. Weir's Oil Pump
71.
2
Electrically Driven Air Compressor
72. Electrically Driven Air Compressor
73. Single Stage Air Compressor, Water Cooled
74. Single Stage Air Compressor, Unjacketted
75. Diagram of Adiabatic Compression
•
76. Diagram of Compound Compression with Intercooling
77.
Small Electrically Driven Duplex Compressor .
78. Thompson Calorimeter
79.
Berthelot-Mahler Calorimeter
80.
Water Draught Gauge
81.
Water Draught Gauge
81a. Atomizer, Rusden Eeles
816. Atomizer, Hydroleum
82.
Atomizer, Kermode's
83.
84.
Rivet Furnace. Grand Trunk Railway
Atomizer, Rivet Furnace.
Grand Trunk Railway
85. Atomizer, Elementary Form
86. Atomizer, Swensson System
·
PAGE
174
175
177
•
178
179
181
180
183
190
191
192
185
186
187
188
188
•
•
•
196
200
201
202
•
203
•
204
•
206
209
•
210
•
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
•
224
225
226
231
235
236
237
227
240
•
241
246
247
•
243
243
250
252
•
253
•
257
258
261
262
263
263
264
264
264
xiv
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG.
87. Burner, Symon-House System
88. Atomizer, Guyot
89. Atomizer, Nozzle of Faulty Form
90. Atomizer, Nozzle of Good Form
91. Furnace of French Torpedo Boat No. 22
92. Atomizer, d'Allest.
93.
94.
95.
Atomizer, Double d'Allest
Guyot Small Tube Boiler, with Liquid Fuel
Locomotive Furnace, Fvardofski System .
96. Atomizer, Fvardofski System
97. Atomizer, Brandt's
98. Atomizer, Vetillard Scherding.
99. Atomizer, Solinai
100. Atomizer, Artemeff's
101. Atomizer, Berznef
102. Atomizer, Williams
103. Atomizer, Compagnie Russe Standart
104. Atomizer, Chaukoff
105.
106.
Locomotive Boiler tried at Cherbourg
Rivet Furnace. Great Eastern Railway
107. Oil heated Brass Crucible Furnace
108. Assay Furnace, Bickford Burner Co's. System
109. Assay Furnace, Bickford Burner Co's. System
110.
111.
Schwartz Furnace
Schwartz Furnace, Section
112. Tyre Heating Furnace, Urquhart System
112a. Spray Injector for Tyre Furnace, Urquhart System
113.
Forge Furnace, Small
114. Forge Furnace, Large
115.
Oil Carrying Railway Tank Wagon
116. Oil Carrying Railway Tank Wagon
117. Oil Tank, ss. Newyork
117a. Oil Tank, ss. Newyork, Cross Section
118.
i19.
a.
Ringelmann's Smoke Charts
Cruse Controllable Oil-fired Superheater .
PAGE
265
266
•
266
266
267
•
267
•
268
268
269
269
269
•
•
270
270
271
•
•
271
271
271
•
272
272
274
275
276
277
•
. 278
278
281
282
282
283
286
287
•
288
289
290
395
•
•
b.
C.
d.
e.
f.
Firebricks
50 et seq.
XV
Illustrations to Appendices
FIG.
APP.
1. Hohenstein Coal Burning Boiler
1.
3.
1.
4.
1.
5.
2.
6.
3.
8.
3.
9.
3.
10.
3.
11.
3.
12.
3.
13.
Hohenstein General Arrangement
•
Hohenstein Boiler, Variation of Air Pressure
Atomizer, Grundell Tucker
Hohenstein Boiler, Liquid Fuel Arrangement
Hohenstein Boiler, Liquid Fuel Arrangement
Atomizer, Oil City Co.
Diagram of Air Pressures, Fuel Arrangement
Atomizer, Hayes'
Installation, Hayes' Burner
3. Atomizer, Oil City Co.
14.
3.
Atomizer, F. M. Reed
•
119.
9.
Steam Superheater, Oil-fired .
Appendices
Melville's Coal Tests, U.S. Navy
APP.
1.
2.
SS. Mariposa Trials, U.S. Navy
3. Melville's Fuel Oil Tests, U.S. Navy
4. Lloyd's Rules for Liquid Fuel Ships
5. Rules of American Boards of Fire Underwriters.
6. Schoen's Report on Storage of Petroleum.
7.
Schoen's Report on Individual Installations
9.
Steam Superheater, Oil-fired Controllable
8. Requirements of Underwriters .
4
•
3
PAGE
297
299
301
315
324
326
327
329
>
332
333
334
335
395
•
PAGE
295
313
324
343
344
348
350
353
394
xvii
b
Index to Tables
TABLE
I. Composition of Crude Oils
PAGE
361
II.
Calorific Capacity of Liquid Fuel Oils
III.
Coefficient of Expansion of Crude Oil
361
361
IV. Calorific Capacity of Crude Oil
V. Table of the Properties of Gases (Kempe)
VI. Temperature Table
VII. Specific Heat of Solids
VIII. Specific Heat of Gases
362
To face 360
362
362
362
•
IX. Latent Heats of Various Bodies
X. Equivalents, Various
85
•
363
•
•
XVI. Russian and Pennsylvanian Oils, Analysis of
XI. Calorific Properties of Carbon
XII. Tension of Aqueous Vapour
XIII.
Volume of Gas before and after Combustion and Absorption
XIV. Calculated Gas Densities and Weights per Litre
XV. Relative Economy Oil and Coal
XVII. Comparative Trials of Petroleum Refuse
363
•
363
364
364
•
•
364
365
365
XVIII.
Seventeen Trips with Petroleum Refuse.
366
XIX. Comparative Tests, Different Fuels
367
XX. Summer Tests, Petroleum Refuse
368
XXI.
Summer Tests, Petroleum Refuse, Comparisons with other Fuels
368
XXXV. Weight and Volume of Gases
XXII. Comparison of Goods and Passenger Engines
XXIII. Comparison of Goods and Passenger Engines
XXIV. Cost of Altering Engines to burn Liquid Fuel
XXV. Cost of Fuel and Repairs
XXVI. Working Cost per Axle Mile
XXVII. Cost of Fuel per Axle Mile
XXVIII. Specific Gravity, Astatki
XXIX.
XXX.
•
Cost of Evaporating 1000 lbs. of Water, Coal
Cost of Evaporating 1000 lbs. of Water, Oil
XXXI. Conversion Table, Degrees Baumè
XXXII. Air Required for Perfect Combustion
•
XXXIII. Heat of Combustion (B. Th. U.) and Air per Pound of Fuel
XXXIV. Theoretical Flame Temperatures
XXXVI. Composition of Gases by Weight and Volume
XXXVII. Weight and Volume of Oxygen and Air for Combustion. Metric
XXXVIII. Weight and Volume of Oxygen and Air for Combustion. English
XXXIX. Heat of Combustion of Gases by Weight and Volume
•
XL. Specific Heat of Gases Referred to Water
XLI. Specific Heat of Gaseous Products of Combustion
XLII. Specific Heat of Water
XLIII. Theoretical Evaporative Value of Petroleum and Coal
XLIV. Ignition Temperature of Gases
369
369
370
371
•
372, 373
374
375
375
•
376
•
•
377
377
378
•
·
378
378
•
378
379
379
380
•
380
380
380
•
381
382
xix
INDEX TO TABLES
TABLE
XLV. World's Petroleum Production
XLVI. Conversion Tables for Evaporation and Combustion
XLVII. Specific Gravities (various materials)
XLVIII. Water Column due to Chimney of 100 feet
XLIX. Temperature Determination by Fusion of Metals
L.
Air Required for Combustion
LI. Volume and Weight of Dry Air
LII.
LIII.
B. Th. U. in Water
Saturated Steam Data.
•
LIV. Factors of Evaporation
LV.
Efficiency of Boiler
LVI.
Losses Due to Ash in Fuel
LVII.
B. Th. U. in Moisture
LVIII.
Heat Balance Table
LIX. Heat Lost in Chimney Gases (Diagram) .
PAGE
382
382
383
•
383
•
383
384
.
384
385
C
•
385 et seq.
388
390
390
391
392
393
XX
Part I
THEORY AND PRINCIPLES
B
TH
Chapter I
HISTORICAL AND GENERAL
HE history of liquid fuel need hardly be referred to, for it is of slight value
unless to confirm the generally accepted opinion of to-day, that the only
satisfactory system of supplying liquid fuel is to reduce it to fine spray-to atomize
it, in fact, in terms of to-day.
A paper by Mr. Aydon was read before the Institution of Civil Engineers on
February 26, 1878.1 Aydon's own work was good, but the knowledge and ignor-
ance of the period are plainly evident both in the paper itself and in the discussion.
Especially is the latter feature prominent in the erroneous assertions of some regard-
ing the conversion into valuable fuel of the steam which is employed to effect spray-
ing. Thus there will be found seriously put forward evaporative duties of 18.38
and 19.5 pounds of water per pound of oil. Later on 25-8 pounds of evaporation
are claimed, then an evaporative efficiency of 25.2 pounds observed is very pro-
perly stated to be equivalent to an evaporation from and at 212° F. of 28-9 pounds
of water per pound of steam. Reduced to B.Th.U. this represents 27,938, yet
nowhere does it appear that liquid fuel had been found to possess a calorific capacity
greater than it is known to possess to-day. All claims in excess of this appear to
be attributed to the burning of the steam which is supposed capable of dissociation
by means of less energy than it will produce when burned. Indeed, one contributor
to the discussion strenuously claimed 46 pounds of steam per pound of oil plus
one pound of steam, an altogether impossible disappearance of feed-water by evapo-
ration, only to be explained by priming or possibly by a badly leaking blow-out tap.
Suffice it to say that this paper raised a discussion so full of error and misconception,
and generally so opposed to the doctrine of the conservation of energy, that it is of
small value as a contribution to exact knowledge and only worthy of notice as a
curiosity, except so far as its illustrations show what had been done to burn liquid
fuel prior to the system of atomizing, which alone remains to us as fitted for heavy
oils.
Unfortunately, however, there are still those who have not discarded the idea
of burning steam. The idea still obtains hold that a jet of steam, dissociated by
the heat of the furnace, will burn with a resultant heat production greater than the
energy absorption of dissociation. It may very properly be argued that steam is
a better agent than air to effect the atomization of the oil; it is claimed that hydro-
carbons will actually burn better when in the presence of a small amount of moisture,
the moisture acting as a carrier of oxygen to the hydrocarbons. Commercially it
may be convenient, or even economical, to employ steam in preference to com-
¹ Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E. vol. lii. p. 177.
3
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
pressed air as an atomizing agent, especially where the waste of fresh water is of no
consequence. But there are good reasons to believe that air alone, preferably
heated, is fully as good to use as steam, and once for all it should be recognized that
steam is not, and cannot be, a fuel, that already it is fully burned hydrogen, and as
useless and impossible of use as fuel as a piece of quicklime or a heap of furnace slag.
It is quite probable that twenty-five years ago, as to-day, the use of high pressure
steam was found better than low pressure steam. This was simply because of its
greater temperature on the one hand, and of its greater atomizing effect on the
other hand. There was nothing chemical in its effect, and to-day hot air is so much
better than cold air because it is hot.
It should be further noted in respect of the claimed duty of 46 pounds evapor-
ation, that the claimant himself stated truly that "Sextane," one of the rarer
hydrocarbons, the composition of which is CH₁₁, had an evaporative efficiency of
only 28.72. The claim that steam was a fuel was as clear and unmistakable as it is
erroneous. Particular attention has been drawn to this phase of the liquid fuel
problem because mischief inevitably arises as the result of unscientific statements ;
and Aydon's paper has so frequently been quoted as authoritative that it has be-
come looked upon as a classic. So much of the statistical work that it contains is
impossible, that it, with the discussion it evoked, cannot be considered reliable in
many of the figures that may be well within the range of probability, and must be
dismissed as not furnishing information of serious value to-day, though in the dis-
cussion on the paper certain speakers pointed out the errors to which attention has
been called above.
In all fresh departures it is of course inevitable that many workers in the field
will be men who, while possessed of great energy, and patience, and determination,
are yet but poorly equipped in scientific knowledge even of the most elementary
order. Many things are done which do not commend themselves to men of better
information, and a long process of quite unnecessary trial and error is gone through.
Sometimes, after needless expense, success is attained, but frequently after a dis-
couraging expenditure of capital which renders the capitalist unwilling to incur
further expense even on the very threshold of success. Too often failure alone
results. So it has been with liquid fuel. Many past attempts have failed for want
of elementary knowledge, combined with claims of impossible achievement which
are not fulfilled in practice and result in disappointment.
The first really practical and efficient employment of liquid fuel to locomotives
for steam-raising purposes appears to be due to Mr. Thomas Urquhart, of the Grazi
and Tsaritzin Railway of Russia, to whom the writer is indebted for information.
Mr. Urquhart used the spraying system and obtained good results, and his paper
of 1884 ¹ marks the beginning of the period of really useful work.
1
The application of liquid fuel in the Caucasus owes its success to a combination
of causes. Russian petroleum has less light oil in its composition, and therefore pro-
duces more astatki, i.e. mazut or residuum; coal is dear in the district, and the man
was present in Mr. Urquhart to render the application of liquid fuel successful,
previous applications not having proved so.
Mr. Urquhart placed the use of liquid fuel on so sound a basis that his system
has naturally received considerable attention in what follows, and many of his
tables have been reproduced.
¹ Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 1884.
4
HISTORICAL AND GENERAL
The Chicago Exhibition in the early nineties gave great impetus to the use of
liquid fuel in America, for all the boilers there were arranged with oil fuel only.
In Great Britain the use of liquid fuel has not been extensive, but it has been
marked by good practice and only bids fair to become extensive since the introduc-
tion of Texas oil. Previously the tendency had been to use the products of distil-
lation of coal or oil in the shape of tars or creosotes.
To-day liquid fuel is well established and recognized as a fuel of extreme elas-
ticity, and one that can be burned smokelessly. It is realized that the days of
experiment are past, and that no serious difficulties now remain to be overcome.
At the same time the question must be considered from a conservative stand-
point, because at present and for years to come the output of petroleum will not be
sufficient to make liquid fuel a serious rival of coal in every use of fuel. There is
no knowledge of the possibility of extensive petroleum production in even the dis-
tant future. Petroleum wells do not endure indefinitely. They are not like arte-
sian water wells, fed from surface rainfall, and chemists cannot assure us that they
are being fed in any case from still deeper sources, nor is it decided whether petro-
leum is of mineral or of organic origin. The future of petroleum is thus more or less
uncertain.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
A general idea of the liquid fuel problem should therefore be obtained before
attempting to gauge its merits. The Author's summing up of the question in the
Electrical Review is abstracted in what follows.
There is a very considerable lack of the sense of proportion in many who discuss
the question of liquid fuel without a sufficiently full knowledge of facts.
In Great Britain alone over 200 million tons of coal are raised each year. In
the United States the amount is still greater. The present production of mineral
oil is a mere fraction of the 773 millions of tons of coal produced in the world. There
exists among those who haye oil to sell a habit of raising prices so soon as a demand
has been created. Such an instance recently occurred where a prospective oil user,
who had based his calculations upon a price of 32s. per ton, found that he was ex-
pected to pay 65s.
Similarly, when Holden's system was applied to some South American loco-
motives, the price of oil was raised as soon as all the engines were known to be fitted.
In that instance the sellers reckoned without their host, and in ignorance of the
mechanical details of the system, and felt much aggrieved when the engines all ran
out on coal alone.
Liquid fuel has undoubted advantages in many cases, and probably nowhere
could it be used to better advantage than in an electric light station.
One of the principal advantages of oil is its high calorific value per pound.
This, with the best oils, is double the capacity of the inferior coals, and 30 per cent.
better than the best coal. The ease with which it can be stored and moved from
point to point is an advantage. It can be fired mechanically, makes no ash or
clinker, can be burned at maximum rate or entirely turned off in a moment. Fur-
ther, a very large power of boilers requires very little labour in the stokehold.
Petroleum consists of a very large variety of constituents; these are gaseous,
liquid, or solid. The gas is marsh gas, CH4, and at once disappears; the lighter
liquids are very volatile, and finally there are solid bodies at the end of a long series.
of liquids of varying degrees of volatility and specific gravity.
5
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
The chemical formula which cover most of the constituents of petroleum are
CnH₂n and Cn H2n+2 These formulæ continue throughout the whole range
C. -2n
from marsh gas, CH, onwards.
The Texas oil is used chiefly as it is found.
The Russian oil is used in the form of astatki or residuum, the proportion left
after distilling off the lighting and lubricating oils. Much of the American oil is
also used in the form of residuum.
The proportion of carbon in all the liquids used as fuel varies very little from
84 per cent., the hydrogen amounting to 16 per cent. There is little else, so that
petroleum is practically all combustible.
It may be laid down as a well established fact that there is at present only one
way to burn liquid fuel for steam raising, and that is by atomizing the fuel in com-
pany with a sufficient amount of air around each atom. In order that the oil may
atomize freely, it should be deprived of its viscidity. This is readily done by heat,
and brings with it the further advantage that any water in the oil more easily
separates out of hot oil than cold oil, first, because the heated oil, being more limpid,
offers less resistance to the freeing of the water; and secondly, there is greater ex-
pansion of oil than of water due to the heat, and the water gains a relatively greater
specific gravity.
Warming is done by means of a steam coil, and it may be merely local warming
in the vicinity of the take-off valve in the tank. It is essential that water be fairly
well separated, because if it comes through the burners in any quantity it may ex-
tinguish the fires, and the next following oil is apt to ignite very explosively.
In storing oil there is always apt to be some vapour given off, and an empty
tank ought not to be entered with a light.
Though not nominally of double the calorific capacity of average fair coal, oil
is found in practice to be worth double the price of coal, owing to the labour cost
which it saves.
This is as regards marine service, for the oil can be carried in ballast tanks, and
paying cargo is carried in the coal bunker space.
For land purposes, of course, these latter considerations do not weigh, and the
relative value must be placed on the performance ratio of about 16 to 10, together
with the economy of labour, cleaning, ash cartage, etc.
Above and beyond all these things, however, is the power which liquid fuel
gives of immensely increasing the steam-production of a boiler at short notice.
In general practice a steam-boiler is designed with a given ratio of heating sur-
face per unit of fuel burned. Any reduction of this ratio is accompanied by a poorer
performance. Less steam is produced per pound of oil consumed. A reduction of
the heating surface ratio does not, however, reduce the performance by anything
like the same ratio.
If a large demand for steam is made upon a boiler for a short fraction of its
working hours, it may be cheaper to consume fuel at a high rate for a fraction of the
time than to employ two or even three boilers at normal rates during a fraction of
the day, the extra boilers remaining idle during the rest of the day; albeit when the
heavy load is past these extra boilers are retired hot and full of energy. The saving
by the first method is very considerable in respect of space occupied, buildings and
capital cost generally, and if not carried too far it will outweigh the fuel cost of the
short run at heavy output.
For this system of working, coal can, of course, be employed. Coal, however,
6
HISTORICAL AND GENERAL
cannot be fired at abnormal rates with special ease. A mechanical stoker does not
readily increase its rate of working. The better forms of stoker-on the coking
principle-find it very difficult to put their whole grate surface into the new and
forced condition. The sprinkler class, again, do not work so well at abnormal rates.
Coal combustion is only to be regulated by draught intensity. With oil the supply
is instantly variable to suit the steam required, and a boiler can be rapidly put under
its fullest output rate of work. With boilers of the small tube type, especially, their
small water contents enables the engineer to leave them standing cold to within a
short time of maximum output. Oil is then turned on, and in a few minutes the
boiler is in full work. When a boiler is already at work the mere turn of a handle
puts it into its maximum steam-producing condition.
As soon as the demand ceases the oil can be turned off, and the normal coal fire
continued, or the boiler laid off entirely. By means of liquid fuel great elasticity is
possible.
In a lighting station the load factor is very usually about 12 per cent. That is
to say, about one-eighth of the plant is, on the average, at work all the working hours.
This excessive misproportion is remedied to any desired extent by means of
accumulators, but it is not yet commercially economical to instal so high a pro-
portion of battery power as to enable the power-plant to run at steady load all day.
The peak of the load, however short in duration, cannot be surmounted without the
aid of power, and it is to the height and small duration of the maximum load curve
that the poor load factor of a lighting station is due. Accumulators for heavy out-
put of short duration greatly improve the load factor, but, in any case, the number
of boilers at work to tide over the peak is several times the mean number.
If, by means of liquid fuel, boilers can be heavily pushed for two, three, or four
hours, the capital outlay on boilers will be much reduced. When the various points
are taken into account, the boiler scheme that will probably suggest itself will be,
first some boilers of the Lancashire type, economical and steady steamers; secondly,
large tube boilers with a moderate water contents and large grate area, and with
efficient steam driers or superheaters. These boilers can be heavily forced with
some sacrifice of economy, but the priming due to heavy forcing must be eliminated
by a good superheater. This is essential to economy. Thirdly, small tube boilers
of very small water capacity, capable of being heavily forced, delivering their steam
preferably above water level in the steam drum. If all these boilers are fitted with
oil sprayers, the maximum demand for steam will be met with the minimum of
capital outlay.
It is a common fallacy to suppose that boilers of small water capacity respond
most readily to a sudden demand for steam. The claim is, it is true, often made for
water tube boilers. Nothing could be more erroneous.
When a boiler is at work under full pressure, the whole of its water is at a tem-
perature which corresponds with the pressure. Any addition to the furnace acti-
vity cannot add to the heat contents of the boiler, unless the pressure is allowed to
rise; obviously, therefore, given the continuance of the same pressure, the boilers
of large water contents will answer to an urged fire just as rapidly as a boiler of
small water contents. When boilers are standing at rest, however, and cold, the
boiler which contains the least water will, ceteris paribus, become most quickly hot.
Such a boiler as, for example, the Solignac, which holds almost no water, can be
made, by aid of oil fuel, to produce its maximum power in a few minutes after light-
ing up.
7
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
In this respect oil has a very decided advantage over solid fuel. To secure a
good fire with solid fuel there must be a thick bed of incandescent fuel on the grate,
and this can only be built up with comparative slowness, and when its duty is over
it remains a more or less wasted force. With oil, however, the maximum fire is
instantaneous, and the only drawback is the cold brickwork of the setting, which
must become hot before the maximum furnace duty is attained.
For ordinary economical work the number of heat units that a boiler can absorb
per square foot of heating surface will not be changed when liquid fuel is employed,
except so far as liquid fuel can possibly be burned without smoke more easily than
solid hydrocarbons, such as coal, and that thereby the heating surface is main-
tained clean and free from dust and soot, and therefore more efficient.
But mere
evaporative efficiency must not be allowed to outweigh the overall, or commercial,
efficiency. Exactly what governs the relation between evaporative and com-
mercial efficiency cannot be stated positively. Indeed, commercial efficiency alone
should be considered as the true basis of design. It may, however, be stated in
general terms that plant which is on duty for long hours may probably be designed
to work more economically as regards fuel than plant intended to work very short
hours.
Let it be assumed that the boilers which are economical of fuel have an effi--
ciency of 72 per cent., and that the small highly pushed boilers are run at 60 per cent.
efficiency for three hours.
Then, in course of a year, coal is wasted which represents 12 per cent. difference
of efficiency lost for three hours daily.
To enable this loss to be avoided there would be so many thousands of pounds
extra capital cost in boilers, buildings, etc., and where oil is not employed, so much
more labour cost as compared with oil. Properly equated at a suitable rate of
interest and depreciation, the relative value of the alternative systems may be
found after the manner of the Kelvin law applied to cable work. In many stations
the extra labour for the heavy duty period must be difficult to arrange satisfac-
torily. Men are probably employed more hours than they really work, and where
it may be best to use coal for 10 hours, the labour cost may make it cheaper to use
oil for 4 hours of a peak load, even if, in mere fuel cost per unit, the oil is more
expensive. Recent trials with liquid fuel show that there is still much to be done
in reducing the air supply. The air required to burn 1 unit weight of carbon is 11
units. An ordinary oil fuel requires fully 15 units with, of course, some additional
excess as with solid fuel. But with oil fuel there ought to be better mixture of air
and fuel, and therefore better combustion with less excess of air.
If we regard air as the fuel and coal or oil as the sustainer of combustion, as we
have a chemical right to do, we shall arrive at the conclusion that, approximately,
the calorific value of a fuel in actual duty done will not differ much from the chemical
ratio of air required in the combustion process. The large amount of air per pound
of oil arises from the large percentage of hydrogen in the oil, and it is the large
capacity for oxygen possessed by hydrogen which renders the theoretical tempera-
ture of combustion so nearly like that of carbon, in spite of the high calorific
capacity of hydrogen.
As regards the production of petroleum, that of the United States in the year
1901 was 69,389,194 barrels, valued at 66 million dollars. If each barrel is assumed
to contain 360 lb., or say 6 barrels per ton, the total tonnage will be 11,565,000,
and the value therefore, something under 23s. per ton, or practically $1 per barrel.
8
HISTORICAL AND GENERAL
Thus the weight of oil produced in the United States is about 5 per cent. of the
weight of coal, or say 7 per cent. of the calorific capacity. After the removal of
the lighting and lubricating oils, the amount of fuel oil remaining will be quite small
as compared with the coal output. It may be assumed that the total oil produc-
tion of the world is not five per cent. of its coal production. Any idea of entirely
displacing coal must be out of the question, unless the yield of oil be increased
beyond any present prospects, and the use of fuel must therefore be undertaken
with common sense caution, and not in any wholesale manner, to the expected
exclusion of coal.
At the same time, when the limitations of the subject are recognized, it cannot
be denied that liquid fuel lends itself to certain conditions as to steam raising which
must render it extremely valuable and of great convenience. Marine work and
electrical work are, par excellence, the two lines along which liquid fuel appears
likely to advance most successfully, and in the Author's opinion steam-driven motor
cars will eventually discard the dearer oils and employ the heavy oils and residuum
as fuel by means of atomizers. According to present appearances the motor car or
tractor offers one of the finest fields for the use of the heavy fuel oils as distinguished
from the petrols or even the cheap lamp oils, such as are already used on steam cars
and referred to in Chapter XXIII. Little has perhaps yet been done in this direc-
tion, but Chapter XXII. contains a slight reference to the use of heavy liquid fuels
by means of the atomizing system, which alone appears likely to lead to success.
9
IN
Chapter II
THE ECONOMIES OF LIQUID FUEL
N considering the application of liquid fuel every case must be taken by itself
and the costs evaluated. In favour of oil there is, first, the ease and rapidity
with which a liquid can be taken into store and delivered to the bunkers of a ship
or the tank of a locomotive. Next there is the economy of labour, which may be
almost nil in case of a single boiler with one attendant to the engine and boiler,
or it may be very great where there are many boilers.
The superior calorific power of oil must then be equated with the price, and the
cost per unit of evaporation found from this.
The removal of cinders and ash may or may not be a matter of cost according
to the demand for them locally.
Liquid fuel possesses great elasticity of use and fits well with sudden and
varied demands for power. Hence its value in railroad work, electric light work,
and other power stations where loads vary greatly.
Where the mixed system is employed, as with the Great Eastern Railway,
the mere question of economy, as based on the actual weight of fuel consumed,
is to be found as follows:
A locomotive consumes N units of coal per unit distance.
with coal and oil, it is found to consume (M units of coal.
0
oil.
The price of coal is y; of oil x per unit.
When running
Х
Then Ox
+ M × y ≤ N ×
1000
Y
1000
y
or x
L
(N-M)
The cost of oil is largely a matter of carriage. What costs three francs-2s. 6d.
per ton at Baku costs 185 francs-£7 8s. 6d. in France. The difference of 182
francs is made up of railway and sea carriage, handling, customs, warehousing.
The customs stand for ninety francs, so that the same oil at an English port should
not cost over £3 16s.
American residues cost five to six francs more than Russian mazut, whence
MM. Colonner and Lordier, who give the above figures, dismiss oil as an economical
fuel pending the reduction of the tariff.
On the Southern Pacific Railroad the relative evaporation of oil and coal is
365: 274 or 33 per cent. in favour of oil.
On the International and Great Northern four barrels of oil proved more than
equal to a ton of coal, and at 12s. 6d. per ton and 2s. 4d. per barrel the economy of
oil was 13 to 14 per cent. including the economy of handling and storing. The
ΙΟ
THE ECONOMIES OF LIQUID FUEL
only application of liquid fuel in Austria, despite its proximity to oil fields, is in
the Arlberg tunnel. But the Austrian Government are also coal owners, and so
also are other Austrian railroads and steam navigation companies and possibly do
not encourage oil fuel.
To produce 1,000 units of steam, coal gives out more carbonic acid than oil,
though of course the oil destroys quite as much oxygen and reduces the life-supporting
power of the air to probably equal extent. So long as combustion is perfect and
no actual poisons are made there is not much to choose between the two fuels
beyond their sulphur contents. As regards the safety of oil it has been shown that
oil with 117°C.=239°F. flash-point did not ignite if fired at with shell, nor did
dynamite exploded in a reservoir of this oil do more than throw up jets of oil which
did not ignite.
Any danger with liquid fuels is with the oils which have not parted with their
inflammable and volatile gases. This is a danger with oils when used absolutely
crude. Purged of these portions, however, oil is safe, and, moreover, unlike coal,
it contains no power of spontaneous combustion. Though it is claimed by some
that oil does not deteriorate if kept in tanks, others do claim that a certain dete-
rioration is produced which renders it difficult to atomize, the oil becoming more
thick and viscid.
In Russia circular atomizers are often employed which give out a large hollow
flame. The Béreznef atomizer, fig. 101, is one of these. They have the disad-
vantage of being out of reach in the middle of the fire of a locomotive, and they
become burned also through being in such close contact with the flame.
Steam enters below the central disc and oil flows under a head of two to three
metres on the upper side of the disc.
NO. OF TEST
DATA
1
2
3
4
5
3 atomizers 4 atomizers
Béreznef
Kroupka
1 atomizer
Béreznef
3 atomizers
Béreznef
3 atomizers
Baschinine
Duration of trial. Hours
Total kilos. of oil consumed
Mean boiler pressures in atmo-
spheres
12h
10h30
10h30
7h
9h
2.193k.
795.7
1.104
1.183
1.183
4.5
5.0
4.5
5.0
4.75
Mean temperature of feed water .
Litres of water fed to boilers.
41°C.
38°C.
46.6°C.
19.2°C.
20.2°C.
31.096
11.912
16.232
16.284
16.832
Kilograms of water fed to boilers.
29.140
11.122
15.071
15.805
16.310
Kilograms of steam produced at
feed temperature
14.17
14.9
14.7
13.76
14.22
Kilograms of steam produced from
0°C.
13.28
13.9
13.65
13.36
13.78
Oil per hour per square metre of
grate surface. Kilos.
0.987
1.131
1.569
1.469
1.143
Steam per hour per square metre of
grate surface. Kilos.
13.1
15.81
21.42
19.633
15.758
Temperature of chimney gas
(of
of feed water
of air above boilers
120°C.
85°
87.3°
68.9°
64.6°
132°C.
130°
139.1°
90°
27 °C.
27°
20°
27°
80°
26.8°
Atomizing steam per kilo. of oil. K.
0.422
0.364
Heating surface. Square metres
185
115
1 square metre = 10.76 square feet. Kilograms per square metre÷ 5 =pounds per square foot
60
60
115
nearly.
I I
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
The advantage of this form is said to be its constant output.
Too much mazut produces smoke, too much steam is wasteful. There is a
certain fixed ratio of oil and steam to give the best result. The Issaïef atomizer,
which resembles the Béreznef, will feed 50 to 100 kilos. of oil per hour (110 to 220 lb.),
and it consumes nearly 0.4 kilos. =88 lb. of steam at 4 to 5 atmospheres pressure
per kilo. of oil (2.2 lb.). The table, page 11, is given by M. Keller, of Moscow, as
the result of tests made with various atomizers.
M. Bertin, in dealing with the efficiency of liquid fuels, points out that a fuel
containing 85 per cent. of carbon and 14 per cent. of hydrogen will consume the
oxygen of 7.56 cubic metres of air to satisfy the carbon, and of 2.72 metres to satisfy
the hydrogen, or 10-28 cubic metres in all. By adding 40 per cent. excess of air,
or 14.4 cubic metres =18.7 kilos. of air per kilo. of oil, then combustion will be perfect
and smokeless.
The Author's own figure for the weight of air chemically necessary for the
above sample would be 14.7 nearly, and 40 per cent. excess would increase this to
20-56. M. Bertin's figure of 18.7 appears to represent about 27 per cent. air excess.
The theoretical temperature of combustion will be
300
2480
11000
(18.7+1) × 0.23
=2480°C.=4496°F.
If the gases leave the boiler at 300°C. =572°F. the loss of heat will be
=12.10 per cent. of the total, which is equivalent to an increased efficiency
of 6.65 per cent. as compared with coal. He further estimates a gain of 1.9 per
cent. over coal in the absence of ashes and their cooling (on board ships).
The efficiency of a boiler estimated at 75 per cent. for coal becomes 0.835 for
oil firing or 0·75 +0·0665 +0·019=0·835.
·835
•65
But good combustion and utilization still further favour oil in the ratio
=1·28=m; m becoming then r−1·20 × 1·28—1.53; the figure 1.20 being the
chemical ratio of power of coal and oil. In Torpedo-boat No. 62 (French) M.
Bertin, however, only obtained m=1·11 and r=1.33. The causes of the difference
are found in the nature of the flame of oil, which has less radiating power than the
flame of coal, and the powerful effect of the directly heated coal furnace is sacrificed,
and to secure the same results an undesirable extension of heating surface would
be necessary.
Secondly, the flame of oil is long if care be not taken suitably to arrange the
burners. It may pass between the tubes and become extinguished, and the gases
partly burned may even relight in the chimney. The chemical action and reactions
of a burning spray of oil may be very much complicated by dissociation or even
by exothermic formations which may delay heat production. Later when com-
bustion becomes active as shown by the light giving power of the flames it will be
more or less rapid according to the perfection of air admixture and will last for a
time =t, during which the jet, travelling at a high velocity, v, passes through a
distance L-vt which may be yards in length.
Thus the course of the gas must be long or it may escape too hot to the chimney.
Hence arises the necessity of cutting short the flame by early admixture and high
temperature so as not to lose the benefit of the boiler-heating surface.
It is for this purpose that in most successful oil-burning furnaces the jet of
I2
THE ECONOMIES OF LIQUID FUEL
t
atomized oil is directed upon a brick obstruction of some kind so as to spread the
flames and cause them to fill the furnace space and lick round the plate surface.
Locomotive fireboxes may be studied, as in fig. 25, to show how this effect is secured
before the gases escape to the small tubes.
General Principles of Liquid Combustion.-A review of the whole subject, in
the light of chemical knowledge, of the claims of manufacturers and of users of
liquid fuel enables us to state that successfully to burn a liquid it must be finely
pulverized, to do which it must be heated sufficiently to destroy its tenacity and
enable the spraying agent, air or steam, to tear it up and disperse it in a fine spray
intimately mixed with air. The correct amount of air must be admitted to burn
the liquid, and this is one of the advantages of employing air as the atomizing
agent. Where sufficient air cannot be introduced with the fuel it must be admitted
from below as through grate bars covered with broken bricks. Steam, preferably
superheated, is undoubtedly the most convenient to employ as the atomizing
agent, but on the salt seas it has the disadvantage of wasting from 3 to 5 per cent.
of the steam made by the boilers, and this loss must be made good by evaporators.
As with bituminous coal, which, like oil, is a complex hydrocarbon, liquid fuel
should be burned in furnaces more or less protected from immediate loss of heat
to the boiler surfaces by means of linings or baffles of firebrick. Liquid fuel,
however, is more easy to burn completely than is coal, because it can be more
intimately mixed with the necessary air. The interior of a combustion chamber
should show a clear white incandescence with little apparent flame and no smoke
or unburned gases coming from the chimney. If looked into through a piece of
violet-coloured glass, the interior of the combustion chamber with its brick linings
should show a light lavender colour indicative of perfect combustion with the
production of actinic rays indicative of high chemical action. A chilled fire, such
as is produced where a boiler is placed close upon the furnace of a coal fire will
show very little light indeed through a violet glass, its flames being cut down from
several feet in length to a few inches only in many instances, the flames of yellow
and reddish intensity being resolved into streams of dun-coloured gas which throw
off no light of sufficient actinic power to penetrate the glass.
Much difference of opinion exists in regard to the flash-point of the oil to be
used. Crude oil is so widely different a product according as it comes from one or
another locality that no rule can be laid down as to its safety or otherwise. Those
crude oils, which, like the Pennsylvania oil, give a large proportion of gasolene
and other volatile compounds are not used in their crude form because they pay
better to refine, the heavier residuum being used as fuel and being much safer. The
use of volatile liquids is only undesirable on the score of safety. Some of the crude
oils, as for example those of the Beaumont field of Texas, contain so little of the
lighter oils that they are used as fuel in their crude form. The one thing to note
is that the more highly volatile oils have an element of danger from which the heavy
oils are free, and this danger intensifies the results of every possible accident that
may occur, especially those which arise from rupture of an overhead tank and the
gravitation of the oil to lower points. The whole question is really very simple,
and resolves itself into exactly the same conditions as the coal question, namely
an intimate mixture with air in sufficient quantity and a proper conservation of
the temperature pending full combustion. Fortunately for liquid fuels, these
items are not only easy to realize, but, failure, when they are not realized, is far
more disastrous and complete than in the case of solid fuels. Hence the really
13
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
simple problem of burning bituminous coal has never been properly solved except
in a few cases. At the same time it is perfectly easy of solution, but if not solved
it does not produce the same bad effects as does the faulty combustion of liquid.
fuel. In regard to this question, the Author would like to point out that, where
coal is burned in a refractory furnace, it should be capable of burning perfectly,
with less excess of air, and coal ought to give results more nearly approaching its
true value than it does do in ordinary faulty daily practice. Probably all the
comparisons given in this book, except, perhaps to some extent, those of locomotives,
are too favourable to liquid fuel, which is supplied with those essentials of perfect
combustion that are withheld from coal by ignorance, cupidity or carelessness.
This question of refractory linings is essential, and it is secured in practice
by bridge walls, overarching and, where fire-bars are left in place, by covering
these with broken firebrick or by whole bricks laid on edge.
It does not seem possible to introduce all the necessary air with the fuel. A
chemical minimum of fifteen pounds of air is necessary to supply the oxygen for
the average hydrocarbon liquids, but probably at least 5 to 10 per cent. excess
is required in the best practice, and this must come in below the oil spray and should
not be introduced in a single large stream, but divided up into numerous fine streams
through perforated plates or through a mass of broken bricks or loose laid brick-
work. In fig. 33 is shown the arrangements of air admission at the floor of a water-
tube boiler furnace which is in the right direction. The Weir boiler, fig. 0 p. 107,
is also suitably arranged for liquid fuel as regards the lining of the furnace and com-
bustion-chamber. Where liquid fuel is used alone the fire-grate would be covered
with bricks laid on edge or simply broken into pieces of 2-inch cubes, and the
atomizers would be arranged similarly to those of fig. 8. The general conditions
that have been evolved are well shown in the various locomotive and stationary
boiler furnaces illustrated in Part II.
In the Weir small water-tube boiler the sides of the A-shaped furnace are
lined in firebrick blocks which are threaded upon the middle widely spaced tubes
which form the walls of the furnace proper.
The first row of the main body of tubes is similarly protected to form a refractory
wall for the combustion chamber. Thus both the furnace and combustion-chamber
are fully refractory on two sides. Such a boiler as this can be worked with coal
entirely, with oil alone, or upon the mixed system, the brick linings enabling com-
bustion to be carried out with smokeless and economical perfection.
By means of sight-holes the furnace can be examined while at work and the
admission of air gradually increased until the gases become clear, clean, brightly
incandescent red, and the opposite end of the furnace shows up clearly. So long
as there is smoke-formation the opposite brickwork cannot be seen. As soon as
combustion is perfect it appears clear and bright red, and the air should then be
gradually cut down in quantity until an occasional streak of dark-coloured gas
begins to show, thus proving that under the conditions of the furnace the air has
then been reduced to a possible minimum.
Under the existing conditions of boilers it would appear that to insure
smokeless combustion of liquid fuel, not more than 2 to 3 lbs. should be consumed
per hour per cubic foot of combustion space. This will have considerable
bearing upon the question of furnaces with or without fire-grates, the latter type.
more easily securing the requisite volume. The above figure may be borne in
mind when considering the question of furnace dimensions,
14
UND
Chapter III
LIQUID FUELS
DER the term liquid fuel may be included every substance which is com-
bustible and can be made liquid without serious difficulty. The list therefore
includes
1. Animal oils and fats, such as neatsfoot, whale oils, tallow.
2. Fish oils, such as shark and cod.
3. Vegetable oils, such as almond, linseed, rape, cotton.
4. The whole class of spirituous liquors distilled from fermenting starchy
substances, such as the potato spirit so largely manufactured in
Germany for industrial and motor car purposes.
5. Vegetable essential oils, as cajeput, eucalyptus oil, turpentine and other
distillation products of wood.
6. Coal gas tar, creosote, coke oven tars, blast furnace tars, and the tar
from oil gas manufacture and other products of the destructive
distillation of fuels, including the more volatile naphthas.
7. Petroleum and other mineral oils found liquid in nature or distilled from
bituminous shales.
The first five sections above enumerated may be at once rejected, not because
of any unsuitability as fuel, but because, by reason of price and their greater value
in the arts, they cannot compete with the products of classes 6 and 7, which
alone will be considered in this volume.
In a work of this nature, also, it would not be possible to take notice of all the
uses of liquid fuels. Among the first five classes enumerated are many substances
that are employed as fuel either in lamps or in motors or in the laboratory of the
chemist. All these uses will be left out of consideration as well also as the con-
sideration of those products under heads 6 and 7, which are employed similarly
to those of class 4 in internal combustion motors. The contact point may be said.
to be drawn at the lamp oil series of petroleum products. The lighting paraffins
are employed for the purpose of giving light in lamps; for producing power in
internal combustion engines. as in the many forms of oil, as distinguished from
petrol engines; and also for steam-raising purposes, as in the burner of the Clarkson
system. For the purposes of this book, therefore, liquid fuel includes the products
under sections 6 and 7 which do not possess a volatility or refinement greater
than those of the heavy paraffin series or lighting oils.
The crude mineral oils of course contain such volatile constituents, and may
be used in their crude form, but usually the superior value of the distillates leads
15
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
to these being first separated, the coarse residuum known as astatki or mazut
being the oil so much used as fuel. Having been deprived of its more volatile
portions, it is rendered safer to carry and to use. Thus, apart from its use in steam
generation for special purposes, refined petroleum will be excluded from con-
sideration, and the term "liquid fuel " for purposes of this book will, with the above
exception, be practically confined to the more or less thick and viscid products,
such as tars and petroleum residuum, or certain of the crude petroleums, such as
the Texas oil, which is used undistilled.
The special inclusion of lamp oil, especially the low grades of oil which have
no moral justification for use in lamps, is warranted by the special cases of the
motor car, the steam canoe and the fire engine.
An expenditure of £14 per ton for fuel is not warranted except under special
circumstances. Such a special circumstance exists in motor cars where the more
dangerous petrol spirit at a higher price is replaced in the steam launch, and
especially in the fire engine, where petroleum enables steam to be got up quickly,
and the price of fuel need hardly be considered in such an emergency as extin-
guishing a fire which is being fed by very much more expensive stuffs than
petroleum.
Liquid fuel has long been used for lighting purposes, being burned by means
of fibrous wicks which bring the liquid into the centre of the flame by which it is
vaporized. Tallow and other animal fats are made into candles and the solid
fat is rendered liquid by the flame, which radiates sufficient heat downwards for
this purpose. The liquid is then drawn up by the capillary action of the wick,
vaporized and burned. There is always vaporization or its equivalent prior to
combustion.
A liquid will not burn when cold, and cannot be ignited in mass. If heated
to the point of ebullition and supplied with air, it will of course burn fiercely and
uncontrollably. The art of burning liquid fuel consists in heating only the portion
which is to be immediately burned and exposing it to contact with air. Unlike
coal, it is not possible to burn it at many surfaces. A coal fire is made up of many
pieces of coal, each burning over its whole surface. Liquid fuel will not lie on a
grate in separate pieces. If, however, a layer of liquid were heated to vaporizing
point, or nearly so, on a finely perforated plate, and highly heated air were forced
through the perforations, the liquid would no doubt burn freely with strong flame,
but the mass of heated liquid would be difficult to control. Hence in practice we
arrive at those systems which employ a jet of air or steam to split up a stream of
liquid into fine globules in presence of a sufficient supply of air. Each globule
burns superficially and becomes heated by its own combustion and the general
heat of the furnace, and this principle appears to be the best and most effective
method of burning liquids. Indeed it is perhaps the best method of burning any-
thing, first to reduce it into particles so fine that their bulk bears a small ratio to
their surface area, whereby each particle is brought close to the air which it
requires.
Atomizing.
The necessity for atomizing arises purely from the insufficient area of the
fuel otherwise treated. A fire composed of lumps of coal is full of interstices,
and the area of the fuel exposed to air is much greater than the area of the
fire-grate.
16
LIQUID FUELS
Liquid fuel cannot be burned on a grate because it would fall through the
grate. It cannot be burned on a flat surface because, being liquid, it tends to flow
together and presents only an upper surface to the air. The use of trough-shaped
bars along which the liquid flows and through which streams of air are admitted
does not get over the difficulty of small exposure of surface.
There is no incandescent mass through which air is flowing to carry off the
fuel in a burned state and to maintain the mass incandescent. If the whole of the
liquid mass in a furnace did become incandescent, or even approached that point,
it would distil in the form of vapour, and, if provided with air, would burn away
uncontrollably, probably with great evolution of smoke. The more easily com-
bustible or volatile portions would disappear first and the remainder would probably
be left over unconsumed. Thus if the fire is to be controllable, the fuel must be
supplied as it is consumed, so that at no time is there any serious amount of burning
fuel in the furnace and the production of steam is at once regulated by a simple
regulation of the fuel supply. This end is secured by atomizing the fuel and dis-
charging it into the furnace mixed with air, so that each atom of fuel is in contact
with air, and combustion is easily effected. It will be found that with all the heavy
liquid fuels atomizing is essential.
Vaporizing.
With lighter oil, as the cheap lamp oils used in steam motor cars, the liquid
is supplied through a coil of pipe heated by the flame itself and is converted into
vapour, which burns freely when mixed with air. With this oil it is not found
that a deposit of carbon takes place in the retort coil, as would be the case with
heavier oils. The lighter oils already prepared by distillation at a moderate tem-
perature can thus be burned without atomizing, but, after all, their resolution
into the form of vapour may be taken as the most complete form of atomization,
and atomization is really a substitute for vaporization.
8
Liquid Fuels Containing Oxygen.
Glycerine C,H,O,, molecular weight 92, might be used as a fuel if it were not
of value in the arts. It only possesses about half the calorific capacity of carbon
or 4,317 calories per kilo. =7,770 B.Th.U. per pound, being inferior to the alcohols.
The reason of this is that it contains, of the above weight of 92, the elements.
of water to the extent of 54, or say 58.7 per cent. of its total weight.
6
Alcohol C₂HO is another oxygenated compound which is coming into use for
motor car work, for which its clean-burning quality and odourlessness renders
it very suitable. For general steam-raising it is, of course, too costly.
Varieties of Liquid Fuel.
In nature liquid hydrocarbon is found both free and absorbed. The free
liquid is obtained by overflow from boreholes put down to the oil-bearing stratum,
or it is raised by pumping. When not free it is obtained by distillation from
bituminous shales. The latter have been more employed for lighting or illuminating
and lubricating purposes. The free oil or petroleum has gradually forced its way
into consideration as a fuel, having been employed now for many years in Russia.
In addition to the natural oils, there are many hydrocarbons formed in the arts
17
C
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
which have a high value as fuel. Of these there is the tar of the gas-works, a black
viscous liquid which separates out from the gas in the process of cooling. It is
formed in the hydraulic main and in the pipe coolers and condensers. A somewhat
thinner tar is produced in the condenser of oil-gas plant as a product of the destruc-
tive distillation of oil in the Pintsch gas process. Where blast furnaces are fed
with coal in place of coke, tar is produced in the condenser pipes of the residuals
plant, and in modern coke ovens a tar is also produced from the gas driven off the
coal.
11
2n
n
in an
Crude petroleum contains many hydrocarbon compounds varying from the
formula CH₁ up to C₁₁, H37, the general formulæ being CH₂n and C₂ H2n + 2
isometric series of many numbers. When subject to distillation some of the
compounds are split up and certain compounds have been found to contain as much
as 95 per cent. of carbon.
American Petroleum Fuels.
In the United States the oils principally sold for fuel purposes are the by-
products of crude oil: their gravity varies from 23° Baumé to about 34°.
The oils of lower gravity are known usually under the name of Reduced Fuel
Oil, and one of gravity 23 was found to analyze as follows-
Carbon
Hydrogen
Weight per gallon
Weight per imperial gallon
B.Th.U. per pound.
87.72
11.45
7.62 pounds
9.14 ""
19,800
Calories, per kilo
•
11,000
The oils of higher gravity are known as Distillate Fuel Oil, and one at the
extreme end of the scale, or 34 Baumé, analyzed as follows-
Carbon
Hydrogen
Weight per gallon
Weight per imperial gallon
B.Th.U. per pound
Calories per kilo.
•
86.19
12.51
7.11 pounds
8.53
20,250
11,250
Oil being sold by the gallon and not by weight, it follows that an oil of 23 gravity
contains 151,066 B.Th.U. and one of gravity 34 contains 143,988 B.Th.U. per
U.S. gallon.
Thus the heavier oil possesses the greater calorific capacity per gallon. It
would be better practice to sell oil by weight or to state calorific capacities per
gallon. Obviously for marine work the best oil is that which contains the greatest
heat producing capacity per unit of volume, for this implies so much more efficiency
of bunker capacity.
Approximately the two extreme oils named contain per imperial gallon (of
10 lb. water)-
Gravity 23°B=181,340 B.Th.U.
""
34°B=172,870 B.Th.U.
An average oil, therefore, will measure about one million B.Th.U. per cubic
foot or 35,000,000 units per 35 cubic feet of space. A ton of coal which occupies
18
LIQUID FUELS
about 35 cubic feet contains about 33,000,000 units of heat. In heat capacity,
therefore, oil has the advantage over coal, quite apart from the fact that oil can be
stored in small ballast tanks, and the coal bunker capacity of a ship can then be
used for paying cargo.
Texas and California Oils.
These oils are used as they are found, that is to say, principally in crude form.
Determinations have been made of the calorific effect of a few of these crudes,
and two are here subjoined-
Lucas Well-Jefferson Co.
Higgins Oil & Fuel Co.-Jefferson Co.
B. Th. U.
Calories.
19,574
10,874
19,785
10,992
The above two wells are both in the Spindle Top district.
Texas oil is high in sulphur, containing this element to the extent of 2 per
cent. It is said that no injurious effects are produced upon fire-boxes or boiler-
plates generally, and it appears rational that this should be so. The furnace
products never pass away except at a temperature above that of saturated steam,
and it appears unlikely that the dry hot furnace gases should condense to moisture
on the boiler-plates, especially of highly heated high pressure boilers. Care is
of course always necessary that furnace gases shall not make contact with any
surface water cooled below 100° F. 38°C. Otherwise corrosion may occur.
Dry sulphur oxides, however, seem to be innocuous.
For forge purposes, however, high sulphur oils form a scale upon the metal
and render it dirty. It is claimed, however, that except in special cases these oils
may be used without difficulty. Iron when hot has so close an affinity for sulphur
that sulphurous oils ought only to be employed with caution. The effect of sulphur
is to render the metal red-short or brittle at a red heat, and it is liable to give rise
to blown holes in cast iron.
The tables I, II, III, and IV are given by Mr. Boverton Redwood, whose works
may be consulted in all that relates to the chemistry of petroleum, which is too wide
a subject fully to be dealt with here.
Six thousand heat units are, states Dr. Engler, rendered latent in liquefying
carbon, but this appears doubtful, for the conversion of solid carbon into gaseous
carbon is not proved to render latent more than 5,817 B.Th. U. per pound, though
Berthelot states that there may be a further amount which he denotes as e. It is
improbable that the liquid form of carbon will absorb so much as 6,000 units.
As regards water, the latent heat of liquid is only about one-seventh the latent
heat of vaporization. Is it not probable that a considerable difference exists also
in the case of carbon ?
Russian Petroleum.
Russian oils may be said to be the inverse of the American oils, for while the
latter contain about 25 per cent. of residuum the former contain 75 per cent. Mr.
Redwood says that astatki or residuum varies from 35 to 60 per cent. of the crude
oil, and is really the chief product of the Russian oils.
The specific gravity of crude petroleum, according to Mr. Redwood, varies
from 0.771 to 1·020 and the following general values are given by him—
19
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Crude Petroleum (Redwood)
American (Hofer)
Wyoming
Galician
Baku
Sp.
Gr.
0.771 to 1.020
0.785 to 0.936
0.945
0.799 to 0.902
0.854 to 0.899
0.859 to 0.877
•
Canada
The percentage of residue in various oils is given as follows-
Pennsylvania
Galician
5 to 10%
Roumanian
Alsace
30 to 40%
25 to 35%
35 to 60%
36 to 60%
Baku
The composition of oil is thus very varied, and the newly-discovered fields of
Texas yield oils which are much employed as fuel in their crude state.
Creosote Oils.
Properly speaking, creosote is that distillate from coal tar which is intermediate
between crude naphtha and pitch.
It is sometimes called dead oil and heavy oil, because its specific gravity is
greater than unity.
In a wider sense creosote oil is understood to include the heavier oils from
bituminous shales as well as the liquid deposited from coke oven and blast furnace
gases. The Scotch furnaces employ a hard bituminous coal as fuel, and much tar
is collected from the gases. These various oils are all combustible, and though
by no means properly called creosote, the distinction is not of importance as regards
their value as fuel.
True creosote is probably too valuable as an antiseptic in wood preservation
to allow of its very extensive use as fuel.
Coal tar creosote consists of that part of the tar which distils between 200°C. and
300°C., and includes various naphthalene bodies, etc. In colour it is yellow green
and fluorescent. Its specific gravity is 1.10 to 1.024 according to quality, the
London made oils being heavier than provincial oils, simply because London is
supplied largely with Newcastle coal, while country oils are from Midland coals of
different quality.
As regards the constituents of creosote, the chief are naphthalene, carbolic acid
and cresylic acid, and the composition of these bodies is as follows—
Creosote.
Constituent.
Formula.
Carbon.
Per centage composition.
Hydrogen.
Sp. Gr.
Melting Point
C10 H8
93.75
6.25
.978
79°C
Cε Hc O
Cr Hg O
6
76.5
6.3
1.056
42°C
8
77.78
7.4
1.04
33°C
Naphthalene
Carbolic acid
Cresylic acid
The foregoing is a very brief and crude summary of the properties of creosote
oils. Full information is to be found as regards the chemistry of the coal tar com-
20
LIQUID FUELS
!
pounds in Vol. II of Allen's Commercial Organic Analysis. The above will serve
to show that these tar products are largely combustible.
Blast furnace oil has a specific gravity of 0.988; shale oil creosote is similar.
Coal tar from gas works has a specific gravity of 1.10 to 1.20 and is very complex
in composition. London tar contains from 2.5 to 8 per cent. of ammoniacal
liquor, 0.5 to 3.4 per cent. of light oils, 17 to 23 per cent. of creosote and carbolic
oils, 13 to 17 per cent. of anthracene oils, and 58 to 62 per cent. of pitch.
The distillates from coal, bituminous shale and wood all contain more or less
oxygenated bodies. Coal and shale distillates contain some nitrogenized bodies.
Petroleum, on the other hand, contains only hydrocarbons.
Shale tar has a specific gravity of 0.865 to 0.894 according to the method
of retorting practised. It consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of
the paraffin order Cn H2n+2; of the olefin order Cn H₂n and of hydrocarbons
Cn H₂n-2 with some oxygenated bodies.
-2n
About thirty gallons of oil can be distilled from each ton of shale.
21
A
Chapter IV
TEXAS OIL
CCORDING to the Bulletin of the University of Texas, the production of oil
in that State did not amount to as much as 100 barrels in any one year
until 1896, when it reached 1,450 barrels. In 1897 there were 65,975 barrels ;
in 1898, 546,070; in 1899, 660,013; in 1900, 836,039; in 1901, about 4,850,000
barrels. The great increase in 1901 was due to the opening of the Beaumont field,
the first well in which began to flow January 10. Since that time and to the end
of March, 1902, the Beaumont production has been about 9,000,000 barrels so far
as can be now ascertained. The production to the end of 1900 was practically
confined to the Corsicana field, Navarro county. In 1901 the Corsicana field
produced about 850,000 barrels and the Beaumont field about 4,000,000 barrels.
During the first quarter of 1902 the production in the Beaumont field was about
5,000,000 barrels, (a barrel holds 40 to 42 American gallons, or 33 to 35 English
gallons approximately), exceeding by a million barrels the entire production of
that field in 1901. As practically all the Beaumont oil comes into the market for
fuel purposes, the 5,000,000 barrels produced during the first quarter of 1902 are
equivalent to 1,250,000 tons of coal, on the basis of four barrels of oil per ton of
coal. Without taking into consideration the residuum from the refineries at
Corsicana of the heavy oils from the Powell district in the Corsicana field, the fuel
equivalent of the oil produced at Beaumont during the first three months of this
year (1902) exceeds the entire coal output of the State in any one year. The
tankage in the Beaumont district, taken at 4,890,000 barrels, is equivalent to
1,225,000 tons of coal. In other words, the quantity of oil that can be held in
tanks in the Beaumont districts exceeds in fuel value the entire coal output of the
State during any one year.
These figures mean that the industries of the State which are dependent upon
cheap fuel have this at command, and that so long as the price of crude oil remains
between twenty and twenty-five cents a barrel, f.o.b. tank cars, there is likely to
be an active competitor in the fuel market. Some contracts let in the spring of
1902 called for the delivery of Beaumont crude oil at distances of 250 to 300 miles
for forty-four and a half cents a barrel, which would mean coal at $1.77 a ton=
7s. 4d. Allowing that the average spot value of coal, i.e., f.o.b. mines, for the last
eight years is $1.75, which is a close approximation to the actual figures, then four
barrels of crude oil are delivered at 300 miles from the wells for a price representing
the value of a ton of coal at the mines, no allowance being made for transporting the
coal to points of consumption. This would mean that the coal miner makes the
22
TEXAS OIL
consumer a present of the freight charges, or that the railroads distribute the coal
gratuitously.
Carriage of Texas Oil.
The Railroad Commission of Texas in 1901 established rates on crude petroleum
in tank cars as follows-
COMMODITY TARIFF No. 27B-CRUDE AND FUEL PETROLEUM, CARLOADS.
Rates, in cents per 100 pounds for the transportation of carload shipments
of crude and fuel petroleum, in cans (boxed), in barrels, or in tank cars, by railroads
between points in Texas. Column No. 1 contains rates to apply on shipments
transported over a single line of railroad, or over two or more lines of railroad
which are under the same management or control. Column No. 2 applies to ship-
ments transported over two or more lines of railroad not under the same control.
Rates.
Cents. per 100.
Rates.
Distance, miles
No. 1
No. 2
Distance, miles.
No. 1. No. 2.
20 and less
5
7
30 and over 20
51
71
40 and over 30
6
150 and over 125
175 and over 150
200 and over 175
9
•
9/1
10/1/
101
•
12 12
10
11
50 and over 40
63
1/2
81
225 and over 200
101
11
60 and over 50
7
9
250 and over 225
11
•
11/1/
80 and over 60
7호
​91
100 and over 80
8
10
275 and over 250
Over 275
111
111
12 HÌN
12
12
125 and over 100
8/3/
10
Exceptions.
Fuel oil, carloads, minimum weight 40,000 pounds per car, from Gladys to
Beaumont, 2 cents per 100 pounds.
Rates on shipments transported more than 275 miles from or to points in
differential territory shall be made by adding to the maximum common point rate
of 12 cents per 100 pounds the differential rates set forth in the following table—
Differential Rates, in cents per 100 pounds.
Distance, miles.
50 and less
100 and over 50
150 and over 100
200 and over 150
250 and over 200
300 and over 250
Over 300
•
Rates.
1
2 3 4 5
6
7
Minimum Carloads.
The minimum weight of shipments transported over lines of standard gauge
shall be 38,000 pounds per car; provided that, when the actual weight of the
petroleum contained in the car loaded to its full capacity shall be less than 38,000
pounds, then the actual weight of such shipments shall be charged for at the weight
determined by the cars in which they were transported over lines of standard gauge.
The weight of 6-4 pounds per gallon shall be used in determining the carload
weights above provided for.
23
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
66
In Commodity-Tariff 17A the Railroad Commission of Texas also established
rates of oil, petroleum and products, viz. coal, or carbon, benzine, benzole,
petroleum (lubricating), naphtha and gasoline in tank cars furnished by shipper,
straight or mixed carloads; also in barrels and cases, and petroleum in glass (boxed)
in jacketted cans or tin cans boxed, straight or mixed carloads." The rates are
25 cents per 100 pounds from Houston and 28 cents from Galveston, maxima to
Texas common point territory. The Galveston rate applies also to Texas city,
Velasco, Port Arthur and Sabine Pass.
Taking the weight of crude petroleum as 6.4 pounds per gallon, this gives
5,937 gallons as the minimum carload weight for standard gauge lines. The weight
of the 38,000 pounds is 19 tons of 2,000 pounds each. For transporting this quantity
of oil, in tank cars, 100 miles over a single line of road or over two or more lines
under the same management or control, the freight charge would be 8 cents=4d.
per 100 pounds, or $3-04-12s. 6d. per car. For transporting it 200 miles the charge
would be 12 cents=6d. per 100 pounds, or $4.56-18s. 6d. per car; for hauling
20 tons of coal 100 miles the charge is $1.80=7s. 6d. ; 200 miles, $2.80=11s. 6d. ;
300 miles, $3.80=15s. 6d.
This establishment of the rates on crude oils in tank cars was the result of a
hearing before the Commission, August 3, 1901, at which were present the repre-
sentatives of many of the oil and coal companies. Some relief was sought by the
oil operators, and rates were fixed according to the testimony at that hearing.
The Chemistry of Texas Petroleum.
In Bulletin No. 4, Contributions from the Chemical Laboratory of the University
of Texas, Dr. Edgar Everhart gave the results of an examination of the Nacog-
doches oil, the analysis having been made by Mr. P. H. Fitzhugh. The report
says-
66
The oil has a brownish-red colour. The odour is peculiar, but not so offensive
as the crude petroleum of Pennsylvania. At ordinary temperature the oil is mobile,
but not so much so as ordinary petroleum. Submitted to extreme cold the oil still
retains its liquidity, but becomes less mobile. The temperature of the oil was
reduced to less than zero (Fahrenheit) without it losing its flowing qualities.
"At no temperature attainable in the laboratory by artificial means could
any solid paraffin be separated. The oil does not gum on exposure to the air. It
is not adapted to the production of illuminating oil; its value consists in its use as
a lubricant.
"About four pounds of oil was subjected to distillation over the naked flame
in a retort connected with proper condensers. The temperature was carried up
to 680°F. At intervals of 45° each distillate was removed and its weight deter-
mined. The results of the distillation were as follows-
Analysis of Nacogdoches Oil.
Per cent. by weight.
Below 300°F.
300° to 345°F.
0.04
0.37
345° to 390°F.
1.38
435° to 480°F.
3.14
480° to 525°F.
6.25
525° to 615°F.
7.07
615° to 680°F.
5.63
Remaining in the retort
74.03
24
TEXAS OIL
"A consideration of the above figures shows in the first place that the crude
petroleum of Nacogdoches is practically free from naphtha, which distils off below
250°F. Four pounds of this oil carried to a temperature 50° higher yielded only
a few drops of a light oil, amounting to 0.04 per cent. of the total amount taken.
In the Pennsylvania crude pretoleum the illuminating oil comes off between 250°
and 500°F., and, on an average, amounts to about 55 per cent. The Nacogdoches
petroleum between the same degrees of temperature yields only a little over 7 per
cent. Three-fourths of the oil does not boil until a temperature above the boiling
point of mercury is reached. Above 400°F. and even lower the distillate is not
pure white, but is somewhat coloured. This colour deepens on exposure to the
atmosphere. The distillate exhibits a beautiful fluorescence. Attempts were
made to render the distillates colourless by refining them with oil of vitriol, etc.,
as is done with ordinary petroleum, but the results obtained were not satisfactory.
Some of the crude oil was subjected to distillation until but a small residue was
left in the retort. This residue had the consistency of thick pitch, and was of a
black colour.
"The density of the petroleum at 62.6°F. is 0.9179, compared with water as
unity. The density of Pennsylvania oil is usually about 0.794 to 0.840. The
co-efficient of cubical expansion, as determined by Mr. Fitzhugh, is 0.02568."
In 1890 Col. Wm. L. Prather, Waco, McLennan county, found oil at a depth
of 265 feet, which was analyzed by Dr. Edgar Everhart, of the University of Texas,
with the following results-
Fractions by Distillation.
Specific gravity at 78°F=.0·836.
Below 250°F.
Between 250° and 400°
Between 400° and 500°
0.14 per cent.
1.25 per cent.
Between 500° and 520°
Total below 520°F. .
11.67 per cent.
•
28.36 per cent.
41.42 per cent.
The portion coming over towards the end of the distillation was rich in paraffin.
The portion remaining in the still, amounting to 58 per cent., consisted principally
of paraffin and paraffin oil.
Some have asserted that the present capacity of the wells in the Beaumont
district is not less than 500,000 barrels a day, and on this basis they calculate that
the yearly yield could be 182,500,000 barrels. This, of course, is a great deal of
oil, being more than three times the total production of the United States in 1899,
and considerably in excess of the production of the world during that year. There
are few actual facts upon which such an assertion can be predicted, and it is not
to be held that anything like so large an output can be reached.
Properties of Petroleum.
W. B. Phillips, Ph.D., of the University of Texas, to whom the author is
indebted for much information, says-
In weight (specific gravity), taking water as 1,000, it varies from 650, as in
certain oils from Koudako, Russia, to 1,020, as in the oil from the island of Zante.
The range of specific gravity is, however, for the most part, between 770 and 940.
25
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
A gallon of crude petroleum will vary in weight from 6.41 pounds to 7.83 pounds for
the United States gallon, and from 7.20 to 9.40 pounds for the Imperial gallon.
Exclusive of the weight of the barrel, the 42 gallons, ordinarily spoken of as a barrel
of oil, will weigh from 269.22 pounds to 328.86 pounds.
"With regard to the ease with which it flows, crude petroleum may be quite
mobile as in the light-coloured varieties, or quite viscid as in the black varieties.
The temperature at which it becomes solid ranges from 82°F., as in oil from Burma,
to several degrees below zero. The flash-point (the lowest temperature at which
inflammable vapours are given off) varies from below zero as in certain oils from
Italy, Sumatra, etc., to 370°F. as in oil from the Gold Coast, Africa. The ordinary
range of the flash-point, however, does not show such extreme limits.
If we take the oils whose flash-point lies below 60°F. we find that the specific
gravity ranges from 771 to 899, the average being 838. On the other hand, the
oils whose flash-points are above the boiling-point of water have a range of specific
gravity from 921 to 1,000, the average being 959. It is a remarkable fact that a
Roumanian oil with a flash-point of 24°F. should have had a specific gravity of 899.
It is a general rule that a low specific gravity accompanies a low flash-point. In
none of the examples examined, whose flash-point was above the boiling-point of
water, was it found that the specific gravity fell below 921, the average being 959.
There is a close connexion between specific gravity and flash-point, for the presence
of lighter oils, which are given off at a low temperature and are more inflammable,
tends to reduce the weight of the oil as compared with water.
The boiling-point of crude petroleum varies from 180°F., as with certain
Pennsylvania oils, to 338°F. as with oil from Hanover, Germany. The point at
which oils become solid varies from 82°F., as with oil from Burma, to below zero,
as with oil from Italy and Sumatra.
The content of carbon varies from 79.5 per cent. to 88.7 per cent. of hydrogen ;
from 9.6 per cent. to 14.8 per cent. of sulphur from 0.07 per cent. to above 2.00 per
cent., and in rare cases even above 3.00 per cent.; of nitrogen from 0.008 per cent.
to 1.10 per cent.
Hydrocarbons of the olefin series occur in nearly all kinds of petroleum, but
are specially characteristic of Russian petroleum from Baku.
While the production of petroleum in Russia is about 70,000,000 barrels a
year, not more than 15,000,000 to 17,000,000 are refined, the remainder going into
direct use for fuel purposes.
Mabery has shown that the distillate from Beaumont oil coming over between
266° and 275°F., gave hydrocarbons of the acetylene and benzine series, and the
same was true of the distillate coming over between 311° and 320°F. He also
found this oil to contain 2-16 per cent. of sulphur and more than 1.00 per cent.
of nitrogen.
There is no hard and fast line on the one side of which may be placed certain
oils and on the other side certain other oils. The chemical properties shade into
each other, and only a general statement can be made that the oils from Penn-
sylvania fall into the paraffin series and the Russian into the olefin series, while
the Beaumont oil is a third class distinguished by the presence of members of the
acetylene and benzine groups.
Bituminous coal contains much less carbon and hydrogen and much more
oxygen than petroleum. Anthracite coal has about the same amount of carbon
as petroleum, but much less hydrogen and oxygen.
26
TEXAS OIL
Analysis of Petroleum from Corsicana, Texas.
Naphtha
Kerosene
Residue
Per cent.
Sp. Grav.
10.8
0.710
54.5
0.796
34.7
0.905
The specific gravity of the crude oil was 0.8206, water being 1.0000.
Mr. E. H. Earnshaw made a more elaborate analysis of the Corsicana oil, with
the following result-
Analysis of Petroleum from Corsicana, Texas.
Fractions.
Per cent.
Temperature, F.
By Vol.
By Weight.
Sp. Gr. at
60°F.
Colourless
•
A
130°-200°
2.80
2.24
0.6653
B
200°-250°
5.10
4.31
0.7017
C
250°-300°
7.60
6.69
0.7302
D
300°-350°
8.20
7.44
0.7527
E.
350°-400°
9.40
8.75
0.7718
F
400°-450°
7.40
7.07
0.7920
G
450°-500°
8.30
8.09
0.8088
Very faint yellow
H
500°-550
6.45
6.43
0.8260
I
550°-600°
7.75
7.85
0.8404
Yellow, J
600°-650°
14.95
15.43
0.8555
Deep reddish yellow, K
650°-665°
17.25
18.07
0.8687
Deep red (solid), L, over
650°
1.30
1.41
0.8972
Dark red-brown (solid) M, over
650°
1.40
1.63
0.9669
Residue
2.63
Total
97.90
98.04
•
Mr. Thiele's remarks on the oil were as follows-
"The oil is very dark brown and opaque, but thin and fluid at 60° F. The
specific gravity at 60°F. is 0·8292. The oil is closely related to the oil from
Washington district, Penn., but contains asphaltum or bodies very similar to it.
"The Nacogdoches oil is heavy, specific gravity 0-915. The colour is black,
and there is much sulphuretted hydrogen.
"The oil from Saratoga, Hardin county, is heavier than the Nacogdoches
oil, the specific gravity being 0.995. It is black and rich in asphaltum.
"The oil from Sour Lake, Hardin county, has a specific gravity of 0.963, and
an analysis of it is as follows—
Analysis of Petroleum from Sour Lake, Hardin County, Texas.
Fractions.
Temperature F. Per cent. by Vol. Specific Gravity. |
Colour, etc.
123 +
212°-266°
0.07
Yellow
266°-320°
0.03
Yellow
4
320°-392°
1.59
0.684
Yellow
5
392°-572°
19.49
0.840
Yellow; blue fluorescence
6
7
Residue
572°-641°
5.15
0.782
Dark yellow
71.11
0.978
Black
•
Total.
97.44
27
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
In the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Vol. XIX. No. 2, February 28,
1900, Mr. Clifford Richardson has an article entitled "Notes on Texas Petroleum,'
from which the following is taken-
Specific gravity, 68°F.
Baumé
Flash
Volatile, 212°F.
Corsicana Oil.
0.8457
35.6 (about)
Ordinary temperature.
Volatile 324°F. 7 hours
Volatile 399°F. 5 hours
Total
•
•
•
10.8 per cent. (Naphtha)
35.7
11.2
57.7
Residue, after heating to 323°F., flows readily at 68°F., has the appearance of
containing paraffin. After heating to 399°F. residue has a quick flow at 77°F.
Specific gravity, 68°F.
Baumé
Flash
Volatile, 212°F.
324°F. (7 hours)
399°F. (5 hours)
Total
Sour Lake Oil.
0.9458
18.0
244° F.
22.8 (water with trace of oil)
12.6
14.4
49.8
Residue after heating to 324°F flows readily at 70°F.
399°F. residue flows readily at 77°F.
After heating to
The specific gravity of Corsicana petroleum is a little heavier than that from
near Dudley, Noble county, Ohio, 0.8457 to 0.8333. It is about the same as that
of the lighter forms of California oil found in the Pica canon, California. It is con-
siderably heavier than that from the Pennsylvanian fields. It flashes at the ordinary
temperature, and distils off a considerable percentage of naphtha below the
temperature of boiling water.
Distilled under ordinary presure, without particular precautions to prevent
cracking, Mr. Thiele found—
Naphtha, 10.8 per cent.
Kerosene, 54.5 per cent.
Residue, 34.7 per cent.
Sp. Gr.
0.710
0.796
0.905
Twenty grams of the oil, when heated for seven hours in an air-bath at various
temperatures, in a crystallizing dish 2 inches in diameter by 11 inches high, left
a residue of 43.3 per cent., which flowed readily at 77°F. The residuum resembles
that from Pennsylvania and Ohio petroleum, and apparently contains paraffin
scale. It is to a certain extent asphaltic, however. The crude, when distilled
under a pressure of 1 inch of mercury, volatilized 51.2 per cent. at a temperature
of 356°F., but at that point began to "crack." Ohio oil, on the contrary, did not
begin to "crack" until 455°F. was reached at atmospheric pressure; but the Sour
Lake oil broke up at the same point as did the Corsicana. It is, therefore, a less
stable oil than eastern petroleums.
The Sour Lake oil is a very heavy crude petroleum, 18B, and corresponds in
28
TEXAS OIL
many respects with some of the heavier California oils of Summerland and Los
Angeles in appearance and properties. It flashes at a low point for such a heavy
oil, 244°F. As taken from the wells, it contains a very large amount of water.
Properties of various Petroleums.
The following table gives a comparison of different oils taken from Sadtler's
Industrial Organic Chemistry, page 18—
Crude Oil from
Texas-
Corsicana
Pennsylvania
Galicia
Baku
Alsace
Hanover
Sp. Gr. at
63°F.
at °F.
per ct.
Began to boil Under 302°F. 302° to 572° Over 581°
per ct.
per ct.
0.821
176
34.6
40.0
15.8
0.818
180
21.0
38.0
40.7
0.824
194
26.5
47.0
26.5
0.859
196
23.0
38.0
39.0
0.907
275
33.0
50.0
47.0
0.899
238
32.0
68.0
Dr. W. H. Harper, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Texas, gives
an analysis of a sample of Corsicana oil submitted to him in March, 1900:
Colour, very dark brown, almost black; opaque except in thin layers; greenish
fluorescence.
Viscosity, not determined, but the oil very mobile at 32°F.
Sediment, none.
Water, none.
Flash-point, 73°F.
Specific gravity at 63.5°F., 0.8586, equivalent to 33° Baumé.
Russian Oil.
In 1880 the production of crude oil on the Aspsheron Peninsula was 3,055,247
barrels ; in 1885, 14,179,833; in 1890, 29,217,126; in 1895, 47,713,983; and 1899,
66,452,240. The total Russian production in 1899 was 68,752,240, the other
2,300,000 barrels coming from the Grossni district in the Caucasus. The average
yield was—in the Baku district, 172,661 barrels a day from 1,357 wells, or about
127 barrels per day per well. In the United States the average yield per day was
about 156,000 barrels from about 82,000 wells, say, two barrels a day. It takes
60 American wells to produce in one day as much as one Russian well.
In 1899, in the Baku district, there were completed 370 wells of an average
depth of 911 feet, and yielding, on the average, 202 barrels each per day. In 1898
the number of wells completed was 258, of an average depth of 937 feet, and an
average yield of 653 barrels per day. The average daily production of the Baku
flowing wells was 37,202 barrels in 1898, and 26,445 barrels in 1897, as against
122,413 and 146,216 barrels respectively for the pumping wells in 1899. The pro-
duction of the flowing wells in 1899 was about one-sixth of that of the pumping wells.
Calorific Capacity of Petroleum.
It is pretty well established that the B.Th.U. in petroleum will vary from 17,000
to 20,000, one experiment on petroleum giving 20,110. The value taken in
Texas, as already remarked, is 18,500 B.Th.U., or 10,277 calories. The scientific
investigation of the coals, etc., used there, with respect to their heat units, has not
29.
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
progressed very far; but from the data to hand it is not thought that, on the aver-
age, the B.Th. U. in the coals will be above 12,600, if indeed above 10,800, and are
taken, for the present, at 11,700. For the lignites a lower value must be taken,
and for the present this will be 9,900.
Some of the Alabama coals have 13,500 B.Th.U.; good McAlester coal
(Indian Territory) may be taken at the same; New Mexico coal at 12,000; and
lignite at 9,900. On this basis one barrel of crude petroleum, weighing 320 lb. net,
would be equivalent to 438 lb. of Alabama coal, and the same amount of McAlester
coal, 493 lb. of New Mexico coal and 598 lb. of lignite. A ton, 2,000 lb., of Alabama
coal would then be equivalent to 4.56 barrels of petroleum; a ton of McAlester coal
to 4.56 barrels ; a ton of New Mexico coal to 4.06 barrels ; and a ton of lignite to
3.34 barrels. In other words, from 3 to 4 barrels contain as many heat units as
a ton of the best coals and lignites of American Southern States.
Experiments made in California with a view to testing the relative value of the
California oil and the coal with which it comes into competition, showed that a ton
of Nanaimo coal, giving 12,031 B.Th.U., was equivalent to a minimum oil con-
sumption of 3·45 barrels and a maximum consumption of 3.87 barrels. Recent
experiments on Texas petroleum showed it to have 19,160 heat units, and this
would be equivalent to 4.29 barrels per ton of Indian Territory coal. In Russia
the usual equivalent is 3.12 barrels per ton of coal.
There is considerable variation in the quality of coal offered in the market, and
these differences are often observable in coal from the mine, due, perhaps, to care-
lessness in mining and handling, and to the absence of rigid inspection. In countries
where the coal is sold on the basis of the heat units it contains these discrepancies
are not so potent or so widespread. Variations in the quality of oil from the same
well are by no means so marked as in the case of coal from the same mine. Where
the oil from different wells has a somewhat different value in heat units the prac-
tice of piping different oil into the same storage tanks tends to advance uniformity,
just as in the case of the pig-iron mixer in steel plants with respect to pig-iron of
varying composition.
The value of oil as compared with coal varies somewhat with the nature of the
work to be done. It has been observed, for instance, that in puddling and steel-
heating furnaces 2 barrels of Los Angeles oil were equivalent to 2,000 pounds of
Wellington coal from British Columbia, while for steaming purposes it took three
barrels of the oil for one ton of the coal. In some establishments in Los Angeles
the proportion rose to 3.62 barrels per ton; in others, to 3.10. On the Southern
Pacific Railway in California it has been found that four barrels of California oil
were equivalent to one ton of Nanaimo, British Columbia, coal. The lowest con-
sumption of oil per ton of coal that has been found is 2½ barrels, while the highest
is 4 barrels. An average ratio can be established only when all the conditions are
known ; but, in a general way, it may be said that from 3 to 4 barrels of oil should
be equivalent to a ton-2,000 pounds of good soft coal. The lower figures. may
be reduced under good practice and with good management and the best ap-
pliances to 31 barrels ; while under bad management, etc., the higher figure may
reach 4 barrels.
Advantages of Liquid Fuels.
Mr. H. Tweddle (Engineering and Mining Journal, N. Y., Vol. LXVIII.) sets
forth the advantages to be derived from the use of liquid fuel under eleven heads.
30
TEXAS OIL
His remarks were directed chiefly to the use of such fuel on vessels, but may be
applied with equal force to almost every kind of manufacturing establishment and
to locomotives. The advantages claimed are as follows:
1. Diminished loss of heat up the funnel (or chimney), owing to the clean
condition in which the boiler tubes can be kept, and to the smaller amount of air
which has to pass through the combustion-chamber for a given fuel consumption.
2. A more equal distribution of heat in the combustion-chamber, as the doors
do not have to be opened, and, consequently, a higher efficiency is obtained; un-
equal strains on the boiler tubes, etc., due to undue heating are also avoided.
3. With oil there is no danger of having dirty fires on a hard run.
4. A reduction in the cost of handling fuel, as this is done mechanically or by
gravitation.
5. No firing tools or grate bars are necessary; consequently the furnace
lining, brick work, etc., last longer.
6. Absence of dust, ashes and clinkers.
7. Petroleum does not deteriorate on storing, while coal does, especially soft
coal. This opinion is not universal, however.
8.
Ease with which the fire can be regulated from a low to a most intense
heat in a short time.
9. Lessening of the amount of manual labour in stoking.
10. Great increase of steaming capacity, the difference being as much as
35 per cent. in favour of oil.
11. The eleventh point made by Mr. Tweddle is that of the absence of sul-
phur or other impurities, and longer life to plates, etc.; but considering the fact
that the amount of sulphur in some of the oils now being used as fuel is in excess
of the sulphur in ordinary coals, this point is not well taken. Sulphur is objection-
able in any fuel, whether coal or oil, and of the two may be more objectionable in
oil than in coal, for a portion of the sulphur in coal remains in the ashes, and is not
consumed.
If crude petroleum, or the residue from refining plants, is to come into
use on a large scale as fuel, there are some considerations that must be weighed, in
addition to its fuel value, viz. its initial price, f.o.b. tanks or wells, transportation
charges, and the like. If a certain freight rate per ton mile is established for coal,
and it is sought to establish a rate for oil, why should there not be some standard
of fuel value to which both are to be referred? Some coals are better than others,
some oils are better than others. In the one case it may require 4 barrels of oil
to equal a ton of coal as fuel, in the other case the ratio may be much less. If the
coal has a high heating value, manifestly it will require a much larger amount of
oil to balance it than if the coal has a low heating value. Perhaps the times are
not ripe for the fixing of freight rates based on heat units, but the plan has cer-
tainly much to recommend it.
Profiting by the experiences in California and elsewhere in the use of oil for
fuel, many industrial establishments in Texas have changed, or are about to change,
from coal to oil. Among the first to adopt the new fuel was the American Brewery,
Houston. This establishment has a battery of four boilers, two 200 h.p. and two
350 h.p. The oil used was the residue from the refining plant at Corsicana, and
it was estimated that 75 barrels a day would be required, inasmuch as the coal
consumption was about 25 tons a day. After running for a while, it was stated that
31
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
the steaming capacity of the two 200 h.p. boilers using oil was equivalent to the
steaming capacity of the two 350 h.p. boilers using coal, and that the saving of oil
was about 33 per cent. The Star Flour Mills, Galveston, also installed oil burners
in April, 1901, using about 35 barrels a day for a 350 h.p. engine. At Gonzales, the
Sunset Brick and Tile Company put in oil-burners for a large brick-kiln the latter
part of May, 1901. At Brenham, oil-burners were installed for the large plant of
boilers used by the ice factory, oil mill and electric light works. The Hutchins
Hotel, Houston, changed from coal to oil, the battery consisting of two 100 h.p.
boilers. The Magnolia Brewery, Houston; the Houston Electric Street Railway;
and the City Brewery, San Antonio, changed from coal to oil; and many other
plants in the State have the matter under consideration.
The first locomotive equipped for burning oil was delivered to the Gulf,
Beaumont and Kansas City Railway, June 20, 1901, and belonged to the Gulf,
Colorado and Santa Fé Railway. It was No. 065, and pulled a passenger train
out of Beaumont on June 21. Up to the time of its reaching Beaumont it had
travelled 450 miles, and had consumed 42 barrels of oil, the tank having this
capacity. The Southern Pacific Railway is to burn oil west of El Paso, but it
is said that California oil will be used. This road has had a greater experience in
the use of oil for locomotives than any other railway in the country, and when the
arrangements are made for burning oil between El Paso and Los Angeles, a dis-
tance of about 800 miles, this road will be equipped with oil-burning locomotives
from El Paso to Portland, Oregon, a distance of more than 1,700 miles.
A large consumption of oil for fuel purposes may be anticipated, especially on
the part of railroads and industrial establishments, and the competition of the new
fuel with coal will certainly make itself felt. Already some of the railroads bring-
ing coal into Lower Mississippi Valley from Alabama have made sweeping re-
ductions in freight rates, in order to meet oil at New Orleans, etc. These reduc-
tions amount to about one-half of the former rates.
Oil Production of the World.
Country.
Russia
United States
Austria Hungary
Roumania
Sumatra
India
Java.
Japan
Germany
Italy!
Great Britain
Grand total
•
Year.
Production in Brls.
of 42 gals.
1899
68,752,240
1899
57,070,850
1898
3,304,510
1899
1,470,000
1899
361,610
1898
542,068
1899
350,000
1898
265,000
1899
192,232
1898
14,489
1898
1,900
132,823,899
In 1899 there were 159 steamers, tonnage 393,717, and ten sailing vessels,
tonnage 11,321, engaged in general trade. Of the steamers built in 1899, the
Strombus, for the Shell Line Company, had a tonnage of 8,500.
Of the total exports of crude oil in 1899, France alone took 73 per cent. ;
32
TEXAS OIL
Spain came next with 8.5 per cent.; Mexico next with 7 per cent.; Germany took
about 3 per cent. ; while Cuba took almost as much as Germany. France, Spain,
Mexico, Germany and Cuba took about 94 per cent. of the total amount of crude oil
exported.
According to the U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin, by Mr. F. H. Oliphant (1902),
the world's production of petroleum in the year 1901 was 165,385,733 United
States barrels, of which quantity the production of various countries was as follows-
Russia
United States
Other countries
51.49 per cent.
41.97
6.54
""
100.00
Whereas in 1895 the Russian production was only 87.2 per cent. of the United
States production, it had increased to 122.7 per cent. in 1901, as above.
The U.S. barrel of 42 U.S. gallons (=35 Imp. galls.) holds about 320 pounds.
Assuming 7 barrels to one ton, the world's production is 23,626,533 tons.
In the year 1900 Russia produced only 17,500,000 tons of coal, whereas the
United States produced 270,000,000 tons (2,000 pounds). As two-thirds of the
Russian oil is used as fuel, the production of oil is equivalent to 16,000,000 tons of
coal. Assuming a ratio of 1,333 2,000, the equivalent in coal of the world's
production of 23 million tons of oil is 31½ million tons, a figure which includes
all the illuminating oils. Approximately, the fuel product will not exceed 60 per
cent. of the whole production, so that about 20,000,000 tons (2,240 pounds) of coal
may be taken to represent the world's fuel oil production. The attitude of the
engineer to the liquid fuel problem, while open and liberal, must be conservative
in face of the foregoing figures. Oil cannot be a universal fuel, but it can be of the
utmost value in certain conditions, and it affords peculiar facilities to the electrical
engineer in dealing with the peaks of the load of a lighting station, and especially
those sudden unforeseen peaks that arise from sudden fogs.
In Table XLIII the world's production of petroleum in 1900 and 1901 is given
in some detail.
The table gives some idea of the rate of growth of production, and shows that
this is moderate. We know that old wells begin to decrease their output, and new
bore holes are constantly required to keep up the supply.
Doubtless there are unfound areas of production yet to be tapped, but the
present position is to be summed up in the one word "moderation.'
""
33
D
Chapter V
TESTS OF TEXAS OIL EFFICIENCY
REPORT by Professor Denton states that the number of barrels of oil
A equivalent to 2,240 pounds of coal was 4.23 for one h.p. per about twenty
square feet of heating surface, and 4·12 for one h.p. per 10 square feet of heating
surface; and it appears that the average consumption of oil per ton of coal is four
barrels, and that under some conditions this falls to 3.50 barrels. There may be
consumers who use even less than this, but it is not thought that they represent
the average practice.
The Report was made to the Hon. Charles A. Towne, President of the Export
Oil and Pipe Line Company, Beaumont, Texas, under date of December 26, 1901,
but was not issued until February, 1902. The oil was used to operate a boiler at
the plant of the West Side Hygeia Ice Company, West 19th Street, N.Y. City.
There were three return tubular boilers, each 6 feet in diameter and 18 feet long,
containing about 1,900 square feet of heating surface, two being used at a time to
provide about 180 boiler h.p. from buckwheat coal, with natural draught under a
very steady load throughout each 24 hours. One of these boilers was fitted for the
tests with the Williams Oil Burner (fig. 102).
Operation of the Boiler.
The preparations for the use of the oil being completed on Monday, Novem-
ber 25, 1901, the boilers were immediately lighted, steam quickly raised, and from
one-half to more than the whole of the boiler h.p. required by the factory was then
generated until the following Saturday night without the slightest hitch, the
burners being under the charge of Mr. Williams, the patentee of the burner. During
this period evaporation tests at various powers were made.
Time required to raise Steam.
The boiler was allowed to cool from Saturday, November 30, to the following
Wednesday, when the brickwork of the setting was cold, and the water in the boiler
at 64°F. The time to raise 85 pounds of steam was then determined to be 59
minutes. In a similar test made later with a coal fire, started with a very liberal
supply of dry wood, steam was raised in 1 hour 17 minutes.
Effect of the Oil on the Boiler and Furnace.
After the steam-raising test, the boiler was operated 24 hours with oil, to use
up all that remained of the 117 barrels provided for the evaporative test.
It was
34
TESTS OF TEXAS OIL EFFICIENCY
then cooled, and the oil burning apparatus removed to prepare the furnace for
comparative coal evaporative tests. The boiler and furnace were then examined.
No trace was found of any action of the oil on the boiler. There was no oily
matter on the internal brickwork, nor any discoloration of the latter, and there
was less than 1-64th of an inch of soot in the tubes, which had been swept clear
of ashes at the beginning of the use of the oil.
The tests with the oil were made at capacities varying from 112 h.p. to 220 h.p.
The boiler was 6 feet in diameter and 18 feet long of the horizontal return tube
type. It had 100 tubes 2 inches in diameter and a grate surface of 45.5 square
feet, i.e. 6 feet 6 inches by 7 feet 0 inches. Height of chimney, 70 feet high by 42
inches square. Omitting the data with respect to the use of the buckwheat (an-
thracite) coal, the résumé of the tests is as follows-
Duration, hours
Horse power .
Résumé of Tests with Beaumont Crude Oil.
3.5
8
11
13
11
146.9
122.7
189.7
138.0
220.1
Steam pressure (gauge) lb.
Feed temperature, degs. F.
Chimney temperature, degs. F.
Quality of steam
87
86
86
86
86.5
69°
90°
70°
90°
74°
374°
360°
398°
370°
425°
dry
dry
dry
dry
dry
Oil per hour per sq. ft. of heating sur-
face, lb.
Dry steam per hour, from and at 212°
per sq. ft. of heating surface, lb. .
Heating surface per h.p. sq. ft.
•
Total dry steam per lb. of fuel as fired
from and at 212°F. lb.
0.181
0.135
0.226
0.063
0.263
2.73
2.09
3.52
2.56
4.08
12.6
16.5
9.8
13.5
8.45
15.29
15.53
15.55
15.71
15.49
Per cwt. of steam used by burner
Net lb. of dry steam per lb. of fuel fired
from and at 212°F .
3.6%
3.1%
4.8%
3.5%
4.8%
14.74
15.05
14.80
15.16
14.75
Other data and results are as follows—
Dimensions and Proportions.
Grate surface, sq. ft.
Water heating surface
45.5
1,860
Position of damper
wide open
Area of opening of ash pits, sq. ft.
1.8
Average Pressures.
Steam pressure, by gauge, lb.
86.5
Draught pressure, inches of water
0.37
Average Temperatures, Fahr.
Fire room
53.1
Feed water entering boiler
74.0
Chimney gases
42.5
Fuel.
Weight of fuel as fired, lb. .
5,393
Steam.
Quality of steam
dry
35
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Water.
Total weight of water fed to boiler, lb.
Factor of evaporation
Equivalent water evaporated into dry steam from and at 212°F.
70,798
1.180
83,542
Economic Results.
Feed water per lb. of fuel as fired, lb.
•
Equivalent evaporation from and at 212°F. per lb. of fuel as fired, lb.
Equivalent evaporation from and at 212°F. per lb. of combustible, lb.
13.13
15.49
15.49
Efficiency.
Efficiency of boiler and furnace, or heat per lb. of fuel as fired, divided by
calorific value per lb. of fuel
Efficiency of boiler, or heat absorbed by boiler per lb. of combustible, divided
by calorific value per lb. of combustible
Hourly Quantities.
78.5%
78.5%
Fuel as fired per hour, lb.
·
490.3
Fuel as fired per hour per sq. foot of grate, lb.
10.78
•
Combustible per hour per sq. foot of heating surface, lb.
0.263
Horse Power.
Horse power at 34.5 lb. from and at 212°
Heating surface per horse power sq. feet
220.1
8.45
Composition of Fuel.
per cent.
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen and nitrogen
Sulphur
85.03
12.30
0.92
1.75
Heat Balance.
B.Th.U.
Utilized in production of steam
Due to combustion of hydrogen.
14,963
1,245
Wasted in superheating water products
113
Wasted in dry chimney gases
1.837
Radiation and imperfect combustion
902
•
Heat per lb. of fuel as fired, by calorimeter
•
19,060
Heat per lb. of combustible, by calorimeter.
19,060
The weight of oil per gallon was 7.66 pounds, or 322 pounds per barrel of 42
American gallons of 231 cubic inches. The net evaporation per pound of oil from
and at 212°F. was 15.1 pounds. The net evaporation per pound of Pennsylvania
bituminous coal in the best boilers at 10 square feet of heating surface per h.p. is
9.5 pounds of water from and at 212°F. The net evaporation per pound of the semi-
bituminous coals, such as Pocahontas, New River, Cumberland and Clearfield, is
10.0 pounds of water, which may be increased to 10.5 and 11 pounds by mechanical
stokers, or smoke-preventing devices.
36
TESTS OF TEXAS OIL EFFICIENCY
Professor Denton calculates the comparative costs of oil and coal as follows-
Price of coal per ton of 2,240 lb.
$1.00=-4/-
1.50=6/-
2.00 = 8/-
2.50=10/-
3.00=12/-
3.50=14/-
4.00 = 16/-
4.50=18/-
Equiv. price of oil per brl. of 42 gallons
$0.29=1/21/
0.43=1/91
0.56=2/4
0.71=2/11
0.85=3/61/
0.99=4/11/
=
1.13 48/1
1.285/4
These figures apply to bituminous coals mined west of Ohio and used in
Western and South Western States. In comparison with small sizes of anthracite,
Pittsburg bituminous and Maryland and West Virginia semi-bituminous coals, and
most or all British coals, oil must be sold at a less price, inasmuch as these fuels
are of a better quality than Western and South Western coals. It follows, there-
fore, that for inland consumption, where the competition would be with fuels of
less value, from the standpoint of available heat units, the price of oil could be
higher than in Eastern markets and along the Upper Atlantic seaboard. Thus, in
competition with coals mined west of Ohio at $3.00 per ton, oil should be sold at
85 cents per barrel; but in competition with No. 1 buckwheat and pea (anthra-
cite) at $3.00 per ton, the price would have to be 67 cents; while with the best semi-
bituminous coal, largely used in ocean traffic and by manufacturing establishments
in the East, the price of oil would have to vary from 64 to 58 cents if the coal was
sold at $3.00. In the above, $1 has been called equal to 4s.
1
In Texas, oil has been contracted for at 44 cents per barrel, delivered at
points as far off as 250 to 300 miles from Beaumont, competing successfully with
coal from Indian territory, Arkansas and Texas at prices varying from $4.50 to
$6.00 per ton.
Evaporative Duty.
Professor Denton's results show that the net evaporation ranged from 14.74
to 15-16 pounds of water per pound of oil, the h.p. varying from 112 to 220 and the
burner steam consumption from 3.1 to 4-8 per cent. of the boiler output. The
boiler utilized about 78 per cent. of the heat of the fuel, which may be considered
the best average boiler practice. It is also to be observed that the results in
actual practice showed that 98 per cent. of the total heat of combustion of the oil,
as determined by the calorimeter, was accounted for by the steam production, the
chimney gases, and a reasonable allowance for radiation. Professor Denton
thinks that for a higher horse-power a net evaporation of 14.8 pounds of water is
the best economy that can be expected from the use of oil as fuel with steam jet
burners. This may be contrasted with 11.79 pounds yielded by excellent No. 1
buckwheat coal.
Considering the objections that have been raised against the use of crude oil,
on account of its content of sulphur, it may be said that many excellent steam
coals carry from 1.5 to 2 per cent. of sulphur, and that the average life of a boiler
does not seem to be impaired by their use. The amount of sulphur in the oil used
by Professor Denton was 1.63 per cent. Allowing that a coal contains 1.7 per cent.,
an oil would have to contain 2.6 per cent. in order to put as much sulphur into the
products of combustion as the coal, equal horse-powers being assumed. It has been
ascertained that the use of coal carrying more than 3 per cent. of sulphur does not
37
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
cause any greater depreciation of fire-boxes, etc., than a coal of 1.7 per cent. of
sulphur, and the sulphur equivalent in oil corresponding to 3 per cent. in coal is
above 6 per cent. The objections to the use of crude oil, based on its sulphur
content, do not appear to be well founded, in so far, at least, as concerns the in-
tegrity of fire-boxes, etc. Probably sulphur products are only seriously harmful
when cooled to moisture point.
The inflammability of the crude oil has also been the subject of critical in-
vestigation. There was no inflammable vapour given off below 142°F. in Professor
Denton's experiments; and he does not think that a pool of oil in a boiler room
would become ignited from a lighted match or from the dropping of a live coal
into it. It is also stated that a surplus of oil at the burner gave rise merely to a
thick smoke; there was no explosion or excess of pressure.
One more point of a most important nature was brought out by Professor
Denton's test. It was not a new point, for other comparative tests have estab-
lished the fact, and it is well known to those who study the economies of fuel con-
sumption. It is the difference between the distribution of heat units arising from
the combustion of oil and coal; in other words, the comparative efficiency of oil
and coal referred to the heat balance.
Oil.
Coal.
B.Th.U.
%
B.Th.U.
%
Utilized in production of steam
Evaporation of moisture in fuel and due
to combustion of hydrogen
14,963
78.5
8,636
71.4
1,245
6.5
277
2.3
Wasted in superheating water products
Wasted in dry chimney gases
113
0.6
23
0.2
1,837
9.7
1,981
16.4
Wasted in unconsumed carbon in ash
Radiation and imperfect combustion .
Heat per pound of fuel as fired, by
768
6.3
902
4.7
415
3.4
calorimeter
19,060
100.0
12,100
100.0
Heat per pound of combustible, by
calorimeter
•
19,060
14,680
An analysis of this table shows that in the production of steam more heat units
were given off by the oil than corresponded with the total number of heat units
in the coal, and that the percentage of heat units used was 78.5 of those in the oil,
as against 71.4 of those in the coal; in other words, there were so many more heat
units in the oil than in the coal, and these were so much more available, that it
was possible for the oil to devote to steam raising alone more heat units than the
coal contained, and still leave 21.5 per cent. for other emergencies inseparable from
the conduct of the operations. The saving of the heat ordinarily wasted in dry
chimney gases is especially noteworthy, for the oil shows a waste of 9.7 per cent.,
as against 16.4 for the coal.
It is to be concluded, therefore, that in comparison with coal yielding 12,100
B.Th.U. per pound as fired, and 14,680 per pound of combustible, there is a de-
cided economy in the use of crude oil under the conditions maintained in this test.
The fact that returns from consumers of oil in the State show a difference of
43 per cent. (i.e. from 3.5 to 5) in the number of barrels of oil equivalent to a ton
of good soft coal, is evidence that ordinary experience cannot be relied on to afford
anything more than a rough approximation. If the ordinary steam installations
38
TESTS OF TEXAS OIL EFFICIENCY
were provided with smoke-preventing devices and mechanical stokers, it is highly
probable that the economy in the use of oil would not be so pronounced. It is in
respect of comparing things that have not been reduced to a common denominator
that the argument in favour of oil loses some of its strength. When one has not
secured from coal all the economy possible, it is manifestly unfair to compare the
results with those obtained from oil used under conditions in every way favourable
to this fuel. With no arrangements for preventing smoke, with no mechanical
appliances for sending the fuel to the fire-box in the cheapest and most effective
manner, with no special care to prevent the loss of carbon as unconsumed carbon
in the ashes, it is no wonder that the advantages to be secured by the use of oil are so
obvious.
Mr. Phillips adds that if all the economies possible in the use of the solid fuels
were inaugurated and maintained, it would be found that the comparison between
these and oil would not be so strongly in favour of the latter fuel. It has been
observed, for instance, that when smoke-preventing appliances are installed,
either alone or in connexion with mechanical stoking, but more particularly when
mechanical stoking is used, a saving of more than 20 per cent. has been regularly
obtained—that is, when these economic devices were employed with ordinary coals
there was a saving in the fuel account of more than 20 per cent., and this was for
the regular practice. It is much to be doubted whether ordinary practice with the
solid fuels has attained its maximum economy. There are some establishments,
of course, where the greatest attention is paid to all possible economies in fuel con-
sumption, but these form the exceptions.
We do not compare the two fuels on the same basis, for ordinary boilers are
set and fired without much regard to economy. We do not give sufficient attention
to the production and saving of heat obtained from the solid fuels, and when it
comes to a comparison between these and oil we have not the data for arriving
at the real truth. When the change is made to oil, and it is found that so many
barrels will do the work of so many tons of coal at such and such a price, we are
inclined to pronounce at once in favour of the oil. But the question at once arises
whether the results from the two fuels have been reduced to a common denominator,
whether they are on the same basis, whether we have taken into consideration
all the economies possible in the two cases. We may allow that the heat units in
oil are more easily available for steam-raising purposes than the heat units in coal,
and that, per unit of heating power, we get better results from oil than from coal.
We may go further, and allow that in most cases there is sufficient economy in the
use of oil to warrant the installation of oil-burning appliances, but it does not follow
that a given set of conditions applies to every establishment. When we have once
ascertained what we can get from the oil, we are ready to calculate the relative
advantages in the use of the two. It is, after all, a matter of dollars and cents,
and each particular installation must be considered in and for itself.
39
Chapter VI
THE CHEMICAL AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM
Na work of this description a deep study of the chemistry of liquid fuels is not
IN
necessary.
Petroleum is a mixture of a series of hydrocarbons of the following types-
1.
Cn H2n+2
Methane Series.
2.
C₁ H2n
Olefin Series.
3. Cn
C₁ H₂n
2n
2
4.
C₁ H
H₂n
4
5.
Benzene series.
6
6.
8
7.
8.
""
10
12
Those named occur in the greatest quantity and most frequently. The first is
a light gas in the form CH,, and as the values of in each series grow larger the
members of the various series become liquid and finally solid.
1
n
n
n
n
n
Thus of the first or Methane series the first four are gaseous, Methane, Ethane,
Propane and Butane. Series I is liquid when =5 to 25. Above =25, the solids
begin and generally in all the series a higher value of implies a higher boiling
point, and this rises with some regularity from =9, by about 20°C. =36°F. for
each additional carbon atom. Hence the case with which fractional distillation
can be carried on, the light oils (gasoline, etc.) distilling off up to 150°C., the illumi-
nating oils up to 300°C., and the residuum being fuel oil, which still contains the
lubricating oils.
Dr. Paul, in discussing Aydon's paper, suggested that liquid fuel had an ad-
vantage over solid fuel to the extent of 6,000 B.Th.U. per pound, which he claimed
as the latent heat of liquefaction, but this is elsewhere shown to be nearer the latent
heat of evaporation of carbon while the latent heat of liquefaction is scarcely credited
with more than 5 per cent. extra calorific power, and, as pointed out by Mr. C. E. L.
Orde, the Bombe calorimeter does not show anything like Dr. Paul's figure. It is
also probable that when carbon and hydrogen of the liquid hydrocarbons united,
they produced heat which more than counterbalances the effect of the latent heat
of liquefaction. Indeed, methane gas, CH,, is known to produce, when burned, very
much less heat than calculation would appear to indicate.
Water in Oil.
Fuel oil and water do not readily separate. They do not differ much in
40
THE CHEMICAL AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM
specific gravity, and the oil is so viscous that the globules of water cannot force
their way out of it. But oil is rendered more liquid by heat; it also expands more
than water, and the separation is better effected by heating the oil. This is best
done locally near the surface of the oil in the bunker, so that the heated oil is soon
drawn off for use and heat is not wasted in raising the temperature of the whole
bunker.
.
The heat value of oil is reduced 13·14 B.Th.U. for each one per cent. of water,
Thus 1 pound of oil worth 18,831 B.Th.U. mixed with 10 per cent. of water,
gives a mixture the value of which per pound is (18,831 × 0·9) — 131·4=16,816.5
B.Th.U., a difference of 1,915·5 B.Th.U., or a loss of nearly two pounds of evapora-
tion from and at 212°F. Water also reduces the flame temperature, and thereby
lengthens the flames and moves the point of highest temperature further along the
flues and so diminishes the value of the heating surface. Mr. Orde lays down the
conditions which show perfect combustion as an opaque dazzling white flame for
six inches from the nozzle, becoming semi-transparent and almost violet in colour
at middle length, shading off to red at the end. With water mixed in, the violet
colour does not appear (see chapter on Smoke) and the flame becomes dark red and
smoke-fringed.
It is stated by Mr. Orde that at a temperature of 140°F. =60°C. it required
seven days to separate the water completely in a tank of oil. Hence the use of a
surface float as in Fig. 9.
Mr. Orde's figures for the calorific value of various oils as found by the calori-
meter, are as follows, and show a practical identity of value in all as may be
expected from their chemical composition—
Borneo
Texas
Caucasus
Burma
•
18,831 B.Th.U.
19,242
18,611
""
18,864
12
26
n
58
15
189
n
n
n
5
=2
12
According to Pelouze and Cahours there are thirty different hydrocarbons in
petroleum, principally of the type C₂ H₂n + 2· For 1 and 2 the substance is
a gas. For =3 the boiling point is 0°C. =32°F. For 5 the liquid is very
volatile, the lightest isolated by the above chemists being C, H₁₂, boiling at 30°
C.=77°F. The fuel oils commence at C, H₁g, and go on to C₁5 H32 beyond which
C20 H42 to C28 Hg are semi-solid. The point of ebullition rises 20°C. =36°F. for each
increment of carbon from C, H1, which boils at 117°53′3°F. to 197°C. =386′6°F. ;
for C₁₂ H2; and 257° C-494'6°F. for C₁5 H32. Similarly the specific gravity in-
creases continually though less regularly than the boiling point from C,H,, for which
it is 0.63, to C₁ H32 for which it is 0.83. The density of the hydrocarbon vapours
relative to air are 0·5 for 1 to 7.5 for 15, or a growth of 0.5 for each grade.
7·5
The Russian oils do not follow the same empirical composition as the American,
but belong rather to the ethylene series C, Han and the isomers, and to
the benzene series CH2n-6′ of which benzene CH, is the characteristic
member. In " cracking" the oils during distillation even lower forms are
found: CH₂n-8; CnH₂n-10 which occur in the residues of distillation.
Water may exist in the proportion of 5 per cent. for Baku oil to 10 per cent. for
Borneo, but mineral matter is always small and ash scarcely exceeds 0·3 to 0·4 per
cent.
2n
15
n
2n
n
4I
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
By "cracking," the liquid distilled becomes more and more stable, and the final
residue is a mere coke.
Petroleum distils more easily when superheated steam is blown through the
still while below the "cracking" point. The effect is peculiar to steam and cannot
be secured with air. It appears to be a sort of solution of the petroleum by the
steam, and M. Bertin, of the French Marine Militaire, considers that this affords an
explanation of the superior power of steam in atomizing liquid fuel. A study of
distillation shows three sorts of petroleum suitable for fuel.
(A) The natural oils which have parted with their volatile portions.
under the influence of sun and air and become natural mazout.
Borneo oil which flashes at 100°C. =212°F. is directly employed as fuel
and Texas oil appears to possess little other value than as fuel.
(B) Distillation residues or mazouts which result from boiling off all
the more volatile portions.
(C) American distilled oils as per page 18. These oils are very homo-
geneous and regular, but they emit inflammable vapours below the tempera-
tures at which they boil.
The Physical Properties of Petroleum.
These have already been partly treated of under the previous head, but it may
be added that in common with all hydrocarbons and fats, petroleum and other liquid
fuels become more fluid and lose much of their viscidity when heated. Their
fluidity increases rapidly with heat. Hence the better atomization possible with
heated oils. Tests at Cherbourg on mazout at different temperatures show that
the amount of flow of oil through an orifice of annular form half a millimetre wide
was as follows in cubic centimetres per minute-
Temperature.
Flow
6°C. 15° 35°
2.5 6.5 32
76° 100°
188
466
With water at 19°C. the flow was 4300 c. cm.
Mazout is easily heated, its specific heat being 0:42.
Petroleum also has a rapid expansion coefficient, as much as 0.0007 per degree
Centigrade. This helps it to rid itself of water because, by heating the oil, both its
sp. gr. and its resistance are reduced, and any water can the more easily gravitate
out.
Though petroleum has been supposed to be unaffected by storage, mazout
changes when exposed to air even more rapidly than coal, according to M. Bertin,
losing its fluidity and parting with some of its calorific power: experiment seems to
be wanting in regard to such changes taking place in closed tanks and not exposed
to air. Any loss that may have been experienced may perhaps be attributed to a
gradual evaporation of lighter oils still remaining. The lighter oils do possess
the highest calorific capacity, and their loss would therefore to some extent reduce
the calorific capacity of the residue.
In Russia the sp. gr. of oil for steam raising purposes at 17.5°C.=63·5F. must
not exceed 911 to 912, and oil must contain no water or sand or alkali. When re-
ceived the temperature must not exceed 50°C. =122°F. and the flash point must be
above 140° or 150°C. =284° to 302°F.
42
THE CHEMICAL AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM
Certain railroads stipulate a density of 905 to 915 at 14°R.=63·5°F. There is
no viscosity clause.
The Navigation Co. Caucase Mercure ask for a density of 926. The Russian Navy
accepts a flash point of 100˚C.=212°F. and a density of 950. In America the mini-
mum flash point of 200°F. is usual=93.3°C.
Water in Oil.
To determine the water q the density d is found of the sample. After heating
for some time at 103°C. =217.5°F. the density is again found=d. The quantity of
water q is determined by this relation (1-q) d₂+q=d.
The coefficient of expansion per degree C. is assumed to be 0.000735 0.000408
per degree F.
43
IN
Chapter VII
MATERIALS
N the utilization of fuels for steam raising purposes it is necessary to have a
knowledge more or less full of the whole of the materials which will be employed
either as fuels or structurally. Something must also be known of the environment
in which such substances will be employed.
A list of substances with which the engineer will be required to deal there-
fore includes, besides the fuel itself, air, water, cast iron, steel, firebrick, etc.
The conditions include the ordinary atmospheric temperatures and moisture,
the pressure of the atmosphere, and so on.
The units in which ideas are expressed must also be clear.
With this object separate sections have been given to the subjects of Water,
Air, and Heat in its various forms, to carbon and hydrogen, the only two practicable
fuels. A few notes are given below concerning some of the other materials.
Cast Iron.
This is the form in which iron is obtained when first reduced from its ores.
It is a more or less complex alloy of iron with silicon, sulphur, phosphorous and
carbon in various states of aggregation. It is one of the best and most convenient
materials for fire bars, and though it melts at the ordinary temperature of a furnace,
the bars are kept cool by the air rushing between them. Cast iron cannot therefore
be employed in the furnace itself. It is rapidly destroyed by the action of the fire
even when not directly in the flame. It should not be employed in the retort in
which to heat and to gasefy even the light burning oils. Cast iron tubes have been
tried for this purpose and have been found to become choked by a deposit of carbon,
which may probably be due to some affinity between the carbon in the iron and that
in the oil.
Cast iron should also never be employed as a material for any vessel exposed
to internal pressure. It is brittle and devoid of extensibility and not therefore
suitable for structures the giving way of which is likely to produce serious results.
For light parts of machinery cast iron may be used, the castings being toughened
or malleableized by a process which removes their carbon, but the process has little
or no effect in making material that is reliable as a structural material. It is, after
all, merely improved cast iron. Malleable iron will resist heat better than cast iron
as in the tuyeres of an air blast exposed to high temperatures.
44
MATERIALS
Steel.
Steel is par excellence the material for all parts of boilers. Like cast iron, it
will not withstand furnace temperatures except when backed by water as in the case
of the plates of a boiler. It can be used for superheater tubes and will bear dull
red temperatures for some time, but, if possible, steam should always be passing
through the pipes when they are in the course of the heated gases.
1
16
Steel tubes only in. thick are employed by the Clarkson Capel Syndicate as
the retort coil in which paraffin is vaporized. These coils are in the zone of flame
and vaporize the oil on its way to the burner which they surround. They possess
a fair durability owing to the heat absorbing power of the vaporizing liquid, and
they are found to keep free of carbon deposit.
Fire Bricks.
The most important material for the furnace engineer is fireclay. High furnace
temperatures will render even many fireclays liquid at the surface.
In a properly set boiler for coal burning the whole interior of the furnace and
combustion chamber will be more or less fluxed and run partially into drops or
stalactites, which hang from projecting edges. With liquid fuel, firebrick is a
most necessary material for promoting combustion. It is a bad conductor of heat,
and has the property of resisting high temperatures known as refractoriness. Fire-
clay is a material which is found beneath seams of coal.
Ordinary fireclays contain 58 to 62 per cent. of silica, 36 to 38 per cent. of
alumina and from 1 to 3 per cent. of ferric oxide.
A large contents of silica denotes a good and refractory brick.
Dowlais firebrick contains no less than 87 per cent. of silica and less than 2 per
cent. of alumina, the remainder being oxide of iron with a trace of lime and
magnesia.
Ganister, which is so much used in steel work, contains 89 per cent. of silica,
5 of alumina, 2½ of iron oxide, and 21 per cent. of material which is lost in burning.
A brick used in France is made from diatomaceous earth which is nearly pure
silica. These French bricks are very porous and light, and when dry will float in
water.
The best fireclay comes from Stourbridge in England, Glenboig in Scotland, and
Dinas in Wales.
Makers of fire brick are accustomed to supply a great variety of shapes, and blocks
can be had for seating purposes or for furnace work, notably for over-fire arches
and combustion chambers.
Fire bricks are also made specially for threading on water tubes so as to build
up refractory walls upon water tubes for the purpose of securing the correct direction
of gases and for promoting perfect combustion and smokelessness. It is said that
carborundum is very refractory indeed, and that when finely powdered and made
into a paint with soluble glass or silicate of soda, and painted on bricks, it will
greatly assist in their preservation. Or the bricks may be dipped in the solution.
The carborundum surface is then most refractory.
Far too little attention is paid by engineers to the fire bricks they use, and very
heavy expenses are incurred in maintaining furnaces in order, expenses quite need-
less if proper attention is paid to the selection of the bricks.
In most cases when a furnace is to be repaired bricks are purchased from the
V
45
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
nearest wharf, where they have lain exposed to rain and weather for weeks or even
months. In their fully water-saturated condition they are at once built into the
furnace and exposed at once to the full heat, with the result that the interior of the
bricks is disintegrated and the bricks split up at once.
Speaking generally, it may be said that when a fire brick is made it should be
fired at a temperature as high as that to which it will be exposed when at work.
The composition of the bricks has a great influence upon their durability in
certain surroundings. A silica brick will run like treacle in certain surroundings
and an alumina brick will fail in others, but a brick of alumina is as refractory as one
of silica-indeed, more so as regards its ability to withstand high temperatures.
Having secured the right kind of brick, a sufficient supply ought to be kept in
store to enable them to become dry before use. When built into place a slow fire
only must be made and the heat gradually got up so as to allow the bricks to dry
thoroughly before being highly heated. When a boiler is laid off from work it
should be closed completely up by shutting the dampers and leaving the boiler itself
and its surrounding brickwork to cool as slowly as possible.
The most troublesome detail of a furnace is the arching over the fire of a water
tube boiler. The usual form of water tube boiler is very smoky, and to cure this
the furnace must be covered by a brick arch, and a capacious combustion chamber
must be employed beyond this, so that the furnace gases and the air admitted above
the fire may become well mixed and burned at a high temperature. Even with the
best of bricks these arches are apt to fail when first fired, the face of the bricks
dropping off.
Messrs. E. and J. Pearson, of Stourbridge, make a special brick for these wide
flat arches and supply a special cement for use in putting them together. The
cement is easily fluxed by heat and cements the whole surface of the arch into a
solid face so that pieces of the brick cannot fall out. In time the whole arch welds
into a solid mass.
Such an arch ought never to be built of any but properly shaped bricks. If
plain rectangular bricks are used the arch pressure becomes concentrated upon the
intrados and tends to flake off the bricks and deprive the arch of its sustaining power.
The bricks should therefore be of taper form so that they fit close in the arch.
What are known as blocks are used for these arches and for similar purposes, and
the above fire brick manufacturers make special arch blocks with a tongue and
groove joint for better security.
In the formation of all important fireclay blocks that will be exposed to stress,
as is an arch, it is of serious importance that the clay be properly pugged into the
mould. It is bad practice to put a block of clay into the mould and put it under
mechanical pressure so as to force it to fill the mould. When this pressure method is
followed the plastic clay will be internally fractured. Shearing planes are developed
which form planes of cleavage or fracture. The movement may be very slight, but
lines of weakness will be developed and the homogeneous continuity of the mass
of the clay will be destroyed. When burnt, the adhesion along these planes of
weakness will be imperfect and when at work such a block will fail. A homely
parallel to this cleavage action is seen in the ordinary cake of fancy soap. These
cakes of soap are formed by pressure from semiplastic slabs of approximately the
same shape as the pressed cake. In the process of pressing to finished stamped form
the mass of soap is compelled to shear internally along several planes, and when put
into use these soap cakes invariably develop numerous lines of weakness and fall
46
MATERIALS
into several pieces and shear off into slabs according to the direction of the shear
lines.
In mechanical engineering the same effect of lines of shearing caused by working
steel at too low a temperature can be seen in steel balls, which frequently appear to
have suffered internal shear by some process of pressure in course of manufacture
and fail along surfaces the structure of which certainly lends support to this view.
So it is with fireclay lumps, and these ought certainly to be pugged into the
moulds so that there may be no internal lines of weakness along which failure is
sure to occur.
A really good arch should last a year if built from a firm springing. The thrust
of an arch is considerable and must all be taken by the side walls, which, not as
a rule carrying the weight of the boiler, may not be very stable, and it is desirable
to tie them down to the foundation by through vertical bolts so as to form a stiff
unyielding support for the arch springing.
The subject of fire brick is one that has not been studied by engineers. Steel
melters and others who deal with high temperatures have paid attention to the
question. The burning of coal for steam raising purposes has, however, been so
invariably carried out at comparatively low temperatures that the importance of
fire brick has not been perceived. When a steam engineer begins to experience
trouble with his furnace side wall lining he casts about him for some means of meet-
ing that trouble, and his efforts usually take the shape of a water box. High
temperature he regards, when it occurs, as a disagreeable incident, to be checked
and avoided. If he understood combustion he would welcome the temperature
as a means of securing more perfect combustion and would endeavour to meet the
trouble by the provision of suitable fire brick.
The high temperatures which are obtainable with oil fuel are likely to bring
the fire brick problem into greater prominence and to direct attention to this most
important material.
Some fire bricks in a very hot furnace will soften and melt away under long
sustained heat. Others, more refractory or infusible, crack and split up under
sudden temperature changes. A good brick becomes surface glazed but the body
remains rough and porous. A granular nature and porous texture are considered
essential, and fire bricks are not made of all new clay. Old bricks are granulated
and mixed up with the new clay so that the necessary texture is secured.
Fireclay is a mixture of silica and alumina in varying proportions, each con-
stituent possessing its own peculiar characteristics. Usually silica exists in the
proportions of about two-thirds to one-third of alumina. The presence of alkaline
matter is prejudicial and induces fluxing. Thus lime is intensely refractory of itself
and so is magnesia, but both of these infusible substances fuse easily with silica, as
also do oxide of iron, soda, potash and other alkalies. These impurities of fireclays
must be avoided. Mixing two clays of good quality will not necessarily prove a
success.
Silica, if otherwise pure, gives perhaps the most refractory bricks, and certain
French fire bricks are made from infusorial earth which consists of the minute
siliceous shells of the diatomaceæ. These French bricks, when dry, will float in
water, their specific gravity being under 1,000, owing to the numerous voids and
pores, but these bricks are very tender and do not stand well at the firegrate level
where a tougher and harder brick is necessary. The Dinas bricks of South Wales
are very siliceous but are liable to split up if suddenly cooled, and are therefore some-
47
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
what unsuitable for hand fired furnaces, but should be excellent for mechanically-
stoked furnaces with self-cleaning grates. Probably the best boiler furnace brick
is one high in silica, yet containing a fair proportion of alumina and free from
alkalies. Such a brick combines the properties of infusibility and toughness for
puddling furnaces, coke ovens, gas retorts and other high temperature uses, and
it must be remembered that the kind of furnace advised by the author for bitu-
minous fuel combustion, and adopted from sheer necessity with liquid fuel, is
exposed to temperatures more resembling those of metallurgical furnaces than the
starved temperatures of the common unscientifically set steam boiler.
A sample of the clay from the Glenboig Star Mine, as analysed by Edward
Riley, F.C.S., after calcination, gave the following results—
Silica
Titanic Acid
Alumina
Peroxide of Iron
Lime
Magnesia
Potash and Soda
per cent.
65.41
1.33
30.55
1.70
0.69
0.64
0.55
100.87
Sir Frederick Abel analysed a Glenboig brick, at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich,
as follows. The brick was taken from stock ·
Silica
Alumina
Iron Peroxide
Alkalies, loss, etc.
•
per cent.
62.50
34.00
2.70
0.80
100.00
Mere analysis, however, does not tell everything. For instance, in this last
analysis the silica and alumina were largely in chemical combination, and this is
more valuable than the mere mechanical combination of the constituents.
To make a good brick the clay must be suitably weathered so that any iron
nodules may separate out. The clay is rendered smoother and more solid for
articles requiring such qualities, as seating blocks; and for high temperatures,
porosity is given by the addition of old bricks.
All defects of shape are produced in the drying stove after moulding. Stoving
is therefore a most important operation, and a brick must be practically dry before
firing which is gentle at first until the bricks are hot and perfectly dried out. Then
the kiln is put on to full fire and the temperature must be maintained until the bricks
cease to shrink. A brick which has not been fired at a full temperature may shrink
further if put to work at a higher temperature. The total shrink from the moulded
size is about 81 per cent. of the bulk or about 2 per cent, linear measure.
case no shrinkage should remain in a brick or it will shrink when put to work and
pull the brickwork in pieces.
In any
Professor Abel, F.R.C., gave various analyses of fireclays as per the annexed
table-
48
MATERIALS
Alkalies, Loss,
Description of Fireclay.
Silica.
Alumina.
Iron Peroxide.
etc.
Kilmarnock
Stourbridge
59.10
35.76
2.50
2.64
65.65
26.59
5.71
2.05
67.00
25.80
4.90
2.30
""
66.47
26.26
6.33
0.64
""
58.48
35.78
3.02
0.72
63.40
31.70
3.00
1.90
""
Newcastle
59.80
27.30
6.90
6.00
63.50
27.60
6.40
6.50
""
Glenboig
62.50
34.00
2.70
0.80
From which the excellence of Stourbridge and Glenboig bricks is plainly evident
in the small percentage of alkalies.
For the following miscellaneous information the author is indebted to the
Glenboig Company—
Shape and Size.
Weight.
Shape and Size.
Weight.
1,000 Square Bricks
Inches.
9 × 41 × 3
Tons.
4
Inches.
Tons.
1,000 Cupola
2
1,000
1,000
9 × 41 × 21 =
9 × 41 × 21=
31
1,000 Pup Bricks
3
1,000
""
1,000 End or Side Arch 9 × 41 × 3 and 2
1,000
1,000
Х
""
""
2
9 × 41 × 21 and 11
2/
1,000
31,000 Scone Blocks
<
9 × 3 × 21
X
9 × 21 × 21 =
9 × 412 × 2
9 × 41 × 11 =
9 × 41 and 3 × 3
3 /1/1
9×41×3 and 21
33
1,000 Crown or Square
9 × 6 × 3
21 2 2 5
1 /
2号
​2/m 2/m
5/1/10
One Inch Millimetres 25.4.
One Ton = Kilogrammes 1,016.
MISCELLANEOUS WEIGHTS AND MEASUREMENTS.
STACKED LOOSE.
1,000 9 inch × 41 inch × 21 inch =66 cub. ft.
1,000 9 in. × 4½in. × 3 in. × 3 in. =80 cub. ft.
BUILT WITH FIRECLAY.
1 square yard 9 in. work requires
109 bricks 9 in. × 4 in. x 21 in. and 2 cwts.
Ground fireclay, or 92 bricks 9 in. × 4 in. ×
3 in. and 13 cwts. ground fireclay.
A rod (English) of brick =11½ cub. yds.
A rood (Scotch) of brick = 16 cub. yds.
FOR PAVING.
1 yard superficial requires 16 tiles 9 in. x 9 in.
18 tiles 12 in. x 6 in. x 2 in.
32 bricks 9 in. × 4 in. x 3 in. laid flat.
48 bricks 9 in. × 4½ in. × 3 in. laid on edge.
One 9 inch x 4½ inch × 3 inch =9 lbs.
17 cub. ft. blocks=1 ton
334 bricks = 1 load.
1,500 to 2,000=1 railway truck.
3,100 to 3,200 9 in. × 41 × 24in. bricks = 1
railway truck (Continental).
6 to 8 tons ground fireclay = 1 railway truck.
8 bags ground clay = 1 ton.
3 casks ground clay =1 ton.
21 cub. ft. of dry ground fireclay, firmly
packed = 1 ton.
Fireclay suffers no deterioration of quality
from rain.
For shipment it is packed in barrels or bags.
The usual shipping size of firebrick is 9 in.
× 4½ in. × 2½ in.
×
from English chalk flints
They also make a highly re-
The Glenboig Company make special silica bricks
which weigh 2 tons 12 cwt. per 1000, 9 in. × 42 in. x 24 in.
fractory brick from Gartcosh clay, which analyses as below, according to W. Wallace
and Jno. Clark, Ph.D., F.C.S., etc.—
49
E
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Si'ica
Titanic acid
Alumina
per cent.
61.90
Peroxide of Iron
Lime
Magnesia
Potash
Soda
2.09
32.34
3.02
0.37
•
0.20
0.06
0.30
100.28
The proportion of alkalies is thus small and the brick is solid and has small
shrinkage from the mould and weighs 131 pounds per cubic foot. The ganister
bricks of the Company, which are made from what appears to be a soft sandstone,
analyse as below—
Gartcosh Ganister. Gartcosh Silica.
Silica.
87.06
74.10
Titanic acid.
Trace
0.20
Alumina.
11.24
22.32
Oxide of iron
0.69
2.28
Lime
Trace
0.48
Magnesia.
Trace
0.34.
Potash
0.61
Soda
0.33
0.38
99.93
100.00
Bricks for Oil Fired Furnaces.
Where bricks are applied to oil fired furnaces the intense local heat of the oil
furnace of course burns the brickwork away in time, or rather melts it on the surface
immediately in contact with the flame, causing it to run down and hang in the form
of stalactites, but it takes a considerable time to wear through nine inches of brick-
work, and the cost of the bricks is more than compensated for in the increased
efficiency of the furnace.
It is often the case, says Mr. Page, of Stourbridge, to whom the author is much
x
(a)
indebted, that furnaces and combustion chambers lined with firebrick come to
grief through being badly built rather than from the bad quality of the bricks used;
at the same time, good work will not make up for bad bricks. The usual type of
liquid fuel furnace for kilns is as shown in the annexed illustration (a), the burner
being so set that the fuel in vaporized form is more or less concentrated in the centre
arch at x.
The consequence is that the intense heat is localized and the brick work
50
MATERIALS
runs down into slag. Various methods have been tried to get over the difficulty-
one is to cover the grate with broken fire brick, or coke, but this was not altogether
(b)
successful. Another idea is to protect the piers of the arches with bricks piled up
SECTION ON A B
A
ELEVATION
PLAN
8
(c)
loosely in semicircular form with the concave side facing the burner, stacking them
5I
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
with a space between each one, and crossing the open space with another row of
bricks, as shown in plan, Fig. (b), thus distributing the heat over a large area of
brick surface.
The bricks would melt after a time, but they could be raked out and a fresh lot
put in, and the arches would be saved considerably.
In the case of over-fire arches, Fig. (c), for water tube boilers having a wide span,
the best type of brick to use is what is known by the name of the Bullhead or End-
wedge, as shown in Fig. (d), or the special bricks of Fig. (f).
3½"
19
6
3"
20
2½"
21
13/47/41/2"
LARGE
}
12/42
MIDDLE
(d)
W
+
SMALL
SPRINGER
ARCH BRICK
(f)
In all cases fire bricks should be set with as little jointing material as possible,
and for arches the bricks should be specially made to work to the desired radius. Any
attempt to use ordinary rectangular bricks is fatal. The pressure becomes con-
(g)
centrated on the under side of the arch, as in Fig. (g), and the mass has no rigidity—
bricks begin to fall out and the arch is ruined.
The bricks should be set with finely ground fireclay made up with water to the
consistency of thick paint. The brick should be dipped in this, and then rubbed into
contact with its neighbours.
Fireclay is made up into specially shaped bricks and lumps for different purposes,
and bricks and blocks can be made to meet the special requirements in furnace
work, but unequally proportioned lumps must be avoided on account of internal
stresses, fireclay having its limitations in this respect, as explained above, just as
cast iron has. The best plan is to consult a reputable maker. The most usual course
is to decide on all other points of construction and make the best job possible on
what are generally considered incidentals, such as furnace linings, whereas by
taking the limitations of a necessary material into consideration in the first place,
much expense and trouble may be saved.
Improperly made bricks and lumps lack homogeneity, and often contain planes
of cleavage developed in bricks forced into shape by mechanical pressures. These,
being internal, are not seen, but the unequal strains brought on the structure of the
brick by heating on one side or end only develop the weakness and cause a block to
fly" or break up into several pieces.
66
Good fire bricks should have sharp angles and give a metallic ring on being
52
MATERIALS
rubbed together. They should be kept some time before use in a dry place. Bricks
sodden with rain and heated up quickly will tend to burst.
Various substances having been suggested as substitutes for fire brick, it may
not be out of place to say something as to the varieties of fireclay goods.
The following is the classification generally adopted-
I Silicious fireclay goods.
II
Aluminous
III Argillaceous
""
""
IV
Carboniferous
""
Nos. I and II are the most generally used.
No. IV is a mixture of carbon and clay, the carbon being in a crystallized state
as used for arc lamps, etc., or amorphous as graphite, the latter being used for the
manufacture of crucibles, etc. Carbon blocks have been suggested, but, apart from
the excessive cost, the carbon combines with any free oxygen in the furnace gases
and is consumed.
No. II. A mixture containing a greater portion of alumina than pure clay.
This also is too costly for general use.
Lime is sometimes used as furnace lining for electrical kilns and will withstand
the intense heat of the voltaic arc, but as it retains the property of being hydrated
in air, its use is necessarily very limited. This class of fireclay goods is known as
basic.
Silicious fireclay goods are composed almost exclusively of silica.
Argillaceous fireclay goods are composed of silica and alumina, and are next
in degree of refractoriness to aluminous goods.
It should be borne in mind that the foregoing are each adapted to particular
purposes, and the proper admixture of clays for any desired purpose is a matter that
only long experience and scientific knowledge can determine, the physical as well as
the chemical properties of clay having to be taken into account.
Siloxicon.
The latest refractory material is Siloxicon, a product of the electric furnace
consisting of carbon, silicon and oxygen formed at a temperatue of 4,000° to
5,000° F. and therefore very refractory at ordinary temperatures. It is a loosely
coherent mass as formed and is ground to pass a 402 sieve. It is an amorphous
grey-green compound when cold, becoming light yellow at 300° F. It is insoluble
in molten iron, neutral to acid and basic slag, indifferent to all save hydrofluoric
acid, and is unattacked by hot alkaline solutions. It is formed into bricks by
simple pressure, when damp, and fired. It is neutral to clays and will not oxidise,
and appears likely to form a valuable furnace lining where oil fuel is employed.
53
CA
Chapter VIII
COMBUSTIBLES AND SUPPORTERS OF COMBUSTION
Carbon.
ARBON is an elementary substance which has the following properties. Its
atomic weight is 12 and it is tetravalent in chemistry.
It is found free in Nature in various forms, but is usually considered to exist only
in three allotropic modifications, viz.-
(1) The Diamond.
(2) Graphite.
(3) Charcoal.
The diamond is practically pure crystallized carbon. Graphite is some dis-
tance from the diamond but is not entirely amorphous, whereas charcoal is an
amorphous substance, and is considered to include all other forms of carbon, includ-
ing gas retort carbon and anthracite coal. Carbon also occurs combined in the
rocks in immense quantity. The whole of the carboniferous limestone rocks, the
chalk and other lime rocks, are chiefly constituted of carbonate of lime Ca CO,,
and contain 12 per cent. of their weight of carbon. The atmosphere contains
4 volumes in 10,000 of carbon dioxide gas, or approximately 1 in 10,000 of carbon.
The weight of carbon in the atmosphere is thus about eight hundred thousand millions
of tons, or about equal to 1,000 years of the present rate of coal consumption of
the world.
The atmosphere is the source whence alone plants obtain their carbon, and
it is the sink into which all fuels are ultimately discharged when burned, and into
which animals expire the waste carbon rejected as CO, in their breath.
It is by
the agency of plant life, and plant life alone, that carbon is extracted from the air
and again fixed in solid unoxydised form, as woody fibre. The green colouring
matter of plants has, in the presence of sunlight, the power of decomposing the
carbonic acid of the air, appropriating the carbon to itself for the formation of
woody tissue, and setting free the oxygen for the support of man and animals.
Prior to the formation of the large coal deposits of the earth, the air was very much
more charged with carbonic acid than at present, and probably plant life was
much more luxuriant at that period and coal was quickly deposited. Only by aid
of plants can the balance be maintained. Without the laying down of fresh stores
of coal the whole of the existing coal as burned will be returned to the atmosphere,
and, it is perhaps conceivable, might reduce the present energy of the human race
and effect its own cure by allowing Nature once more to store up carbon at a rate
in excess of its combustion by man.
54
COMBUSTIBLES AND SUPPORTERS OF COMBUSTION
Liquid fuel, found as it is so generally in the presence of salt, is thought to
have been deposited from seaweed, and there is no reason to suppose otherwise
than that its formation is still in progress in the ocean depths, and that in the
formation of petroleum another agency is at work which is carrying out the puri-
fication of our atmosphere and perhaps deferring indefinitely the period when the
air will no longer support life in its present vigour.
The following figures give the relation of the various forms of carbon in calorific
value or heat absorption—
COMBUSTION.
State of 1 pound or 1 kilo of Carbon.
Product of
Combustion.
Calories per kilo.
B.Th.U. per pound.
Diamond
Graphite
Amorphous
Ideal Gaseous
CO
2,175
3,915
CO 2
7,859
14,146
CO2
7,900
14,222
CO
2,453
4,415
99
""
888
8,137
14,647
5,684 + e
10,232+ e
11,370+ e
20,463 + e
CO2
5,683
10,231
2 pts. of CO, per part of C.
Diamond
Graphite
Amorphous
Diamond
Graphite
•
HEAT ABSORBED BY METAMORPHIC CONVERSION.
•
to
Vapour
3,508
6,316
3,468
6,241.
3,231
5,817
Graphite
41.5
74.7
Amorphous
277
499.
235.7
424.3
""
35
25
The above figures are calculated from the determinations by Berthelot of the
heat of combustion and formation of the molecule (see Thermochimie, par M. Berthe-
lot, Paris, 1897).
As it requires heat to split up the crystalline structure of the diamond and
convert it into graphite, and again more heat to convert it into amorphous form,
so the diamond when burned produces less heat than graphite or charcoal.
The
differences, namely 74.7 and 424-3, are the amounts of heat necessary to destroy
all crystalline structure. The figures show that graphite is much nearer to the dia-
mond than it is to charcoal in its possession of definite molecular structure. When
the diamond crystallized it gave out heat, and like all crystalline bodies, it is
exothermic. Except that these facts point the appropriate lesson that form and
state are dependent upon heat, either apparent or latent, no further interest centres.
on the crystalline modification of carbon, which is too scarce to employ as a com-
mercial fuel. The first oxidation of ordinary carbon with one atom of oxygen
to CO produces 4415 B.Th.U. =2,453 cal. per pound and per kilogram respectively.
The second oxidation produces a further 10,231 B.Th.U. 5,684 cal. The
total heat produced by complete combustion is thus 14,647 B.Th.U.=8,137 cal.
The difference (5,684-2,453) between the two oxidations is 5,817 B.Th.U.=
3,232 cal., and Berthelot considers that this difference is less than the latent heat
=
55
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
of vaporizing carbon by an unknown amount. In the absence of a knowledge
of what it amounts to, it is usual to say that the difference is the latent heat of
vaporizing carbon just as 966 is the latent heat of steam.
2
To liquefy carbon must also absorb heat, but free liquid carbon is unknown.
Solid carbon burns directly to dioxide gas without going through the intermediate
liquid state, exactly as a piece of ice will disappear in a dry cold wind below freezing
temperature without passing through the intermediate state of water. The liquid
state is not imperative, and carbon is only found liquid when combined with other
substances. It forms a liquid with sulphur as carbon bisulphide CS₂. It is liquid
with hydrogen and oxygen in alcohol, and it is liquid with hydrogen alone in the
many hydrocarbons with which we are at present concerned. By so much as the
liquid form already represents heat rendered latent in reducing a solid to a liquid,
by just so much should liquid fuel possess a greater calorific value per unit of its
contained carbon than a similar weight of solid fuel. The same argument applies
with equal force to the hydrogen, but to some extent conversely. The calorific
capacity of hydrogen is given in terms of the gas burned as gas. In solid coal
the hydrogen is solid, and it is scarcely correct to calculate the calorific capacity
of a solid fuel in terms of its hydrogen at gas value, for undoubtedly heat is absorbed
in rendering the hydrogen gaseous from its solid combined state in coal. Similarly,
in liquid fuel the hydrogen is in liquid form and must be gasefied. It is possible
that the benefit derived from the liquidity of the carbon is neutralized by the
liquidity of the hydrogen.
966
We may assume for argument that the ratio of liquid carbon to gaseous carbon
approximates the ratio of liquid and solid water. Whence 5,817×14= 855
B. Th. U. per pound=475 cal. per kilo., as the advantage of liquid fuel over solid
fuel in respect of its carbon contents being liquid in place of solid. This represents
a better efficiency of possibly 5.84 per cent., so that it seems probable that the
liquid form of fuel does not add much to its efficiency.
The properties of carbon are summarised in the following table-
PROPERTIES OF CARBON.
Atomic weight
Specific heat
Heat of combustion per kilo to CO₂
Temperature of vaporization
pound to CO,
2
combustion to CO.
In air
In oxygen
12
0.1468 to 0.285
8137 cal. = 32,285 B. Th. U.
14,647 B. Th. U. =3,691 Cal.
3,600°C. =6,512°F.
1,485°C. =2705°F.
4,292°C. =7,757°F.
Air required to burn 1 unit to CO
5.797
1.334
1
1
CO 2
2.667
""
1
""
""
CO 2
11.594
Oxygen
""
Air
Temperature of Combustion to CO₂
In air
•
In oxygen
Heat of combustion to CO
•
per pound
per kilo.
Weight of vapour per cubic metre (ideal)
2,753°C. =4,988°F.
10,226°C. =18,440°F.
4,415 B. Th. U. 1,112 Cal.
=
2,453 cal.=9,733 B. Th. U.
1.072 k. =0.06696 per cubic foot.
The atomic weight of carbon being 12 and that of oxygen 16, the formula
56
COMBUSTIBLES AND SUPPORTERS OF COMBUSTION
for carbon monoxide =CO tells that there are 12 parts by weight of carbon in each
28 parts of the gas.
Hence 1 pound of carbon unites with 1 pounds of oxygen to produce 21
pounds of gas.
2
When burned to dioxide =CO₂ there are 12 parts of carbon to each 32 parts
of oxygen, and 1 part of carbon unites with 23 parts of oxygen to produce 33 parts
of gas.
As oxygen is not available for steam production except in the form of air,
and as it is not desired to produce CO, the essential figures to remember are that
each unit weight of carbon demands a minimum of nearly 11-6 units of air.
In the foregoing table the temperatures given are simply those calculated
on the assumption that the specific heat of the gases produced remains the same
at all temperatures and that combustion is complete. Neither assumption repre-
sents actual facts, for the process of combustion is delayed as temperature rises,
and even if it were not, the specific heat increases and holds back the temperature.
As, however, in practice there are so many effects of dilution, the calculation of
total heat can be correctly done on a basis of constant specific heat. If a final
temperature of great intensity is found, a correction can always be applied after
all calculation has been made.
The various figures given in this book differ somewhat from many previously
accepted figures, owing to the progress of the science of thermo-chemistry; the
figures given herein being those given by Berthelot in his work, Thermochimie, 1897.
Carbon burned to CO or directly to CO, does so with simple incandescence.
No flame is produced. Carbonic oxide =CO, however, if formed by the burning of
carbon with insufficient air, will burn with a blue flame if provided with air.
The hydrocarbon gases burn with a reddish, a yellow, or a white flame, accord-
ing to surroundings and temperature, the flame consisting of glowing carbon in
an atmosphere of hot gas.
Hydrogen.
Hydrogen shares with carbon the monopoly of the term fuel, for there are no
commercial fuels except carbon and hydrogen or their joint compounds. Hydrogen
is a gas. Its atomic weight is 1, and being the lightest known element, it serves as
the unit of atomic comparison.
Its physical and other properties are as follows-
Atomic weight and density
Specific heat. Constant vol.
Weight per litre
""
cubic foot
Cubic feet per pound
Litres per kilogram
pressure
•
Heat of combustion per kilo.
1
2.4146
3.410
0.08961 grams=0.000089 k.
0.00559 pound =0.002536 k
178.83=5,063.4 litreş.
11,160=394.15 cubic feet.
34,500 cal.
136,900 B. Th. U.
32°F.
(:
=
62,100 B. Th. U. = 15,650 cal.
347 B. Th. U. 87.45 cal.
3.091 cal.
=
= :
12.264. B. Th. U.
0.0714 when liquefied.
33° abs. C. 60 abs. F.
16.7° abs. C. = 30° abs. F.
""
""
pound .
cubic foot
litre
To 0°C.
""
""
Specific gravity, water=1
Point of vaporization
"
freezing or liquefaction
57
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Temperature of combustion
(nominal) in oxygen
air
Ratio of air required to burn 1 unit weight
""
""
"}
1 unit vol.
oxygen weight
oxygen vol.
Heat of combustion per kilo. (result in vapour)
""
pound (,,
)
6,762°C. = 12,202°F.
2,513°C. =4,554°F.
34.785
2.39
8.00
0.50
29,150 cal. =115,434 B.Th.U.
52,290 B.Th.U. 13,177 cal.
CALORIFIC CAPACITY.-Hydrogen forms very numerous compounds with
carbon, and these compounds are usually treated of under the head of organic
chemistry, for it is from the products of living organisms that they are derived.
The tars are derived from coal, itself a vegetable product, and the mineral oils
appear to be the result of marine organisms.
The heat of combustion of hydrogen is 62,100 B.Th.U. per pound. This
value assumes that the products of combustion are rejected in a liquid state. In
furnace work, however, the gases of combustion always leave at temperatures
above 100° C., and consequently the gases carry off with them the latent heat of
evaporation. This reduces the available heat of burning hydrogen to 52,290
B.Th.U. per pound or 29,150 cal. per kilogram, or say 293 B.Th.U. per cubic
foot and 2.612 cal. per litre. This fact must be borne in mind when calculating
results.
SMOKE PRODUCTION.-Hydrogen ignites at a temperature below that necessary
to ignite carbon. Its affinity for oxygen is greater, and, in presence of an insuffi-
cient supply of air, the hydrogen of a hydrocarbon fuel will first secure its share
of oxygen and the carbon will appear as soot. Sudden cooling of a hot hydro-
carbon gas is also said to produce soot, but it is questionable if soot is really pro-
duced without a certain amount of combustion of the hydrogen.
The following table gives the temperature of ignition of a few of the hydro-
carbon gases according to Mayer and Munch—
Marsh gas
Ethane
Propane
Acetylene
Propylene
CH
667°C.
4
1,232°F.
2
C₂H4
C₂H
616°C.
1,141°F.
547°C.
8
1,017°F.
C₂H₂
580°C.
1,076°F.
C₂H
504°C.
1,004°F.
Hydrogen burns with a transparent blue flame. Its compounds with carbon
burn with a light-giving flame consisting of incandescent carbon particles carried
in an atmosphere of gas.
These hydrocarbons are exceedingly numerous, and range from gases of small
density through every shade of liquid to solids like naphthalene and paraffine wax.
The empirical composition of all the hydrocarbons of the liquid petroleums is
Cn Han or Cn Han±2, etc. (See Chemistry of Liquid Fuels.)
2n
2n+29
It follows from this that the percentage of carbon and hydrogen in a petroleum
of any degree of refinement does not vary far from 84 of carbon and 16 of hydrogen
corresponding with a mean formula of C, HIG
7
Air.
16
Oxygen being necessary for combustion, there is only one source whence it
can be obtained in large quantity, viz., the atmosphere.
58
COMBUSTIBLES AND SUPPORTERS OF COMBUSTION
The atmosphere contains by volume-
20.84 vols. of oxygen)
79.16
99
nitrogen) ratio 1 to 3.8.
There are also small quantities of other gases the principal of which is carbon
dioxide CO,, which is present to the extent of only 0.0004, and may be neglected
for present purposes.
By weight the atmosphere contains-
23.15 parts of oxygen)
76.85
nitrogen) ratio 1 to 3.3196
The mean atmospheric pressure at sea level is assumed by Rankine to be
14-704 pounds per square inch, at a temperature of 32°F. =0°C.
The mercury
barometer then stands at 29.922 inches. At this pressure water boils at 212° F. =
100°C. The metrical atmosphere also measured at 0°C. is 760 mm. of mercury
column=29.922 inches. At the ordinary temperature of 57°.8F: the mercury
barometer of 30"-1 atmosphere, and at all ordinary temperatures and for pur-
poses of steam engineering it may be called 30 inches.
Expressed in metric measures, one atmosphere is 1.0333 kilos per square centi-
metre at Paris.
A mercury column giving 14.704 at London will give 14.6967=1.0333 kilos
at Paris and 14.686 at New York.
The barometric height varies slightly with the latitude.
To reduce for any other latitude the formula is as follows-
H=760 ×
(1+0.00531 Sin² 48° 50′)
(1+0.00531 Sin L.)
48° 50' is the latitude of Paris.
2
where
The pressure and density of the atmosphere varies with the elevation above
sea level, and may be thus calculated-
H=60,000 (1·477-log R); where
R is the elevation in feet above sea level;
H is the barometric height in inches at elevation R. and 1.477=log 30.
High elevation requires consideration in regard to the relative volume of air
for furnace supply.
gas.
Air at all temperatures for purposes of furnace work behaves as a perfect
The weight of a cubic foot of dry air at 62°F. is 532-5 grains. If saturated
with moisture the weight is 529 grains. The specific gravity of air is 819 times
less than water and one pound of air measures 13:146 cubic feet at 62°F.
The standard barometric pressure of 1 atmosphere or 14.6967 pound per
square inch at Paris 1.0333 k. per cm. is curiously approximate to 1 k. per cm,.
or to 14.21 per square inch.
Approximately 1 atmosphere is equal to a pressure of 1 k. per square centi-
metre.
The density of air relative to hydrogen is 14-44, its specific heat is 0.2375
at constant pressure, and 0.1686 at constant volume. One pound of air measures
12.385 cubic feet at 0°C. =32°F., and 1 cubic foot weighs 0.08073 pound. It
liquefies at 81.6°C. absol., and remains liquid up to 133°C. absol. under a pressure
of 39 atmospheres. 1 litre of air weighs 1-292743 grams at 0°C. and 760 mm.
59
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Oxygen.
Oxygen is the active constituent of the atmosphere in promoting combustion.
It combines with most elements to form oxides with evolution of heat. The atomic
weight of oxygen is 16 and it forms one stable oxide with hydrogen—=H₂O (see
water) and two oxides with carbon, viz.-
(1) Carbon monoxide or carbonic oxide=CO, which contains 12 by weight
of carbon and 16 by weight of oxygen, and
(2) Carbonic acid or carbon dioxide =CO₂, containing 12 by weight of
carbon to 32 of oxygen.
The density of oxygen is 16; its weight per cubic foot is 0.08926 pound at
0°C. 32°F. and 11.203 cubic feet weigh one pound.
Its specific heat at constant pressure is 0.217 and at constant volume 0·1548.
It can be liquefied at 92° absol. C, and under a pressure of 50 atmospheres
remains liquid up to 160°C. absol. One litre of oxygen at 0°C. and 760 mm.
weighs 1.4293 grams. Oxygen boils at 92°C. absol. under atmospheric pressure.
Nitrogen.
This gas constitutes about four-fifths of the atmosphere. It is a colourless
gas and very inert. It does not support combustion, but acts by dilution to restrain
its intensity and to reduce the temperature.
Its density is 14, specific heat=0.244 at constant pressure, and 0.173 at
constant volume. It weighs 0.07845 per cubic foot and 1 pound equals 12-763
cubic feet. It liquefies at 80°C. absol. and remains liquid up to 128°C. absol.,
under 33.6 atmospheres. One litre of nitrogen weighs 1.2505 grams at 0°C. and
960 mm.
The weight of nitrogen in the atmosphere is 3.32 times that of oxygen. It
is, therefore, the cause of much dilution of the products of a furnace and reduces.
the theoretical temperature of combustion to a figure much below that of com-
bustion in oxygen.
It has been claimed that at high temperatures the nitrogen unites with oxygen
in the furnace, but there is no good reason to suppose that such is the case and
every reason to hope it never may be.
60
STE
Chapter IX
WATER
TEAM is produced by heating water to such a temperature that the elasticity
of the water vapour becomes greater than the superincumbent air pressure
of about 14.7 pounds per square inch at the level of the sea. (See Air).
Pure water is not found in nature but is closely approximated in rain caught
on hill tops distant from towns, and in streams which flow off the barren country
associated with granitic rocks, the Millstone Grits, and certain other geological
strata. Water is an oxide of hydrogen and its chemical formula is H₂O.
It con-
sists of 2 parts by weight of hydrogen to 16 parts of oxygen, and it is produced
when hydrogen is burned, the combustion setting free a large amount of heat.
(See Hydrogen).
2
Water being so universal in nature, and being a liquid, is used as the unit point
in many physical data. The specific gravity of all other substances is referred to
that of water as unity. So also is the specific heat of all other substances, and
excepting its constituent hydrogen alone, the specific heat of water is the highest
of any known body. The amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature
of 1 kilogram of water from 0°C. to 1°C. is denominated the great calorie or simply
the calorie, the little calorie having reference to the weight of one gram only and
being employed by chemists and physicists.
Thus 1
Similarly the heat necessary to raise the temperature of one pound of water
from 32°F. to 33°F. is called the British Thermal Unit or B. Th. U.
calorie=3.9683 B. Th. U. and 1 B. Th. U.=0.252 calorie.
Weight.
One gallon of pure distilled water at 62°F. weighs 10 pounds by Act of
Parliament. The American or old wine gallon weighs 83 pounds and measures
231 cubic inches, as compared with the British Imperial 10 lb. gallon of 277-479 cubic
inches (Chaney). One cubic decimetre of water or 1 litre weighs, by law, 1 kilo-
gram, the kilo. being 2.204 pounds. Thus 1,000 k. weigh very nearly 1 ton.
A column of water 1 foot high exerts a pressure at the base of 0.434 pounds
per square inch. Thus a pressure of 1 pound per square inch represents a column
of 2.3 feet. Hence an atmosphere of pressure is equivalent to 33.8 feet of water
column.
Compressibility.
Water is nearly incompressible, the co-efficient at 0°C. =32F. being 000052,
and at nearly 53°C. 127°F. =0.0000441. It is thus negligible:
61
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Expansion.
Water changes its volume with change of temperature, but not to an amount
that is of serious account in steam engineering.
Temp.
Weight.
Temp.
Weight.
Temp.
Weight.
212°F.
59.71
350°
55.52
500°
49.61
250
58.81
400
53.64
550
47.52
300
57.26
450
50.66
62
62.2786
102
62.00
158
61.00
203
60.00
The foregoing table gives the weight per cubic foot of water at various tem-
peratures, showing that the maximum expansion in the open air does not reach
per cent.
5
Water attains its maximum density at 4°C. 39°1F.
It becomes solid at a temperature of 0°C. =32°F., the freezing point of water
being employed in fact as the 0° of the Centigrade thermometers.
Ice has a specific gravity of 0.922 and a specific heat of 0.504. To reduce
1 pound of ice at 32°F. 0°C. to water also at 32°F. requires 142 B.Th.U. = 35-78
calories. The latent heat of water is thus said to be 35.78 calories or 142 B.Th.U.
per pound or 78.86 calories per kilogram.
Specific Heat.
The specific heat of water called 1.00 at 0°C. =32°F. is not uniform, but
increases slightly with increase of temperature, as per the following table:-
Specific Heat of Water.
Temp. F.
Specific Heat.
Temp. F.
Specific Heat.
32°
1.0000
248°
1.0177
50
1.0005
266
1.0204
68
1.0012
284
1.0232
86
1.0020
302
1.0262
104
1.0030
320
1.0294
122
1.0042
338
1.0328
140
1.0056
356
1.0364
158
1.72
374
1.0407
176
1.0089
394
1.0440
194
1.0109
410
1.0481
212
1.0130
428
1.0524
230
1.0153
446
1.0568
As at the above temperatures the bulk of water is increased in a much greater
ratio than the specific heat, the total heat per cubic foot will decrease somewhat
with rise of temperature.
Solubility.
Water is a solvent of many substances. Most gases are soluble to a greater
or less extent, and usually more so at low temperatures. Hydrogen forms a notable
exception to this, being equally soluble at various temperatures. There is, however,
no known exception to the rule that the solubility is proportional to the pressure.
The co-efficient of absorption of gas in water is the relative volume absorbed
62
WATER
by one volume of water at 0°C. =32°F. and 760 mm. pressure =1 atmosphere=
14.7 pounds per square inch.
The following table is given by Bunsen for the solubility of gases-
Degrees Cent.
Hydrogen
0°.
0.01930
5°.
10°.
15°.
20°.
0.019
0.01930
0.01930
0.01930
Oxygen
0.04114
0.03628
0.03250
0.02989
0.02838
Nitrogen
0.02035
0.01794
0.01607
0.01578
0.01403
Atmospheric air
0.02471
0.02179
0.01953
0.01796
0.01704
Carbonic acid
1.7967
1.4497
1.1847
1.0020
0.9014
Carbonic oxide
0.03287
0.02920
0.02635
0.02432
0.02312
Carburetted hydrogen
CH₁
0.05449
0.04885
0.04372
0.03909
0.02499
4
Carburetted hydrogen
C₂H₁ ·
0.2563
0.2153
0.1837
0.1615
0.1488
Sulphuretted hydro-
gen SH, .
4.3706
3.9652
3.5858
3.2326
2.9053
Sulphuric acid
68.861
59.816
51.383
43.564
36.216
Ammonia, NH,
1049.6
917.9
812.8
727.2
654.0
As the total heat contained in one pound of steam is nearly 1,200 B. Th. U.,
this amount of heat is more or less thrown away when steam is used to atomize
liquid fuel. The gases never leave a furnace below 212°F., and every pound
of steam carries off its load of 966 units of latent heat to the chimney. Air being
already a gas, and being necessary to combustion, causes no loss in this manner, but
it requires power to compress air and some steam is thereby used, but, especially
at sea, such steam can be condensed and does not therefore lead to a loss of fresh
water. No extra work is thrown upon the evaporation plant. Water may be
split up by heat into its two constituent gases. In this process of dissociation
or decomposition exactly as much heat is absorbed as was produced by the com-
bination of the gases when the water was formed. This plain chemical fact is quite
ignored by those who dream about the use of steam for fuel and who imagine that
steam jets introduced into a furnace will decompose and burn with any effect in
increasing the total heat production of the furnace. Steam thus employed is useful
as a mechanical draught producer only, or there may be some truth that hydro-
carbons burn better in the presence of moisture. But no further claim is in any
sense tenable.
Sources of Water.
Though pure water does not exist in Nature, there are certain natural waters
which are practically pure, as for example the water of Loch Katrine or the supply
of the city of Manchester, which is practically pure and non-scaling, and only calls
for a little alkali to correct slight corrosive effect due to possibly peaty acids.
Water from chalk and limestone areas, and from the Keuper Marl, is hard
and produces much incrustation. Water from wells under London, though from
the chalk, is barely one-third the hardness of water from wells where the chalk
extends to the surface. The presence of the lower tertiary beds above the chalk
appears to account for this. Water from tidal estuaries is now apt to be very
corrosive owing probably to the decomposition of the chloride salts into acids by
the high temperature of modern boilers. The presence of sewage is not per se
63
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
harmful to a boiler. At Warrington some steam users have a special pumping plant
to pump the Mersey water to their works, and attribute the excellence of the water
to the presence in it of the sewage of Manchester and other towns, but in this con-
nection it should be remembered that the Mersey and its tributaries flow almost
wholly over rocks of the Millstone Grit or New Red Series, and that the sewage
has as basis a soft water supply and is probably alkaline from the waste of bleach
works. In Oldham, water is derived from the sewers as a regular thing.
The effect of water containing sulphate of lime may be seen in boilers at Burton-
on-Trent. These are often of a glistening white inside, and thick with scale, under
which may be found the familiar black oxide of iron produced by the presence
of this scale. As it will usually cost a minimum of 6d. per 1,000 gallons to purchase
water, this must be set against the cost of a free supply with treatment, and usually,
if the free supply is hard, the purchased water will frequently also be hard. But
where a good water can be purchased it may be economised by means of surface
condensation, and very little need be purchased if proper use is made of the roof
area for supplementing the supply.
Useful Figures.
In the calculations of the steam engineer it is convenient to remember that
the square of the diameter of a pipe or a pump barrel gives the weight of water
in a yard length of pipe. Thus a six-inch pipe holds 36 pounds or 3.6 gallons per
yard. Again 1 pound of coal should evaporate 1 gallon of water; 1 gallon of
water will give steam to work in the best engine yet made at the rate of 1 h.p.
hour. 2 gallons will serve an ordinary compound engine per h.p. hour and 3 gallons
a good condensing engine for each h.p. hour. Approximately too, 1,000 B. Th. U.
generated represents one pound of steam, so that the number of thousands of
units capacity of a pound of fuel represents the theoretical evaporation in pounds
of water.
As the latent heat of steam is practically 1,000 B. Th. U. at a temperature
of 100°F., it will be perceived that to convert water into vapour at ordinary atmos-
pheric environment must demand 1,000 heat units. This principle is made use
of in the atmospheric condenser, wherein steam in the pipes is deprived of its latent
heat by means of films of water outside the pipes, which are kept cool by the absorp-
tive action of the wind which carries off much of the outer water, and the act of
vaporization abstracts heat from that left behind. Thus the loss of one pound
of, perhaps, a cheap cooling water, will save an equal weight of water inside the
condenser for boiler feeding purposes. In any case a surface condenser of some
sort is a means of feeding a boiler with water that contains no incrusting material,
though its contained oil from the cylinders is an objection to its use, and this should
be removed.
Solubility of Salts.
As a rule this increases with the temperature, but at a slow rate, except for
sodium chloride and a few other exceptions. For the sulphates of magnesium
and potassium and the chlorides of barium and of potassium, solubility is propor-
tionate to the increase of temperature.
With sulphate of soda the solubility first increases and then falls off again.
The solubility of calcium sulphate decreases with temperature.
64
WATER
The following table gives the solubility of a few salts at various temperatures
in parts per 100.
The solubility at 212° F. is really at a higher temperature, being the solubility
at boiling point which is always raised slightly by the solution of a salt.
Calcium Chloride
Magnesium Sulphate
Potassium Carbonate
Chlorate
""
Chloride
•
Nitrate
""
Sulphate
Sodium Carbonate
Bicarbonate
Chloride
""
""
Sulphate
Barium Chloride
Calcium Carbonate
""
Sulphate
Magnesium Chloride
""
Carbonate
.
•
Temperature.
32°F.
70°F.
212°F.
400.
24.7
35.0
130
100
80.0
3.33
8.0
60
29.21
34.0
60
13.32
30.0
240
12.0
26
6.97
21.7
45.1
6.9
9.6
35.5
36.0
39.6
5.02
22.0
42.6
35.0
60.0
·0036
23
.21
200.00
400.00
.02
Sea Water.
Sea water contains 38 parts per 1000, of dissolved matter; of this from 25
to 28 parts are common salt NaCl.
The Black Sea contains only 17.7 parts, the Caspian Sea 14.0, and the Baltic
6-7, owing to the large fresh water rivers which flow into them. The other salts
of sea water are magnesium chloride, calcium sulphate, magnesium sulphate,
potassium sulphate and chloride, bromide of soda, the carbonates of lime and
magnesia, and traces of other salts and organic substances.
Hardness.
By this term is meant 1 grain per gallon of lime carbonate CaCO3. Temporary
hardness is that which can be reduced by boiling. Permanent hardness is not
reduced by boiling.
Pipes.
The ordinary velocity of flow of water in pipes may be taken as 72 inches
per second. This velocity is to be reduced 1 inch per second for each 20 pounds
pressure. Thus in feed pipes at 160 pounds pressure, the velocity will be 72-8=
64 inches. Practical considerations demand, except where several boilers are fed
through one pipe, that the pipes shall be much larger than would give such a velo-
city in many cases.
Pipes less than 1½ inches are rarely advisable for feed pipes, and if pipes are
liable to be scaled up they ought to be made initially larger than necessary to
allow of a considerable deposit of scale without unduly diminishing their capacity.
65
F
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
1 gallon
Useful Data regarding Water.
1 American gallon .
1 cubic foot
1 gallon
1 American gallon
1 litre
•
1 foot column
•
1 pound per square inch
1 gallon
1 pound
1 cubic foot
1 ton
10 pounds.
8.321 pounds.
62.2786 feet.
277.479 cubic inches.
231 cubic inches.
2.204 pounds.
0.434 per square inch.
2.304 feet head.
0.1606 cubic feet.
0.01606
0.0278 ton.
""
35.97 cubic feet.
(Diameter of pipe in inches)². Pounds per yard nearly.
1°C. per kilogram
•
1 Calorie.
1°F. per pound
1 B. Th. U.
Specific heat at 0°C.
1.00.
Ice
0.504.
وو
Specific gravity at 0°C.
1.000.
Ice
0.922.
وو
وو
1 atmosphere
33.8 feet.
66
TH
Chapter X
WATER PURIFICATION
Incrustation.
HE presence of scale in a steam boiler is a cause of poor evaporative duty
and therefore a waste of fuel, for all are agreed that iron is a better material
for boiler plate than flagstone. If the question of eliminating the scale-forming
elements were better understood, there would be more frequent cases of it being
undertaken. Where water is intended for dietetic purposes there is some amount
of objection to the use of certain of the materials employed in water softening
when certain peculiar kinds of scale-forming substances are contained in the water.
For most manufacturing purposes, however, there is no objection to the use of
any substance that will not injure the boiler, and this is more especially the case
where steam is sought merely for motive power purposes. There are several scale-
forming materials found dissolved in water, and they cannot all be removed by the
same means, and, as usually presented, the question is rather too much compli-
cated by the endeavour to treat the whole subject at once, in place of taking the
various impurities separately, as if each were the only impurity present that re-
quired dealing with, though we may very well inquire into the methods of dealing
with waters containing more than one scale-forming impurity. Speaking generally,
there is nothing wrong in this detailed method of treating the question, for even if
a water contains both carbonate of lime and sulphate of lime in equal or any other
proportion, it is easy to ignore the latter and treat for the former only, by doing
which we should remove one substance and reduce the amount of scale formed by
the proportion of the impurity removed. To use a mechanical simile, we may sieve
out buckwheat coal from a ton of mixed coals of all sizes, and leave the pea coal in
the mixture. By the use of a larger sieve, we can then sieve out the pea coal. We
need not, unless we wish, use the larger sieve first, so eliminating both the small
coals together.
So in the water softening process we may use a single chemical
process and remove one substance, or we may use a double process and remove
two or more substances together. As a rule, the most usual impurity in water,
and the only one of account in most chalk waters, is carbonate of lime, and, as it
is easiest and cheapest to remove, it will be best to deal first with it.
Strictly speaking, this carbonate of lime is nearly insoluble in water, and upon
this fact depends the process of removing it from solution. This sounds contra-
dictory and demands explanation. We must know first what it is, of what it is
chemically composed. First, what is lime? Lime is the oxide of the metal
calcium, and this is a yellow metal of extremely small weight, its specific gravity
being only three-fifths that of aluminium. It is very oxidisable, and is not found
in nature as a metal. It burns to lime. In 56 pounds of lime (CaO) there are 40
67
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
pounds of calcium and 16 pounds of oxygen. Carbon when burned yields
carbonic acid gas, in 44 pounds of which there are 12 pounds of carbon. Now,
lime has a strong affinity for carbonic acid, and absorbs it greedily from the air;
hence the use of lime water to sprinkle down wells in which the air is impure with
carbonic acid (choke damp); 56 pounds of lime will absorb 44 pounds of this gas,
becoming carbonate of lime. (Expressed in chemical symbols, to understand
which it is not necessary, and they may be skipped without rendering the matter
much less understandable; the combination is expressed thus-
Lime + Carbonic Acid = Carbonate of Lime.
CaO+CO,
=Ca.CO3.
4
10
10
This absorption of carbonic acid is what takes place when mortar hardens. When,
however, limestone is burned, the carbonic gas is driven off by heat and simple
lime caustic or quick lime is produced. Carbonate of lime being practically in-
soluble in water, how then is it formed therein? Carbonic acid gas is very soluble
in cold water, so that one gallon of water at freezing point will absorb 1 gallons
of the gas, or 500 pounds of water will absorb 1 pound of gas. All natural waters
contain this gas, and such waters will dissolve carbonate of lime, so that, if we wish
to dissolve 100 pounds of carbonate of lime, we shall want as much water as will
contain 44 pounds of carbonic gas. Let us suppose that a certain sample of water
contains 10 grains of carbonate of lime per gallon (of 10 pounds). Then this im-
plies the presence of 4 grains of carbonic gas. But a gallon of water may contain
as many as 140 grains of the gas, so that there is no difficulty in it dissolving the
above amount of lime. Now, if we require to render the carbonate insoluble we
must take away the excess of carbonic acid gas which renders it soluble. Water
may be freed from this gas by boiling, for, though very soluble in cold water, it is
not at all soluble in boiling water. When therefore we feed a boiler with water
that contains carbonate of lime, we speedily render this lime salt insoluble, for the
gas is boiled away and goes off at the steam outlet, and the lime salt is left behind in
a very finely divided state, and finally it settles down at the quietest part of the
boiler as mud, some of it is blown out as mud, some is scummed off the surface before
it has settled, and a lot of it stays behind and forms scale, and heat is lost both by
blowing off hot water and by the resistance of the scale to the passage of heat.
Getting the carbonate out of solution is therefore an easy and simple matter, and
if we first boiled all the feed in an open tank and let the deposit settle or filtered
it out before we pumped the feed into the boiler, we should have a clean boiler.
But such a course would cost money in the shape of heat, and we could not use
feed heaters in the flues, and yet we ought to deposit the carbonate before it enters
the boiler. There is a simple way of doing this; we can abstract the excess of
carbonic acid gas by some other substance, and there are two substances will do
this, and may ordinarily be employed. One of these is caustic soda, the oxide of
the metal sodium; the other is caustic or quick lime, already described. Both
act on similar lines.
To remove 100 pounds of carbonate of lime we add 80 pounds of ordinary
caustic soda (Sodium hydroxide). The process is thus set down in chemical
symbols-
Carbonate of Lime + Carbonic Gas +Caustic Soda.
CaCO3
+2HNaO.
+CO₂
=
Carbonate of Lime +Carbonate of Soda + Water.
+H₂O.
1
CaCO3
+Na2CO3
68
WATER PURIFICATION
The soda absorbs the spare carbonic acid gas, and the carbonate of lime is deposited,
being now insoluble, and the caustic soda parts with the water it formerly contained
and becomes carbonate of soda. Now, carbonate of soda in its hydrated form is
very soluble in water, and may be allowed to accumulate some time before
depositing. It is, however, liable to cause priming, and there are reasons to believe
that it acts to the disadvantage of steam raising, so that for one evil we have, after
all, only got another, which there is reason to believe may cause overheating of the
plates. Not so, however, if we use caustic lime.
To remove 100 pounds of lime carbonate from water we need to use 56 pounds
of dry quick lime or 74 pounds of dry slaked lime. It is best to weigh off the proper
weight of fresh burned lime and then slake it. By adding the caustic lime to the
water the free gas is absorbed and the caustic lime itself becomes carbonate of
lime, and not only does the original carbonate of lime become deposited, but also
the 56 pounds added lime, which has absorbed the 44 pounds of gas, and there is
thus a total of 200 pounds of insoluble lime carbonate deposited. (This is the
formula—
Carbonate of Lime + Carbonic Acid + Lime =Carbonate of Lime.
CaCO3
+CaO=2 CaCO,).
+ CO2
Nothing is left in the water except the small amount of carbonate which is soluble
in even pure water. As an illustration of quantities, we will suppose an electric
power station of 500 horse power using feed water containing 10 grains of removable
carbonate of lime per gallon of 10 pounds. The engines consume 32 pounds of
water per h.p. hour and work ten hours at a mean of 500 h.p. Anyway, they are
known to use 16,000 gallons of water per day, and as there are 7,000 grains in a pound,
the weight of carbonate to be removed is 16,000 × 10÷ 7,000=say 23 pounds per
day, or about three tons annually. The quicklime for this, at the rate of 56 per
100 of carbonate is 12.88, or say 13 pounds, and the amount annually is under
2 tons, thus showing a big monetary saving as compared with the 2 tons of caustic
soda at a much higher price, which would be required. In every way, therefore,
the lime is to be preferred to the soda, for it does not leave a salt in solution gradually
to concentrate to possible danger point. Any one wishing to carry out the soften-
ing of a carbonate water should therefore have a sample of the ordinary feed supply
analysed by a brewery chemist or other competent man, and learn the number of
grains of lime carbonate in each gallon. If then he multiplies by the daily con-
sumption, he will obtain the total weight per day, and, knowing that, he then
weighs out, for each day's use, 56 parts of freshly burned lime or 74 parts of slaked,
but dry, lime for each 100 parts of lime carbonate to be removed.
If too little lime is added, the result will be that only a portion of the impurities
will be deposited, and if only a very little lime be added the water may, it is claimed,
be made actually harder. The reason of this is that there may be actually more
carbonic acid gas in the water than what is necessary to keep the impurities in
solution, and if only a little lime be added it also may be converted into the car-
bonate and go into solution, for it is really bicarbonate of lime that is soluble.
Hence the desirableness of adding enough lime just to make the water faintly
alkaline, for this shows that an excess of lime has been added. Usually it would
appear that the carbonic acid gas is present in a feed water merely in such quantity
as will convert the lime carbonate to the bicarbonate form, but it might happen
that a volume of entirely free gas was present. If this were so, the amount of
69
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
gas.
caustic lime to be used would be greater than the 56 per cent. already named of the
soluble carbonate, for an additional amount would be needed to absorb the free
As a general rule, the addition of the 56 per cent. is about right; the final
quantity can be determined by testing the finished softened water, as will be shown
later. What now demands attention is the means to be adopted for carrying
out the softening process, and there is nothing in this but can be arranged by any
one with ordinary care. There is nothing to be afraid of in undertaking the matter.
Coming now to the practical part of water softening, there are several methods
employed for the admixture of lime with carbonate waters, all of which are in
principle the same, though differing in detail. Broadly speaking, the process is
either continuous or non-continuous; it is automatic or non-automatic; and the
adoption of one or the other or a choice of some midway system must depend on the
quantity to be softened and other considerations.
It may be as well to state that the rapidity of the process and the subsequent
clarification are greatly facilitated if the lime is first added in excess and the mixture
brought to its proper condition by the addition of more hard water, that is to say,
it is better to add 12 pounds of lime to 8,000 gallons of carbonate water and correct
the over liming by a further addition of 2,000 gallons of the water, than it is to add
10 pounds of lime to 10,000 gallons of water and add later 2 pounds of lime to com-
plete the softening. Also the slaking of quicklime should not be done too long
before use, as the lime begins to absorb carbonic acid gas from the atmosphere, and
by so much loses its efficiency. If a small quantity of water is required daily, say
a few gallons only, the whole of the operation of softening would consist in having
a couple of tanks holding each a day's supply with 2 or 3 inches to spare at top and
bottom for sediment and margin, and mixing therein at one operation the water
and lime necessary to effect the deposit. This tank full of water would soon settle
and could be drawn off. Usually the process requires to be more or less con-
tinuous, and some apparatus is then required. When space is no object, and a
couple of tanks of a day's capacity can be laid down, one of these can be used each
day into which to run the water for settlement, the other being drawn from for
use. With a well yielding during ten hours sufficient for a day's use, the filling
will take ten hours' pumping, and the following would be the operation by various
systems. In one there is slaked over night the weight of lime for next day's pro-
cess. In the morning this is placed in a cylinder containing an agitator, and the
cylinder is filled with water, the agitator-a vertical spindle with projecting arms
--keeping up a constant mixture of lime. To this mixer is attached a pump of such
capacity as will empty the vessel in rather less time than is required to fill the
large tank with water to be treated. This discharge of the lime pump passes into
the stream of well water and through a few baffle plates in a short trough, and
falls into a cylinder placed upright in the large tank, but freely open at the bottom,
whence the mixed water is distributed over the floor and deposition of the carbonate
assisted. This is probably the most certain method to employ if fully burned fat
lime can be procured, for it adds an excess of lime during the first portion of the
operation, and gradually brings up the mixture to a balance at the latter end.
Where the lime is uncertain in quality, or for other reasons, another system is used
depending on the fact that a stream of water passing through an excess of lime will
take up about 65 grains per gallon, or become about two-thirds saturated. Hence,
if a proportion of the whole supply be sent through a tall mixer containing any
amount of lime, it will carry off its 65 grains per gallon, and if we know the total
70
WATER PURIFICATION
daily weight of lime that is needed, we can pass the necessary proportion up through
the mixer, whence it overflows and rejoins the main stream at the baffle trough
and goes forward as before.
The proportions going each way can be regulated by taps or by a tongue piece
in a flat levelled trough through which the whole water passes, the tongue being
swivelled to divert the proper proportion through the lime mixer, very usually
about one-eighth. Thus to remove 16 grains of carbonate per gallon from 1,000
gallons there is required of lime 56 × 160 grains, or 8,960 grains. As each gallon
of limed water carries 65 grains, we shall need 141 gallons of this, or about a seventh
of the total quantity. Here again, as we start every time with a mixer full of water
that has been some hours standing, the limed water is more nearly saturated and
there is an excess of lime during the first part of the day. The two foregoing may
be termed the semi-continuous process. In the wholly continuous process no
large tanks are employed, but the water passes continually onward to use or to
the store tank. In one such continuous process the hard water meets the limed
portion in the exact proportion necessary, and flows with it down a cylinder placed
in a tank, and the water is spread over the bottom of this tank, and slowly rises to
the overflow. The overflow is simply a carefully levelled trough placed all round
near the tank top, and the edge of the trough skims off the top layer of water gently
and without disturbance, the area of the tank being such that the mean upflow of
water will not exceed 12 inches per hour. Thus, for a rate of 1,000 gallons per
hour a tank 12 feet 8 inches square would be required. With a smaller tank than
this there might be a slight cloudiness of the effluent water, due to non-settlement
of some of the finer particles of carbonate, and, where space is an object, filters of
close woven cotton cloth are used to complete the process. If it requires 10 hours
for a depth of 30 inches of water to deposit, it will only require one hour to clear
a layer only 3 inches thick. Some systems are based on this idea, the travelling
water passing between trays set a short distance apart, each tray receiving the
deposit of the film of water above it. These devices shorten the time, it is true,
but not to the extent above indicated, for, given a tank of say 20 feet in length
during the passage along which the deposit only sank six inches, the removal of
the softened water at the surface only would secure a clear effluent. Moreover,
the water entering a tank is always admitted at the bottom and without any up-
flowing energy, and thus the use of division trays is not always requisite.
In one form of apparatus the depositor is a vertical tank divided by inclined
plates rivetted alternately to the opposite sides, the direction of flow being reversed
in turning from plate to plate and the deposit remaining behind to be blown off
by a pipe at each turn, and generally the endeavour is made to secure the equiva-
lent of a considerable duration of time. In another continuous system the passage
of the water to be treated over a small water-wheel is made to give motion to
mechanism which delivers a given quantity of finely ground lime directly into
the stream of hard water, with which it is mixed and passed into the settling tanks.
The effect is the same as in the other systems, and the various differences are often
so many additions to a simple process to give grounds for claims of superiority in
effecting sales of apparatus to steam users. There are, however, no patents
covering the process; merely a few covering certain forms of apparatus. In any-
thing carried out in the direction of water softening, it is to be borne in mind that no
process, patented or otherwise, will give a better result than the mixing in the
tank of hard water the proper weight of lime reduced to a cream, and stirring the
7I
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
lot until complete admixture is secured; then leaving the whole to settle. Other
systems may be more convenient, and space and labour may be economised by
adopting them, but the broad principle remains unaffected.
Carbonate of Magnesia.
This substance is soluble in water to the same extent as carbonate of lime, and is
very frequently found with it, but in smaller quantity. As the molecule of each
carbonate requires an equal quantity of carbonic acid gas to keep it in solution, it
follows that, per molecule, an equal amount of lime will be required to effect precipi-
tation. But the molecule of magnesian carbonate weighs 84 as against the 100 of the
lime carbonate, from which it follows that if we multiply the weight of magnesian
carbonate by 10 we shall reduce it to its equivalent of lime carbonate.
Hence
the rough rule that where magnesia is present it must be treated exactly as if it
were lime carbonate. Actually, we must add nearly 20 per cent. to the weight
of magnesian carbonate and treat this increased weight as lime carbonate. A
water containing 16 grains of the latter and 4 of the former is equivalent to a water
containing 20.74 of lime carbonate, and will be then treated as already described
under that head. Mr. J. A. Wanklyn considers magnesia to destroy more soap
than lime in the ratio of 75 to 42, but others dispute this. But the power to destroy
soap need not necessarily imply any greater power of destroying caustic lime, and
the chemical equivalent is the one to work with in estimating for caustic lime.
The following table gives the solubility of the carbonates and oxides of lime and
magnesia at 60°F. and 212° in grains per 10 pounds of water.
60°F.
212°F.
Calcium Carbonate
CaCO3 Chalk
2.5
1.5
Ditto Bicarbonate
CaCO3 + CO2
60.
0
·
Calcium Oxide
CaO = Caustic Lime
93.
Magnesium Carbonate
MgCO3
1.5
1.5
Ditto Bicarbonate
MgCO3 + CO2
50
0
Magnesium Oxide
MgO Magnesia
0.15
The figures seem to show that the solubility is measured in atoms of the character-
istic constituent of the two carbonates, but the similarity does not extend to the
oxide of magnesia, this being nearly insoluble. We are, however, only interested
here in scale-forming substances, not with those salts that are not usually found
in water, and thus it is the carbonates of lime and magnesia that form the chief
concern of the steam user. It is these two substances, and some say more parti-
cularly the latter, that form what is known as floury deposit in steam boilers, which
is liable to give rise to danger in the shape of overheated plates, by combining
with oil to form a curious spongy non-heat conducting mass that adheres to plates
and keeps off the water.
In a boiler free from oil these carbonates are just separated out from the
water in so finely divided a state that the particles do not sink, but are carried.
72
WATER PURIFICATION
about by the water until they reach a quiet place, where they settle in the form of
soft mud. This is apt to become baked on the plates, and is then more difficult
to remove. It is on the long floating of the fine particles that depends the successful
action of the Mechanical Boiler Cleaners of the Hotchkiss type, that have been
found good in treating waters from the chalk rock that is much charged with lime
carbonate. The impurities are carried to a quiet place which is placed outside
the boiler, where they settle and can be blown off without the waste of the large
amount of water which goes to waste from an ordinary blow-out placed usually
at the worst end of a boiler, and not near the quieter back end, where it might
prove more effective.
Sulphate of Lime.
Lime forms another compound that is a bad scale producer; this compound
is the sulphate (its chemical formula is CaSO₁). It can be produced by acting on
lime with sulphuric acid. The scale formed from this substance in a steam boiler
is apt to be hard and crystalline and tough. In nature it is found as gypsum,
which, when burned, becomes the familiar plaster of Paris. It is soluble in water
to the extent of 0.23 parts in a hundred, and it does not deposit by boiling at
ordinary temperatures, and hence is said to give rise to permanent hardness in
water. At 400°F., however, sulphate of lime is deposited, and water may be softened
by heating it to that temperature. In a high-pressure steam boiler there is in fact
only soft water, for both the principal scale formers have been boiled or heated
out of solution. Sulphate of lime cannot be removed, however, by the use of
caustic lime. To remove sulphate, it is necessary first to decompose it, and this
can be effected by the use of carbonate of soda. Sulphuric acid has a greater
affinity for soda than for lime. Hence, if soda be added to a solution of lime
sulphate, the constituent leaves the lime base and converts the soda into sulphate
of soda, whilst the carbonic acid gas, driven out of the soda, takes up with the
lime to form carbonate of lime, which, being insoluble, is deposited. The sulphate
of soda, however, is exceedingly soluble, 100 parts of water dissolving a maximum
of 50 parts of the salt at about 90°F., though a smaller amount is soluble at higher
temperatures. Except, therefore, the water is required for potable purposes or for
some manufacturing process in which soda sulphate would be chemically ob-
jectionable, there is not much objection to the presence of this soluble salt ; indeed;
even for potable water the presence of the salt is not held to be an objection, in
small quantities. In 136 parts by weight of lime sulphate there are 40 of calcium,
and the addition of 106 parts of carbonate of soda results in the production of 100
parts of carbonate of lime and 142 of soda sulphate.
Taking 1,000 gallons of water containing 23 parts per 100, there will be 23
pounds of sulphate to be dealt with. Expressed in grains per gallon so as to corre-
spond with the table already given of carbonate solubility, this becomes 161, and
hence would produce, when softened, 161 × 12=168.1 grains of soda sulphate;
or about 0.0024. This is less than 2 parts per 1,000, and would admit probably
of being concentrated one hundred-fold before deposition set in. A large cylinder
boiler worked ten hours a day is approximately boiled dry twice a day. Fed with
the above softened water containing the residual soda sulphate, it might be run
fifty days or more before the water became salt saturated. One weekly blow-out,
and a complete blow every month, would probably render it safe, but no boiler
should be worked without an occasional hydrometer test for density, as practised
73
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
at sea.
A case came under the writer's notice where an unsuspected saline feed
became concentrated and filled the boiler, when cold, with salt crystals. The
liability of a feed water to change its character is a danger to be constantly guarded
against. In the case of a Sheffield boiler the concentration within it of water drawn
from an acid polluted stream caused its rapid destruction with fatal results, for the
acid, of course, did not evaporate. Having newly purchased the up-stream works
where the explosion occurred, the owners only used the same proportion of soda
that was found to neutralise the acidity lower down stream, and disaster followed,
the upper-works boiler being corroded so thin as to collapse.
Where sulphate alone has to be dealt with., it is merely necessary to use car-
bonate of soda, as pointed out above, in the proper ratio of nearly 80 of dry soda
ash per 100 parts of sulphate. If common or crystal soda be employed, the pro-
portion is more nearly 215 per cent. of the weight of sulphate, or nearly one part
in 200 of water. This, of course, is for a water fully charged with sulphate of lime.
For lesser quantities the amount of soda required is correspondingly reduced.
There is a chemical reaction to which the writer has never seen attention drawn,
but which might with advantage be investigated as to its bearing on the water-
softening question, and that is that sulphate of lime forms a double salt with sul-
phate of soda, known as glauberite when it occurs in Nature. This salt is nearly
insoluble in water, from which it would appear that if we added to a sulphate water
only sufficient soda to reduce one half of the lime sulphate to soda sulphate, these
two sulphates might unite to form the double insoluble salt which would deposit.
If this action should take place, it would economise just half the soda, and would
give a softened water free from sulphate. This is mentioned merely, but no
positive knowledge is to hand that such action occurs or that any one has particu-
larly investigated it.
In dealing with a sulphate or permanently hard water by means of soda, it
has so far been assumed that the water contains sulphate alone, and any carbonate
of lime has been left out of consideration. We might, however, soften a water of
its temporary hardness by means of lime, and then deal with its permanent hardness
by means of soda, or we might reverse the order, and deal with the permanent
hardness first. What we are coming to, and what needs to be pointed out in order
to be avoided, is that, if we use the quicklime for the one operation and the car-
bonate of soda for the other, the two processes must be entirely distinct and
separately conducted. We cannot, in fact, say some chemists, mix the lime and
soda together and let the two processes go on side by side, for were this to be
attempted, the soda would simply convert the lime into carbonate and itself
become caustic soda. Nevertheless, the two processes may be carried on together,
but to do so we must slightly change the nature of one ingredient.
The Double Process.
In order best to carry out the removal of both temporary and permanent
hardness in one operation, it is requisite to use caustic lime and caustic soda in
suitable proportions. The two in combination must be sufficient to absorb all
the free carbonic acid gas in the water. This converts the caustic lime into car-
bonate of lime, which, of course, precipitates, and it converts the caustic soda
into carbonate of soda, and this then attacks the sulphate of lime as explained
above. Recognizing the practicableness of the double process, it follows that we
must use so much caustic soda as will, when turned into carbonate, just deal with
74
WATER PURIFICATION
the lime sulphate, and we must then use caustic lime in quantity sufficient to absorb
what carbonic gas has not been taken up by the caustic soda. An example will
make the action plain. Suppose a water contains 16 grains of lime carbonate and
16 of lime sulphate per gallon of 10 pounds. We know, from what we have pre-
viously learned, that for each 136 parts of sulphate of lime we require to employ
106 parts of carbonate of soda. (The action is CaSO, +Na,CO,=Na₂SO, +Ca
CO₁). Now, in 106 parts of carbonate of soda there are required 80 parts of caustic
soda, and the carbonic acid gas necessary to convert caustic into carbonate is 44
parts per 80 parts of caustic (thus H₂Na₂O₂+CO₂=Na¸CO¸ +H₂O). The result
of combining caustic soda with the gas is carbonate of soda and water.
Coming back, then, to the 16 grains per gallon of sulphate, we shall want
136 × 16=9.4 grains of caustic soda and × 16=5·18 grains of carbonic gas.
44
136
80
3
2 2
2
2
3
We have seen that it requires 44 parts of this gas to maintain 100 grains of lime
carbonate in solution. By removing 5.18 grains of gas we shall therefore remove
from solution 518 × 100=11·77 grains of lime carbonate.
56
100
4 4
There will now remain in solution 5.23 grains of lime carbonate, and this must
now be dealt with as already explained by adding the proportion of quicklime,
namely, of 5-23-2.92 grains per gallon. By this combined system we may
employ just what is necessary of caustic soda to remove the lime sulphate by con-
verting the caustic into the carbonate by means of the gas in the water itself, and
we shall save a portion of the lime otherwise wanted for the precipitation of the
lime carbonate. The two processes are carried on simultaneously, both the lime
and the soda being mixed in proper proportions. Apart from the greater cheapness
of the combined method, it would not even be possible simultaneously to carry out
a double system with caustic lime and with carbonate of soda as re-agents, for the
lime would rob the soda of its gas and become carbonated and unable to do its work
on the water. In the double system the caustic lime first absorbs the gas it requires,
and the caustic soda takes the remainder, and then the sulphuric acid of the lime
sulphate takes up the soda, and the lime, set free by the acid, takes up the gas so
soon again rejected by the soda. (Expressed as a general chemical equation, the
following equation shows the beginning and end of the operation, but we cannot
know really what are the intermediate steps. [2 (CaCO,+CO,)+CaO]+2(NaHO)
+ CaSO₁ =4 (CaCO3) + Na₂SO4 + H₂O.)
4
Where equal weights of the two lime salts exist in any sample of water, the
caustic soda necessary for the sulphate of lime will first remove fully two-thirds of
the lime carbonate also. In all cases where the weight of lime sulphate exceeds
one and one-third times the weight of lime carbonate in the water, then the addition
of the caustic soda in quantity sufficient for removing the lime sulphate will also
remove all the carbonate, and any further proportion of lime sulphate will demand
carbonate of soda for its removal.
In round numbers, where the proportion of temporary to permanent hardness
is 8 to 11, caustic soda will completely soften. Where the ratio is (8+x) to 11, then
lime and caustic soda are wanted, and for ratios of 8 to (11+x) caustic and car-
bonate of soda must be used.
The Economy of Softening.
A few words as to the economics of softening. Of coal saved we need only
say that this is considerable, both by reason of cleaner boiler plates and less blowing
out of hot water. Then the destruction of the boiler is infinitely less. As regards
75
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
cost of softening, one pound of lime is as effective as 42 pounds of carbonate of
soda, and an estimate of the prices of the two shows that one shilling spent on lime.
will go as far as £4 spent on soda. For manufacturing purposes, where soap is
used, the expenditure of a farthing is said to save for London water about 30 pounds
of soap.
A dyer of fine wools has said that much of the success of the Germans in dyeing
was due to the care they take in water purification, especially for delicate colours,
and he showed his own productions in dyed wools, stating that he could obtain 6d.
more a pound of wool dyed than other dyers, and that he didn't care a farthing
for German competition, as it was all a matter of pure water, and this he had
secured.
Unless a boiler is worked at a considerable pressure so that the temperature
of deposit of lime sulphate is reached, then the sulphate is not at once deposited
on entering the boiler, as is the carbonate. The sulphate is deposited because the
water that had held it has been boiled away; each molecule of water evaporated
leaving its molecule of lime sulphate behind.
Dr. Angus Smith, who dealt with the subject many years ago, thus summarized
the results. For 1 grain of sulphate of lime per gallon use 779.4 grains of carbonate
of soda per 1,000 gallons of water. For 1 grain of carbonate of lime per gallon use
630 grains caustic soda per 1,000 gallons of water.
Dr. Smith quotes dry caustic soda, but his figures have been translated into
those necessary for the hydroxide of commerce (HNa O) not Na₂O.
The Magnesia Salts.
For the magnesia salts Dr. Smith says-
For each grain of carbonate of magnesia per gallon use 750 grains caustic soda
per 1,000 gallons.
For each grain of sulphate of magnesia per gallon where there are no carbonates
use 883 grains of carbonate of soda per 1,000 gallons.
1
3
This last is, however, also very soluble, and we may usually neglect it for
steam boiler purposes.
When either the sulphate of lime or magnesia exists in company with car-
bonates, it is not necessary to add any soda to precipitate the sulphates unless they
exist in a greater proportion than 11 of sulphate to 8 of carbonate, as already
explained. Merely the excess of sulphate requires carbonate of soda adding in
addition to that formed from the caustic soda added to precipitate the carbonates.
Briefly, however, where we have to deal with lime carbonate, as is so very
usually the case, the use of caustic lime is the best and cheapest. It is employed
on a large scale by some of the water supply works in the chalk districts of England,
notably at the Colne Valley works near London, which pump water from a well
sunk in the chalk rock. It ought to be employed by the London Water Companies,
but is not, and the water is quite unfit to use. It will not wash and is not fit for
potable purposes.
Iron.
Where iron exists as an impurity in water, it will be removed by the lime
process.
In water that comes, however, from a sandy soil, as, for example, much of the
water from the Lower Greensand formation in the country south of London, iron in
76
WATER PURIFICATION
soluble form exists in large quantity. Upon exposure to the air the soluble oxide
of iron takes up a further atom of oxygen, and is converted thereby into a different
and insoluble oxide, which gives the water first a cloudy, dirty appearance, and in
about 24 hours completely precipitates and leaves the water bright and clear.
Such water as this can only be purified by aeration, as the soluble iron salt would
pass through the filter. In using such water it is therefore necessary to provide a
double storage system of 24 hours, the water having 24 hours to purify itself before
use. When such water is first pumped it is best to allow it to fall through a con-
siderable depth of brushwood, or to use some means of exposing it to a large surface
of air by finely subdividing it. This increases the rapidity of oxidation, and of
course reduces the period of standing. If carefully drawn off, such water does not
require filtration.
Acid Water.
Water is frequently of a slight natural acidity and sometimes exceedingly
corrosive from peaty acids, and boilers have been allowed to be thus eaten away,
rather than the owner would incur the expense of sufficient soda to neutralize the
acid. In cases of this sort possibly the cheapest way of reducing the acidity is to
add lime in a caustic state or allow the feed water to percolate through a mass of
limestone chips or chalk, or to add powdered chalk to the water. In time a scale
would be formed in the boiler, but this need not be allowed to become too thick,
for the acid water used without treatment for a time would probably remove or
loosen the scale, and treatment could be resumed. All these points, however, are
rather for the engineer in charge to consider and work out, and cannot be dealt with
in a general way. Of all impurities in water, acid is the worst. Scale can be seen.
and measured, but the effects of acid are deceitful. Boilers that have been fed
with acid water may be seen in which the surface of the plates has maintained its
smoothness in a remarkable degree, and yet wasting has gone on to a serious extent,
and produced equal results upon plates and rivet heads alike. Usually, however,
corrosion is more desultory, and its effects can be more truly estimated, but it is
always dangerous.
With present-day high pressures and temperatures the feed to a boiler after
passing through the flue feed heater is heated so near to the depositing point that
it will sometimes reject its lime carbonate immediately on entering the boiler,
forming a thick pulverulent incrustation round the feed pipe and upon the boiler
shell at that locality, and rapidly choking the feed pipe. Microscopic examination.
of the powder will disclose the peculiar and characteristic crystal of lime carbonate
or calcite. This deposit may prove dangerous. It is the practice with some engi-
neers to employ a series of trays in the boiler into which the feed is discharged, so as
to fall from tray to tray, in which process it becomes heated to depositing point
and the deposit remains in the trays. It is, however, a distinct economy to employ
an economiser or flue feed heater. This, if properly worked, should heat the feed
sufficiently to cause deposit of lime in the economiser itself. Hence the softening
process should precede feed heating by an economiser, but, as heat assists the
softening process, there is no reason why the water to be softened should not be
pumped through a worm on its way to the softening tanks, the worm being
exposed to the first rush of the exhaust steam to the condenser. Where non-con-
densing working is practised, there is no excuse for not heating the feed by means
of the exhaust steam.
77
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Tests.
In order to test the perfect action of the process of softening a carbonate water
by means of lime, it is usual to employ nitrate of silver solution or phenolphthalein,
the former producing a brown colour in an overtreated sample and the latter a
brilliant pink. By reducing the treatment until the test solutions show a faint
trace of delicate straw colour or the faintest possible pink, it may be known that the
process has been carried out just sufficiently. Pronounced colour shows an excess
of re-agent.
Boiler Compounds.
Those nostrums should as a general rule be carefully avoided. They usually
consist of some mixture of alkali and organic matter with a view to producing a
slippery and non-adhesive mud. They are apt to cause overheating of plates,
and any good in them is so diluted with water that, at the excessive prices asked
for them, they are very costly indeed. Occasionally a local product will be found
beneficial on local waters. Scale may often be detached by heating a boiler with
a strong dose of soda to the boiling point and leaving it to cool down again, perhaps
twice in succession. It is also claimed with reason that if a boiler be well wetted,
so that the scale is saturated with water, the scale will be detached by freezing the
boiler, on the principle that the freezing of the water in the scale will detach it from
the plates by expansive action as well as disintegrate the scale. A heavily scaled
boiler will clean itself in due time if fed with a non-scaling water, the scale coming
loose in slabs.
When the Porter Clark or lime process is employed, there always remains in the
softened water a small amount of lime in an uncarbonated state, which is apt to
settle in the feed pipes and choke them. The Archbutt-Deeley addition to the
process provides for the addition of carbonic acid gas to the softened water in
order that the lime may be recarbonated, and this is said to be effective in prevent-
ing the deposit complained of. Waters that contain organic matter cannot be so
readily softened as water fresh from a well, because of the presence of albumenoid
matter. In such cases it is customary to assist the process of softening by the
addition of a small amount of alum to the reagents employed. The alum serves to
coagulate the organic matter, and precipitation is rendered more rapid and possibly
more complete than if no organic matter had been present.
Some of the deposit should always be left in the tanks and mixed up in every
fresh charge of water. The carbonate crystals of the old deposit serve as a nucleus
to which the nascent crystals will attach themselves. The particles in suspension
are thus heavier, and deposition goes on more rapidly and perfectly. Where there
is not ample time for complete settlement, the treated water should be drawn off
by means of a floating mouthpiece held about half an inch below the water surface
and carried by a jointed pipe. This serves to gather the water from the surface,
where it clears rapidly and allows the clarification of the lower depths to continue.
Subject to conditions of space, the softening tanks should be for the same reason
preferably shallow and of large area rather than deep and of small area.
Sal ammoniac should not be used in a steam boiler as a disencrustant. To
reduce sulphate of lime it has been suggested to employ trisodium phosphate two
parts to three of the calcium sulphate chemically, thus: 2 Na„PO + 3 CaSO
2(PO4)Ca¸ +3 Na₂SO,, the sulphate of soda remaining in solution and the phos-
phate of lime depositing as mud. Fluoride of soda has also been employed as a
4
4
78
WATER PURIFICATION
=
compound in boilers as follows: 2 NaF + CaSO, CaF₂+Na,SO,, the fluoride of
lime depositing as slush.
Compounds of soda salts and organic matters such as starch, glue, barks, etc.,
should be strictly avoided as liable to cause dangerous overheating of the plates and
collapsed furnaces. Grease must be avoided; it forms spongy deposits with certain
salts, and is very dangerous. Kerosene is said to have a rotting effect on scale, but
should be very carefully and sparingly used.
When a boiler has become encrusted it may be freed by boiling in a strong
solution of caustic soda and cooling slowly down. This will soften and loosen the
scale, so that it may be removed.
But prevention is better than cure, and the best plan is to treat water before
it enters the boiler, on the lines already described.
79
T
Chapter XI
CALORIFIC AND OTHER UNITS
Thermo Chemistry.
2
HE subject will only admit of slight treatment in a work of this description.
It has been exhaustively treated by Berthelot, especially in his Thermo-
chimie of 1897; therein he gives the thermal equivalent of almost all known hydro-
carbons and other elements and compounds. When the calorific capacity of a
fuel is tested it will often be found to depart from expectation. Two fuels may
have the same composition yet produce very different effects. Thus acetylene
and benzene have exactly the same ratio of hydrogen to carbon in their compo-
sition, their formula being C, H₂ and C, H., but their atoms are differently put
together, and they produce very different amounts of heat when burned. Acety-
lene is very much more endothermic than benzene, that is to say, it actually absorbs
heat when first compounded, and this latent heat appears to add to its calorific
output when burned. Benzene and ethylene are also endothermic, but the other
fuel hydrocarbons and alcohols are exothermic, and having given out heat when
formed they give out correspondingly less when destroyed by combustion. Thermo-
chemistry teaches us to consider all substances from a monistic point of view,
seeing in every gas latent heat to preserve it as a gas without which heat it would
fall to the state of a liquid. Similarly we recognize that latent heat prevents
liquids becoming solid.
We realize that the conversion of solid coal into gas, such as occurs when
coal is burned, demands an enormous heat absorption. Thus it is that the first
oxidation of solid carbon to monoxide develops less than half the heat of the second
oxidation. The same or even more heat is developed by the first oxidation, but
disappears in changing the solid carbon and solid hydrocarbons into gas. We
are enabled to appreciate the difficulties that stand in the way of perfect com-
bustion of bituminous fuels when we perceive the heat absorption of the gasi-
fication they endure before they burn. Thermo-chemistry points out why the
calorific capacity of liquid and of gaseous fuels is better than of solid fuels; it
teaches us to study the phenomena of specific heat and helps us to understand
and account for an infinite variety of apparent inconsistencies and to clear away
the mists from our earlier views. As, however, in engineering we can only deal
with approximations, it is sufficient for ordinary purposes to base most calcula-
tions on approximations, and it is useful to be able to calculate the approximate
expectation of calorific capacity of a fuel of any type. The formula of the French
chemist Dulong may still be employed as substantially accurate. It is―
80
CALORIFIC AND OTHER UNITS
Calories⇒x=8,080 C+34,500 (H-) where C=weight of carbon, H=
weight of hydrogen and O=weight of oxygen in 1 kilo of the fuel, or, if expressed
in British Thermal Units-
B.Th.U.=x=14,500 C+62,100 (H-9), where the thermal units, C=
the weight of carbon; H=the weight of hydrogen, and O=the weight of oxygen
in one pound of the fuel.
The Verein Deutscher Ingenieure use a modified formula-
x= 8,100 C +29,000 (H-2)+2,500 S-600 E, thus allowing for the sulphur
and for the hygroscopic water and for the fact that the hydrogen products are
produced as steam. Mahler found an average of 44 fuels as follows-
X=
8,140 C +34,500 H-3,000 (0 +N).
100.
which in B.Th. U. becomes when simplified-
x=200-5 C+675 H-5,400.
Calculation has now given way to actual measurement of a sample in the
Berthelot bomb or other form of calorimeter.
We learn from thermo-chemistry why it is that the latent heat of steam dimi-
nishes with higher pressure, realizing that the difference is due to the absence of
performance of external work.
A few of the leading particulars referring to the gases most related to power
engineering are re-tabulated in Table V from the author's more extended table
in Kempe's Year Book.
As a science thermo-chemistry recognizes no fuel as such. It has regard
merely to the heat effects of chemical combination. Our ideas are often too rela-
tive. We live in a huge atmosphere of diluted oxygen, and we are accustomed
to turn jets of hydrogen into that atmosphere, and, by its means, to burn them.
But did we live in an atmosphere of hydrogen, we should then turn jets of oxygen
into the hydrogen and the oxygen would then be said to burn. Combustion is
usually restricted to carbon and hydrogen simply because these are the two sub-
stances we find in Nature on a sufficiently large scale to burn by means of the
atmospheric oxygen. Moreover, both these substances produce harmless gases
when burned, namely, steam and carbonic acid. Neither of them will support
life, but they are not poisonous. A London fog tells us at once that we could never
use sulphur as a fuel, for even the little of it which exists in coal renders the fog
very irritant to the eyes and other tissues of the body. Carbon and hydrogen,
however, are harmless and powerfully calorific.
By aid of thermo-chemical researches we learn that the various hydrocarbons
have either absorbed or given off heat when they combined. If the former, they
are said to be endo-thermic; if the latter, exo-thermic. We learn also to make
allowance for the different states of our fuel and to realize that a gas ought to be
superior to the same relative proportions of liquid fuel, and this again to solid
fuels. But methane, CH,, is a gas, and yet it produces when burned an amount
of heat very considerably less than it ought to produce, seeing that its hydrogen
is still gaseous and its carbon is also gaseous. Instead of about 16,600 units of
heat it produces 13,343 units only, despite the benefit of vaporization of its carbon.
The explanation is that when its elements combined they gave out actually
more heat than was necessary to vaporize the carbon, and the excess of heat was
dissipated at the time, and before methane can burn with oxygen, its constituents
•
81
Ꮐ
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
must be separated by means of heat. The heat necessary to do this reduces the
heat of combustion. The different behaviour of acetylene arises from its forma-
tion at high temperature and its absorption of heat in formation, such heat becom-
ing apparent when the gas is destroyed by combustion with oxygen.
Heat.
We do not know what heat is, but we know its effects and we assume it to
consist in atomic or molecular vibrations.
The effects of heat as they are apparent to our senses or to our reasoning
powers are variously named. First may be placed temperature. When a body
is said to be hot it can communicate heat to bodies at a less temperature. Tem-
perature and quantity of heat have no particular relation to each other. A pound
of lead may be hotter or have a higher temperature than a pound of iron or of water,
and may be able to part with heat to those bodies. Yet it may possess much less
quantity of heat because lead has a lower specific heat.
The same substance in two different states at the same temperature, as ice
at 32° and water at 32°, possesses a different amount of heat in these two states.
The difference is expressed as latent heat, and quantity of heat generally is
expressed as units of heat, and we speak of the heat of combustion and the mechan-
ical equivalent of heat, and must therefore define all these.
Température.
The boiling point at which the 212° of the Fahrenheit thermometer
is fixed is that of pure water under the mean atmospheric pressure of 14.7 pounds
per square inch. The Centigrade thermometer is marked zero at the temperature
of melting ice and 100° at the boiling point, the atmosphere being the pressure
of 760 millimetres of a mercury column. Thus 1°F. of a degree Centigrade.
The mercury thermometer is available from 40°F. to 600°F., and even higher
if the upper part of the tube be filled with compressed nitrogen. For higher
temperatures it is necessary to employ pyrometers, which act by recording the
difference of expansion of diverse metals or the pressure of heated air, or by elec-
trical means. Metallic thermometers are not very satisfactory. In steam engin-
eering, temperatures are met with from 32° to 600°F. in the engine-room, from 350°
to 3,000°F. between the chimney and the furnace. By temperature is meant that
state of a body due to heat, in which the said body can transfer heat to other
bodies of less temperature. Temperature is a heat effect that is apparent to the
sense of touch, and only by temperature can heat be transferred from one body
to another, and the transfer is always from the hotter body to the less hot body.
In this way heat can be transferred from a body containing less actual heat to
one that contains more heat. Thus a mass of one pound of iron heated to a tem-
perature of 132°F. contains 12.98 heat units. A similar mass of water at a tem-
perature of 82° contains 50 heat units, the heat content being in each case mea-
sured from a datum of 32°F. Yet if we immerse the iron in the water, heat will
leave the iron which contains so little heat and will enter the water that contains
so much heat, and will raise the temperature of the water. A clear distinction
must be made between temperature and quantity of heat. Temperature can be
measured by a thermometer, but specific heat can only be ascertained by equal-
ising the temperature of the substance whose specific heat is sought with that
82
CALORIFIC AND OTHER UNITS
of a mass of water. The final temperature enables the specific heat of the sub-
stance to be compared with that of water. There are three thermometric scales,
namely―
The Celsius or Centigrade, which divides the distance between freezing and
boiling of water at sea level into 100° degrees, the freezing point being 0°.
The Reaumur scale, still much used in Russia, divides the same distance
into 80 parts, also starting from 0°-freezing point of water.
The Fahrenheit scale divides the same distance into 180° parts, but starts
the zero mark at 32° below freezing. Hence the boiling point is 212°. It is
frequently necessary to convert one reading to another. The following are the
formulæ for doing so, C., R. and F. being the respective readings on each scale.
To convert Centigrade to Reaumur-
C.° x =R.°
To convert Reaumur to Centigrade-
5
R.° × =C.°
4
To convert Centigrade to Fahrenheit-
(C.° x )+32°F.°
9
To convert Fahrenheit to Centigrade—
(F.°-32°) × =C.°
To convert Fahrenheit to Reaumur
(F.° 32°) x =R.°
To convert Reaumur to Fahrenheit-
(R.° × 2)+32°F.°
It is particularly necessary not to forget the addition or subtraction of the
32° of the Fahrenheit freezing point when converting temperatures, but it is also
necessary to remember not to do so when converting mere statements of differ-
ences of temperature. Thus if water is cooled 50°C. this means it has been cooled
through 90°F., not through 90° +32°.
and leads to very erroneous statistics.
This point is often confused by writers
By temperature we thus understand that a body in a certain state is in a
certain condition of molecular vibration. Different bodies are differently affected
by heat. Some bodies are placed in the state of molecular vibration known as
temperature with less heat than others. Thus water requires more heat than
any other substance, excepting only hydrogen. The relative amounts of heat
to place bodies in a given state of vibration are called their capacity for heat
or specific heat.
In Table VI are given a few characteristic temperatures.
Specific Heat.
By specific heat is meant the number of heat units necessary to raise 1 pound
of a substance 1° Fahrenheit, and as water has the highest specific heat of any
solid or liquid it is taken as the basis. The specific heat of water is measured
at the temperature of maximum density 39.1°F. by some writers, including
Rankine, but 32° is probably more usual. The difference is unimportant. The
specific heat of all bodies increases slightly with increase of temperature, a fact
due to the increased molecular movement, and there is often very considerable
difference between the specific heat of the same body solid and liquid, notably
in the case of water, the specific heat of ice being only 0.504°.
83
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
It has been shown that if the specific heat of a solid be multiplied by the
chemical equivalent of that solid, the result will be approximately a result that
has been of some value in determining which of various values is the true chemical
equivalent of the substance. For compounds the result is approximately 3.
As 1 pound of water requires 1 unit of heat to raise its temperature 1°, its
specific heat is thus said to be unity. All other substances are referred to water
as a basis. Thus when we say that lead has a specific heat of 0.0314 we mean
that to heat a pound of lead to a certain temperature only requires about 3 per
cent. of the amount expressed in B.Th.U. that would be required to raise the
temperature of an equal weight of water by the same amount. It is necessary to
know the value of the specific heats of brick, iron, fuel and its products, in order
to calculate pyrometric effects, furnace temperatures, etc. For the purpose the
Table VII of specific heats will usually serve. More extended tables are found
in most pocket books.
Gases have two specific heats that at constant volume and that at constant
pressure, the latter being greater and due to the work done in expanding to con-
stant pressure. Table VIII gives the specific heat of the more usual gases met
with in combustion.
The specific heat of all substances appears to increase with heat, more espe-
cially in the case of the gases. This is not of much importance in boiler work
but is considerable in gas engine research. In high temperature work the increase
must be considered, but no error is introduced by neglecting the change when
results are finally stated at low temperatures. The increase of specific heat with
temperature is most marked in the case of the more easily liquefied gases.
Specific heat, then, is the relative amount of heat necessary to give to bodies
a given temperature. The specific heat of water is called one, or unity, and that
of other bodies is stated as the fraction of unity relative to water. Most substances
about a furnace, as firebrick, have a specific heat of about 0.2. The total heat
in any body is thus, the product of its mass, its temperature and its specific heat
as compared with some substance at another temperature and in the same state
physically. Thus ice, water and steam, which are chemically identical, differ in
their physical states and cannot be so compared. The specific heat of ice is only
about 0.504 and that of steam is 0.480. Ice at 32°F. may have heat added to it
until it becomes water at 32°F.
Water at 212°F. will absorb heat and become steam at 212°F. In both
these cases we see no change of temperature due to the additional heat, but we
see a change of physical condition. One pound of ice has absorbed 142 B.Th.U.
of heat to enable it to exist as water. Any further heat then added will increase
the temperature until 212°F. is reached. Then we may add 965.7 B.Th.U. to
the water with no change of temperature, but we get the water in the still higher
physical state of steam. In each case the heat has become hidden or latent.
It is not apparent as temperature, but is occupied in keeping the molecule liquid
or gaseous as the case may be. Heat which thus disappears in changing the
state of a body is termed latent heat.
Latent Heat.
Latent heat is thus the specific heat of the changed state of a body. It is
not stated, however, as is specific heat, in terms of the ratio to water, but in actual
84
CALORIFIC AND OTHER UNITS
heat units per unit of weight, as in calories per kilogram or B.Th.U. per pound.
Thus the latent heat of water is said to be 142.6, because the melting of 1 pound
of ice demands 142-6 B.Th.U. It is important to know the latent heat of a few
substances. Some are given in Table IX below, those marked § being hypothe-
tical and not definitely determined.
Per Pound.
Per Kilo.
B.Th.U.
Cal.
Cal.
B.Th.U.
Ice to water, both at 32°F.
1,426
35.93
792
314.3
Water to steam, 212°F.
965.7
243.3
536.4
212.8
Carbon to gas
5,817
1,466
3,231
1,282
Oxygen to gas §
444
111.9
246.7
9,784
Hydrogen to gas §
7,320
1,845
4,066
1,613
Nitrogen to gas §
Water to gas 1
521
131.3
289.4
114.8
6,900
1,739
3,833
1,521
Heat becomes latent not merely by such a process as actual boiling of water
by heat. It becomes latent equally when water is converted to vapour by absorp-
tion in dry air: the heat must come from somewhere in such a case, and it comes
primarily from the air or from the wooden floor on which water has been sprinkled
for cooling purposes. If steam be heated above its saturation temperature it
will now only absorb about 0.480 of a unit. Hence the specific heat of steam
is barely half that of liquid water. After a very considerable further addition
of heat, a point is reached where the temperature again ceases to rise; but again
here is a change of state. The water is split up into constituent elements of
oxygen and hydrogen, and one pound of steam will absorb 6,900 thermal units
during the splitting up of its chemical affinities, showing the great energy of
chemical changes, for to melt ice requires 142 heat units per pound; to vaporize
the water requires 965.7 heat units, and to decompose it demands 6,900. No
matter how it occurs that a body changes its state, heat is given out or absorbed.
To set free the solid hydrogen or solid water locked up in a piece of coal demands
heat which is rendered latent. Thus heat is rendered latent when carbon is
vaporized, and when again carbon is reduced from its state of carbonic acid
gas to the solid form of wood by the action of the living forces of a tree, the heat
is again set free by the solidification of the carbon; but the heat rendered latent
in the decomposition of a body is known as the heat of dissociation, and, like latent
heat, is expressed in actual heat units.
Dissociation.
The heat absorbed in any process of chemical dissociation is an exact equi-
valent of the heat which is set free when the same substances combine. Thus
if 1 pound of hydrogen unites with 8 pounds of oxygen to produce 9 pounds
of water, the heat of combination is 62,100 B.Th.U., and therefore the heat of
dissociation of water is 62,100÷9-6,900 B.Th.U.
There now remains to consider only the
Unit of Heat.
The unit of heat is merely an arbitrary measure of comparison. In British
1 From solid condition in coal.
85
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
measures it is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 pound
of water through 1°F. at or near 32°F.
In the metric system it is the amount of heat necessary to raise the tem-
perature of 1 kilogram of water through 1°C.
As 1 kilogram=2.204 pounds and 1°C.3°F. the ratio of the two units is
2.204 × 9÷5=3.968, the reciprocal of which is 0.252.
The British Thermal Unit is written B.Th.U., and the metric unit is called
the calorie and is written cal. Therefore 1 cal. =3.968 B.Th.U., and 1 B.Th.U=
0.252 cal. For near approximation the ratio of 4 : 1 may be employed.
The heat unit is employed to express latent heat of combustion of or dis-
sociation.
It is necessary to have a statement of the relation of the heat form of
energy or
Unit of Work.
The unit of work is expressed in the form of the earth's attraction.
For the purpose of the engineer the attraction of the earth is measured by
the pull exerted at sea level in the latitude of London upon a piece of metal
which is called the pound. The work done in lifting one pound through a height
of one foot is a unit of work and is called the foot pound. Heat and mechanical
work are mutually convertible. Dr. Joule, of Manchester, by the agitation of
water by means of falling weights, ascertained that the unit of heat or B.Th.U.
is the equivalent of 772 pounds raised one foot, or 772 foot pounds at the latitude
and elevation of Manchester, and, with very slight variation, of no account in
engineering, at any spot on the earth's surface. Joules' determination of 772
was made by means of thermometers less perfect than those now procurable,
or his figure would have been 778 foot pounds, as since found by Rowland.
The mechanical equivalent of 772 foot pounds per degree Fahrenheit becomes
1,389.6 foot pounds per degree Centigrade.
Expressed in terms metrical altogether or in kilogram Centigrade units,
the equivalent is 3,063.54 foot pounds or 423-55 kilogram metres.
Thus the calorie is 423.55 km.=3.968 B.Th.U.
With the more modern figure of 778 foot pounds=1 B.Th.U.
pounds. Per calorie-426.84 kilogram metres, so that 1 B.Th.U.
kilograms.
3,087.3 foot
107-78 metre
Weight.
Like the British pound, the kilogram is simply a piece of metal, and work
units are done in raising it against the pull of gravity.
whose relation to the foot pound is 7.231.1.
The kilogram is 2.2 pounds (actually 2-2046212).
kilos.
Hence the kilogram metre
The pound is thus 0.4536
The metre or unit of length is 39.370432 inches, or say 3 feet 3 inches, and
very nearly for easy remembrance and mental calculation.
8
The American yard is said to be 36.001 British inches, an inappreciable differ-
ence in engineering but noticeable in mechanical fine work.
Errors in converting units are most likely to occur when units are compound,
as when converting pounds per square inch to kilos per cm.2
86
CALORIFIC AND OTHER UNITS
Very closely the English ton of 2,240 pounds resembles the French tonne of
1,000 k.=2,204.6 pounds.
Also 1 k. per linear metre is equal nearly to 2 pounds per linear yard, and 9
calories per cube metre is very closely 1 B.Th.U. per cubic foot.
Gravity.
Gravity=G at Greenwich is 32-19078 feet per second acceleration per second,
usually written 32.2 per sec.2
The expression 2/2 G may be approximated as 8.
Metrically, G=9-8117 metres per second² at Greenwich.
The true value at any other latitude (L), in centimetres per second² is-
980.6056-2.5028 Cos.2 (L)-0.000003 H,
where H is the height above sea level in centimetres.
Other compound units that are useful are as follows-
1 B.Th.U. per sq. ft. -2.713 cal. per square metre.
1
""
""
pound=0.556 cal. per kilogram.
To find the number of cubic feet of air at 62°F. chemically consumed for
one pound of fuel, take the percentage of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in fuel.
To the carbon add three times the hydrogen and subtract four-tenths of the oxygen
and multiply the remainder by 1.52. The product is the cubic feet of air (A).
Thus A 1.52 (C+3 H-0.4 O).
The weight of air per cubic foot is A × 13.14 in pounds.
The total weight of gaseous products per pound of fuel is found by multiplying
the percentage of carbon by 0-126 and that of the hydrogen by 0-358. The sum
gives the total gases (W), thus W=0.126 C + 0·358 H.
The total volume is found by multiplying the carbon percentage by 1·52 and
the hydrogen by 5.52; the sum of these is the total volume (V) in cubic feet at
62°F., thus V 1.52 C+5.52 H.
The volume at any other temperature (T) is V'=
T +461
V
523
87
D
Chapter XII
THE CALORIFIC POWER OF FUEL
Calorific Formula.
ULONG and Petit and subsequently Favre and Silbermann determined the
calorific capacity or heat of combustion of many substances with more or
less accuracy. Dulong endeavoured to find a formula for calculating the heat
of combustion of any fuel of which the chemical composition was known.
The capacity given by him to carbon was 7,295 calories. The latest deter-
mination of Berthelot is 8,137 and that for hydrogen is 34,500.
Dulong's formula for fuel according to its composition was with the correction
to modern coefficients.
Cal.=8,137 C +34,500 (Hg) where
C is the carbon in 1 kilogram of fuel and H and O are the hydrogen and oxygen
respectively, it being assumed that the oxygen is already combined with hydrogen
and that so much of the hydrogen is already useless. Any error would appear
to be on the safe side, and the formula assumes the return of all the gases to 0°C.
In actual practice; of course, the gases pass at a temperature of over 100°C.,
and the water is in the form of vapour, and the calorific capacity of hydrogen is
often taken as only 29,150 B.Th.U. to allow for the heat absorbed in vaporization
of the water.
In Germany, Dulong's formula is used in the form-
Cal.=8,100 C+29,000 (H−g)+2,500 S−600 W.
where S is the sulphur present, and W is the weight of hygroscopic water.
Seeing that in coal the hydrogen is as solid apparently as the carbon, it appears
correct to take something off the co-efficient of hydrogen to allow for the heat
absorbed in gasefying it, and in the above formula the subtraction of 150 calories
perhaps helps to make this formula coincide very closely with calorimetric results.
Possibly also the rounding off of the co-efficient for carbon from 8,137 to
8,100 helps to correct for the vaporization of the carbon compounds which are
exothermic when first formed and do not give up the full heat value of their separate
hydrogen and carbon. Thus both marsh gas, CH₁, and ethane, CH¸, give out heat
when formed and require it again when dissociated, and coal is so complex a body,
as are also liquid fuels, that very little positive knowledge can be assumed :
it is sufficient to know that the formula last given is a very fair approximation to
the truth.
88
THE CALORIFIC POWER OF FUEL
The Calculation of Temperatures.
The temperature of combustion of any substances depends upon the calorific
capacity of the burning material, the total weight of the products formed, and the
specific heat of the products. The calculation of the theoretical temperature is
therefore simple.
The specific heat of all bodies, and particularly of gases, increases with tem-
perature, and this reduces the temperature actually obtained. Though hydrogen
has so high a calorific capacity, it does not produce a specially high temperature
as compared with carbon, for in the first place it demands 8 times its own weight
of oxygen, and secondly the specific heat of the product, steam gas, is also high,
viz., 0.479.
The calculation of temperature for hydrogen burned with oxygen is thus-
T=
29,150
9 × 0.479
= 6,762°C. 12,202°F.
These are temperatures very much in excess of anything secured in the labora-
tory, which has not reached 3,000°C. (even under a pressure of 10 atmospheres).
With air, however, the oxygen is accompanied by a weight of nitrogen 3.32
times its own weight, and to burn 1 unit of hydrogen requires 8 pounds of oxygen
and 26.56 of nitrogen, the specific heat of which is 0.244. The calculation for
temperature is thus-
T=
29,150
(9 × 0.479) + (26-56 × 0.244)
=2513°C. 4,554°F.
=
The calculation for carbon turned to carbonic oxide is similarly derived from
the heat capacity=2,453 cal. The oxygen necessary is 13 times the weight of the
carbon consumed, and as the calorific effect of the first oxidation of carbon is 2,453
calories per kilogram we obtain—
2,453
T
4,292°C. = 7,757°F.
2.333 × 0.245
when burned with oxygen, the total product being 2.33 k. of carbonic oxide
of 0.245 sp. heat. Then, with air containing 3.32 times as much nitrogen as oxygen,
we have
T=
2,453
(2-333 × 0.245) + (1·333 x 3.32 x.0.244)
=
1,485°C. = 2,705°F.
Where the amount of air is in excess of the chemical minimum a further term
must be inserted in the denominator; as neither the nitrogen nor the oxygen of the
excess air is altered they may be considered together. The sp. heat of air is 0.237,
and the weight per unit of fuel being W, we have the new term in the denominator
(W x 0.237), and the temperature of the final product is reduced simply because
of the greater weight of final gases over which the heat generated per unit of fuel
is distributed. In Table XI are given the calorific capacities of the various forms
of carbon and of hydrogen together with the resulting temperatures of combustion
with a minimum of oxygen or equivalent air. The values are given per gram,
litre, pound and cubic foot for combustion to carbonic oxide =CO and to carbonic
acid=CO, for carbon, and to water (vapour) and water (liquid) for hydrogen.
These temperatures are not attained in practice. St. Clair Deville considers
89
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
that they are prevented from occurring by the dissociation which is said to occur
at high temperatures. A certain temperature is attained and further combustion
ceases until some of the heat has been dispersed, when further combustion pro-
ceeds. Berthelot, while not ignoring dissociation, is rather of the opinion that the
inability to attain theoretical temperature arises from the proved increase of the
specific heat of all bodies, and especially of gases at high temperatures. Probably
both causes have effect.
With liquid fuels which contain so much hydrogen the calorific capacity of the
hydrogen cannot exceed 29,100 cals. or 52,290 B.Th.U., because the aqueous
vapour always passes away as vapour.
One pound of water vapour contains-
1,091-7+0-305 (T-32°) B.Th.U. where T is the temperature Fahrenheit.
Similarly where T is the temperature Centigrade 1 kilogram contains 606.5 +
0.305 T° calories, whence can be calculated the heat lost where saturated steam
is thrown away. But in a furnace the waste gases are much above saturation
temperature, and all vapour above 212°F. must be calculated to absorb at least
0.480 of a thermal unit or calorie per pound or per kilogram for each degree Fahren-
heit or Centigrade beyond 212°F. or 100°C. respectively.
In calculating furnace temperatures there must always be added the tem-
perature of the atmosphere to the calculated temperature, which is based on the
datum of 0°C. The usual atmospheric temperature is 15°C. 60°F. for conve-
nience, a sufficient approximation. The total amount of water to be allowed
for in any fuel sample is nine times the weight of hydrogen in the sample plus all
the water. Water should be nil with liquid fuel warmed sufficiently to cause the
water to separate.
In calculations of the hydrocarbon gases the figures given above are com-
bined; thus for benzene, CH, the calorific capacity is 10,052 from the gas or
9,960 cal. from the liquid. This substance requires in all 3.077 times its weight
oxygen and produces 3.385 parts of CO, and 0.6923 of H₂O or 4.077 in all.
The calculation for temperature is therefore-
of
9,960
2
(0-6923 × 0.479) + (3-385 x 0.217)
when burned in oxygen.
2
= 9,343°C. = 16,849°F.
With air there is an added weight of nitrogen equal to 3·077 × 3·32, the specific
heat of which is 0.244.
This product, 3.077 x 3.32 x 0.244, is added in the denominator, and the
resulting temperature is found to be 2,798°C. =5,040°F.
Any excess of air above that chemically necessary is then allowed for by means
of the extra term in the denominator (W × 0.237).
Relative Volume of Gases produced by Combustion.
When a fuel contains carbon only the volume of the gases produced by perfect
combustion is identical with the air admitted to the furnace, for in producing
carbon dioxide two volumes of oxygen produce two volumes of carbonic acid, or
C+02 = CO2, which, like almost all compound gas, occupies two volumes.
90
THE CALORIFIC POWER OF FUEL
When combustion is imperfect and carbonic oxide is formed, the result is
C+0=CO, or again two volumes from only one volume of oxygen, and the waste
gases exceed the volume of air supplied.
Sulphur in a fuel leads to no change in volume. Hydrogen 2 volumes
forms with 1 volume of oxygen 2 volumes of gas or H₂+0=H,0=2 volumes
of water vapour. But when flue gases are collected the water vapour condenses
and there is a diminution of volume.
Each unit of hydrogen in fuel requires 8 units of oxygen.
Expressed metrically, 1 gram of hydrogen will consume 8 grams of oxygen.
As oxygen weighs 1.43 grams per litre each, 1 gram of hydrogen will cause to dis-
appear 5.6 litres of oxygen or nearly 0.2 cubic feet.
This volume disappears, and the total volume of gases must be increased by
the addition of the volume of oxygen destroyed by hydrogen.
Though not of much account in respect of coal, the large percentage of hydrogen
in liquid fuel renders the waste gases, when cooled, very much less in volume than
the original volume of air. Thus an ordinary oil may contain 12 per cent. of
hydrogen or 120 grams per kilogram. This will destroy 960 grams of oxygen
or 672 litres for each kilogram of liquid fuel. In calculating the percentages of
the total gases this volume of vapour must be allowed for. Per pound of fuel
containing say 12 per cent. of hydrogen exactly one pound of oxygen will be used,
measuring 11.2 cubic feet. Thus, should the apparent volume of air be 260 cubic
feet the actual volume would be 271.2.
The table of gases, Table V, will be useful in such calculations.
Evaporative Power of Fuel.
The evaporative power of fuel is usually stated in terms of the water evapo-
rated from and at 100°C. =212°F., at which temperature all the added heat becomes
latent and disappears at the rate of 537 calories per kilogram of water, or 965-7
B.Th.U. per pound.
per pound. The theoretical duty is thus obtained by dividing the calorific
power of the fuel by these numbers-
8137
=
537
Hydrogen should evaporate 23150-54-28 times its weight of water. Carbon
should evaporate 17 15.15 times, and the best coals have a capacity of about
15½ times, the highest values corresponding with the highest proportion of hydro-
gen when this is not neutralized by being already in combination with oxygen.
Liquid fuel may run as high as 22 evaporation.
The actual evaporation secured will fall short of the theoretical from 15 per
cent. in the very best exceptional cases to 30 per cent. in good but heavily worked
boilers, the results obtained depending upon the perfection of combustion, the
avoidance of excessive air and the proportions and conditions of the boiler. A
good result with coal is 101, which corresponds with about 15 for good liquid fuel.
Coal often falls as low as 8 and liquid fuel as low as 12.
Reference is made elsewhere to the supposed superior efficiency of liquid fuel
as compared with solid fuel, in regard to the fact that Nature has supplied the latent
heat of liquidity, but it is also shown that probably the effect is small, the latent
heat of liquidity being only a fraction of that of vaporization. Gaseous fuels,
therefore, should be expected to give higher values than liquid fuels. The formulæ
for calculating the calorific effect of a fuel give a result greater than the actual
calorimetric values of hydrogen and carbon. In a liquid fuel the carbon should
91
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
give more than its nominal solid rating, but, on the other hand, the rating of
hydrogen at 29,150 cals. is obtained from hydrogen gas, and, in a liquid fuel, the
hydrogen has been deprived of its latent heat of gasefication, and by so much
must lose effect when burned, and, per pound, the hydrogen loses much more.
than is gained per pound of carbon. Solid fuels, of course, lose still more, but
the difference between liquid and solid fuels is not very great in respect of their
difference of physical condition. Where liquid fuel secures its high calorific value
is in its very high percentage of hydrogen and its freedom from oxygen and ash.
The absence of oxygen is a proof of the full efficiency of the hydrogen, except so
far, of course, that the hydrogen is combined with the carbon and the combination
when effected was exothermic.
As a sample of liquid fuel calculation, a petroleum may be taken, such as a
heavy Baku oil, with 87.0 per cent. of carbon and 13 per cent. of hydrogen. The
excess of air will be assumed to be 50 per cent. beyond theoretical requirements.
The oil was tested to give 10,843 calories by Mahler.
Calculated by the improved Dulong formula we have—
Cal.=(8,100 × 0·87) + (29,000 × 0.13)=10,817,
which corresponds very closely with the calorimetric test.
Had the full values of 8,137 and 29,150 been employed, the result would have
been slightly above the actual finding, and for a very pure hydrocarbon it is probable
that calculation and tests will not prove to be far apart.
The temperature secured by this oil with the 50 per cent. air excess will be---
10,817
(·87 × 3·66 × 0·217) + (·13 × 9 × 0·479) + (3·36 × 3·32 × 0·244) + (5·575 × 0·237).
2
In the formula the first term of the denominator gives the heat absorbed
by the CO₂ formed from 0.87 of carbon, and the oxygen consumed is 0.87 × 2·66=
2.32. The second term gives the heat absorbed by the steam produced from 0.13
of hydrogen, and the oxygen consumed is 0.13 x 8=1.04. The third term gives
the heat in the nitrogen which accompanies the consumed 3.36 of oxygen.
×
The total weight of air used is thus 3-36 +(3.36 × 3·32)=11-15. Then 50
per cent. of this, or 5.575, is put into the fourth term with the specific heat co-efficient
of air. Working out, the result is-
10,817
5.296
= 2,042°C. = 3,708°F.
as the theoretical temperature of the fuel when supplied with 50 per cent. excess
of air. This shows how very greatly temperature is reduced by excessive air
supply. Even if it be granted that this temperature is as much as would actually
be attained in practice owing to the rise of the specific heat of gases with the tem-
perature, the fact remains that the furnace temperature would be more nearly
maintained along the flues. The absorption of heat by the boiler, lowering the
temperature, would set free the heat which has become latent under the term
specific heat, and the curve of temperature drop would be much less steep.
But beyond all this there is a final chimney temperature beyond which it is
not commercially practicable to reduce the gases, and if by using too much air we
double the weight of rejected gases, these, at a given temperature, will carry off
92
THE CALORIFIC POWER OF FUEL
just twice as much heat as would be carried off by half the weight. Thus, if the
chimney temperature is 450°F. or 400° above the atmospheric temperature, each
pound of gas runs away with approximately 400 × 0·237 B.Th.U.=94·8 B.Th.U.,
which is about 1,560 B.Th.U. per pound of carbon fuel burned or approximately
per cent. of the heat, on the assumption that the chemical minimum of air has
been used. But had the air supply been doubled the heat thrown away would
have been doubled also, and a loss of about 18 per cent. would have been incurred.
Excepting that it is important to have clear ideas upon the effect of air supply
in reducing temperature, it does not much concern the engineer to know
what theoretical temperatures are secured, though he must be on his guard against
unduly low temperatures in the furnace, and be prepared to guard against this by
proper design, such as keeping heat absorbing surface away from the furnace until
combustion is sufficiently perfect to enable this to be done.
The engineer is usually concerned with the evaparative efficiency of a fuel,
and calculates this from and at the boiling point of 100°C. 212°F. The heat of
evaporation of a kilogram of water is 536.5 cals. or 965-7 B.Th.U. per pound.
The evaporative power of a fuel is therefore to be directly obtained by dividing
its unit calorific capacity by the heat of vaporization of water from and at 100°C.
Thus for pure carbon the figure obtained is—
E=
8,137
536.5
=15∙165, or, in British figures
E
14,647
965.7
15.167,
the slight discrepancy being due simply to errors in the equivalents for want of
unimportant decimals.
The actual evaporation of a steam boiler never approaches the calculated
figure within 20 per cent. This 20 per cent. of loss of effect is due to several causes :
(1) The whole of the fuel is not burned perfectly.
(2) The waste gases are sent away to the chimney at a temperature con-
siderably above that of the atmosphere at which the fuel and air
is supplied.
(3)
There is a large excess of air in the waste gases.
(4)
Much heat is lost by radiation from the boiler and brickwork and, with
solid fuels, in ashes and clinkers.
M. Clavenad has a peculiar method of calculating calorific capacities. He
points out that the figures of 8,000 and 34,500 for the solid and gaseous states of
carbon and hydrogen respectively are incorrect for liquid hydrocarbons. The
heat disengaged by gaseous carbon when burned is equal to that disengaged by
four atoms of hydrogen gas.
The atomic weight of carbon being 12, and one kilogram of hydrogen having
a power of 34,500 calories, then 1 kilo of carbon in a gaseous hydrocarbon will
possess-
34,500 × 4
12
11,500 calories.
In the complete combustion of carbon the first reaction, C+0=CO, produces
as much heat as the second, CO +0=CO₂. The weight of carbon in one kilo of
2
93
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
CO being 0.428 kilo, and the combustion of this from CO to CO₂ producing 2,431
calories therefore 1 kilo of carbon completely burned must produce—
2,431 × 2
0.428
= 11,360 calories.
Hence M. Clavenad takes the calorific power of gaseous hydrocarbon as 11,500
or 11,360 for the carbon, and 34,500 for the hydrogen, figures which, however,
will not fit with actual determination because of the disturbing effects of exotherm-
ism as in the case of marsh gas, CH,, which falls much short of calculation.
Mahler has shown in the table below that the calculated calorific capacity
on the assumption of H=34,511 and C=7,860 is greater than experiment shows
to be the case.
The difference P-p is less for crude oil than for products industrially pro-
duced. The calorific power of the various oils studied ranges from 10,300 calories
for crude Russian to 11,100 for American crude.
According to Colonner and Lordier the relative weights of different fuels to
give equal evaporation are-
Petroleum Residue
Peat.
Coke.
Good Coal Briquettes .
Anthracite (Donetz)
Coal.
Moscow Basin
Ural Basin
Kauban Basin
Poland.
,,
Silesia
English
·
•
100
320
142
140
139
153
276
176
140
165
167
139
ANALYSIS
AND HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF VARIOUS PETROLEUMS.
Calorific Power.
Calories.
C.
H. O+N.
Wa-
ter.
Ash.
C.
H.
O+N.
Ob-
served.
After al-
lowing
for Cin-
ders, etc.
Heavy American Oil 86,894 13,107
Refined
American Potrol
Crude.
85,491 14,216 0,293
""
86,894 13,107 |
85,491 14,216 0,293
11,047
80,583 15,101 4,316
?
?
?
?
11,086
83,012 13,889 3,099
?
?
?
?
11,094
P 345 H Differ-
+ 78,60 ence
C.
P-P.
10,913 10,913 | 11,352 439
11,047 11,624 577
11,086 | 11,543 457
11,094 11,316 222
Heavy Baku Oil
Novorossisk Oil
11,636 | 3,458
N.S.W. Sekest Oil
10,576 | 3,913
Ozokerite (Boryslav) 83,510 14,440 0,100 ?
86,700 12,944
84,906
74,574
0.35
87,005 12,989
10,805 10,843 11,320
|
477
?
?
?
?
?
10,937 83,732 11,875 4,393
1.95 85,170 14,720 0.11
10,328 10,328 | 10,688 360
9,246 10,381 10,678 297
10,946 11,163 11,773 610
is-
Goutal's formula for calculating the calorific value of fuel from its composition
P 82 C+aV; where
P=82
P=calorific power in calories.
C=percentage of fixed carbon.
V=percentage of volatile matter.
94
THE CALORIFIC POWER OF FUEL
fuel.
a=a variable co-efficient depending on the amount of ash and water in the
Using the formula-
V' x =
V x 100'
C+V
the following values are obtained for (a).
V' 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 38, 40.
a=145, 130, 117, 109, 103, 98, 94, 85, 80.
This formula is applicable to solid fuels, and Mr. J. B. C. Kershaw, of the
West Lancashire Laboratory, who forwards it to me, considers it fits well with
actual experimentally determined facts.
95
WHE
Chapter XIII
SMOKE AND COMBUSTION
The Combustion of Hydrocarbons.
HEN hydrocarbon fuels are burned there may be formed smoke of two
distinct varieties. The first is the greenish-yellow fume which is driven
off coal when placed upon a fire. This fume is simply hydrocarbon gas with its
contained tars, and can be burned. It is the usual smoke produced by the domestic
fireplace, and burns freely when an under fire becomes hot and the gases are once
fairly alight.
The other variety of smoke is the black smoke which deposits soot. Soot
is a flocculent variety of carbon which is produced by the sudden cooling of heated
hydrocarbon gases. In the furnace of a boiler wherein the green gases are well
ignited they are allowed to come into contact with the cold surfaces of the boiler
and soot is formed. Had the green gases been supplied with air intimately mixed,
they would have burned completely with no smoke, if they were not cooled down
by the boiler. When a boiler furnace is of correct form, the combustion of the
hydrocarbon gases can be secured when a proper admixture of air is carried out,
and in the Lancashire, Cornish, and other shell boilers, smokeless combustion can
be approximated if the draught is good. The means of admitting air is usually a
grid in the furnace door. The air thus admitted sweeps over the whole surface of
the fire and becomes blended with the gases given off the green coal, and perfect
combustion will take place if there is sufficient free space beyond the bridge in which
flame can burn unhindered by cold water pipes.
If, however, the draught is poor, the fresh air drawn in over the fire through
the door will be insufficient in quantity, and smoke will be produced. About 3 to
4 square inches of air openings are necessary for each square foot of grate surface.
When insufficient draught is due to the smallness of the chimney or flues, or
to bad brickwork, it can be remedied by repairs, or by the use of a small steam jet,
to induce a flow of air through the door grid.
If, however, the poor draught is due to the necessity of closing the dampers
to moderate the intensity of the fires, it is then necessary to reduce the area of the
firegrate, so that the chimney draught may be made more intense on the smaller
area, the damper being kept open. This keeps up the draught sufficiently to
compel the air to flow in at the door grids in ample volume. The same effect may
sometimes be secured by fitting dampers to the ash-pit opening so as to control
the intensity of the fires even with a full open chimney damper. The full draught
power then remains available to draw in air through the door grids to burn the
96
SMOKE AND COMBUSTION
hydrocarbon gases above the fire. Any draught less than 1-inch water-gauge, or say a
velocity of 30 feet per second, will usually make it impossible to burn coal without
smoke.
In no case can smoke be prevented where the gases rise vertically from the fire
and pass directly between the tubes of a water-tube boiler, for the necessary mixture
of air has not been secured. Belleville tried to effect a mixture by blowing high
pressure air jets into the furnace in order to mix up the gases, but the method is
faulty, and cannot be a success where the tubes are so nearly above. The same
principles apply to the combustion of liquid fuel, with certain differences due to the
method of firing. With liquid fuel the supply of gas is uniform and continuous,
and the fuel is supplied in exceedingly small particles intimately mixed with air to
begin with, and supplied with a further volume of air from below. A uniform high
temperature is maintained in the locus of combustion by a sufficient mass of fire-
brick work in the form of arches or chequer work.
The production of soot is well illustrated by the system of manufacture of lamp-
black, which is carried on by burning a large number of oil lamps in a confined space
with an insufficient supply of air at a low temperature. Soot is thus formed, not
alone by cooling heated hydrocarbon gas, but by attempting to burn it with an
insufficient air supply.
Oil fuel will produce dense smoke when not supplied with sufficient air, but in
all the approved methods of combustion the requisite air is supplied, and can be
regulated very exactly. Combustion also takes place at a high temperature, and
the flame produced is comparatively short, and combustion can be completed in a
comparatively restricted space, as in the firebox of a locomotive, which can be per-
fectly fired by oil fuel without any change from the conditions found necessary
with coal. All manner of contrivances have been patented for the prevention of
smoke, but few, if any, have realized the all-important detail of temperature, for
without sufficient temperature in addition to the proper mixture of air in a furnace
of correct form, there can be no perfect combustion.
All smoke troubles may be attributed in general terms to the too early applica-
tion of the heat absorbing surfaces of the boiler to the yet unconsumed gases. While
the foregoing arguments apply more particularly to coal, their principles are equally
applicable to oil. Anthracite coal which contains no hydrocarbons burns away
altogether at the grate surface with an intensity of temperature very much in excess
of that of any bituminous coal.
The latter must be distilled on the grate, and much heat is absorbed in the
gasefication of the hydrocarbons. The zone of combustion is very much extended,
the temperature at the grate is less, and it is necessary to conserve the heat gener-
ated on the grate in order to keep hot the hydrocarbon gases, so that these also
may burn and not be wasted. With liquid fuel the gasefication is already partially
effected, and combustion is rendered more perfect by heating the liquid and also
heating the air by which it is atomized. Thus, if the oil and air be both heated
to 200°F., the temperature of combustion will be higher by about 150°F. than if
both oil and air were supplied at the ordinary atmospheric temperature. The
following extract from the Author's paper on the subject of hydrocarbon combustion
in the Electrical Review of August 30, 1901, may be of interest in this connexion
with the subject of furnace temperatures.
The Electrical Review, commenting on the theory put forward by the author,
says-
97
H
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
"The article upon the combustion of bituminous fuels places the subject in
an entirely fresh light. We believe that this is the first time that the trouble and
difficulty of burning bituminous coals have been attributed to the cause now
advanced. Hitherto the trouble has been simply assumed to be due to the fact that
the combustion of bituminous fuels is extended along a considerable length, and
that the cooling effect of water surfaces prevents perfect combustion; but it has
never, to our knowledge, been pointed out that the volatile constituents of coal,
gaseous when distilled off, are locked up in solid form in a lump of coal. In a piece
of coal there exists solid carbon, solid hydrogen, and solid oxygen. Prof. Dewar
has shown how great is the amount of heat required to be taken from the so-called
permanent gases in order to reduce them to liquid form, and how it is still more
difficult to render them solid. Yet in a piece of coal there are several of the so-called
permanent gases reduced to a state of apparently stable and permanent solidity.
It matters nothing that this solidity has been brought about in Nature's laboratory
of green leaves; there the fact is, and the solid coal will only dissolve into vapour
at the expense of heat, exactly as a lump of ice dissolves to water or to vapour at
the expense of the heat in surrounding bodies.
Carbon vapour generates, when completely burned, more than 20,000 units
of heat per pound. Solid carbon generates less than 15,000 units. If, therefore,
a piece of solid carbon be gasefied before combustion, it will absorb nearly 6,000
heat-units per pound in the process, and will, when burned as gas, give out over
20,000 units. The net result is under 15,000 units. Now, carbon can be easily
boiled off into gas if combined with hydrogen-easily, that is to say, so far as regards
a moderate temperature. Without hydrogen, carbon gasefies at the high tempera-
ture of 3,600°C. With hydrogen, it gasefies at 1,000°F., or less. Nevertheless it
absorbs, or renders latent, the same amount of heat in each case, and it can only
obtain this heat from an outside source. In gas making it obtains it from the
retort heating furnace. In the steam boiler it obtains it from the incandescent fuel
on the grate. Properly conducted, in suitable furnaces, the final heat product is
the same, but the solid carbon, burning on the grate, is compelled to add about
6,000 heat-units to each pound of the volatile hydrocarbons, in order that these
may burn, later on, with an increased intensity. Hitherto, careless thinkers have
pronounced the hydrocarbons so difficult of combustion that it was not worth while
attempting to burn them, and their deliberate waste has been advocated. It is
now clear that if the volatile parts of coal could be caused to escape entirely
unburned, the fuel efficiency might be as low as 25 per cent., for the volatile hydro-
carbons carry with them, not merely their own calorific capacity, but also the latent
heat bestowed upon them by the solid carbon they leave burning on the grate.
This view enhances the importance of completely burning the hydrocarbons. It
also puts a much more hopeful aspect on the possibility of doing this, for it explains
why so many well-meant efforts have been hopelessly wrong. If want of success
has been plainly due to following wrong methods, the outlook is so much the more
hopeful than if failure had accompanied correct methods. It only remains to follow
correct methods for success to be assured.
"In dealing with liquid fuels, perfect combustion has been much easier to
secure than it has been in the case of solid fuels, consisting only partially of volatile
hydrocarbons. The theory now advanced serves partially to explain this. Liquid
hydrocarbons are already well advanced along the path of vaporization, just as
ice is a long way advanced towards the state of vapour when it has been melted down
98
SMOKE AND COMBUSTION
to the intermediate state of water. Coal, petroleum, and illuminating gas are
related to each other, as are ice, water, and steam. Judged by its empirical formula,
petroleum should not have a calorific effect superior to that of coal, such as it
possesses. The explanation, of course, is that, being already liquid, there is so much
less heat required to gasefy it than is the case with solid coal.
..
Everything in fuel combustion is quite consistent with the new theory,
which is based simply on figures obtained by physical and chemical experiment.
It is a little startling to find that average samples of bituminous coals may produce
barely a fourth of the heat of their combustible constituents upon the grate itself.
True, nearly half the heat is generated by the fixed carbon which burns on the grate,
but so much of this goes to evaporate the remainder of the fuel that nearly three-
fourths of the heat effect of bituminous fuel is exerted beyond the surface of the
fuel on the grate. Some long flaming coals there are whose flame extends 90 feet
from the fire; these are the coals that make most smoke under unfavourable condi-
tions. The drier shorter flaming coals will complete their combustion in much less
space. High temperature in all is essential."
Furnace Temperatures.
An argument in favour of the necessity of refractory furnaces for bituminous
fuel is that only a proportion of the total calorific capacity of a bituminous coal is
generated on the grate, and therefore the fuel which burns on the grate is debited,
not only with its own combustion, but also with the splitting up of the hydro-
carbons and other volatiles, and raising them to such temperatures as will enable
them to burn at a second zone of combustion. It is difficult to gain acceptance of
these views, and it is certain that furnace and boiler designers have not, as a rule,
even recognized the facts that give rise to them. Perhaps one of the best arguments
will be to take the case of some actual fuel, calculate its various calorific capacities,
and follow its combustion throughout.
An average of 18 analyses of Newcastle coal gives the following figures—
Fixed carbon
Volatile carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulphur
Ash
48.84 per cent.
33.29 ""
5.31
5.69
1.35 ""
""
11.24 ""
""
Calorific capacity
3.77 99
15,203 B.Th.U.
The calorific capacity of amorphous carbon is about 14,647 B.Th.U. per pound;
therefore the capacity of the 48.84 per cent. of fixed carbon in the above samples
must be 7,150 B.Th.U. Now so far as regards the fire upon the grate, these 7,150
heat-units are all we have to work with. By their means we have to split up the
hydrocarbons, or rather we have to draw on them for the heat which becomes latent
in converting the solid coal to the gaseous hydrocarbon. Moreover, a piece of coal
is all solid, and, excepting the ash, it all becomes gaseous. Therefore, subtracting
for cinders 3.77 per cent., there remains 47.4 per cent. of volatile solid matter, which
ultimately passes off in a gaseous state. The customary allowance of air is about
18 pounds per pound of coal. This also must be heated up to the general tempera-
ture by the heat developed in the grate by the fixed carbon only.
99
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
The theoretical flame temperature of carbon when burned in an exact suffi-
ciency of air (i.e. 11 pounds per pound) is 4,892°F. We can readily calculate the
net temperature of all the products in the usual manner, though the result will be
approximate only. We may assume 1 pound of coal, and we will add the customary
18 pounds of air, so as to produce a final 19 pounds of the total furnace products.
As the temperature of combustion of carbon in air is 4,892°F., when using 11.6
times its weight in air the temperature with 18 pounds of air will be
12.6
19
× 4,892--3,245°F. But with the heat produced by 48.84 per cent. of the coal, we
have to carry the further load of volatile fuel and inert ash that is not burned on the
grate, together with its similar proportion of excess air. The temperature of 3,245°F.
x.48841,584°F., and this is the maximum temperature of the products of com-
bustion, assuming that they escape uncooled. This is a maximum figure, because
whereas the temperature of combustion in air, namely 4,892°, is that due to a
minimum of air, the reduced temperature involved by the use of excess of air as
above calculated is really too great in part proportion as the specific heat of nitrogen
is greater than that of carbonic acid; nitrogen, of course, forms by far the greater
proportion of the furnace products, and it has a specific heat of 0.244, as compared
with carbonic acid, 0.217. Steam also, which is formed on the grate and does its
share in reducing the temperature, has the high specific heat of 0.480, any free
hydrogen that may escape has 3.410, and the hydrocarbons have also very high
specific heats, for example, olefiant gas, 0-418; marsh gas, 0.593.
It is thus clear that the temperature of the gases as they flow to the bridge is
quite low, and so far no deduction has been suggested for the vaporization of fully
half the solid fuel into gaseous form. What, in fact, is the effect of the latent heat
of evaporating carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, from the solid? for this is really what
happens when bituminous coal is burned.
To evaporate carbon requires 5,817 British Thermal Units per pound, this
being the difference between the calorific capacity of carbon burned to its monoxide,
and of this monoxide burned to dioxide respectively. Hydrogen and oxygen com-
bined require 11,000 heat-units per pound of hydrogen to raise them from the
solid to the gaseous state.
Let the figure of 7,000¹ units of latent heat per pound be assumed for the whole
of the volatile constituents of coal, that is to say, for all that part which does not
burn directly on the grate. This proportion was found above to be 47.4 per cent.
of the whole, so that, per pound of fuel, 3,318 heat-units (.474 × 7,000) must disappear
in evaporating the volatile carbon, the oxygen, hydrogen, and other gases which
exist in solid form in coal.
1 Possibly the figure of 7,000 may be too high, except for the carbon and hydrogen com-
pounds. The value of carbon is as above about 6,000, as evidenced by the difference between
the heat produced by burning carbon to its first oxide, and then again to its second oxide.
That for hydrogen must be over 7,300, but the values for oxygen and nitrogen are low. Lecha-
telier determined the molecular specific heats of the elements as 6·65+at, where a is the con-
stant, and t is the absolute temperature at which the measurement is taken. a was given by
him as 0.001 for a considerable number, but he gave values for a =0·008, and there is ample
proof in Berthelot's great work that at high temperatures the specific heats of some substances
may be double and treble the customary figure of 6·65. As the distillation of coal in a furnace
is desired to be effected at at least 1,000° or 1,500°F. (say 550°C. to 800°C.) the specific heats
will be something higher than 6-65.
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SMOKE AND COMBUSTION
But we have already found that the total heat generated by the 48-84 per cent.
of fixed carbon produces 7,150 heat-units. The difference between the heat gener-
ated by the fixed carbon and that absorbed by the volatile hydrocarbons of these
particular Newcastle coals is thus only 3,832 units. This is all the heat that remains
available for raising the temperature.
Now we have found an ultimate temperature of 1,584 when not allowing for
the latent heat of gasefication. We must correct this. It is less in the ratio of
3,832: 7,150, or 849°F. That is to say, if bituminous coal be burned on a grate
and those parts of the coal which volatilize and burn as flame be gathered unburned,
the temperature of the whole production of the furnace, including 18 pounds of
air per pound of fuel, would only be 849°, or considerably less than that necessary
for ignition.
In the first place, this tells us that it is of the first importance to diminish the
supply of air to a minimum.
By passing only half the air through the grate and adding the remainder as
required to the evolved gases at a subsequent point, we can at once practically
secure double the above temperature, or say 1,600°, a temperature at which ignition
is possible. Moreover, even 9 pounds of air is 35 per cent. in excess of the allowance
necessary to burn the fixed carbon of a pound of bituminous coal, so that it would
be liberal practice to pass only half the total air through the grate. Some of the
heat developed on the grate is at once radiated to the boiler surfaces; hence my
constant contention that furnaces should be lined wholly or partially with refractory
material in order to conserve the necessary temperature.
It must not, again, be overlooked that some of the evolved hydrocarbons do
burn on the grate and at the fire surface. In fact, they commence to burn at once,
and continue to burn to the end so long as conditions are maintained favourable to
continuous combustion.
Rankine's estimate of air as found in ordinary practice was 25 pounds per
pound of fuel. The so-called chemical minimum is 11 pounds. I have assumed
18 pounds as good practice, but as low or lower than 15 pounds has already been
recorded by Mr. Michael Longridge.
If, however, we pass 9 pounds of air through the grate and, say, a further 6
pounds over the grate, in fine streams, to assist the combustion of the hydrocarbons,
and take care that we do not abstract heat faster than it is generated by the burning
gases, we ought to be able to secure perfect combustion with less than 18 pounds
of air per pound of coal. There is no known reason why we should not. The im-
possibility of smokeless combustion has been widely and influentially urged, but
never so much as by those engineers who cram their heating surfaces right upon
the fire and never trouble their brains to inquire why it is that a thermometer shows
the same continuous reading of 32°F. in a vessel of melting ice with a flame under it
until all the ice is melted. A piece of coal, like a piece of ice, is simply so much
solidified gas, and absorbs heat greedily while vaporizing, but it cannot be burned,
like so much solid carbon, but must have length and space in which to mix and
combine with the oxygen of the air.
The following figures, based on Berthelot's investigations, will be useful in this
connexion, for they show the enormous differences which exist between matter in
its several states. Carbon, existing as it does free in Nature in at least three solid
allotropic modifications, is a peculiarly interesting example. We do not know it as
a liquid or as a gas except in combination. Its three solid forms of crystalline
ΙΟΙ
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
graphitic, and amorphous, show by their variations of "latent " heat how great
is the effect of form, even when the various forms affect one state alone. The gaseous
state of carbon and the heat necessary to put it into that state are easily argued from
the difference of heat disengagement in the two oxidations. As the table shows, the
oxidation of 1 pound of carbon (diamond) produces 3,915 British thermal units when
the product is monoxide. The heat disengaged by complete oxidation is 14,146
units. The difference of 10,231-3,915-6,316 units, and this is obviously the
minimum heat of vaporization of the diamond. Similarly, for the amorphous forms
of carbon, the first oxidation produces 4,415 units, and the complete oxidation
produces 14,647. Here the same difference is 5,817, and the greater heat evolu-
tion represents the energy necessary to recrystallize the diamond. Thus we learn
that when the diamond crystallized it evolved heat, and we learn that the difference
between graphite and the diamond is less than between graphite and amorphous
carbon. In fact graphite is about six-sevenths along the road to becoming diamond.
Heat Generated by the Combustion of 1 pound of Carbon.
State of Carbon.
Product of Combustion.
British Thermal Units per
Diamond
•
pound.
Carbon monoxide .
dioxide
""
3,915
14,146
95
""
14,222
monoxide.
4,415
dioxide
""
14,647
monoxide.
10,232
dioxide
""
20,463
""
10,231
""
Graphite.
Amorphous
Gaseous
21 carbon monoxide
Metamorphic Conversions.
Carbon (diamond)
(graphite)
(amorphous)
""
""
(diamond)
(diamond)
(graphite)
•
Gas
•
""
Carbon (amorphous)
""
(graphite)
(amorphous)
Heat Absorbed.
6,316
6,241
5,817
499
74.7
424
Stated briefly, it may be said that about half the weight of a bituminous fuel
burns upon the grate itself, and produces half the total heat of combustion; but
that owing to the heat of formation of gaseous hydrocarbons, and generally to the
vaporization of solid fuel, which absorbs so much heat, only about one-fourth of
the total heat of combustion is sent off from the grate as sensible heat. The remain-
ing three-fourths are developed between the fire surface and the extreme range of
combustion. This range varies, of course, with the short or long flaming quality of
the coal. Anthracite coal, which is entirely of solid carbon, and is therefore almost
wholly burned upon the grate, will produce a temperature at the surface of the grate
very considerably higher than bituminous coal will produce continuously. This is
the reason why so much trouble is experienced with the grate bars when anthracite
is used. It is evident that every fresh charge of bituminous coal has a very chilling
effect upon the fire, and this is especially the case with intermittent firing. The
chilling effect of a fresh charge of anthracite is merely that due to the heating of
sqlid fuel, and is comparatively trivial. The bad effect of anthracite coal upon grate
102
SMOKE AND COMBUSTION
bars is usually attributed to some specially bad quality in the coal itself; but this
is probably quite an erroneous idea, the real cause being simply the high tempera-
ture, which melts the cast iron bar. This explanation receives confirmation in the
fact that bars go very quickly when they stand above the general surface of the grate,
projecting their upper edge into the body of the fire. The thermo-chemical pro-
perties of coal do at least afford ample ground for accepting this as the true explana-
tion of the effects of anthracite coals. They also afford the fullest proof of the
necessity for special attention being given to the combustion of bituminous fuels.
Knowing how very effective the first exposed heating surface has always been found
to be, it becomes easy to understand that, in a water-surrounded furnace, so much
heat may be abstracted from the fire that the combustion of the gases beyond will
be very seriously checked if not entirely prevented.
The Author is unaware of any previous recognition of these principles in the
combustion of coal. It has long seemed that fuel combustion was carried out very
erroneously. While the cooling effect of the distillation of bituminous fuels always
presented itself as intensifying the mischievous effects of cold surface surroundings,
the latter had always appeared amply sufficient to account for smoke without seeking
further for thermo-chemical reasons. But the persistent refusal of the modern
school of boiler men to look the matter of combustion of bituminous fuels squarely
in the face has induced further research, and shown me that the question of burning
bituminous fuels is even more complicated than had appeared. It has also shown
me that past practice has been even more irrational and more hopeless than I had
imagined, as well as pointing to a more hopeful future.
The question of combustion is further complicated by the variation of the
specific heat of gases at high temperatures.
Recognized and worked upon by Bunsen and others, the subject has been most
thoroughly investigated by M. Berthelot, to whose great work, Thermochimie, it is
hardly necessary to say the Author is much indebted. That the specific heat of gases
does increase with temperature there is now no doubt. At ordinary furnace tem-
peratures the effect is not great, but such as it is, is in the direction of keeping down
temperatures below what they would appear to be when calculated on the basis of
constant specific heat at all temperatures. This point is only raised here, as it
serves to emphasize the fact that furnace temperatures are always lower than or-
dinary rough calculations make them.
First, only half the coal is burned actually on the grate; secondly, the other
half and the excess of air work ever to reduce the temperature; thirdly, there is the
reducing effect of vaporizing half the fuel, and this is simply enormous, and has never
before been recognized as considerable, if indeed it has even been allowed to suggest
itself; fourthly, there are the very active heat-absorbing surroundings of water-
cooled plates or pipes. All these causes work together, with the further assistance
of the increment of specific heat, to reduce the products of bituminous coal to a
temperature below that at which perfect combustion is possible. The combined
action is so powerful that even so-called smokeless Welsh coal will smoke in boilers
of the Belleville type.
In any case, even if the effect of vaporizing the solid fuel has been overestimated,
the fact remains that it nearly approaches the figures given, and must prejudicially
affect the furnace temperature. It teaches us at once the complication involved in
burning bituminous coal, and the hopelessness of those forms of furnace that attempt
to extract heat from the fire within a short distance of the fire itself.
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LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Flame Length.
It may be added that the length of flame from a burning hydrocarbon is largely
determined by the intensity of the combustion, as well as by the perfection of the
air admixture. A well mixed gas burning at a high temperature will produce a short
flame, whereas the same gas burned in water-cooled boiler flues will produce exceed-
ingly long flames. By using suitable furnaces with refractory linings, combustion
may be made to complete itself in a short distance. It does not follow because a
certain fuel produces a flame 60 or 80 feet in length that it will be necessary to line
the combustion space to a distance of 60 or 80 feet.
The very fact of lining it for one-tenth that length might so promote rapid
combustion as to shorten the flame to even less than one-tenth. Once, however,
that the initial temperature is reduced below a certain figure, the length of flame
cannot be kept within bounds. This is important to remember, for even a hot flame
will be extinguished after it has encountered the cold tubes of a water tube boiler.
In comparing water tube and cylinder boilers, it should be noted that the area of
cold surfaces over the fire of a cylinder boiler, either internally or externally fired,
is a very small proportion of the whole heating surface. In the ordinary form of
water tube boiler, where the gases rise directly between the water tubes, the propor-
tion of cold surface at once encountered by them is very great. Apart from the
errors already pointed out, the vertical rise of the gases from the fire is bad practice.
The water tube boiler need not of necessity be thus badly arranged. It can be
set to give the most perfect combustion. Perfect combustion only takes place at
a high temperature.
Flame Analysis.
The vibration velocity of light, by which is meant those etheric waves which
are capable of making their existence felt to our organs of vision, varies from four
hundred billion oscillations per second to nearly eight hundred billions; that is to
say, about one octave alone comes within the capacity of the eye to discern. The
lower number corresponds with the extreme red of the spectrum, the higher fre-
quency with the extreme violet. Beyond the extreme red is a long range of oscilla-
tions-rays invisible to the eye-which manifest themselves as heat. Beyond the
extreme violet rays exist a long series of invisible rays known as actinic or chemical
rays. These are the rays which are most energetic in producing chemical effects.
They are the active rays in photography, and are those which produce sunburn and
the like effect from exposure to electric light. As these ultra-violet rays produce
chemical effects, so are they produced by chemical action. The more intense the
act of chemical combination, as in the burning of carbon, the greater will be the
actinism of the light produced. Very high temperatures produced by combustion
approach a white colour the more closely as the temperature rises, and to some eyes
-fatigued by too much observation of molten cast iron-the clearance of the final
hot slag gives a peculiar neutral light lavender colour indicative of the high tem-
perature of a common foundry cupola.
The proportion of rays of any particular colour in a furnace will indicate the
intensity of the action which is going on within that furnace. It is extremely
difficult for the most highly experienced eye to discern the full action of a furnace
at high temperature-not perhaps so much because of inability to estimate the
relative amounts of colour present as because of the superabundance of heat rays
104
SMOKE AND COMBUSTION
which accompany the chemical rays, and generally the dazzling effect of even
moderate temperatures.
The extreme brightness of the steel furnace has necessitated the use of blue
or violet coloured glass to enable the workmen to watch the progress of the
melt without discomfort.
Engineers have not accepted as they ought to accept the teachings of physics
as an aid to correct practice. Science and practice have been kept apart. The
scientific man is apt to thank heaven when he makes a discovery that he believes
cannot be put to the slightest possible good, and the man of practice gibes at his
scientific brother, and they do not learn from each other. Moreover, the professional
teacher, when he steps down into the arena of practical engineering, appears to leave
behind him the scientific knowledge he has been teaching, and the practice of the
quondam man of science partakes of the crudest efforts of the tyro. He appears to
find a difficulty in applying his past teaching to his present practice, and not to have
a sufficient fund of practical adaptability to conform his practice to his past teach-
ings. In the combustion of fuels, this neglect of scientific teaching is almost univer-
sal.
The man of science finds that the combustion of fuel, especially of bituminous
coal, is carried out along extremely unscientific lines. He accepts these wrong lines,
and there is no case of any serious attempt on the part of any professedly scientific
man to put the art of fuel combustion upon a sound basis. Accepting the crude
appliances among which he descends, he is apt to conclude that the hydrocarbons
of bituminous coals cannot be utilized, and hence the assertion is sometimes made
that the hydrogen of bituminous coals cannot be counted upon as useful calori-
fically. The conclusion thus arrived at is probably erroneous, even on the basis
upon which it is built.
Hydrogen ignites so very much more readily than carbon, and at so low a
temperature that the probability is the hydrogens do burn, and in doing so they
snatch the available oxygen from the surrounding air and deprive the nascent
carbon of any opportunity of combustion, causing it to deposit as soot. Unless there
is sufficient temperature there is no hope of burning bituminous coal or oil, as it
very easily can be burned, without the formation of smoke. This is, perhaps, too
crude a method of expressing the needs of the case, but when the most important
industrial operations are absolutely neglected by our supposed teachers and leaders
of scientific practice, it devolves upon those to whom science is less familiar, but
more attractive, to step into the breach. Temperature is so closely connected with
actinism that the analytical investigation of the light of a furnace will give a fair
insight into its conditions of temperature. By means of transparent media of
suitable composition light may be analyzed in a manner that will afford great assist-
ance in arriving at sound engineering conclusions and practice. Such media are
coloured glasses. A ruby-coloured glass will cut off all rays of light of higher vibra-
tion than ruby colour. Only the lower end of the spectrum will be visible through
such a glass. On the other hand, by means of a violet-coloured glass, all the less
active rays than violet will be eliminated, and the most brilliant of furnaces may
be thereby rendered easily visible, its interior being coloured the peculiar lavender
grey colour, or approaching this tint, which marks the ultra-violet end of the spec-
The more perfect the combustion, the larger will be the proportion of violet
light emitted by the flames.
trum.
In a well-designed furnace, the whole internal surface of which is brilliantly
incandescent, light proceeds from every portion of the area and from the flame
105
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
itself. There are no non-luminous areas. Occasionally in the mass of flame dark
streaks may be seen. These represent streams of burning gas, which, while incan-
descent, are below the violet stage. They may be traced to a point of disappearance,
and they would probably radiate some light if the colour of the glass were less violet
and more blue.
Let the observation now be transferred to a less perfect furnace, such as that
of the common setting of the water tube boiler, where the flames rise vertically
among the tubes from the grate surface, and good combustion is impossible. With
the unprotected eye the flames will appear to be giving light all the way from the
fire surface to between the tubes. Combustion appears fair. If, however, these
light-giving flames be examined by the aid of violet glass, they will be cut down to
short tongues of flame projecting but little above the fire surface. Even these
tongues of flame give forth little illumination. Above the flames the gases appear
to be simply dark-coloured streams of gas, soot laden and murky. The violet glass
or analyzer has cut out all the rays of small actinic power and small temperature,
with the result that the only remaining light rays are those immediately above
the furnace.
The effect of radiation is to cool the flames below the range of violet long before
they have risen to the level of the tubes. Apparently there is nothing but radiation
to explain the reduction of temperature.
This method of analysis of the products of the fire is useful, not merely because
it enables a furnace interior to be visually examined with ease and comfort, but
because it shows so clearly the effect of a good design and the bad influence of
premature cooling. It affords most conclusive testimony to the benefits that accrue
from proper design, and should be an effectual silencer of those who argue that smoke
is one of the unfortunate inevitables of combustion in place of being but a proof
of ignorant and careless design and neglect of the plainer principles of chemical
science.
The use of violet-coloured glass is essential. It is not simply that it is requisite
to reduce the amount of light which meets the eye and renders vision impossible.
Such a result could be attained by means of glass otherwise coloured, as by smoke,
so that it is less transparent, but still not diffusive, as is ground glass.
Violet glass or the higher blue colours are necessary because of their specially
analytical properties. I am not prepared to say that perfect combustion cannot
occur at temperatures below those which are associated with the light rays
that can traverse violet glass. It is, however, very probably true that the violet
degree of actinism must be very fully developed if combustion is to be perfect,
and this degree of actinic effect cannot be associated with temperatures that can be
secured in any furnace so arranged that the gases rise vertically from the grate sur-
face to pass between the water pipes before they have been thoroughly commingled
and burned in a free space. Thus the ordinary arrangement of water-tube boilers
is absolutely hopeless and impossible. A single inspection of such a furnace through
the analyzer will effectually convert any open mind, and point the necessity for
better practice.
Mr. Weir, of Glasgow, designed the small tube boiler shown in the fig. 0, with
the necessities for combustion before him. It will be observed that in this boiler
the gases from the coal must pass through a large firebrick-lined furnace and
combustion chamber before they reach the tubes. Combustion is thus assured by
a sufficient conservation of temperature. The principles which underlie perfect
106
SMOKE AND COMBUSTION
combustion are here assured, and smokelessness results. The same principles applied
to liquid fuel are followed by equally happy results.
Uptake
Combustion
Chamber
Furnace
•
Fig. 0.
WEIR SMALL TUBE BOILER, WITH REFRACTORY COMBUSTION CHAMBER.
The walls of the furnace are lined with firebrick slabs, threaded on the inside row of tubes, and beyond the furnace chamber
is a further combustion chamber also lined with firebrick. The hydrocarbon gases have thus a long distance to travel before they
reach any serious area of cool tube surface; the furnace is maintained at a high temperature, and there is large space for the
combustion of the gases in a hot chamber, whereby alone combustion can be secured perfect. This boiler can be fixed either from
side or ends, and represents the latest and most improved practice in water-tube boilers, recognizing the principles essential to
perfect combustion. The hot gases travel along the length of the tubes, completely enveloping them. The outer casing is of
firebrick slab with an outer sheet of steel. The following shows result of tests of two of these boilers with coal-
Grate surface
Ratio to heating surface
Funnel draught
Calorific value of coal
Single Ended.
Double Ended.
48.75
1
45
48.75
1
45
53
53
1
1
41.3
41.3
3.21 forced
0.6 nat
3.5 forced
0.625 nat.
13.38
13.38
62.2
29
13.2
63.4
13.2
29.1
9:05 lbs.
12.5 lbs.
285
10.7 lbs.
6.918 lbs.
80.0
12 ins.
789°F.
251
8.65 lbs.
13.27 lbs.
65.5
9.76 lbs.
74
9 ins.
930°F.
275
6.86 lbs.
9 ins.
780°F.
276
Coal per square foot per hour
Evaporation per lb. of coal from and at 212°
Ditto per square foot heating surface
Boiler efficiency
Fire thickness
•
Funnel temperature
Steam pressure, lbs.
•
•
67.65
12 ins.
107
Part II
PRACTICE
O
Chapter XIV
THE USE OF OIL FUEL AT SEA
Oil Storage on Ships.
BVIOUSLY the double bottom of a ship now used
for water ballast is the place in which to carry oil
fuel, leaving other spaces free.
As each fuel tank is emptied it can be filled with
water. Lloyds' Register of Shipping publishes certain rules
applicable to existing vessels, which are reproduced in
Appendix 4. Both Lloyds and the Board of Trade are
placing only necessary safeguards, and are not opposing
the use of liquid fuel. Sir Fortescue Flannery states
that the peculiarly penetrative qualities of petroleum
do not attach to the more viscous fuel oil, which he
avers to be as easy to retain as water and by the same
class and quality of riveted work.
Additional water-tight subdivision is, however,
advised as a safeguard against the scend of a half-empty
oil tank, but in small or medium ships the usual sub-
division is thought sufficient.
In fig. 1 is shown the system of storage adopted on
the ss. Murex, a vessel with all her tanks adapted to
carry either general cargo or refined oil, but not originally
planned for using liquid fuel, for which purpose she was
converted by the Wallsend Slipway and Engineering Com-
pany. There is no double bottom below the cargo tanks,
which extend to the skin of the ship, but the bottom is
double at A and B below the engines and boilers, and
cofferdams, C, D, are put in at the fore and aft ends of
the cargo space, and, with the fore and aft peaks E and F,
have been arranged to take the fuel oil. Service tanks G
and H were placed in the 'tween decks.
The flange J is coupled up to the pipe from the store
tank, and oil passes by pipes K to the various tanks,
whence a pump lifts it to the service tanks, which are
Moveable Goosenec
Wu Fu
DB Supply tank
Moveable
Goose neck
Cock to fill DB & MB supply tanks
G
MainBala
Supply Virk
on at
sund layo wD UMOUS
proping wo po
|randapporo unDYS
9ddy D
A
bumdy-
K
forward Romp to supply tanks & Aft
Fig. 1. OIL STORAGE SYSTEM OF SS. “MUREX.'
૮.
1414
Svoja tapo VD UMOŲS
sund po vormous
Moveable Goose neck
bumniods
pny w
brancody c
утром
Рафалк
Ралф
Fivel
Oil Fuel
UTHMS SPIL
TUGUSTIS
YOTINS WIJ DIP)
FUEL TANKS AND FILLING PIPES.
III
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
provided with overflow pipes, steam heater coils, and water drain pipes as described
under the head of storage.
All leakage in the power compartment is intercepted by the drainage wells, so
that the ordinary bilge is kept free. These intercepting wells have their own
suction and delivery pipes. The ordinary cargo fuel tanks are illustrated in fig. 2.
Flannery Boyd
Selling System
Fore Peah
N. Peak
di
Fuel
ou Fuet
art Fuet
Oit Fuct
Toit Fuct
Oit Puet
Fig. 2. OIL FUEL TANKS OF ORDINARY CARGO STEAMSHIP. FLANNery-Boyd
SYSTEM.
In fig. 3 is shown how the oil fuel is stored in a regular oil tank steamer on the
Flannery-Boyd system, the oil to be used being carried in the fore and aft peaks
Air Pipe
T Piece to Air Pue
"Air to Sounding Pipe
4 Filling Pipe
Aft Peak Out Fuel
N3 Tank
Oil Fuel
Flannery-Boud
Selling Tank?
Nº2Tank NI Tank
Od Fuel Oil Fuel
Sounding & Air Pipe`
Edir Pipe Text into Soundiny Pipe
T Piece M17
4 Sluice Valve
Fuel
This Bulkhead fitted with
Convex Iron Sparring below
Oil Deck
3 Delivery to aft cofferdam
I's Air Py.
4'Filling Pipe.
Sounding Pipe
4 Slnieg Valve
Hat Box Suctions
Enlarged Pump Room
This Bulkhead fitted with
wood sparring
Existing discharge over changecock fitted here to take 3″ delivery Pipe to all cofferdam
3 on return valve in delivery Pyr to aft cofferdam to be as near' puing as possible
Portable 4
filling Pipe
Delivery to & suc. from fore peak
Delivery to & suc. from cofferdam
Old Pump overhauled & repaired.
Fore Hold suc, disconnected from
old Plump & compacted by to now Diy
Sluice Valy
TPiece No
Sluice Valve
Piece N° 26
4U Valves Nº 28
Junction Piece N°18
4 Oil Filling Pine
Fig. 3.
OIL FUEL STORAGE ON OIL TANK STEAMSHIP.
4° Pipe
4 Stuce Valve
T Prece N19
Fore Peak
These Bulk Oil Fuel
houds fitted
with wood
sparring
Existing Sea. Suc.
Existing
Sea Vale
3VValxe
FLANNERY-BOYD SYSTEM.
Te Air Pipe
T Piece Nogo
and in the ballast tanks under the engines and in the division bulkheads, the cargo
of oil being carried in the remainder of the ship.
Between the oil tanks and the remainder of the ship it is considered necessary
to place a cofferdam. In a tank steamer the rest of the ship means the engine
and boiler compartments. These cofferdams are simply two transverse stiffened
bulkheads extending across the ship and properly filled with water as a safeguard
against leakage of oil. But in practice these cofferdams are often filled with fuel oil,
a practice upon which doubts may be expressed, for apparently this destroys much
of the safety intended to be given. Oil fuel is also carried in the double bottom.
below the engine compartments, which again is a point open to discussion, for it is
very properly urged that a vessel might become injured by going aground, and such
II2
THE USE OF OIL FUEL AT SEA
injury might extend to the inner plating and flood the boiler compartment with oil,
to the very serious risk of explosion.
It certainly seems sounder and safer practice to exclude oil from both the
power compartment bottoms and from the cofferdams, the latter being kept perhaps
narrower than they are now.
Where the fuel oil is of a specially heavy class, there might not be much risk
even if it did leak into the firehold, and good residuum or astatki would be something
of a safeguard between the main tanks of crude oil and the boiler room. Be this as
it may, the presence of a narrow water space outside the oil fuel cofferdam would
give a better margin of safety.
The riveting of oil-tight plating is usually 3 to 34 diameters in pitch. Old ships,
to be rendered fit for oil carrying, which have rivet spacings of 7 to 8 diameters,
may thus have a new rivet put into each spacing. Such ships usually require addi-
tional deck beams as a rule. Ships should have not less than eight water-tight
compartments, and the separating bulkheads, if oil tanks, ought to be connected
directly to the skin of the ship, all possible empty spaces being avoided. Oil is
filled into tanks so as to stand 2 feet above the upper deck level in the expansion
trunks. The gases driven off from oil are heavy, and tend to settle at the bottom
of any space into which they obtain access. A thorough system of ventilation is
required to get rid of such gases. Air should be admitted through cowl heads to
the upper part of the place to be ventilated and removed from the lower part. It
will dilute and carry off the accumulated gas. Such air outlets should have induc-
tion openings to assist the current. The general direction of air movement in a ship
is from aft forward, and advantage may be taken of this in arranging the ventilation.
Great care is needed to joint all oil pressure pipes carefully. The screw threads
should be good, and ought to make tight joints with only a little smear of litharge
and glycerine, or Venetian red and shellac. Such pipes must not be concealed
beneath floor plates, in bilges, or behind casings, but ought to be fully exposed
to view, in order that any want of tightness may be easily perceived.
An oil cargo being so easily mobile with movement of the ship, it is necessary
that the tanks should be full, so that there may be no surging. Hence the use of
expansion trunks to permit of this and allow expansion without waste or pressure
being the result. Surging plates must be employed in those compartments, which
may not be always full, as the fuel tanks, and no compartment should occupy too
much of the length of a ship without a bulkhead. Similarly bulkheads are stiffened
from one to the other by longitudinal plates, which serve to check any tendency to
transverse surging, or scending, to use the nautical term. The ordinary cargo
boat, fig. 2, when fitted for fuel oil, is re-riveted when necessary, and the oil fuel
is carried in the double bottom, and can be replaced, as consumed, with water ballast.
Oil is also carried in the fore and aft peaks.
Recent Oil Steamers.
One of the latest examples of an oil steamer is the ss. Trocas, which has been
fitted for liquid fuel by the Wallsend Slipway and Engineering Company, Ltd., the
system adopted being the Flannery-Boyd with Rusden & Eeles burners.
The ship is an oil-carrying vessel of 347 feet in length and 457 feet beam, and at
full load carries 6,000 tons of oil.
One of the greater obstacles in the way of fitting old steamers with liquid fuel-
burning arrangements is the difficulty of constructing suitable spaces to carry the
113
I
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
liquid fuel.
Ordinary coal bunkers are of course not suitable, as the riveting and
plating is not oil-tight. In the Flannery-Boyd system the oil is carried in all the
ballast tank spaces throughout the ship, namely, the fore and aft peaks, the
double bottom ballast tanks under the engines and boilers, the forward ballast tank
adjacent to the fore peak, and the forward and aft cofferdam.
The main difficulty in carrying liquid fuel in these spaces is that some water
always remains in a ballast tank, owing to the difficulty of completely draining it.
This water becomes mixed with the liquid fuel, and passing to the burners causes
dangerous explosions, and generally puts out flame. It is therefore necessary to
eliminate the water. To do this two settling tanks of large capacity are placed in
the 'tween decks amidships, adjacent to the boiler room bulkhead. These tanks
are fitted with heating coils to enable the liquid fuel to be heated to a sufficient
temperature to allow of the water freely separating. The water then settles to the
bottom of the tank, and can be drained off.
Each tank is made of sufficient size to contain half a day's supply, so that half
a day is allowed for the water to become separated. From these separation or
service tanks the oil gravitates to the burners, and is sprayed by a jet of steam.
Each furnace is fitted with two burners, and the furnace arrangements are such
that the complete coal burning gear remains intact when burning liquid fuel, so that
the system of either coal burning or liquid fuel burning can be resorted to at will.
If the vessel is burning liquid fuel, and it is found necessary from economical
reasons to resort to coal burning, it is only necessary to rake a few broken fire-
bricks from the bars and disconnect the burners and light a coal fire. This operation
can be carried on, without stopping the vessel, at sea; the whole operation in a large
vessel can be carried out within an hour.
The ss. Trocas has three large single-ended boilers and one donkey boiler.
The large boilers have each three furnaces, and the small boiler has two furnaces.
All are fitted for liquid fuel.
In Chapter XXXI. a recent example of an oil tank steamer will be found illus-
trated.
Use of Liquid Fuel at Sea.
Sir Fortescue Flannery states in his 1902 paper to the Institution of Naval
Architects that the use of astatki was commenced in 1870 on the Caspian Sea and
Volga, and about 400 vessels are now equipped. As the Volga is a fresh-water
river, steam can be used as the pulverizing agent without evil results in scale.
Progress has been slow because the supply of oil was for years very small, but over
7,000,000 tons annually are now used as fuel in Russia, and the world's production
has much increased of late years, and in addition to the British Admiralty, the
Italian and German Admiralties have taken up the study and experiment. The
Hamburg-American Line have four steamers fitted for liquid fuel, and the North
German Lloyd have two. The Dutch Navy have combined liquid fuel with coal
in two destroyers, and Dutch mail and cargo boats in the East are regular users
of oil.
(6
Supply.
Storage and supply systems of this fuel are in regular use, or in course of
arrangement, at the ports of London, Barrow, Southampton, Amsterdam, Copen-
hagen, New Orleans, Savannah, New York, Philadelphia, Singapore, Hong Kong,
Madras, Colombo iez, Hamburg, Port Arthur, Texas, Rangoon, Calcutta, Bombay,
114
THE USE OF OIL FUEL AT SEA
Alexandria, Bankok, Saigon, Penang, Batavia, Surabaya, Amoy, Swatow, Fuchow,
Shanghai, Hankow, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Zanzibar, Mombassa, Yokohama,
Kobé, and Nagasaki, and storage arrangements are projected in South African and
South American ports.
"The supply to these stations will be drawn as regards the ports east of the
Suez Canal from Borneo and Rangoon, and as regards those west of the Canal and
in South America from the Texas fields, South African stations being neutral as
regards the heavy charges of the Suez Canal, and therefore likely to draw their
supply from Borneo or Texas with equal economy. The South American stations
will probably be supplied from the Texas and Californian fields."
The question of safety and flash-point is of importance. The British Ad-
miralty have hitherto required a flash-point of 270°F., Lloyds' register of 200°
now reduced to 150°, while the German authorities have accepted as safe 150°.
Fuel of the lower flash has been in constant use for four years in British and Dutch
mercantile vessels with complete immunity from accident. It is not desirable to
fix a flash point higher than is really necessary for safety, because high-flash points
are obtained by removing the more volatile parts of the liquid, so as to leave a thick
and sluggish residuum, which requires much power to pulverize it into spray.
Comparative Advantages for War Vessels.
Sir Fortescue continues: "The problem that confronts every designer of a
warship is the combination of the maximum speed, armament, ammunition supply,
protection, and range of action in the smallest and least expensive hull, and any
reduction of weight and space of these is a saving which acts and reacts favourably
upon the problem. The comparisons between coal and oil fuel realized in recent
practice are that 2 tons weight of oil are equivalent to 3 tons weight of coal, and
36 cubic feet of oil are equivalent to 67 cubic feet of coal as usually stored in ships'
bunkers; that is to say, if the change of fuel be effected in an existing war vessel,
or applied to any design without changing any other of the data than those affecting
the range of action, the range of action is increased 50 per cent. upon the bunker
weight allotted, and nearly 90 per cent. upon the bunker space allotted.
66
The coal protection of cruisers, if an advantage—a matter of opinion-would
disappear with the use of liquid fuel, because it would be for the most part stowed
below the water line, if not wholly in the double bottom. The double bottom and
other spaces, quite useless except for water stowage, would be capable of storing
liquid fuel, and the space now occupied by coal bunkers would be available for other
uses.
"The ship's complement would be reduced by the almost complete abolition of
the stoker element and the substitution of men of the leading stoker class to attend
to the fuel burners under the direction of the engineers, and the space of stokers'
accommodation, the weight of their stores, together with the expense of their main-
tenance, would be saved. The number of lives at risk and of men to be recruited
and trained over a long series of years would be reduced, without reducing the
manoeuvreing or offensive or defensive power of vessels of any class in the fleet.
Re-bunkering at sea-so anxious a problem with coal-would be made easy,
there being no difficulty in pumping from a store ship to a warship in mid-ocean in
ordinary weather. Three hundred tons an hour is quite a common rate of delivery
in the discharge of a tank steamer's cargo under ordinary conditions of pumping.
((
The many parts of the boiler fronts and stokehold plates, now so quickly
115
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
corroded by the process of damping ashes before getting them overboard, would be
preserved by the action of the oil fuel, and the same remark applies to the bunker
plating, which now so quickly perishes by corrosion in way of the coal storage.
"Liquid fuel, if burned in suitable furnaces with reasonable skill and experience
on the part of the men in charge, is smokeless. It is easy to produce smoke with it,
but this is evidence of its being forced in combustion, or of the detailed arrangements
of the furnace being out of proper proportion to each other. In regard to smoke-
lessness, it is, when used under conditions customary in the merchant service, not
inferior to Welsh coal, and superior to any other coal ordinarily in use.
The cost of oil in the East is less than the cost of Welsh coal when the cost of
transport and Suez Canal dues are added to the original price of coal as delivered
in a Welsh port.'
It is only since Texas oil has been discovered that the successful competition
of oil has appeared probable to the west of the Suez Canal. In the mercantile
marine advantage is gained by a reduction of the stokehold complement, a crew of
thirty-two being reducible to eight.
The big and fast Atlantic liners find it difficult to get coal to their boilers in
sufficient quantity for the firemen to burn, and they lose time in consequence, even
when their engines and boilers are in perfect order. This difficulty disappears with
oil, and there is a saving of space previously occupied by men and stores.
Allowing 3 tons of coal to be equal to 2 tons of oil, a first-class Atlantic liner will
gain 1,000 tons for freight, as well as the whole of the bunker space. That is, with oil
in the peaks and ballast tanks, there will be a gain of 100,000 cubic feet of paying
space, and for most ships at least a fourth of the coal bunker space could be used
for cargo. There is in addition the saving in time when coaling.
Oil is pumped
in without the help of a man. No fires require to be cleaned; there are no ashes to
be removed.
The advantages are thus summed up by a firm of engineers who instal liquid
fuel apparatus, and as the statements they make are perfectly true, they may be
printed practically in extenso, and are applicable to both marine and locomotive
practice, as well as to stationary work.
"Aside from the economy over the use of coal resulting from the less actual cost
of oil, where this is the case, and the amount of which can be readily figured out for
each locality, there are fundamental economies resulting from the facts that oil
is much more readily handled than coal; it can be stored at a less cost, does not
deteriorate when stored (as does coal), and the fire room cost is much reduced.
Fires made by oil are perfectly steady, and the steam pressure is constant, while the
temperature of the stoke-hold in steamships is lower, owing to the fact that the
furnace doors are never opened and hot cinders and ashes are not pulled out into the
In addition to these fundamental advantages, there are also other more
particular advantages resulting from the use of this fuel.
room.
"1. Diminished loss of heat up the stack, owing to the clean condition of the
tubes and to the smaller amount of air which has to pass through the furnaces for
a given calorific capacity of fuel.
"2. More equal distribution of heat in the combustion chamber, as the doors
do not have to be opened; consequently there is a higher efficiency. The heat is
easier on the metal walls of the boiler, being better diffused over the whole surface.
'3. Reduction in cost of handling fuel, which is done mechanically by pumps.
(6
116
THE USE OF OIL FUEL AT SEA
4. No firing tools or grate bars are used,¹ consequently the furnace lining
suffers no damage.
"5. No dust or ashes to fill the tubes or diminish the heating surface, or to
be handled and carted away.
"6. Liquid fuel does not suffer when stored, while deterioration of coal under
atmospheric influence is well known, not to mention the expense and shrinkage in
handling, labour of feeding fires, removing clinkers, etc.
"7. Ease with which the fire can be regulated from a low to an intense heat in
a short time.
66
8. Lessening of manual labour to the firemen.
"9. Great increase of steaming capacity, as conclusively proved by many
factories in Pennsylvania and Ohio having to increase their boiler capacity by about
35 per cent. when returning to the use of coal on account of the high cost of oil."
¹ Grate bars may be employed, under certain conditions, as explained elsewhere.
117
- Steam
A
ол
B
T¹
Chapter XV
MARINE FURNACE GEAR
HE use of steam or of air for atomizing is a mixed question. Steam is more
convenient and is naturally first used, but it becomes so severe a drain
on the fresh water supply that it is practically inadmissible at sea.
RUSDEN & EELES
N° O
18
Orl
BURNERS
F
C
D
Steam
Steam
A
B.
F
C
Hinge of
doors
this side
Fig. 4. FURNACE FRONTS OF SS.
"MUREX
,,
The claim that its oxygen is set free by the fire and burned with advantage
to the evaporative efficiency of the boiler cannot be for a moment entertained or
maintained. Needless it is, almost, to say that the dissociation of water or steam
absorbs exactly as much heat from the fire as is given back by the recombination.
Some makers of atomizing apparatus claim to secure a softer flame with steam,
but so far as our chemical and physical knowledge extends, air ought to be superior.
It requires, however, to be first compressed, and it also seems desirable that it
118
MARINE FURNACE GEAR
should be heated to near the flash point of the fuel in order that this may at once
be in a condition to burn freely as soon as atomized.
The ships in the Caspian Sea use steam, but are never far from land. Fuel
may be injected under pressure and break up against an obstacle at the furnace
mouth, or it may be vaporized by heat before reaching the furnace mouth.
In Mr. Howden's modification, fuel is injected under pressure mixed with air
previously heated by the waste chimney gases, and this system has been fitted
K
})
K
H
7
H
TH
B
Fig. 5. ARRANGEMENT OF FURNACE BRICKWORK, SS. "MUREX ”
to the North German Lloyd steamers Tanglier and Packman; by Workman,
Clark & Co., of Belfast.
In the ss. Murex already named, which arrived in the Thames in the spring
of 1902 from a voyage of 11,800 miles, from Singapore viâ the Cape, the furnaces
were never touched. Her coal consumption averaged 25 tons per day. With oil
fuel the daily consumption is 16 tons only. The fuel supply arrangements, fig. 4,
consist of steam pipes A A A A, oil pipes B B B B, and burners C C C C, hung
on swivels D, so as to be adjustable in position, and to allow the doors to open
upon the same axis or hinge centre. Coal can be reverted to, when the burner
119
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
orifices F F F F are closed by the pivoted slides. In fig. 5 is shown the brick.
work H H in the form of pillars and arches against which the flames first
impinge. At K K K are further baffle bridges to keep the flame from too
severely striking the back of the combustion chamber carrying the stay nuts, the
tube ends, rivet seams and parts liable to injury from excessive local heat.
The form of burner is the
Rusden-Eeles
type, fig. 6, with adjustable annular orifices both for steam and oil. They possess
that apparent essential quality of adjustability while at work in order to secure
BURNER
Size N: O
Fig. 6. RUSDEN-EELES ATOMIZER
the most perfect possible conditions of combustion. The oil annulus is surrounded
by a steam jacket, and steam enters the middle chamber and escapes into the
furnace round the central stem P which is drawn back by revolving the wheel N,
and allows an annular spreading steam jet to escape round the flaring end of the
stem P. Oil finds its way to the little ring chamber immediately at the nozzle,
and is directed down the sloping ends of the slide directly upon the steam jet which
pulverizes it and spreads it in the furnace. The oil slide is drawn back by revolving
the handle L.
The packing rings B and J are self-explanatory and prevent back flow of oil
or of steam at the spindles.
Interchange of Coal and Oil.
To permit the ready interchange of coal and oil the ss. Trocas was fitted
as in fig. 7, the coal grates remaining and being covered with 8 inches of broken
brick. The brickwork B, C and D always remains in place.
To change over from oil to coal the burners are swung back to clear the furnace
door, the broken brick is raked out and ordinary coal firing resumed. In twenty-
eight minutes after steaming full speed under oil the Trocas was again at full speed
under coal.
It is, however, found as the result of experience of long voyages that it is
better not to let the firebars remain in when using oil, for, at the worst, the change
over can be made in a few hours and better results obtained from oil with the more
approved arrangement. The general arrangement of the ss. Trocas is that of
fig. 4.
It is estimated by Sir Fortescue Flannery that the atomizing steam will amount
120
MARINE FURNACE GEAR
to 0.2 pound per i.h.p. per hour. The waste is made up by large evaporators;
usually in three interchangeable sections which should be worked steadily.
Two burners in each furnace are found to give better results than one larger
A..
Fire Brick
73
B
A
Broken Fire Brick
Fig. 7. FURNACE ARRANGEMENT OF SS. “TROCAS"
burner, being more easily adjustable and maintaining continuity of flame. There
is also greatly diminished chance of extinguishment of the flames by an accidental
access of water from imperfectly dried oil.
The Flannery-Boyd System for Steam Ships.
The chief object of the system is to separate from the oil fuel the water which
may have become mixed with it in any manner and also to enable oil fuel to be
carried in ballast tanks or other compartments of a vessel where water is usually
carried as ballast or for trimming purposes.
To get rid of the water two or more settling tanks are used, in which the oil is
allowed to remain a sufficient length of time to permit of the water being deposited.
In each tank a heating apparatus is introduced to assist the action, as it has been
found by heating the oil within certain limits the water is more quickly deposited,
owing to the expansion of oil being greater than that of water, and also because the
oil is made less viscous by heat. Two or more tanks must be used, so that while
the water is being deposited in one tank the dried oil in the other may be fed to the
burners. The system is applicable, of course, to all or any system of burning oil.
It is illustrated in fig. 8 in diagrammatic form, showing the various pipe arrange-
ments, etc., the oil feed pump 3 drawing from the ballast tank 1 through a pipe 4
and delivering by pipes 5 to the service tanks 22, whence the oil gravitates by way
of pipes 7 to the oil burner supply pipes 9. Overflow pipes 13 carry back any surplus
oil to the main tanks, and water separated in the service tanks is discharged by way
of pipes 12.
The service pipes are kept free of pressure by vent pipes 14, carried up several
feet.
The general arrangement of an oil ship is described under the head of carriage
of oil, and one of the latest examples, the ss. Newyork, is illustrated in fig. 117,
Chapter XXXI.
121
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
The Orde System.
In figs. 9, 9a, 10, 11 are shown various arrangements of oil fuel burning by Sir
W. E. Armstrong, Whitworth, and Co., of Newcastle-on-Tyne, according to the
system of Mr. C. E. L. Orde.
12
OIL FUEL
ARRANGEMENT
FLANNERY
OF
ON THE
BOYD
SERVICE TANK
PATENT SYSTEM
N.B SERVICE TANKS NUMBER 2 MAY BE MADE ROUND, SQUARE OR BUILT INTO SHIP
1
BALLAST TANK
2
SERVICE TANKS.
3 CEED Pume
4 SUCTION PIPE FROM BALLAST TANK
5 DELIVERY PIPES TO SERVICE TANKS
5 SHUT OFF VALVES ON DELIVERY PIPES TO SERVICE BANKS
6
OUTLET YALVES ON SERVICE TANKS.
7
CONVITATION PIPES
9
DELIVERY PIPES TO QUL BURNERS
10. OIL BURNERS
-OIL GAUGES,
12 | drain PIPES FROM service yanKS,
4
|12 | drain COCKS
|_ 13 | OVERFLOW PIPES FROM SERVICE TANKS
114. Iain PIPES ON SERVISE TANKS.
15 İSTEAM PIPES TO BURKERS
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9 shows the general arrangement for a water tube boiler. Steam, super-
heated in the casing by means of a pipe carried round the steam dome, is taken to
a subsidiary steam header whence branch pipes issue to five separate burners.
Oil is fed by similar pipes from a second header supplied from the bunker or oil
122
123
Port
Pipe.
Pumpe
ers
Burners
Hel
Relief Valve
iske Life.
bock
che Pupe
Fig. 9. ARRANGEMENT OF WATER TUBE BOILER. ORDE'S LIQUID FUEL SYSTEM
Starbd.
to be well
lagged with felt.
Check Spring
Suction to out
sump
010-
划
​Flexible Bronze Fuling
Oil Bunker
½ Serizing Were
Shelch
f
Water Separating lipparatus.
Fig. 9a. FUEL OIL BUNKER.
Stop
Stop
•
•
DRAW-OFF PIPE AND FLOAT
124
MARINE FURNACE GEAR
tank through a heater seen on the right. This heater contains exhaust steam, and
heats the oil on its way to the burners. The oil is drawn off from the tank as in fig.
9a by means of a floating arm, which always takes the highest oil from an area which
is heated by a steam pipe coil placed under the intake of the oil pipe. The heat
thins the oil and allows any enclosed water to drop away, thus securing dry oil.
A small pump forces the oil to the distribution system, a relief pipe carrying any
Que
معلوم
→
CABE
Fig. 10. ATOMIZER. ORDE'S SYSTEM
excess back to the pump suction. Air is supplied to the burners by a separate pump
on the left, being heated in the ash pit through which the pipe is laid. The copper
steam pipe to the float is flexible to allow for the float movement, and the float is
kept steady laterally by a piece of angle iron bent to a circular form to suit the path
of the float arm.
Blow through steam pipes are fitted for clearing the oil pipes when
required. The atomizer, fig. 10, is triple, oil entering through the centre passage
125
O
N
Fig. 11. ATOMIZER TRUNNION. ORDE'S SYSTEM
126
MARINE FURNACE GEAR
with needle regulating spindle. Steam comes outside the oil through an annular
passage and air is introduced outside the whole, the mixture being blown through
the spreading orifice as spray. The oil does not come through as a solid jet into the
combining nozzle, but as a thin annular shell jet easily atomized. The atomizer,
however, differs from some others which admit air at the centre. The trunnion for
the atomizer is shown in fig. 11.
Highly superheated steam is intended to be used (preferably 600°F.).
The annexed table gives a few results of actual use of oil at sea. It is extracted
from a paper by Sir F. Flannery, in the Transactions of the Institution of Naval
Architects.
Ship.
System.
Oil I.H.P.
per
per hour.
Coal per
I.H.P.
Heating Sur-
I.H.P.
face.
Per cent. of
gain by use
of oil.
lb.
lb.
sq. ft.
F. C. Laeisz
Körting
1.408
1.93
7560
2200
27
Sithonia
Howden
1.065
1.49
6924
2500
28.6
Murex
Rusden-Eeles
1.3
25 tons
5202
36.0
16 tons p.d. per day
Syriam
Khodoung.
Orde
1.32
1.08
2480
800
1.67
2700
960
35.5
In each case, except the Sithonia, which had quadruple engines, the engines
were triple expansion.
In fig. 12 is shown an arrangement of furnace and combustion chambers brick-
work, by the Wallsend Slipway and Engineering Company, for a marine boiler, the
bars being removed. In fig. 13 the general arrangement of a ship is given which was
fitted with the furnace arrangements shown in figs. 4 and 7.
Lancashire Boiler with Orde's System.
The Lancashire boiler as arranged by the Wallsend Slipway and Engineering
Company for burning oil with or without a grate is given in fig. 14.
A single injector is applied to each furnace door, the grate is covered with broken
brick, and at the middle of its length a brick baffle is built, round and through which
the flames escapes, and after passing a low bridge at the rear of the grate escapes
unimpeded.
Without a grate, the furnace is fitted with a brick oven and striking bridge,
beyond which is a cellular baffle of brick which gives a final mixing to the gases
before they are quite consumed.
A gravitation tank is placed about 10 feet above the level of the atomizers with
suitable valves, vent pipe, overflow and gauge. The supply pipe to the atomizer
has a strainer in its course.
These various arrangements differ very little from those of other engineers,
the chief object being the atomizing and the arrangement of the firebrick oven and
bridges.
The Körting System.
In this system, as fitted to the Hamburg-American ss. F. C. Laeisz, the water
is first separated out of the oil which is raised by a pump, and is heated to 60°C. =
140°F. by a heater on the suction pipe, and it is filtered before it reaches the pump
127
SECTION AT E. F.
4
DRAIN HOLE.
FOR WATER
C
A
E
D
3:3
2:0
PIGEON HOLE
FOR ESCAPE
OF WATER
9' WIDE BUTTRESS IN CENTRE
OF C.C.
PARTIALLY BUILT INTO
BAFFLE AS SHEWN
4..6" BRICKWORK
SECTION AT C.D.
DRAIN HOLES SECTION AT A.B.
Fig. 12. ARRANGEMENT OF BRICKWORK IN MAIN BOILER FURNACES FOR OIL BURNING INSTALLATIONS WALLSEND SLIPWAY AND ENGINEERING CO., LTD.
128
129
K
GRANCE,CHATEN
OIL FURL
AGPUNITAThood TANKS
À MATÈN CAPACITY Weina se
BAMA AT A SHIFADAR #ING= 1
Abová BvUTERS
RUSDEN AND Ecles
Karalizon batası
OIL FUEL
ས་
SECTION AF FOR" Emune Room Bulknead Looking FORWARD
Emane Ro
Fig. 13.
TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF LIQUID FUEL SYSTEM.
SYSTEM. WALLSEND SLIPWAY AND ENGINEERING CO.
DROGEN FIRE.
Sme
SECTIONAT AB
Fig. 14.
OIL FUEL ARRANGEMENT FOR LANCASHIRE BOILER, ORDE's System.
WALLSEND SLIPWAY AND ENGINEERING CO.
ABOUT
10.0
___MANHOL
GAUGE
AIR PIPE
ANK
ILLING VALVE
GRAVITATION Tank
CAPACITY
About 2 TONS
OVERFLOW Pipe_
OIL
NOTE DRIP TRAY WITH DRAIN
___Pipe To Bг Fitted
_Under Gravitation Tank
VALVE
WROT IRON
PIFE
DOUBLE STRAINER
(PLACED IN Most-
CONVENIENT POSITION)
AS HIGH AS Possible
_WROT IRON
_Pipe
FILLING PIPE
(TO BE ARRANGED
As REQUIRED )
WAY COCKS
FLANGES 5 DIA
GRAVITATION PIPE
TO BURNERS
STEAM VALVE
2. RUSHDEN & ELES
STEAM TO BURNERS
__COPPER PIPE
NOO BURNERS
List of Fittings Supplied
DOUBLE OIL STRAINER
2₁₂ TWO WAY COCKS
2, NOO RUSHDEN & ELES BURNERS WITH SWIVELS
2, COMPLETE FURNACE FRONTS With Doors & QuARLS
SWIVELS & BURNERS MARKED THUS
7.04.
BROKEN FIRE Brick Tɔ Be SPREAD OVER BARS
8.0
VIEW OF BRIDGE
-ARRANGEMENT OF BRICKWORK IN FURNACES BARS REMOVEO
26.0 LONG
૭
Fire Brick QUARLS
TO BE FITTED ROUND DOOR
SEE SKETCHA ABOVE FOR
SECTION OF BRICK BAFFLE
Broken FirE BRICK TO BE SHREAD OVER BARS
}
130
MARINE FURNACE GEAR
valve, and is thence delivered to a second heater, which raises its temperature to 90°C. =
194°F., and after a second filtration and under a pressure of thirty pounds per square
inch, is injected round a screwed needle, which causes the hot oil to spray itself.
The bars are omitted, and the furnace lined in fire-brick and the air is admitted
through adjustable perforated gratings. The whole is shown in figs. 15, 16, 16a,
17, 18, 19, 19a. The same company have now four vessels so fitted.
REFERENCE
Suchora Filter.
TABLE TO DIAGRAM.
N°
2345E
2 3 Way Cocks
3
6
air Cock
Heater (Suchora)
4 Steam Valve
5 Condense water draina cock.
7 Emplying Cock.
8 Simplex. Steam pump.
9 Steam Valve.
10
3 Way cock.
||
Hand Pump.
12 Safety Valve.
13 air vessel. with Manometer. (pressure Gauge).
14 Heater (Delivery)
15
Steam Valve.
16 Condense water draira cock.
17 Air Cock.
18 Steam pressure reducing valve. with pressure gauge.
19 Thermometer.
20 Cocks.
21 Centrifugal Spray 20zzle.
22 Suction from Oil Tank to Steam pump.
23
..
Hand
24 Delivery from pumps to Spray apparatus.
25 Circulation from Delivery to Suction.
26 Overflow.
27 Steam from Boiler
28
"
29
to Heater (Delivery)
H
Simplex pump
ñ
15
ㅏ아
​16
14
See Hote
20
24
Ö20
27.
28.
18
29.
24
24
12
26
26
30
22
25
32
24
40
25.
22
22
22
3. 50
31
32
34
30
"
Heater (Suction)
31 Condense water from Heater (Delivery)
32 Exhaust from Steam pump
33 Condense water from beater (Suction)
34 Maira Exhaust Ek
35
Note All connections to Spray Apparatus maust
be taken between 19.120 (or diagram)
Fig. 15.
Diagrammatic Arrangement of Korting's
Centrifugal Spray Apparatus
-for-
Oil Burnin 8m
DIAGRAMMATIC ARRANGEMEnt of KörTING'S CENTRIFUGAL SPRAY APPARATUS FOR OIL BURNING
The front of the oven is a disc of fire-brick with a small opening through which
the spray is delivered and air is admitted. In this system the oil is made to spray
itself and is claimed to be sufficiently atomized by the pressure and the action of
the screwed needle round which it escapes. The general arrangement is as in fig. 15,
and in figs. 16, 16a is shown the detail for a marine treble flue boiler, showing the
two oil heaters in series on the suction and pressure sides of the pump. In fig. 17
is a design arranged by the Wallsend Slipway and Engineering Company for the
Körting System, no brickwork in this case being built in the combustion chamber,
but merely in the oven of the furnace.
The furnace of ss. F. C. Laeisz is shown in fig. 18 with the furnace lining and
the brickwork of the combustion chamber also. In fig. 19 the Körting sprayer is
shown in section, and with its spirally wound needle which throws the oil into rapid
rotation and causes it to spread widely at the nozzle, exactly as in the case of the
Körting water cooling sprayers. The oil is first heated to 130°C. =266°F., according
to Mr. Orde, and forced at a pressure of 50 pounds through the nozzles. It is con-
131
15
13
13'
12
Fig. 16. DETAIL ARRANGEMENT FOR MARINE BOILER. KÖRTING SYSTEM
9
S
132
MARINE FURNACE GEAR
Fig. 16a.
13
13
13
13
6
12
2
21
2-
19
18]
21
21
.10
7
DETAIL ARRANGEMENT FOR MARINE BOILER. KÖRTING SYSTEM
REFERENCE NUMBERS.
1. Suction connexion to Storage Tanks.
2. Primary Heater on Suction Connexion.
3. Connexion between Heater and Filter;
4. Filter.
5. Connexion between Filter and Pump.
6. Duplex Pump.
7. Duplex Pump.
8. Connexion from Pumps to Air Vessel. Relief Valve and Heater.
9. Air Vessel.
10. Relief Valve.
11. Connexion between Relief Valve and Suction Pipe.
12. Secondary Heater on Pressure Connexion.
13. Connexions from Heater to Spray Apparatus.
14. Strainer.
15. Thermometer.
16. Spray Apparatus.
17. Steam Pipe to Primary Heater on Suction Pipe.
18. Steam Pipe to Pumps.
19. Steam Pipe to Secondary Heater on Pressure Pipe
20. Steam Pressure Reducing Valve.
21. Exhaust Discharge from Pumps and Heaters.
22. Return Pipe from Spray Apparatus to Storage Tanks,
133
Fig. 17. KÖRTING SYSTEM. DESIGN BY WALLSEND SLIPWAY AND ENGINEERING Co.
134
MARINE FURNACE GEAR
that all the oil is vaporized before it reaches the chilling zone of unprotected water
cooled plates.
<150..
OEL..
390
350
235
820
690
008
900
Section of Ironwork, shown this
"
44
Brickwork
"
Fig. 18. FURNACE OF SS. “F. C. Laeisz,
""
WITH BRICKWORK.
B
KÖRTING SYSTEM
sidered essential to line the furnace in order to secure perfect combustion and insure
135
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Fuel
Oil
Fig. 19. KÖRTING ATOMIZER
Fig. 19a. KÖRTING ATOMIZER
The diameter of the jet orifice is 1 to 3mm., and in later forms there is a crown
or disc set round the nozzle and pierced with holes of 1.25 mm: diameter, through
which air is intrained. The output under a pressure of six kilos=84.4 pounds,
was as follows when tried at Cherbourg-
•
Orifice
Oil per hour
1 mm.
65 k
143 lb.
1 mm. 25
100 k
220 lb.
1 mm. 5
135 k
297 lb.
Tried on the locomotives of the Vladi-Kavkaz Railway these atomizers with
double jets sprayed 230 kilos =506 lb. per hour under a pressure of only 4.2k=59.8 lb.
From the trials made by the French Navy it appears that these mechanical atomizers
work very regularly and, moreover, silently, if the oil is first filtered and heated to
80°C.=176°F. They are recommended for getting up steam, the force pump being
hand worked until such time as steam is produced sufficiently to work the pulverisers.
M. Bertin lays stress on the benefit of supplying oil to a burner at a considerable
pressure and at a high velocity, for even with air or steam atomizers the fine jet
will atomize more easily, for an oil pressure of three kilos, for example, permits of a
velocity four times as much as is given by a head of 2 metres.
The Howden System.
In the Howden system, a general arrangement of which is given in fig. 20, for
combined coal and oil firing, a modified Körting jet is employed. The closed ashpit
system is employed for the forced draught of the boilers according to the well-known
Howden system, and this of course provides an ample air supply to enter the furnace
around the oil nozzle. When solid fuel is to be used alone and the sprayers are
removed, this air opening is closed by a plug, as shown in the figure at the lower
right hand of fig. 20. The use of solid fuel in combination with oil appears to afford
136
MARINE FURNACE GEAR
Ins 12 6 0
السيل
From Pump H
bustible bed on which any unduly large globules of oil may fall. In fig. 20 the grate
is shown covered with fire-bricks for use with liquid fuel alone.
10 Fere
From
Filter
ALT
Director
Valve
for shutting off
Thums
Screw
Oil from Nozzle
Air Valvs
Regulating Rods
for Air Valve
a favourable opportunity for sprayers of the Körting type, because there is a com-
Oil Nozzle
or Sprayer
Plug
inserted
when burning
Coal
Fig. 20. LIQUID FUEL BURNING, COMBINED SYSTEM. HOWDEN'S SYSTEM OF FORCED DRAUGHT WITH CLOSED ASHPITS
137
I
Chapter XVI
LIQUID FUEL APPLICATIONS TO LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS
The Holden System
N this system, which was the first to come into extensive use in Great Britain,
the object has been to combine liquid and solid fuels so that either or both can
be used indifferently without a moment's notice of the change.
Mr. Holden, of the Great Eastern Railway of England, was troubled to dispose
of the tars produced by oil gas apparatus, and primarily devised his system for
getting rid of this; but he has used many liquids for fuel, including coal tar, blast
furnace tar and oil, shale oil, creosote and green oils, astatki and crude petroleum.
Locomotives thus fitted are very clean to work, make no dust, smoke or sparks,
have little wear of tubes or fireboxes and have little ash and clinker to remove.
Steam can be raised rapidly, adjusted at an even pressure, and waste at the safety
valve is prevented. Any boiler can be fitted for liquid fuel without alteration of
furnace, though it is desirable in the locomotive to add a fire-brick lining on the tube
plate below the arch.
The fire is made up thin with coal and about 120 pounds of broken chalk, a
commodity cheap enough in South England or East Anglia. The ashpit damper
is kept sufficiently open to maintain the fire bright.
There is nothing striking to be seen from the footplate, with the exception of
an extra fitting on the firebox casing, carrying four steam cocks and two small
wheel valves about the firedoor level on each side thereof. Looking into the firebox
there is seen, however, only a light fire of coal upon the grate, and yet this engine is
to run the down train in a few minutes' time and has yet to get up full steam pressure.
A hinged plate appears under the fire door, and on lifting this there are visible
two holes through the firebox outer casing leading into the firebox. They are
disposed equidistant on each side of the centre line 21 inches apart, and they are
5 inches diameter and 10 inches above the grate surface. In each hole is a ring of
pipe perforated on the front side so as to direct numerous jets of steam forward into
the firebox. These cause an induced current of air. In the centre of each of the
rings there is the nozzle of an injector. These are steam worked and inject oil into
the firebox, mixed with air, which enters at the rear of the injectors by an india-
rubber hose connexion from the vacuum brake if this is used.
The steam inlet to each injector is on the inside, steam coming by a single pipe,
which branches off by square turns right and left to the injectors. Oil enters by
separate pipes worked by the two independent regulating wheel valves, which stand
above the footplate at the fire door level. Each valve is thus independently ad-
138
LIQUID FUEL APPLICATIONS TO LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS
justable, but both can be worked together by a special gear, instantly to open and
close, if necessary, at stations and other stops. Otherwise the oil apparatus is con-
trolled from the four cocks mentioned above. One of these turns steam on to the
injector supply; another, by similarly arranged right and left branch pipes, turns
on steam to the air injecting rings first named; and a third admits steam into a
warming coil in the oil tank for the purpose of bringing the oil to a state sufficiently
liquid to flow freely to the injectors, and also to destroy its viscidity to enable it
to be sprayed sufficiently fine by the action of the steam and the air injected with
it. The fourth serves as an oil pipe clearer, and can be used to blow back steam
through the oil fuel pipes to the tank to clear any obstruction or to blow back oil
which has cooled in the pipe or to warm the pipe, and to blow through the oil pas-
sages of the injectors as shown.
The Great Eastern Railway favours the Westinghouse brake, but has a number
of engines fitted with the automatic vacuum brake in order to be able to run the
cars of other companies. This fills a Board of Trade requirement.
The mode of working the oil burning apparatus is as follows: the engine
comes up from the shed with the light coal fire with which steam has been made.
It is clear and red and the firebrick arch is well heated, and the fire made up with
chalk lumps as usual. When desired to burn oil, the steam is first set blowing through
the injector. The delivery of the injectors is directly forwards and sideways, the
nozzle having two orifices. No oil is therefore sent against the firebox sides, but
only towards the brick arch and towards the middle of the box, the two inclined
jets approaching each other. After the steam is turned on, the oil admission valves
are slowly opened and the oil is sprayed and ignites apparently at once, the whole
firebox being filled with a dazzling white flame as seen through the sighthole in the
door.
If this alone is done, there is smoke at the funnel from insufficient air supply.
This is instantly checked by turning steam into the ring jets which draw in a further
large quantity of air through the five inch openings, and smoke can be reduced to
any desired extent down to total disappearance. This is a specially valuable feature
in economy, for while it is so desirable to prevent smoke, it is equally undesirable
to admit too much air, and this can be regulated to a nicety, merely enough air to
stop the smoke being injected, or even only enough to reduce the smoke to an occa-
sional suspicion of it. There need be no waste due to excess of cold air unnecessarily
introduced.
As now set going, there is rapid steam production, and nothing further is necessary
to be done, but the engine will continue to produce steam as long as the oil is supplied.
The light coal fire is kept going by an occasional shovel of coal, or a little chalk is
added, as required.
Though the whole apparatus is thus exceedingly simple, if it were possible for it
to be put out of order in the middle of a trip, the fireman would commence to shovel
coal upon the existing bed of fire which has been, as usual, started with the custom-
ary care as to using lumps of chalk on the.grate, and the engine would run on as
an ordinary coal burner without a hitch or stoppage.
When on a trip, if steam is high, the injectors can be instantly stopped on
arriving at a station, or, if the steam is low, continued at full blast as when running,
and the fire kept up to a maximum efficiency and steam got up during the wait.
There is less dependence on the blast pipe, and a variable blast nozzle is used, the
simple movement of a lever in the cab swinging a hinged cap over the pipe top and
139
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
reducing the nozzle from 5 inches to 5 inches diameter when necessary for coal
burning.
Should any oil by chance be unburned and travel so far as the brick arch, and
even run down it, it cannot live and travel over the firebrick protection of the lower
tube plate without vaporization and combustion, hence this protection, which is the
one slight difference observable from common practice, a difference, however, of no
importance or injury to the engine's coal burning properties.
There is no projection of any oil upon the firebox sides, neither is there any local
intense combustion as exists in such systems as vaporize the oil before igniting,
and thereby produce local plate wasting. On the contrary, the whole interior of
the firebox is filled with flame, and no special ignition point, or rather, combustion
area, is apparent. Heating is therefore general, and temperature even.
Though nominally a pound of oil has not the steam making power of two
pounds of coal, nor perhaps could it be shown to have, in a prolonged test; yet in
practice, one pound of oil is found to be equal to double the quantity of coal, owing
to the facility of regulation and the saving at the safety valve and of the back pressure
from reduced blast pipe resistance. All these points are favourable to the oil, which
has the further advantage of cleanliness and greatly reduced labour all round, for it
makes no unconsumable refuse, requires no stoking beyond the keeping up of the
small bed of coal fire, which seems to have such an advantage, where liquid fuel
supplies are doubtful in quantity and uncertain in price, over any system of oil
burning which rejects coal entirely.
In the ordinary work of the Great Eastern Railway the run between London and
Cambridge about 56 miles will be made with one firebox full of fuel made up
ready for the run and untouched. This will bring the train to its destination, and
if it were known that the engine would be shedded at once the steam might be pretty
well reduced and the fire left to finish nearly dead. Here comes in the advantage of
liquid fuel. Even if steam be down and the fire nearly out, the turning of a handle.
or two will put the engine in readiness to take out any train in five minutes after
notice, and thus an engine may be worked to the economy it would be if about to be
shedded, and yet be ready for a full-power run almost instantly. As the fireman
remarked, "She will keep steam as far as Doncaster without an effort, and then be
just as fit to run a further 200 miles as when she started."
On the occasion of the author's run to Cambridge on No. 760, the Doncaster
Express started out from Liverpool Street with a train of seventeen vehicles, weigh-
ing, exclusive of engine and tender, 537,600 pounds, or 240 English tons (269
American tons).
The total train weight was thus 704,508 pounds, but six vehicles were slipped
at Broxbourne, and the remainder of the journey made with 11 only. The run to
Cambridge was made in 75 minutes, including the slow-up for Broxbourne slip and
several signal blocks, none of which, however, involved actual stoppage.
The fireman's work consisted in a very little use of the shovel to keep up the
thin fuel bed on the grate, and in attention to the oil apparatus at the slow-ups to
prevent the waste of steam at the safety valve.
About 120 pounds of chalk is put upon the grate for lighting up, and it would
seem that this quantity could be increased and the firebed worked to a very con-
siderable degree of what would be called dirtiness if not for the daily lighting up,
that is, the engine could be run night and day until the grate was almost completely
impervious to air, only enough air being needed to keep the thin fire reasonably
140
LIQUID FUEL APPLICATIONS TO LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS
red. For lighting up, however, the fire is started in a clear grate, as usual, and the
month's average (November) of fuel, including lighting up, is 12.2 pounds of oil per
mile and 11 pounds of coal, or a total of 23-2 pounds of fuel. Nine other engines of
the same class and the same range of duties averaged 34 pounds of coal per mile for
the same month. Thus one pound of oil was practically equivalent to two pounds
of coal.
Mr. Holden states that his early experiments convinced him that, for oil burning
to be a success, the apparatus for the purpose must be independent of any firebox
alterations, or, indeed, of anything which would prevent instant return to coal
or solid fuel, or its use in lighting up. Hence his special injector to break up the oil
into a fine spray without the use of brick work, hitherto common as a means of
giving an extended surface of exposure to the oil. This breaking up of the oil is
enhanced by the several small ring jets which converge on the issuing jet of oil, and
both spread and mix it with air and diffuse the flame throughout the firebox, so
preventing local heating.
The injector, entirely of gun metal, is clearly shown in section in fig. 21. Oil
Front View.
RING JET
FUEL
AIR TUBE
О
Back View.
Section A B.
Section C D
STEAM
STEAM
Fig. 21. HOLDEN ATOMIZER
enters at the side some way back of the steam nozzle and outside this. Steam,
therefore, comes inside a thin ring of oil at the mixing nozzle and through the inner
tube comes the vacuum brake air which, expanding as it becomes heated, still
further aids the breaking up of the oil into spray. The ring jets of steam induce a
further supply of air on the exterior of all, and so is obtained an alternation of air,
oil, and air, which promotes admixture and thorough combustion. The whole
inside of the injector is removable and can be replaced with a spare set in a few
minutes when running. Removal of the brake hose connexion allows the injector
nozzle to be cleared by a wire while actually at work, this being the main reason of
the through passage which has been utilized, also for the purposes of the vacuum
brake. As the engines of the Great Eastern Company were the first express engines
141
A. Steam fitting with four cocks :
1. Steam to warmer in fuel tank.
2. Steam to rings on injectors.
3. Steam to jets in centre of injectors.
4. Steam to clear fuel pipes and injectors
B' B." Liquid fuel injectors.
C' C". Liquid fuel regulating valves.
D' D"" D.""' Liquid fuel pipes with cock at E.
F. Manhole with filling hole.
G.
Air inlet.
H. Warming coil.
I. Patent variable blast pipe.
O
BRICK ARCH
IN
2-
3-
SCALE OF FEET
TOE
LIQUID FUEL TANK
CAPACITY
500 IMPERIAL CALLONS
موهو
LIQUID FUEL TANK
CAPACITY BO CUBIC FEET
О
Fig. 22.
GREAT EASTERN RAILWAY LOCOMOTIVE No. 760. HOLDEN'S SYSTEM
142
LIQUID FUEL APPLICATIONS TO LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS
to burn liquid fuel, the general dimensions of No. 760 class, fig. 22, will perhaps be
of interest. They are as follows-
Cylinders, diameter
stroke
Boiler, diameter outside
length of tubes (steel)
diameter of tubes
number of tubes
Firebox length
breadth
height
Grate surface
Leading wheels
44
19
8
1 ft. 6 in.
2 0,
4
10
256
5
3
""
""
""
99
3 1/
4,
5 73 ?
17.9 sq. ft.
4 ft. 0 in.
78
Driving wheels
7
0
Coupled trailers
7
0
Wheel base
16
6
""
""
Weight on leading wheels
32,312 pounds.
drivers
31,472
trailers
30,324
Total.
94,108
or 42 tons.
Weight of tender
Capacity, water
oil
coal
72,800 pounds in working order.
2,640 gals. (English or 10 lb. gals.)
500 gals.
4,500 pounds.
140
Steam pressure
ports
""
""
lap
Valve travel
13 in. x 15 in.
7
8
33 in.
Blast nozzle, 53in. in diameter, reducible to 5 in. for coal burning when required.
Specific gravity of liquid fuel, 1·09 to 1∙11, according to mixture.
Minimum gradient 1 in 70 at Bethnal Green.
Weight of train to Broxbourne, exclusive of engine and
tender
537,601 pounds.
Weight of train, total
704,508
Weight of train, after Broxbourne, exclusive of engine
and tender
358,400
Weight of train
525,308
Weight of heavy excursion trains worked on Great Eastern
Railway by No. 760 during the season, train only,
806,400 pounds, total
973,308
It should be added that the brackets of the oil regulating valves were
movable vertically, though this is not clear in the figure. The two brackets were
connected to a hand wheel common to both, and were dropped by a single move-
ment of the wheel, thus shutting off both oil valves and putting them again in action
without varying their individual adjustment. Later arrangements differ somewhat,
the combined motion being given by a lever as in fig. 23.
This single wheel is used for the station stoppages, after which each injector
can be set going again exactly as before the stop, so dispensing with fresh regulation.
The injector steam to be dry comes from high up in the dome. The variable blast
nozzle is shown open as for oil burning.
When liquid fuel has been and is employed in locomotive work, the absence
of a bed of incandescent fuel on the grate is a cause of very serious temperature
143
144
-IN
-21
SHUT
.06
OPEN
51
31
-7° Stra
Straight
•Straudat
T
31
Square Thread
Left handed.
+
Taper pin-
S
Split pin
+..
156 LF many
Taken from Enqire.
3½ Square
गे
Fig. 23.
GREAT EASTERN RAILWAY LIQUID FUEL REGULATING GEAR
mid
EXPRESS
G.E.R.
ENGINES CLASS S.46.
LIQUID FUEL REGULATING GEAR.
STRATFORD WORKS.
OCTOBER 3 1899.
LIQUID FUEL APPLICATIONS TO LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS
STEAM
B
range in the firebox when the oil is shut off at stops. Where a solid fire is main-
tained on what may be termed the combined system, there is always an incandescent
fire to prevent undue cooling when the oil is stopped, and this appears in itself alone.
a valuable feature in the system, quite apart from the question of lighting up in the
ordinary way and the power of using solid fuel if necessary at any time so to do.
The burner or atomizer is shown in figs. 21, 24. Fig. 24 is the stationary form,
and consists of a cone body A to the in-
terior of which the oil is admitted through
a specially designed regulating valve B.
Inside the body an annular steam jet is
introduced, which possesses a
a central
passage for assisting in the supply of air
and also for enabling a wire to be passed
through the burner without shutting off
either oil or steam. At the front, just
behind the nozzle, a hollow ring (C) is
attached, and to this steam is admitted
and allowed to escape from six very fine
jet holes, for better atomizing and distri-
buting the oil. The jets induce a consider-
able current of air, which is mixed with
the spray as it emerges from the nozzle
and ensures complete and smokeless com-
bustion. The steam supplied to the ring
is taken through a branch from a small regulating valve attached to the rear of
the burner, so that only one pipe is required from the boiler; the small jets in front
of the ring are at different angles, which have been found to be most efficient in
practice.
A
(D
Fig. 24.
ATOMIZER.
HOLDEN'S STATIONARY TYPE
The valve B used for regulating the flow of the oil fuel is of special construction,
found desirable after many attempts with different forms of cocks and valves. To
pass regular quantities of thick viscous fluid through the "crooked passage" formed
by the half open plug of a common cock is impossible, and, consequently, some form
of "Straightway" valve is necessary. In the example, a small reservoir of oil is
formed by the body of the valve, and a tube with a slit in it is moved up and down
inside. The proportion of cut exposed in the oil reservoir regulates the supply.
With this valve very fine adjustments in the flow of oil fuel are possible.
The Holden apparatus is now largely used on stationary, locomotive and marine
boilers. The Roumanian Government alone have over 250 locomotives fitted on
this system.
In fig. 25 is shown the firebox, about 8 feet long, of an American locomotive,
which may be compared with the firebox of the Great Eastern Railway locomotive.
In this American box the tube plate and sides of the box are lined with brick, and
there are two air inlets at the bottom of the box opening into the ash pit which has
the usual front and back dampers. In these narrow boxes there is only room for one
atomizer. Oil alone is intended to be used in this furnace, and the area of brick-
work is necessarily larger than in the mixed system, where the bars are covered with
more or less self-incandescent fuel. The fire-brick arch, which has been but slowly
adopted in American coal burning engines, is of necessity a part of the oil burning
furnace. In some locomotives there is also a small arch over the atomizer to
145
L
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
protect the fire door. In certain locomotives with still longer boxes there will be
a wall of brick about 6 feet in front of the atomizer, and the arch springs from this
wall, so that there is a combustion space between the wall and the tube plate.
With Texas oil the Great Eastern locomotives have hauled fast trains on a con-
sumption of 17.6 pounds per mile, as against 34 pounds of coal, the train load being
225 tons (2,240 lb). On a test run with a train of 620 tons a four coupled passenger
engine consumed 31 pounds of Texas oil per mile. These engine are fitted with
air heating arrangements. On the Japanese Government railways, Borneo oil
Burner
Slope
Slope
Air Iulet
Slope
Fire Brick Arch
Air lulet
Air Inlet
Air Inlet
- Damper
Damper
Fig. 25. FIRE-BOX OF AMERICAN OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVE
on the Holden system
showed an evaporation
as high as 14.42 and
averaged 12.6 the year
round
as against 6·4
pounds for coal.
Quoting from the
annual report of the
Japanese Government,
the adoption of oil fuel
for an estimated annual
locomotive mileage of
7,000,000 would save
448,000 yen per year, or
nearly £44,800.
An important item
in connexion with oil
fuel on locomotives is
the lengthened life of
the internal firebox.
After some service the
sides of an ordinary fire-
box present a series of
convex surfaces between
the stays, which are
each and all subjected to
constant abrasion by the
small ashes, sparks, etc.,
drawn from the fire by
the action of the blast.
As a result of this wearing
away of the surface of the
plate, it gradually be-
comes thinned, and eventually cracks develop between the stay holes, with the
consequence that the box must be patched or renewed after a comparatively short
existence. With oil fired engines an extension of time of some 50 per cent. can be
secured, as no such destructive action exists. These remarks on abrasion apply
equally to the tubes, smoke box, chimney, etc., and the economies in this direction
are of considerable value when large numbers of locomotives are affected.
On the long fast runs it is difficult to keep a steady steam pressure with a coal-
burning engine during the later portions of the journey, owing to the "dirty" grate.
146
LIQUID FUEL APPLICATIONS TO LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS
With oil burners the fire is of equal intensity throughout, and as clean at the end of
the day as at the start, and an engine can be run indefinitely as regards the fire.
The average life of copper fire boxes of five G.E. Rly. engines, No. 754 to 758,
with coal, was found to be 5 years, and that of two other sister engines, No. 760
and 765, using liquid fuel, was respectively 8 years 4 months and 8 years.
The form of atomizer used on later locomotives is that of fig. 27. This burner
is designed to vaporize the lighter portions of the oil, and to carry out this operation
sufficiently quickly to prevent the burner being choked by coke which might be
formed if the decomposition process is carried too far. The oil enters by the first
branch on the burner and passes through a long tapered cone surrounded for the
greater part of its length by an annular space open at the lower end, through which
steam is allowed to pass from a second branch on the burner casting.
The steam is highly superheated and raises the temperature within the inner
cone before it passes through the orifice from which it escapes and comes in contact
with the oil.
The oil and the steam then pass along together at a sufficiently high velocity
to induce a current of heated air through the third branch of the burner. The air
thus drawn in by the aspirating action of the jet, allows the oil vapour on the outer
surface of the jet to ignite and thus raises the temperature of the whole of the jet
so that as soon as this is allowed to come in contact with the air for combustion,
which passes through the firebars, ignition takes place immediately, and the
combustion is completed.
In fitting these burners to ordinary boilers they are connected by means of
pipes to a hinged joint or trunnion. This does not require any special description
beyond that the ports in the moving portion are so arranged that when the burner
is swung out of position, the supplies of steam and oil are cut off, so as to prevent the
risk of fires in the stokehold.
Where, as is often the case, a crude oil contains water in such quantities as to
extinguish the fires there is considerable danger. The oil following immediately
after is--if the furnace temperature is sufficiently high-violently exploded, or, if
the furnace is allowed to become too cold, the oil falls through the ashpits and on
to the stokehold floor, where it spreads out into a thin film probably at a temper-
ature approaching the flash point, and therefore in a highly inflammable state.
The specific gravity of most fuel oils being 0-86 to 1 the rate of settling at low
temperatures is very slow, but the difference in the specific gravity becomes much
more marked if the temperature is raised, and a very usual practice has been therefore
to heat up the whole contents of the oil bunker or tank to such a temperature as
without approaching the flash point of the oil, will make the density difference
sufficient very much to accelerate the settling rate.
The objection to this practice is that a large amount of heat is required, the
radiation surface of a bunker of any size being considerable; the heating process
at its best is slow, and unless it is completed before any of the contents are drawn
off, the lower layers of the tank will consist either of pure water or oil with a large
percentage of water mixed up with it.
To obviate this difficulty, a floating suction is used which consists of a long pipe
pivoted upon the side of the bunker or tank, and guided in the vertical plane by
means of a tee or angle iron set to correct radius.
The suction pipe has a small steam pipe led along its side, which terminates
in the coil immediately below the suction opening. The steam passes through this
147
148
Great Kasterp Railway.
4 Wheels coupled bogie locomotive burning Liquid Fuel.
Holden's pareer sysler.
November 1902
No
¿
Fig. 26.
3V 7
GATITINISIES
O
LIQUID FUEL APPLICATIONS TO LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS
and heats the oi immediately below the orifice of the suction pipe, and this oil rises
up into the pipe and leaves the water behind it. The float is proportioned and
arranged to keep the mouth of the pipe about 6 inches below the level of the oil in
the tank.
This apparatus is certain in action and requires but little heat, as this is only
applied to that portion of the oil immediately under the mouthpiece of the suction
pipe, and there is little or no radiation from the bunker sides, and the heated oil at
once moves off to be used while still hot. See fig. 9a for similar device.
The latest general arrangement of a Great Eastern Railway locomotive is that
of fig. 26, which shows the application to a locomotive with firebox 2 feet 6 inches
wide. For a smaller firebox one atomizer only is necessary.
The apertures in the firebox are made by inserting a copper tube beaded over
at the ends, into this a wrought iron ferrule is drifted which makes a perfectly tight
joint.
The nozzle of the atomizer is placed about in. above the centre of the aperture,
and the face of the ring & inches from the front of same.
3
4
When liquid fuel is used alone, steam is first raised in the boiler by a wood and
a coal fire to 25 pounds or 30 pounds pressure, the fire is levelled over and covered
with a layer of broken fire-brick of not more than 3 inches cube spread, so that it is
thinnest about the centre of the firebox, and well packed round the sides and corners.
A few pieces of waste or wood are thrown in to cause a flame before the liquid fuel
is introduced.
Dry steam is taken to a steam fitting, two cocks on which admit steam to the
cones and rings on the injector respectively; a third cock blows steam through the
fuel pipes and atomizer should they become choked; and there is a cock for the
steam coil placed in the tank to prevent the fuel solidifying in cold weather.
The fittings for a locomotive, as illustrated, consist of the following-
2 atomizers and regulating valves.
I steam fitting.
1 stop cock on tank.
1 four way piece.
2 tee pieces.
2 copper tubes and ferrules.
For a locomotive with firebox under 2 feet 6 inches wide, the following fittings
are required-
1 atomizer and regulating valve.
1 steam fitting.
1 stop cock in tank.
1 tee piece.
1
copper tube and ferrule.
The air heater is shown in the smoke box, fig. 26, and consists of a number of
tubes laid round the smoke box crown and springing from two headers into one of
which the air is drawn and out of the other it passes to the atomizer.
The regulating gear is shown in fig. 23, this being the latest form so arranged that
a simple movement of the lever closes both oil valves without affecting their separate
adjustment when open.
149
Section on
Fig. 27. HOLDEN'S ATOMIZER, LOCOMOTIVE PATTERN (1900)
Section
150
Chapter XVII
LIQUID FUEL APPLICATION TO STATIONARY AND OTHER BOILERS
(HOLDEN'S SYSTEM)
The Lancashire Boiler.
S already suggested, oil fuel can be best utilized under steam boilers by in-
As oil utilized under steam
jecting it in spray form into the furnace by a steam jet or jets. Here perfect
combustion can be secured by the proper admission of air and the intervention
of a highly heated fire-brick bridge or screen. The furnace can be arranged to
burn oil fuel above the ordinary grate, or preferably along the usual level of the
firebars, so that the whole of the cubical contents of the furnace can be secured
for combustion.
Fig. 29 shows the arrangement of the oil-fuel apparatus with Holden's Burners
on a Lancashire boiler. The burners are placed at the front of the brick lined
extensions, to which heated air is conveyed from large tubes passing down the outer
flues. The fire-brick construction is simple and easily introduced for an ordinary
sized boiler with a grate of, say, 7 feet long. A striking bridge pillar with inclined
face is built up about 2 feet 6 inches inside the furnace; next, a screen with large
clear opening about 1 foot 6 inches behind the former; and finally, a second screen
with oblique perforations to direct the gases along the inner surface of the flue.
The central portion of this last screen is recommended to be built solid. On
boilers thus arranged, with fair working conditions, an evaporation of from 14 to
15 pounds of water per pound of Texas fuel oil (from and at 212°F.) is readily
obtained.
On a large boiler of this type burning north country "smalls" and evapor-
ating only 6.5 pounds of water per pound of coal, the Texas fuel oil has secured
an evaporation of 15.25 pounds of water per pound of fuel.
The Cornish Boiler.
In fig. 30 a Cornish boiler is shown with liquid fuel and the fire-bars are left in
and covered by a layer of fire-brick or chalk as a base for the fire in case it may
be necessary to return to solid fuel at any time. Any internally fired boiler may
be treated by either method. Where the bars are left in there ought to be a
damper fitted to the opening of the ash pit to regulate the admission of air.
In these furnaces the injector is placed about 8 or 10 inches above the grate
surface and about inch above the centre of the 4-inch opening cut through the
furnace door. The injector is inclined so as to point to the second or third brick
from the top of the bridge. Dry steam, preferably superheated, is admitted by a
151
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
→ STEAM.
OO
7/0
HOT AIR
valve C¹, the cock C² being to clear the fuel pipe and injector when choked, and
the pipe C³ being for steam to warm the oil in the tank.
-
NNNN
Fig. 29.
LANCASHIRE BOILER WITHOUT GRATE.
Generally, as regards the firing of internal furnace boilers, the fuel is blown
in on a line about parallel with the grate surface and 8 to 10 inches above it, as
FURNACE WITH HOLDEN'S ATOMIZER
152
APPLICATION TO STATIONARY AND OTHER BOILERS
shown in the illustration of the Cornish furnace and also in fig. 31 of the stationary
form of the locomotive type boiler.
Jaxi
HO
719
Scole
2
3
A
Fig. 30.
CORNISH BOILER.
HOLDEN'S COMBINED SYSTEM
In the vertical boiler of large size the atomizer is usually placed below the
153
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
C
ਤ
О
O
оо
B
О
هر
In either case the opposite half circle of the furnace must be lined with fire-
fire-door opening, but in small vertical boilers it must be placed through the door.
T/
5 Ft
Fig. 31. LoCOMOTIVE TYPE.
ટ
Scale
STATIONARY BOILER.
3
HOLDEN'S SYSTEM
154
APPLICATION TO STATIONARY AND OTHER BOILERS
brick to the height of about half the furnace diameter to form the necessary in-
candescent surface on which any unburned oil can strike.
The Water Tube Boiler.
Fig. 32 shows an arrangement of oil burners for a water tube boiler where
liquid fuel is intended to be used in conjunction with coal, so that while working
B
A
IMA
Fig. 32.
WATER TUBE Boiler for Coal and OIL BURNING. HOLDEN'S COMBINED SYSTEM
WITH GRATE
at full power the evaporation of the boiler may be somewhat increased, by starting
the liquid fuel burners, and when the fires become dirty the maximum power can still
be maintained by increasing the consumption of the liquid fuel as the fires get
dull. Here the steam passes through the superheating coil in the uptake, and
from there passes to a stand pipe, called usually the "steam branch pipe," from
which small branches are led to each burner and the supply is controlled by five
small valves on the steam branch pipe.
For the water tube boiler without grate bars the arrangement of fig. 33 is em-
155
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
ployed, there being an additional arch of fire-brick brought forward from the bridge
to prevent too early a passage of the gases among the tubes. The author would
H
松
​Fig. 33. WATER TUBE BOILER WITHOUT Grate
extend this (and also the first arch) further than shown in fig. 33, it being
impossible either with coal or oil to secure smokeless results where the hydrocarbon
156
APPLICATION TO STATIONARY AND OTHER BOILERS
gases pass too quickly among cold tubes. Nor is there space and time for such
complete combustion with a minimum of fuel as is desirable.
In fig. 34 is given a section
of an oil furnace arranged with
a small grate for lighting up
purposes only. This is in-
tended for use where liquid fuel
is alone to be employed, the
small grate serving simply for
lighting up purposes. It may
be added that in locomotive
work generally the steam blast
may be made less intense when
oil fuel is used, and on the Great
Eastern Railway, the MacAllan
movable cap (fig. 28) is em-
ployed. This is folded over
the blast pipe orifice, which it
reduces from 53 to 5 inches
diameter.
A
It is found that the
position of the atomizer is im-
portant. If too high the com-
bustion is vibratory, and an
intolerable humming sound is
Fig. 34. LIQUID FUEL BURNING LOCOMOTIVE WITH
SMALL LIGHTING-UP GRATE
produced by the many rapid explosions due to non-continuous combustion.
Mr. Holden lays it down that the oil fire must
for the best results, and not too high above it.
an oil burning locomotive at an expenditure
Fig. 28. MACALLAN VARI-
ABLE BLAST Cap
be along the plane of the coal fire
The Cromer express is worked by
of 190 gallons of tar residues of
specific gravity 1.10. This is equal to 144 pounds of
liquid per mile, in addition to about 6 cwt. of coal or 5
pounds per mile. Some 5 to 6 cwt. of broken bricks are
spread on the grate for this journey of 138 miles in 175
minutes, the train of 17 cars weighing 271 tons empty,
exclusive of the locomotive, which weighs 51 tons 14
cwt. 2 qrs., and the tender, which weighs 35 tons 17 cwt.,
the total weight being nearly 360 tons unloaded.
Owing to its large proportion of hydrogen, the pro-
duction of carbon dioxide is less, and this is held to be
an advantage of liquid fuel for working tunnels, and the
Arlberg tunnel is so worked by 32 engines. It must
not, however, be overlooked that hydrogen destroys three times as much oxygen
as is destroyed by a pound of carbon, and produces but little more calorific effect
per pound of oxygen consumed, so that it is equally destructive of the vital pro-
perties of the air and introduces an excess of nitrogen in place of an excess of
carbon dioxide. The physiological effect of the carbon dioxide is less to be
feared than the absence of oxygen which it implies. Too much, therefore, should
not be made of this supposed advantage of liquid fuel, the danger being due to the
absence of oxygen.
157
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Locomotive Boiler.
Fig. 35 is the fire-box used for liquid fuel on the Southern Pacific Railroad,
the oil being sprayed into the front of the fire-box below the mud ring and under
the usual brick arch and directed against a sloping brick lining of the back plate.
The sides of the box are cased in bricks, and there are openings for air in the brick
=
BURNER
Fig. 35. LOCOMOTIVE FIRE-BOX FOR OIL
FUEL, SOUTHERN PACIFIC RAILROAD
A
bottom to admit air under the flame.
central brick arch baffle is thrown across
the middle of the fire-box, and an arch is
thrown across just below the fire-door.
The plates of the upper part of the box are
bare, and the results are said to be satis-
factory.
According to Mr. Holden the fuel
supply should be above the level of the
atomizers. This is a point with which all
do not agree, as some consider that the
fuel ought always to be pumped to the atomizers, and that no oil should be able
to flow by gravity with the attendant risks in case of rupture.
Unless there is an independent source of steam available, steam should be
raised in the boiler by an ordinary fire until a pressure of, say, 25 pounds per square
inch is obtained, when the liquid fuel apparatus may be started.
All cocks and valves being closed, the cocks of the steam fitting connected with
the fuel injector are to be first opened. The main liquid fuel cock on the tank
may now be opened and the fuel admitted to the injector by slowly opening the
regulating valve. To start with a clear flame, the incandescent fuel on the bars
must be moderately bright, and not dull red.
If coal and oil are to be burned, a thin bright fire should be maintained on the
bars free from holes, and the corners and sides of the grate are to be kept well
covered. If oil only is to be used, the remains of the lighting up fire should be
gradually covered with broken fire-brick (about 2 inch pieces) keeping the base
thus formed thinnest under the lines of jets from the injector, or say, at the centre
of the grate; the sides and corners being closed round with small pieces of fire-
brick.
As the fire-brick bridge or arch attains a red heat more liquid can be injected and
less steam used. To shut off the apparatus the liquid fuel cock on the tank is first
closed, then the regulating valve on the injector, and finally the cocks on the steam
fitting are shut off.
The oil burners must not be started before ascertaining that there is a flame
in the furnace; if doubtful, a few pieces of wood or some oily waste should be set
alight in the furnace before applying the oil fuel.
The above rules are equally applicable to all systems of oil burning. A com-
mon danger with oil is the risk of gases accumulating in the furnace and leading
to explosion when the dampers are opened and flame produced. As with coal,
the accumulation of gas may be prevented by drilling a two inch hole near the top
of the damper, so that when the damper is closed there is always a vent through
it which will stop any accumulation of gas.
United States Navy Tests.
Special attention may be directed to Appendices 1, 2, 3, extracted from Rear-
158
APPLICATION TO STATIONARY AND OTHER BOILERS
Admiral Melville's Report of 1902 of the Bureau of Steam Engineering. Though
the water tube boiler does not appear to be of the best design, it appeared to be
satisfactory in its freedom from overheated tubes, and the same boiler was used
both for coal and oil tests, and the tests were carried out by a disciplined body of
men, and are good comparative tests. The summary of both coal and oil tests are
given in these appendices, and as they cover a wide range, they may be studied
with advantage. It is to be noted that the percentage of CO₂ in the chimney gases
ranged from 7.15 up to 13-77 for coal and from 5.5 to 10.1 for oil. Oil was thus
apparently inferior in respect of the proportion of excess air required, but it was
also, as it ought to have been under such circumstances, superior in showing a less
ratio of CO. This inferiority of oil is apparent only as shown later.
2
Probably the combustion was more perfect in the furnace and the temperature
higher with oil, for on the whole the chimney temperature was less with oil, as
though the transmission of heat were more perfect, and the final boiler efficiency in
terms of the percentage of fuel heat absorbed was thus about equal in each case.
The furnace arrangements as shown by fig. 3, appendix 3, show that a large
opening is provided for air in the front wall below the burning oil, and it may be
suggested that the admission of air in large streams is equally undesirable as the
same method with coal. Indeed, in the author's opinion, there is much to be said
for the admission of air through a grate, well covered with sharply broken fire-
brick as in the Holden system of mixed coal burners. The air would become heated
by its passage upwards through the broken fragments and finely divided. The
area of this under grate need not be excessive. Probably it would be best kept
short so as to admit air near the front of the furnace and so allow it the opportunity
of mixing better with the burning gases above it. The furnace should be made
to secure the same sweeping action of all the gases in the furnace so as thoroughly
to intermix them. In the detailed tables, which are too voluminous to reproduce,
the proportion of air appears to be given at a lower figure than in the summary,
some of the coal tests showing as little as 12.8, 13.2 and 14.4 pounds of dry air per
pound of carbon, amounts which would point to absolute insufficiency when the
hydrogen of the coal is taken into account. The discrepancy, of course, is due to
the condensation and removal of the hydrogen, which leaves as a load upon the
carbon that portion of the nitrogen which came in with the oxygen that disappeared
in forming steam. As liquid fuel contains so large a percentage of hydrogen, the
dry chimney gas from liquid fuel will contain an undue proportion of nitrogen, and
the percentage of CO, in the chimney gases as shown in the summarized tables is
made smaller in the case of both coal and oil, but the oil is the more affected, and
columns 56 to 60 of the coal summary must not be compared with columns 44 to 48
of the oil tests summary.
Pocahontas coal only averages about 4 per cent. of hydrogen and the New
River coal under 5 per cent., these coals resembling Welsh smokeless to some extent.
The oil, however, contains 12.41 per cent. of hydrogen as well as less oxygen.
Calculation of Air.
If the air for this fuel be calculated, it will be found as follows-
83.26 × 2.667 = 222.00
་་་
Oxygen for the carbon
""
hydrogen (12.41
3.83)
8
× 8 =
95.44
Total
317.44 per 100 pounds.
159
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Air required 317.44 × 4.32 = 1,371-34, or say, 14 pounds per pound of oil.
The actual dry chimney gas per pound of oil is (2.22 × 4.32) + (0.9544 x 3.32)
= 12.76 pounds.
This cuts out the hydrogen and the oxygen it consumes, but leaves the nitrogen
as a load on the carbon. The total dry gas per pound of carbon is thus 12.76÷
0.8326 15.33, to which the pound of carbon itself being added gives 16.33 pounds
of dry chimney gas, which may be laid down as the chemical minimum per pound
of the carbon. The summary of the oil tests shows from 50 to 100 per cent. in
excess of this in column 48. As, however, some of the nitrogen has come in with the
air to satisfy the oxygen, column 50 gives a more favourable appearance to this
point.
To the weight in column 50, however, we should require to add the water
formed from the hydrogen or (12.41
3.83
8
=
×09 1.07 pounds per pound of oil,
2
and this added to column 50, would give the total chimney gases per pound of fuel.
Thus the analysis of chimney gas for CO₂ in the case of oil is deceptive unless
account be taken of the hydrogen. We have found above that 13.71 pounds of air
is the chemical minimum per pound of fuel of the order given. If to this we add
1 pound for the fuel itself and 0.266 to satisfy the sulphur, we find practically that
15 pounds of air is the chemical minimum for oil fuel. Column 50, if increased by
the 1 pound for water formed, would vary between 21 and nearly 37 pounds of
total products, the former representing an addition of 33 per cent. of excess air
and the latter of no less than 133 per cent; but this was exceptional, and for
No. 9 the test of a burner that was admittedly not perfected.
Throughout all the tests a good deal of smoke was formed. This seems to
point to too direct escape of the products of combustion, and there can be little
doubt that a longer distance is required between the burners and the first contact
with the cold boiler surfaces.
Regarding the conclusions drawn, it is to be noted that the atomizing agent,
whether steam or air, should be hot, and that high pressure steam is better than
low pressure steam; also that the tendency is to force the oil forward at a con-
siderable pressure to the burners and compel it to escape, by a fine opening,
thereby probably tending to atomize itself somewhat.
The practice in America generally is towards pumping the oil to the burners
rather than allowing it to flow by gravity.
It will also be noticed that air at a moderate pressure appears to be as com-
petent to atomize oil as steam at a high pressure. No explanation of this is given,
but it is partially due to the greater density of air and probably in part to the fact
that air is a supporter of combustion and induces earlier combustion or ignition.
The Meyer System.
This is shown in fig. 36, and is a modification of the Körting system. Oil is
supplied by the Körting system and air is admitted through specially placed blades
in an extension of the furnace front, the air being heated in a surrounding jacket,
which is arranged with spiral divisions. The air is delivered to the surface in a
whirling manner, and the system has been two years at work on several Dutch
160
APPLICATION TO STATIONARY AND OTHER BOILERS
>
E
Situation of
B
B
B
A
Fig. 36.
MARINE FURNACE.
MEYER SYSTEM
E
G
C
E
steamers with success and similar general types of apparatus have been running
in the Roumanian service.
161
M
Chapter XVIII
THE MIXED SYSTEM OF COAL AND LIQUID FUEL COMBUSTION
TH
fuel.
HERE is more in the mixed system than mere convenience. The use of solid
and liquid fuel in the same furnace together modifies the conditions for each
For coal the efficiency of combustion is better, and for oil the heat is better
utilized.
Combustion on the grate may be imperfect, but the oil atomizer so mixes up
the gases from the grate with the air admitted through and above it, that combustion
is much improved and the excess of air is used by the oil.
Where the oil is only a fifth of the coal; the coal equivalent of the oil appears
enormous.
According to M. Bertin, where 5 kilos. of coal would ordinarily develop each
7,800 calories, they will produce 9,200 calories, a gain of 7,000 calories. The excess
of air supplied with the 5 kilos. of coal would be 20 cubic metres, and this would
suffice for the added kilogram of oil, and this would produce 11,000 calories with no
further air supply. A total of 18,000 calories, compared with the original output of
7,800 calories per kilo. of coal, makes the ratio of oil to coal appear 2.31.
ously a part of this is due to coal, but it may fairly be credited to the system.
Obvi-
The limit of perfect use of air is found when the oil is one third of the coal, and
the ordinary four metres cube of excess air still furnishes the theoretical 11 metres
cube for the oil, the apparent equivalence of coal and oil becomes-
1,400 × 3 + 11,000
7,800
=1.95
These ratios are not perhaps secured in practice, but they serve to point to the
possible advantages of the mixed system and what should be aimed at.
With half and half coal and oil the ratio becomes 1.77, a figure that has been
approached in certain experiments at Indret. Ratios of 3 and over which have been
claimed cannot, as M. Bertin says, be justified on any hypothesis. Nor is the total
consumption of the oxygen supplied at all closely approached in general practice.
The proportion of free oxygen to carbonic acid is an indication of the excess of
air admitted. The ratio of the air admitted to that used is-
2
CO₂+O
CO,
2
O
=1+ per volume and
CO
CO₂+O 20.8
N
79.2
2
per volume.
162
COAL AND LIQUID FUEL COMBUSTION
These figures neglect the hydrogen.
With coal burned at the rate of 100 kilos. per metre² of grate, if the oxygen mea-
sures 8 per cent., and with 200 kilos., say 5 per cent., the fire is too thin or the draught
too great. With 1 or 2 per cent. of carbonic oxide the fire is too thick and the
draught poor. Both oxygen and CO present together indicates bad furnace arrange-
ments.
A test at Indret of the trial boiler of the Jeanne d'Arc with coal alone
following results-
gave the
Coal per hour
per metre2 of
Percentage in volume.
0.
1+
CO2.
grate.
CO2.
CO.
0.
N.
90 k.
11
1
6
82
1.54
140
200
11
1
5
83
1.45
13
0.5
4
82.5
1.30
The same boiler on the mixed system gave the results below-
Per hour per metre2 of grate.
Percentage of gas.
Air Pressure.
Carbon.
Petroleum.
CO2.
CO.
0.
N.
1 + CO 2•
37 k.
10 mm.
10
75 k.
30
10
10
0
37
10
10
0
∞ ∞ ∞
8
82
1.80
82
1.80
8
82
1.80
100
50
20
8.5
66
25
8.5
LO LO
9.5
9.5
10 10
82
2.12
82
2.12
35
25
11
7
82
1.64
150
55
30
11
0
7
82
1.64
75
40
11
7
82
1.64
With oil alone Mr. Orde found as below-
(
CO2.
CO.
0.
N.
1 + CO2.
Test No. 1
13.2
0
3.6
83.2
1.27
Test No. 2
12.6
4.0
83.4
1.32
Average
12
0
3.8
83.3
1.285
a better result, after all, than the mixed system produced.
Though not yet beyond the experimental stage in the British Navy, the mixed
system has been tried and abandoned in the Italian Navy. It has been installed
in the German Navy also.
In calculating the apparent effect of mixed fuel, M. Bertin assumes the case of
a boiler working 1 hour and a weight of water = a per kilo. of coal ordinarily,
b=the water evaporated per kilo. of mixed fuel,
x=the evaporation attributed to one kilo. of oil;
C=weight of coal burned per metre² of grate,
D=
""
oil
""
The vapour produced by C + D of mixed fuel, assuming a to be as in the ordinary
coal fired boiler, will be Ca + Dx.
163
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Then per kilo. of mixed fuel we have
Ca + Dx
C+D
=b, which gives x=
(C + D) b-Ca
C
= b +
·(b
D
D-5-(6-a)
Whence, if R is the ratio of oil to coal, we have
X
b
R =
α
a
+
C
D
b
(
-1
a
Tests in the Furieux made to determine R gave the following results-
D
ee
a
x
X
R=
a
0.00
9.05
0.45
9.05
11.34
1.25
0.64
9.05
14.2
1.56
The figure 1.56 was greater than the figure found for oil when used alone, but
this was not confirmed by tests at Cherbourg made on a Godard boiler with too
forced a draught and badly arranged oil sprays, for the effect b of the mixed fuel was
even inferior to that of coal alone, which shows how much the efficiency depends on
good arrangement."
The value of R was sought at Indret by M. Brillie in a series of tests extending
from the end of 1896 to early in 1900, in view of applying mixed firing to boilers of
Du Temple Guyot type in the new cruisers.
The atomizers had air induction passages as in the Orde atomizer, fig. 10, but
no air heating. The flames kept short and the heat kept well in the furnace, and
high values of R were reached as 1.6 for a rate of combustion of 100 kilos. of coal
and 50 kilos of oil per metre² of grate.¹
The tests, however, were too short for exactitude.
Other tests made only upon engine power are, however, available.
Let c be the coal per horse power ordinarily.
e
""
d
""
""
""
oil
""
وو
""
in the mixed system.
""
""
وو
""
Then d takes the place of ce in the production of one horse power, so that
c-e
R =
d
The following table, a resumé of Navy tests on the locomotive type of boiler or
torpedo boat No. 109 at Cherbourg, is of interest--
1st Series.
2nd Series.
3rd Series.
Air pressure
Coal alone
Coal
Mixed Co
Petrolm.
Jet
System Total
Equivalent = R.:
c-e)
α
C.
d. 0,379
h. 15mm 13mm 12mm 25mm
1,337k 1,337k 1,337k 1,354k
e. 0,979 6,914 0,581 0,713 0,721
0,388 0,494 0,405 0,474
26mm
29mm
50mm
1,354k
1,354k 1,506k
0,652 1,219
0,655
0,434
e + d
1,358
1,302
1,075
1,118
1,195
1,307
1,653
0,94
1,09
1,53
1,58
1,33
1,07
0,66
1 Kilos per metre² -:- 5
=
pounds per square foot nearly.
164
COAL AND LIQUID FUEL COMBUSTION
The interest lies in the falling off at high pressures, the furnace being too short
satisfactorily to burn the oil at such rapid movement of the draught.
Where 60 kilos. of oil were used to 80 kilos. of oil with draught but little forced,
R was found to be.1.5, and the mixed system took the place of forced draught, with
a result equal to the combustion of 170 kilos. of coal only, a result thought very
encouraging. Very discordant results were obtained on the Milan, the Surcouf,
the Pakin, and the Forbin. On the Milan especially oil proved very unsuitable to
the furnaces of the Belleville boiler, as might be anticipated. On the Surcouf,
on the contrary, the result of mixed fuel was to reduce total fuel consumption nearly
to half that of coal alone.
M. Bertin does not express any final opinion on mixed systems, but claims that
where employed it is essential to success that all the details should be simple so as
to avoid the danger of error on the part of a little trained personnel, such as the open-
ing or closing of certain valves, always in their power to do.
165
Chapter XIX
RUSSIAN AND AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE PRACTICE WITH LIQUID
T
FUEL
The Baldwin Co.'s System.
HE Baldwin Locomotive Co. consider that, while opinions upon atomizers differ
as to central jet burners such as the Urquhart, the relative position of the oil
supply and other details, their own burner is a satisfactory one, and has been applied
-Section a·B-
O11
Sream
B
Fig. 37. ATOMIZER.
BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE Co.
to some 250 locomotives in Russia and the United States. This burner is shown
in fig. 37.
It is rectangular in section with two longitudinal passages, the upper one for oil,
166
RUSSIAN AND AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE PRACTICE
the lower one for steam. The oil is regulated by a plug cock on the feed pipes, the
handle of which extends to the cab within easy reach of the fireman.
Steam is admitted to the lower port of the burner through a pipe so connected
to the boiler as at all times to insure the introduction of dry steam. The valve con-
trolling the steam is placed in the cab close to the fireman's seat. A free outlet is
allowed for the oil at the nose of the burner; the steam outlet, however, is contracted
at this point by an adjustable plate which partially closes the port, and gives a thin
wide aperture for the exit of the steam. This arrangement wire-draws the steam
and increases its velocity at the point of contact with the oil, giving a better atom-
izing effect. A permanent adjustment of the plate can be made for each burner
after the requirements of service are ascertained. The moving of the plate is not then
required except for cleaning purposes. The oil, as it passes through the burner, is
heated to a certain extent by the effect of the steam in the lower portion, and flows
freely in a thin layer over the orifice. It is here caught by the jet of steam issuing
from the lower port, and is completely broken up and atomized at the point of igni-
tion. The oil is carried into the fire-box in the form of vapour, where it is thoroughly
mixed up with air and burns freely.
It is computed that one inch of breadth of slit will serve for 100 square inches
of cylinder area, so that the breadth of a burner is B=D² ×·007854. As only one
burner is used, American fire-boxes being narrow, it is apparently the case that one
cylinder is intended to be taken, and not the area of both cylinders. D=diameter
of cylinder.
cock.
Large oil-pipes are used so as to deliver a full supply as far as the regulating
To permit of fine adjustment of the cock its orifice is not circular but square,
with the diagonals vertical and horizontal as
shown in fig. 38.
Fig. 38. OIL REGULATING COCK.
BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE Co.
Bill
The necessary changes to fit an engine to
use liquid fuel according to the views of the
Baldwin Co. are shown in fig. 39. The ato-
mizer is attached below the mud ring, and
the spray is directed upwards into the fire-
box which is fitted with a brick arch, a liner
of fire-brick and a base filling the front half
of where the grate usually is placed. A small
hearth is also placed to catch any drip from
the burner, and from the lower corner of the bridge there is built, to protect each
side sheet, a triangular wall of bricks extending with its lower point to the back
plate. The side walls form the sides of the fire-brick combustion chamber. The
"ash-pan" is retained with its air dampers to admit air below the fires, and the
dampers should shut tight. The inner side of the fire-door is lined with a plate
of fire-brick.
In the Vanderbilt box, fig. 40, which is simply a corrugated circular furnace,
the arrangement of fire-brick is very similar to the above, but the fuel is sprayed
parallel to the fire-box bottom liner. The sprayer is inserted through the closing
plate of the furnace mouth, which is also brick protected. The arch and bridge wall
are kept well behind the back tube plate, and the space forms a further combustion
chamber for the flames.
An ash-pan of modified form is employed as shown. It is recommended not
167
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
to leave too little space between the arch and the crown sheet; otherwise the flames
will be too severely projected upon the crown sheet and generate too severe a local
甚
​Fig. 39. LOCOMOTIVE FIRE-BOX FOR LIQUID FUEL. BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE Co.
heat.
Fig. 40.
VANDERBILT FIRE-BOX FOR LIQUID FUEL. BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE Co.
The weight and volume of oil for a given mileage will be about half that
necessary for coal.
168
RUSSIAN AND AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE PRACTICE
The following information is from the report of the Committee of the American
Railway Master Mechanics' Association for 1899—
Fuel oil can be used in almost any form of fire-box, the best location for the
burner being just below the mud ring, spraying upward into the fire-box. In some
recent experiments with oil of 84° gravity, 140°F. flash, and 190°F. fire test, in which
the boiler had 27 square feet grate area and 2,135 square feet of heating surface, 8
per cent. being in the fire-box, it was found that there were about 39 pounds of oil
burned per square foot of grate area, about 0:45 pounds per square foot of heating
surface per hour, the equivalent evaporation from and at 212° being about 12 pounds
of water per pound of oil. It was also computed that there should be about one-
third of an inch width of burner for each cubic foot of cylinder volume.
Or volumes of both cylinders in cubic feet ÷ 3 = width of burner in inches.
This was for ordinary locomotives. For compound engines the amount of steam
is 10 per cent. and of fuel 20 per cent. less, and in the foregoing formula only the h.p.
cylinder volume ought to be considered. Generally the Baldwin Co. accept oil as
worth double its weight of worth of coal, a ratio perhaps a trifle high for English
practice and coal.
They give a formula for compound locomotives as follows as a guide to an
approximate idea of the value of oil fuel as compared with coal.
Cost of coal per ton (of 2,000 lb.) + cost of handling (say 50 cents) × 10.7 × 7.
2,000 × evaporative power of coal.
= Price per American gallon at which oil will be the equivalent of coal. To find
the price per English gallon multiply by 1.2.
It must be remembered in these computations that the cost of both oil and coal
is considered at the place where they are delivered to the engine, and not at the place
where they are purchased by the railroad company.
The following gives the weight and volume of crude petroleum based on a speci-
fic gravity of 0.91, which is about the average of the Texas oil, as well as that
received from South America.
WEIGHT AND VOLUME OF CRUDE PETROLEUM
U.S. Liquid Gal.
.13158
Pound.
1
7.6
1.000
319.2
42.000
2,240.
294.720
Barrel.
·0031328
·02381
1.000
7.017
Gross Ton.
Impl. Gal.
.0004464
.1096
·003393
.83
.1425
35.00
1.00
245.60
For convenience in obtaining the correct approximate weight of oil, the gravity con-
version table No. XXXI may be useful.
In American practice where railroads are so dirty with ash and cinders thrown
from the locomotives by the powerful blast employed, the use of oil should give an
advantage to any line adopting it that cannot be so securely counted on in Great
Britain, where ash throwing is less prevalent.
The use of oil also puts a stop to the choking of the tubes of the boiler and per-
mits, if desired, smaller tubes to be employed, which are now inadmissible on account
of liability to choke.
Tubes of one inch diameter might be used if enough could be got in to give the
requisite area.
169
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
The economy of oil is not merely a question of fuel economy.
Table No. XV gives the economy of oil at its relative value compared with coal
on both the the fuel account and all ascertained economies, the second value being
based on 1 pound of coal being worth 2 of coal in place of 12, as on the mere fuel
account. The extra economies include repairs on locomotives and ash handling.
Dr. Dudley's formula for relative price is-
2,000 × P
WXNX R
= C; where
P=price of oil per barrel.
W=weight per gallon in pounds.
N=gallons per barrel.
R=ratio of oil to coal-12 or 2, according to condition
taken.
C=price of coal per ton of 2000.
For tons of 2,240 lbs use this number in the numerator in place of 2,000. The
weight W multiplied by N will be the same in either American or English gallons,
and the barrel is always the same, so that only the pounds per ton need be changed,
the price of coal and oil of course being given in the same equivalents, either dollars
or shillings.
Hence P =
WXNX RX C
2,000 (or 2,240 for long tons).
The Baldwin Co. do not recommend crude oil for use in locomotive work for
three reasons, namely, it is more dangerous, it has an exceedingly unpleasant odour,
and it is not so economical. As is well known, crude oil contains more or less vola-
tile matter which vaporizes quite readily. With the necessary use of lanterns
and open lights round about locomotives, there would be more or less danger of
explosions. Furthermore, in the case of a wreck, if the oil tank was ruptured, it
would be almost impossible to prevent a fire. As to the odour of the crude oil, it
would certainly be extremely unpleasant to ride behind a locomotive fed with Lima
crude oil. The reason why crude oil is not so economical as reduced oil is because
oil is usually sold by volume, and a gallon of crude oil, instead of weighing 7.3
pounds, weighs from say 6.25 to 6.5 pounds, and, as the heat is directly in propor-
tion to the weight of combustible, a barrel of crude oil will not give so much heat as
a barrel of reduced oil. The oil which is now used on the Grazi-Tsaritzin Railway,
and is believed to be quite safe to use, is an oil not below 300°F. fire-test. It is
fair to add that crude oil can be used on stationary boilers where it is kept in tanks
and brought to the boilers in pipes.
In regard to these points the arguments appear sound, in view of the disastrous
American experiences of burning railway wrecks, and the one English experience
at Abergele; but all crude oils are not so unpleasant as the Lima oil referred to, and
the unpleasant odour should not live through the furnace. Still the fire risk of crude
oil, with its volatile constituents left in, is a danger to be avoided.
The formula and tables, which result from the comparison of the value of
coal and oil in cash go far towards explaining why petroleum has not been used to
a much greater extent as a means of heat production. In America at the present.
time, says Dr. Dudley (1888), it is really more expensive to obtain the same amount
of heat from oil than it is from coal.
In experiments on the Pennsylvania Railroad, it was found with oil at 30 cents
per barrel, that it cost nearly 50 per cent. more to take the same train of cars 100
miles by means of oil than by means of coal.
170
RUSSIAN AND AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE PRACTICE
The total coal consumption of the Pennsylvania Railroad, including all its
ramifications, is about 8,000 tons per day. If, now, this was changed from coal
to oil, the Pennsylvania Railroad would use over 26,000 barrels of oil per day, and
this 26,000 barrels is over one-third and at present nearly one-half, of the daily oil
production of the United States, so that the lack of supply will, for a long time to
come, prevent the use of oil to anything but a limited extent. But in Russia the
residuum is 75 per cent. of the crude oil, whereas in America it forms but 25 per cent.,
and the Russian fire test is 320° to 240°F. There was at the time Dr. Dudley wrote
(1888) one Russian well which flowed more per day than the total United States
production, which was little above 50,000 barrels per day. But in 1900 the yield
was over 200,000 barrels, and it has been increasing ever since, and Dr. Dudley's
figures must be discounted to-day. From 1859 to 1900—practically 40 years-
American output has totalled 1,007 million barrels nearly, and the total Russian
production since 1880, or 23 years since, when the amount produced became of
commercial importance, has been 676 million barrels.
In 1898 the Los Angeles Terminal Railway report that oil at 75 cents per
barrel cost 11.1 per mile as against 28.3 cents the average cost of coal.
The Urquhart System.
To Mr. Urquhart, of Dalny, Scotland, the former Locomotive Engineer of the
Grazi-Tsaritzin Railway of Russia, is due the first notable success in liquid fuel com-
bustion.¹
1
Mr. Urquhart brought the system to the notice of engineers in a paper read
at Cardiff in 1884.
According to this paper, the percentage of astatki in Russian oil is 70 to 75 per
cent., while Pennsylvania oil contains but 25 to 30 per cent., the two products being
the complement of each other. It is known from the chemistry of the oils that this
fact is quite consistent with approximately equal proportions of carbon and hydro-
gen, and Table XVI is given to illustrate this. The following is an abstract of Mr.
Urquhart's paper-
(6
Comparing naphtha refuse and anthracite, the former has a theoretical evapor-
ative power of 15-2 pounds of water per pound of fuel, and the latter of 12.2 pounds
at a pressure of 8 atm. or 120 pounds per square inch; hence petroleum has, weight
for weight, 33 per cent. higher evaporative value than anthracite. Now in loco-
motive practice a mean evaporation of from 7 pounds to 7 pounds of water per
pound of anthracite is generally obtained, thus giving about 60 per cent. of effi-
ciency, while 40 per cent. of the heating power is lost. But with petroleum an
evaporation of 12.25 pounds is practically obtained, giving
12.25
16.2
75 per cent. efficiency.
Thus in the first place petroleum is theoretically 33 per cent. superior to anthracite
in evaporative power; and secondly, its useful effect is 25 per cent. greater, being 75
per cent. instead of 60 per cent. Weight for weight, the practical evaporative value
of petroleum is at least from
12.25-7.50
7.50
63 per cent. to
12.25-7.00
7.00
=-75 per cent. higher than that of anthracite.
1 Proceedings of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, 1884.
171
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Spray Injector.
Steam, not superheated, being the most convenient for injecting the spray of
liquid fuel into the furnace, it remains to be proved how far superheated steam
or compressed air is really superior to ordinary saturated steam, taken from
the highest point inside the boiler, by a special internal pipe. In using several
systems of spray injectors for locomotives, he invariably noticed the impossibility
of preventing leakage of tubes, accumulation and inequality of heating of the
firebox.
The work of a locomotive is very different from that of a marine or stationary
boiler, owing to the frequent changes of gradient on the line, and the stoppages at
stations, which render firing with petroleum very difficult; and were it not for pro-
perly arranged brickwork inside the fire-box, the spray jet alone would be quite
inadequate. Hitherto the efforts of engineers have been mainly directed towards
arriving at the best kind of "spray injector" for so minutely sub-dividing a jet of
petroleum into a fine spray, by the aid of steam or compressed air, as to render it
easy of ignition. For this object nearly all the known spray injectors have very
long and narrow orifices for petroleum as well as for steam; the width of the orifice
does not exceed from 3 mm. to 2 mm., or 0.02 in. to 0.08 in., and in many instances
is capable of adjustment.
2
With such narrow orifices it is clear that any small solid particles which may
find their way into the spray injector along with the petroleum will foul the nozzle
and check the fire. Hence in many of the steamboats on the Caspian Sea, although
a single spray injector suffices for one furnace, two are used, in order that when one
gets fouled the other may still work; but of course, the fouled orifices require
incessant cleaning out.
Locomotives. In arranging a locomotive for burning petroleum, several details
require to be added in order to render the application convenient. For getting up
steam, to begin with, a gas pipe of 1 in. internal diameter is fixed along the outside
of the boiler, and at about the middle of its length it is fitted with a three way cock
having a screw nipple and cap. The front end of the longitudinal pipe is con-
nected to the blower in the chimney, and the back end is attached to the spray in-
jector. Then by connecting to the nipple a pipe from a shunting locomotive under
steam, the spray jet is immediately started by the borrowed steam, by which at the
same time a draught is also maintained in the chimney. In a fully equipped engine-
shed the borrowed steam would be obtained from a fixed boiler conveniently placed
and specially arranged for the purpose of raising steam. In practice steam can be
raised from cold water to 3 atm. pressure =45 pounds per square inch, in twenty
minutes. The use of auxiliary steam is then dispensed with, and the spray jet is
then worked by steam from its own boiler; a pressure of 8 atm. 120 pounds is
then obtained in from 50 to 55 minutes from the time the spray jet was first started.
In daily practice, when it is only necessary to raise steam in boilers already full
of hot water, the full pressure of 7 to 8 atm. is obtained in twenty to twenty-five
minutes. While experimenting with liquid fuel for locomotives, a separate tank
was placed on the tender for carrying the petroleum, having a capacity of about
3 tons. But a separate tank on the tender, even though fixed in place, would be a
source of danger from the possibility of its moving forwards in case of collision. It
was therefore decided, as soon as petroleum firing was permanently introduced, to
172
RUSSIAN AND AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE PRACTICE
8
place the tank for fuel in the tender between the two side compartments of the
water tank utilizing the original coal space. For a six-wheeled locomotive the
capacity of the tank is 3 tons of oil, a quantity sufficient for 250 miles, with a train
of 480 tons gross exclusive of engine and tender. In charging the tender tank
with petroleum, it is of great importance to have strainers of wire cloth in the man-
hole of two different meshes, the outer one having openings of, say, 4 in., the inner
say of in. [In later English practice the strainer is much finer than this (Author).]
These strainers are occasionally taken out and cleaned. If care be taken to prevent
any solid particles from entering with the petroleum, no fouling of the spray injector
is likely to occur, and even if an obstruction should arise, the obstacle, being of
small size, can easily be blown through by screwing back the steam cone in the
spray injector far enough to let the solid particles pass and be blown out into the
fire-box by steam. This expedient is easily resorted to even when running; and
no more inconvenience arises than an extra puff of dense smoke for a moment, in
consequence of the admission of too much fuel. Besides the two strainers in the
manhole of the petroleum tank on the tender, there should be another strainer at
the outlet valve inside the tank, having a mesh of in. holes.
8
In lighting up, certain precise rules must be followed, in order to prevent ex-
plosion of any gas accumulated in the fire-box. Explosions often take place through
negligence; but they amount simply to a puff of gas, driving out smoke through
the ash-pan dampers, without any disagreeably loud report. This is prevented as
follows. First clear the spray nozzle of water by letting a small quantity of steam
blow through, with the ash-pan doors open; at the same time start the blower in
the chimney for a few seconds, and any gas will immediately be drawn up the chim-
ney. Next, place on the bottom of the combustion chamber a piece of cotton waste
or shavings, saturated with petroleum and burning with a flame. Then open first
the steam valve of the spray injector, and next the petroleum valve gently, the first
spray of oil coming on the flaming waste ignites without any explosion whatever,
after which the fuel can be increased at pleasure. By looking at the top of the
chimney, the supply of petroleum can be regulated by observing the smoke. The
general rule is to allow a light blue smoke to escape, showing that neither too much
air is being admitted nor too little. The combustion is under the control of the
driver, and the regulation can be so effected as to prevent smoke altogether. While
running it is indispensable that the driver and fireman should act together, the latter
having at his side of the engine the four handles for regulating the fire, namely, the
steam wheel and the petroleum wheel for the spray injector, and the two ash-pan
door handles in which there are notches for regulating the air admission. Each
alteration in the position of the reversing lever or screw, as well as in the degree of
opening of the steam regulator or the blast pipe, requires a corresponding alteration
of the fire. Generally the driver passes the word when he intends shutting off
steam, so that the alteration in the firing can be effected before the steam is actually
shut off; and in this way the regulation of the fire and that of the steam are vir-
tually done together. This care is necessary to prevent smoke, which is nothing
less than a waste of fuel. When, for instance, a train arrives at the top of a bank
which it has to go down with the brakes on, exactly at the moment of the driver
shutting off steam and shifting the reversing lever into full forward gear the petro-
leum and the steam are shut off from the spray injector, the ash-pan doors are
closed, and if the incline be a long one, the revolving iron damper over the chimney
top is moved into position, closing the chimney, though not hermetically. The
173
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
لسلسيلينا
09 vrou
[
2
3
7
6
ΟΙ
11
12 Feet
accumulated heat is thereby retained in the fire-box; and the steam even rises in
pressure, from the action of the accumulated heat alone. As soon as the train
»
Steam from dome
{HHHHCHRIJAHUN
Fig. 41.
GOODS LOCOMOTIVE, URQUHART SYSTEM, GRAZI-TSARITZIN RAILWAY
reaches the bottom of the incline and steam is again required, the first thing done
is to uncover the chimney top; then the steam is turned on to the spray injector,
174
RUSSIAN AND AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE PRACTICE
M
Water
Petroleum
spray injector, as well as by possible leakage past the ash-pan doors. The spray,
immediately on coming in contact with the hot chamber, ignites without any audible
0
لسلسلييا
Ins. 12 6
Fig. 42.
M
[
6
7
6
8
and next a small quantity of petroleum is admitted, but without opening the ash-
pan doors, a small fire being rendered possible by the entrance of air around the
10
11
12
13
14.
15 Feet.
FUEL TANK IN TENDER, URQUHART SYSTEM, GRAZI-TsaritZIN RAILWAY
I
2
3
175
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
explosion; and the ash-pan doors are finally opened, when considerable power is
required, or when the air otherwise admitted is not sufficient to support complete
combustion. By looking at the fire through the sight hole it can always be seen
at night whether the fire is white or dusky; in fact, with altogether inexperienced
men it was found that after a few trips they could become quite expert in firing with
petroleum. The better men contrive to burn less fuel than others, simply by greater
care in attending to all the points essential to success.
As might be expected, several points have arisen which must be dealt with in
order to ensure success. For instance, the distance ring between the plates around
the firing door is apt to leak, in consequence of the intense heat driven against it
and the absence of water circulation; it is therefore either protected by having the
brick arch built up against it, or, better still, it is taken out altogether when the
engines are in for repairs, and a flanged joint is substituted, similar to that used in
the engines of the London and North Western Railway. This arrangement gives
better results, and occasions no trouble whatever."
Table XVII shows the comparative results from different fuels.
The fire-box arrangement of the goods locomotive is shown in fig. 41. The
sprayer points downwards upon the hearth which is built in the ash-pan, and con-
tinuous with the bridge and arch. A block of brickwork is placed under the
sprayer and below that is a passage for air. The bridge is continued up to the crown
of the box, but is perforated, and the whole of the front tube plate is exposed to heat.
The fire-box surface is 82 sq. ft. Total heating surface, 1,248 sq. ft.
Grate" area,
17 sq. ft. Weight, 36 tons in running order. Pressure, 120 to 135 pounds. 151
tubes 13 ft. 10 in. long, x 2 in. outside diameter.
66
Fig. 42 shows the petroleum tank in the tender, the heating coil C surrounding
the filter whence the oil is drawn through a cock V and pipe P to the sprayer. Steam
goes by way of the pipe S and escapes at T. W is the collector for water.
Fig. 43 shows another furnace arrangement, in which the brickwork of the fire-
box sides is made cellular, and air is admitted also below the sides by lateral open-
ings K with regulating dampers. The fire-doors are quite blocked, and only a sight
hole left at H.
A later design is that of fig. 44. This includes a lined ash-pan, bridge and over-
arch, with a passage through it for air admitted by the forward ash-pan damper.
Lateral arches are also provided in order that the side sheets of the fire-box may be
exposed to the heated gases. No part of the fire-box is in fact actually in touch
with the fire-brick, yet the burning oil is completely enclosed with a brick oven. As
very usual in Continental practice, the engines had the closing cap to the chimney
top. This is used to retain heat in the fire-box at times of standing, and should be a
most effectual damper. With liquid fuel employed without solid fuel, the closing
of the chimney must be very efficient in retaining the heat of the brickwork, and
this damper is used when running down hill, and on again turning the oil spray into
the furnace it is at once ignited by the hot brickwork. It will be noticed that there
is a pointer and scale on the spindle of the regulating valve D. This enables the oil
to be regulated by night. The Author has noticed on the Great Eastern Railway,
however, that even when apparently quite dark, the chimney top can be seen quite
sufficiently to judge of smoke.
The form of injector used is shown in fig. 45. It consists of a central steam jet,
an annular passage for oil and an outer annulus for air. The steam jet is regulated
by screwing to and fro the steam cone by a worm and wheel on the regulating handle
176
10 Feet.
»
H
Combustion
Chamber
୮
O
D
H
Steam from dome
K
K
Ins 12 6
60
1
2
3
Fig. 43. ALTERNATIVE FIRE-BOX ARRANGEMENT.
5
G
8
9
URQUHART SYSTEM
177
N
Combustion Chamber.
H
Steam
to
Worming
Steam
to
Spray
Coil
Injector.
Petroleum
from tank
P
S
Steam to
Warming
Coil
S
มูล
?
3
4
5 Feet
B
HHI
Ins12 60
~-
2
Steam from
dome
3
5
6
8 Feet.
Fig. 44. LIQUID FUEL FIRE-BOX. URQUHART SYSTEM
178
RUSSIAN AND AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE PRACTICE
and spindle. The steam cone can readily be removed for clearing purposes, or the
back plug can be taken out while the sprayer is at work, with little delay, a wire
being introduced to remove any possible obstruction that the steam will not dis-
charge.
Plan of
Spray Injector.
>>>
Petroleum
ليبيا
0
7
2-
Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam »
Water
space
of
fire-box.
Longitudinal Section
Air
Air
Air
Air
Water
space
of
fire-box.
3
4
5
6
7
9
10
11
12 Ins.
Fig. 45.
ATOMIZER.
URQUHART'S
In Table XVIII will be found the results of a series of seventeen running tests
showing a mean of 39.15 pounds of oil per mile during very cold weather, and it is
to be noted in this connexion that when the oil is shut off, cold air must be also shut
out of the fire-box, or waste of fuel will ensue.
179
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Table XIX of comparative results with various fuels, under similar conditions,
affords a useful series of figures showing an economy of 41 per cent. for oil over
anthracite in weight and 55 per cent. in cost, and a still greater economy over
bituminous coal of 49 and 61 respectively.
The summer trials of oil are given in Table XX, and show only 32 pounds per
train mile and a fuel efficiency of 70 per cent., and in Table XXI are given com-
parisons with other fuels.
Tables XXII and XXIII give comparisons of passenger and goods engines,
showing economies of 45 and 57 per cent. over anthracite and bituminous coal, figures
changed to 57 and 67 in an engine arranged to warm the air slightly, and Mr. Urqu-
hart thinks the air ought to be heated, and this is well established as good practice.
The fuel consumption of all kinds appears high, but this is attributable to long
LBS.
110
Consumption of Fuel
of Fuel per Train - Mile
Coal - Full lines Petroleum:- Dotted lines
JAN. FEB.MAR. APR. MAY. JUN. JUL. AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC.),
LBS
110
100
90
A
80
100
90
A
80
B
70
70
B
60
60
C
50
50
C
B
40
40
D
30
30
b
20
A Goods Engine, 8 wheels coupled, Goods Train
BB
"
C Mixed
DD
6
4
"
D
"
"
"
"
Mixed
Passenger
20
Fig. 46.
LOCOMOTIVE PERFORMANCES WITH COAL AND OIL FUEL.
GRAZI-TSARITZIN RAILWAY
URQUHART'S SYSTEM,
waiting on a single line and to the weight of trains, often as much as 720 tons, and
the exposed country, with strong side winds.
Table XXIV of costs of alterations will be useful, as will also Table XXV of fuel
and repairs, while Tables XXVI and XXVII give useful information on the basis of
truck axle miles run.
Considerable space has been given to this system and to the figures and draw-
ings, because though now old and dating back nearly 20 years, Mr. Urquhart had the
correct principles of combustion fully before him, and laid out his arrangements
with a perfection that cannot be much improved upon to-day. He saw clearly
what was necessary, and this may be summed up in the words, Atomizing, Air and
Temperature. Hence the success he attained, and the correctness of his arrange-
ments and conclusions.
180
RUSSIAN AND AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE PRACTICE
In fig. 46 are given a few curves showing the consumption of coal and of petro-
leum, and in Table XXVIII some useful data on specific gravity.
Longitudinal Section
Petr-
olam
Steam
Steam
لبيلياسيون
Transverse Section.
00
2
3
5 Fei
Fig. 45a. LIQUID FUEL FURNACES FOR TWO-FLUE BOILER. URQUHART'S SYSTEM
Fig 45a shows the system adopted by Mr. Urquhart for boilers of Lancashire
or Cornish type, the essential brick chamber being fully present.
181
TH
Chapter XX
AMERICAN STATIONARY PRACTICE WITH LIQUID FUEL
"The Billow System,"
HE fuel oil appliances of the National Supply Company of Chicago consist
of pumps and atomizers.
The first installation of fuel oil apparatus made by this Company was in 1886,
since which time they claim to have furnished at least 80 per cent. of all the fuel oil
equipment in the United States, to have sold more than twelve thousand oil burners.
to users, and to have designed, installed, and worked the fuel oil plant at the World's
Columbian Exposition. This boiler plant consisted of fifty-five water tube boilers,
of 25,000 h.p., and the fuel plant required twelve storage tanks, and 5.69 miles of
pipe. The oil plant worked without one moment's interruption.
All atomizers are actuated in one or a combination of the following ways-by
steam, by air supplied by an air compressor, or from a positive blast blower or fan.
The various methods of combining the atomizing agent with the fuel constitute
the distinguishing feature in their construction and economical operation.
If properly designed, the small particles are immediately and perfectly com-
mingled with air and consumed. Therefore, an oil burner becomes more efficient
and approaches nearer to perfection which will pulverize the greatest amount of oil
with the least expenditure of energy.
An atomizer that will vaporize oil at the point of expansion of the agent used
for that purpose, and is easily manipulated, properly designed and constructed, is
the highest type that can be devised. The differences in construction and operation
between the simplest jet burner and the most highly designed and efficient atomizer
are solely these distinguishing features.
Atomizers are constructed with various shaped openings, through which the
oil vapour is admitted to the furnace. They may be annular, flaring, slotted, semi-
circular or fan shaped, producing either a long, round, or a broad spreading flame.
Atomizers having annular openings are said to be more economical in steam or
air than other forms, as a more intimate association of the oil and the vaporizing
agent is afforded.
By actual experiment various atomizers consume from 3 to 15 per cent. of the
entire product of the boiler in vaporizing sufficient oil to develop the capacity of the
boiler. This feature, being quite essential, should be looked after with considerable
care, as upon it much of the economy of a boiler depends.
The number of atomizers required for each boiler or furnace is directly propor-
tionate to its size. Of atomizing agents steam is considered the best for boilers, air
from a positive blast blower for furnaces where heat of medium intensity is required,
182
AMERICAN STATIONARY PRACTICE WITH LIQUID FUEL
and air from a compressor for small furnaces. These are opinions not held univers-
ally as regards boiler furnaces.
The Billow Atomizer (fig. 47) is designed to cover the features above enumer-
ated, with the object of vaporizing the greatest amount of oil with the least ex-
penditure of energy, and is automatic in its operation within a 5 per cent. steam
variation. It is of a form which it is claimed precludes the possibility of choking,
clogging, dripping or the wasteful use of steam, air or oil, and is entirely constructed
of brass of many forms and for either steam or air. The regulation and adjustment
are good. In its design all the points necessary to produce the best results in oil
8
오
​ļ
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 Inches
Scale
12
13
2
S
IS
20
16
21
17
∙18
AIR
OIL
R
8
SECTION AB
CLOSED.
25
23
OPEN
24
OIL
19
BILLOW
OIL BURNER
CLASS D.E
NATIONAL SUPPLY CO. OF CHICAGO
Fig. 47. ATOMIZER. BILLOW SYSTEM.
atomization are carefully observed. It is self contained. The fuel and the atom-
izing agent are controlled within the burner. It has ground joint union pipe con-
nexions placed on an axis transverse to the body, a good feature, which permits the
flame to be directed as desired. It is susceptible of a wide range in adjustment, and
will perfectly vaporize a few drops of oil per minute or many gallons per hour. It is
constructed with various shaped nozzles or outlets of the retort type, when desired,
but these are not recommended on account of their wasteful steam or air consump-
tion. Only in special instances should atomizers other than those with annular
openings be employed.
183
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Fuel Oil Pumping Systems,
In order to produce the highest results with fuel oil, a system for its handling
and control between the storage tank and the atomizers is an important factor.
This system must be so designed as properly to heat the oil, free it from mechanical
impurities, and deliver it to the atomizer at a constant pressure and temperature
under the control of the operator. The amount of oil necessary for feeding the
atomizers should be automatically controlled, and the system sufficiently flexible to
pump the oil to one atomizer or any number within its capacity without useless ex-
penditure. It should handle all grades of oil fuel equally well.
Residuum, or manufactured fuel oil, often contains particles of coke and sand.
All grades may have dirt, bits of waste, sticks, floating and extraneous matter which
disturb the adjustment of the atomizers at the furnace door, necessitating their
frequent cleansing. These mechanical impurities also clog the feed lines, necessi-
tating their frequent blowing out. It is the duty of an oil pumping system to pro-
vide against the objectionable elements by filtering as well as removing these accu-
mulations and cleansing the filtering medium without disturbing the continued
performance of the pump.
These are essential features in the successful installation of a fuel oil equipment
and the satisfactory action of the atomizer.
Feeding the oil at a temperature nearly approaching the point of distillation
insures speedy vaporization, with a resultant flame soft and diffusing, and not
sharply impinging upon the boiler surfaces. It is therefore essential, in order to
obtain the highest economy, that the pumping system be designed so that the de-
sired heat may be secured, and be also provided with the necessary automatic
governing valves to insure uniform delivery to the atomizers under the desired
pressure.
To meet this demand the National Supply Co. have designed a number of oil
fuel systems covering all the requirements that have come to their notice in this
direction. That these pumping systems are successful is attested by the fact that
this Company alone has manufactured and placed upon the market almost four
hundred complete machines.
These systems are considered indispensable in connexion with a modern fuel
oil non-gravity equipment. They are compact, occupy a minimum floor space, and
are so dripped and drained that no oil can reach the floor.
The National Supply Co. claim that any oil fuel produces the best results when
heated to a temperature just under its distilling point, and that fuel oil is atomized
with less energy when heated to such a temperature and delivered to a proper atom-
izer under a constant pressure.
That when air is used as an atomizing agent, carbonization is not liable to occur
at the outlet of the burner in the furnace because the oil is passed through water
heated with exhaust steam in the receiver, and minute quantities of water vapour
are carried over with the oil, and this prevents carbonizing.
Double Pumping System.
These oil pumping systems (fig. 48) consist generally of a battery of two duplex
steam pumps, specially brass fitted for oil, and of a cast-iron receiver, tested to two
hundred pounds hydrostatic pressure, mounted on a cast iron drip pan and base
frame upon which the mechanism is securely fastened. A partition divides the
184

AMERICAN STATIONARY PRACTICE WITH LIQUID FUEL
receiver into two compartments
or chambers. Projecting into the
rear chamber and screwed to the
partition are tubes with fine gauze
heads, accessible through the rear
head of the receiver. These heads
act as a filtering or straining
medium, and the compartment is
provided with blow-off pipe and
valve for removing any sediment
of extraneous matter deposited
therein.
The forward chamber is
usually carried two-thirds full of
water, and contains a coil of pipe
through which live steam or ex-
haust steam from the operating
pump flows. The coil has suit-
able controlling valves, permitting
the use of steam from either of
these sources or both at the same
time.
One pump is held in reserve
against contingencies or possible
accident to the working parts of
the other or working pump.
AL SUPPLY
CHICAC
The apparatus is provided
with a pump governor, or regu-
lator, actuated by the pressure in
the receiver to maintain a con-
stant pressure on the oil in the
receiver; a relief valve adjustable
in construction and placed be-
tween the suction and the de-
livery side of the pump through which all oil in excess of the requirements of the
atomizer may pass in case of accident to the governor; a thermometer, steam, oil
pressure, and automatically closing sight gauge. The apparatus is designed to pump
and deliver any quantity of filtered oil within its capacity under uniform pressure
and temperature. All joints are machine faced and metal packed.
Fig. 48. DOUBLE PUMPING SYSTEM. CAPACITY,
1 to 5,000 BOILER H.P. NATIONAL SUPPLY
Co., CHICAGO
In action the oil is discharged through the force chamber of the pumps into the
forward chamber. The oil flowing through the hot water becomes heated and
passes out through an inner tube to the point of consumption.
All sediment collecting on the tubes or in the rear compartment is blown out
through a blow-off pipe without removing the cover.
These pumping systems are made up to sizes of ten to eighteen thousand boiler
horse-power.
Thus No. 5 Double, employing two 51-in. by 31-in. by 5-in. duplex steam
pumps has a capacity of five to fifteen thousand boiler horse-power, or twenty to
forty gallons per minute.
185

LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
No. 4 Double, employing two 4-in. by 22-in. by 4-in. duplex steam pumps, capa-
city one to five thousand boiler horse-power, or ten to twenty gallons per minute.
No. 3 Double, employing two 3-in. by 2-in. by 3-in. duplex steam pumps,
capable of properly preparing and delivering sufficient oil, when burned in a furnace,
to produce from ten to one thousand boiler horse-power, or five to eight gallons per
minute.
In attaching fuel oil atomizers to furnace or boiler fronts under certain conditions,
it is sometimes necessary to admit all the air for vaporization and combustion in the
furnace at the atomizer, for the reason that at no other point can a sufficient amount
of air be induced into the furnace to complete combustion owing to conditions of
draught or construction. The device of fig. 48a answers this purpose by providing
Fig. 48a. COMPOUND TUYERE FOR AIR ADMISSION. NATIONAL SUPPLY CO., CHICAGO
the air for combustion irrespective of the atomizing agent used for vaporizing the oil.
This air for combustion is intimately mixed with the fuel oil at the point of admission
into the furnace. It is intended for boilers where oil is burned as an auxiliary to
some other form of fuel, making it impossible to dispense with the grate bars, and is,
therefore, very useful in connexion with the burning of bagasse, sawdust and ma-
terial of like character. It is also the form of construction used aboard steam
vessels that employ water tube boilers for steam generation.
The Tuyere or air regulator attached is shown enlarged in fig. 48b, the outer
part being revolvable so as to close the air slots and regulate the amount of air
admitted round the atomizer. These appliances are the designs of the National
186

AMERICAN STATIONARY PRACTICE WITH LIQUID FUEL
Supply Co., of Chicago, as also is the arrangement fig. 49 of atomizer tuyere, casting,
and internal block of fire-brick which is
The fire-
intended to be placed in a furnace wall
or in the fire-front of a boiler.
brick has a trumpet-shaped hole through
it, and the nozzle of the atomizer enters
a short distance only, so that the initial
flame is contained within the body of the
block.
An example of the National Co.'s
system is the fuel oil plant of the Union
Loop, Chicago, Illinois. This plant con-
sists of a system for the complete unload-
ing, handling, storing, circulating, con-
trolling and firing of fuel oil, after design
prepared by C. O. and E. E. Billow.
The apparatus includes three steel
storage tanks, 16, 10, and 8 feet in
diameter, and 20 feet high, of a com-
bined capacity of 1,764 bbls., of 42 U.S.
gallons each (35 imp. gals.).
Fuel oil is received at the station
in tank wagons, and is transferred to
the storage tanks, which are placed in
the building, by two duplex pumps, hav-
ing 6-in. steam and 7-in. oil cylinders,
and a 6-in. stroke. These pumps are
specially brass fitted and have 6-in.
suction and 5-in. discharge openings.
Provision is made for unloading
four 30 bbl. tank wagons simultane-
ously. These tank wagons are attached
to oil hydrants, by steel band lined oil
unloading hose.
BILL
NOL
Fig. 48b. AIR REGULATOR, ATOMIZER AND
TUYERE BLOCK FOR FURNACE FRONT.
NATIONAL SUPPLY CO., CHICAGO
The oil storage tanks are provided with all the necessary flanges for pipe con-
nexions, a 16-in. screw top manhole and cover on the roof, and an 18-in. on the
side near the bottom of the tank, floats and indicators which indicate the level of
the oil, by finger boards in the tank room and mercury columns in the basement.
From the storage tanks the oil is conveyed to two 4-in. stand pipes, 70 ft. in
height, joined by a header near the top by means of a duplex pump, having 31-in.
steam cylinder, 42-in. oil cylinder, and a 5-in. stroke. This pump is also specially
fitted for oil, and has a 3-in. suction and a 23-inch discharge.
From the stand pipe header the oil is conveyed to the oil atomizer loop, by two
No. 5 oil heating and circulating systems, set upon the boiler room floor. These
systems are so erected as automatically to maintain a uniform pressure and tem-
perature, and a constant flow of oil to the oil atomizer. They also purge the oil
of all mechanical impurities, and dispose, by condensation, of the gases generated
by the manipulation of the oil in transit between the oil storage tank and the atom-
izer. These circulating systems each consist of a battery of duplex pumps with
187

LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
P
7-7%
Fig. 48c. SPECIAL TANK CAR 3-INCH HOSE CONNEXION. NATIONAL SUPPLY CO., CHICAGO
packed pistons having 51-in. steam cylinders, 31-in. oil cylinders, and a 5-in. stroke.
They have a 21-in. suction and a 2-in. discharge. Each pump is provided with
a copper air chamber and mounted on a cast iron base and drip pan, constructed
to dispose of all leaking of stuffing boxes and glands on the pumps. This base is
attached to a cast iron frame, supporting one combined steel receiver, heater and
condenser, 24 inches in diameter, and 36 inches high, surmounted by the 7-in. copper
air chamber 24 inches high. The receiver has two diaphragms riveted to its shell,
and expanded full of tubes (125 1-in. boiler tubes, having their ends caulked and
beaded), around which passes the exhaust from the pumps. The receiver also has
provision for the introduction of water, through which the fuel oil flows, under a high
pressure, for the purpose of breaking it up into molecules, in order that all foreign
substances may be precipitated; the oil passing through the heated tubes becomes
thoroughly cleansed, and deposits water and settlings due to the cleansing process
Each receiver is further provided with a brass automatically closed glass gauge,
air cocks, pressure gauge for steam and oil, blow-off connections, pressure relief
valve and pump governor or steam regulator.
FIG. 49.
The drips from the pumps, receiver, drip pans, and exhaust have catch basin
connexions.
188
AMERICAN STATIONARY PRACTICE WITH LIQUID FUEL
The whole circulating system is as nearly automatic in its action as is desirable,
and is duplicated throughout to guard against any possible contingencies or
accident.
Each circulating system is capable of preparing and properly delivering suffi-
cient fuel oil to the oil atomizers to develop, when burned, 15,000 horse-power, or
the two combined 30,000 boiler horse-power, and each system occupies a floor space
of 30 sq. ft., and is 8 ft. in height.
Four fuel oil atomizers are placed in the combustion chamber of each boiler,
or a total of sixty-four oil burners compose the installation. These oil burners
receive their oil from a loop, beneath the boiler room floor, which is sectionalized
with valves into five distinct headers.
The furnaces are erected upon the grate bars of an Acme stoker, and consist
of a series of fire-brick flues for heating and circulating the incoming air, chequer
work for distributing flame, and baffle walls for directing same.
The apparatus is so designed that oil at the same uniform pressure and tem-
perature will be delivered to a single oil burner or to the entire battery of sixty-four.
Furnace Construction.
The National Supply Company rightly say this is a most important feature
connected with a fuel oil equipment, and one which is often the least understood
and most neglected.
"Too often it happens that complete combustion is impaired not from the lack
of air, but on account of the method of its introduction into the furnace, often from
such points as to render it ineffective, producing losses as great as 50 per cent.
Therefore, for economic reasons, no more air should be supplied than is necessary.
During the early stages of combustion of any fuel the gases of a highly volatile
nature distil at a low temperature, rise rapidly, hug the boiler, enter the tubes or
flues and pass out through the breeching unconsumed. The combustion chamber
should therefore be arranged with fire-brick, so that the incoming air may be heated
to the required temperature, the flames retarded, diffused, and distributed, and the
velocity impeded. There will be no concentration or localization, and the danger
of blistering or burning any part of the boiler is avoided.
The nature of the furnace construction varies according to the type of boiler
or furnace. The question may be asked, 'Will an apparatus work if no change is
made in the combustion chamber or furnace of a boiler other than that of covering
the grate bars?' A furnace so arranged will not average as high economical
results as when properly constructed for diffusing the heat and retarding the flow
of the gases. Fuel oil appliances can only vaporize the oil; in the furnace it is con-
sumed. Therefore the statement is not unreasonable that a scientifically arranged
combustion chamber with a shovel to feed the oil is preferable to a poorly constructed
furnace to which is attached the highest type of atomizing device.
Operating a Fuel Oil Plant,
The results to be secured from a properly designed fuel oil plant depend wholly
upon the amount of intelligence that is exercised in its manipulation. All the
mechanism that can be supplied, outside of the furnace, is designed to perform the
single function of delivering the oil to the furnace in a finely divided, nebulised con-
dition with as little cost to the operator as possible, and to give insurance against
189
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
accidents or possible shut-downs, with ease and facility in manipulation. Other
economical results depend wholly upon the draught. This should be regulated by
the ash-pit doors, or other proper means. The flame may be increased or dimin-
ished at will by the simple opening or closing of a valve, but it is only by experi-
moda oo o
O
Of
•
•
O
O
•
σο
O
1
Fig. 47a.
UNDERFIRED BOILER WITH LIQUID FUEL FURNACE.
BILLOW SYSTEM
ment or long-continued contact with fuel oil that the oil, the atomizing agent, and
the air necessary for combustion will be properly combined and the beneficial
results of this combination be obtained. The operator should continue the open-
190
AMERICAN STATIONARY PRACTICE WITH LIQUID FUEL
ing and closing of the ashpit doors, or the manipulation of the damper and the
increasing or diminishing of the flame until he can produce a fire large or small,
without the least indication of smoke. When this condition is attained he will have
no more occasion for handling any of the apparatus, provided the elements of com-
bustion are perfectly balanced.
The gases should not pass from the furnace at too high a temperature. This
can be controlled and regulated largely by the damper. A clear flame consumes
less oil than a smoky flame, and has greater efficiency. Smoke is an evidence of
imperfect combustion, but the absence of smoke does not necessarily demonstrate
or prove that perfect combustion is being attained. Too much steam produces
I
I
1
Fig. 47b. WATER TUBE BOILER. BILLOW SYSTEM
a light grey vapour; too little, a smoky flame; too great a draught, an intensely
vibrating flame accompanied with a roaring noise; too little draught produces a
dull red, smoky flame. When the elements are properly united the result is a
reddish orange flame.
The temperature of the escaping gases from a boiler will increase as the excess
of air becomes greater, provided the same amount of fuel is being burned. This is
because the furnace temperature is less, owing to the greater amount of air present,
which results in a less rapid transfer of the heat to the boiler, and consequently
allows more heat to escape to the chimney.
On the other hand, with a uniform excess of air, if more fuel is burned, the
temperature of the escaping gases will increase, owing to the heat produced being
greater in proportion to the absorbing capacity of the boiler."
191
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
It is only through close application that the theory of oil burning can be fully
understood and mastered, and as high an efficiency as 80 per cent. of the theoretical
value of the fuel transmitted from the furnace to the boiler. Mr. C. O. Billow, the
engineer to the Company, has designed furnaces for many types of boilers. A few
are here illustrated. Fig. 47a is the ordinary American underfired tubular boiler
with the bars replaced by a fire-brick air casing, through which air flows to the fur-
nace through the "ash-pit " door and comes up under the atomized jet. The fur-
nace widens out laterally from front to rear, the atomizer being placed at the narrow
end of this brick furnace. The grate bars are ten inches lower than usual, and the
-
? 5
2.51
26
32-
6
Fig. 47c.
500 H.P. HEINE BOILER WITH Down DRAUGHT GRATE. BILLOW OIL FUEL
SYSTEM
air casing of brick occupies this ten-inch space. The ash-pit doors serve to regulate
the air admission. The atomized oil is directed upon the chequer work brick bridge,
which breaks up and diffuses the flame throughout the furnace and directs it upon
the boiler. A hanging bridge is placed at the extreme end of the combustion cham-
ber. If too little air has been admitted at the front, a further supply is let in through
this rear bridge, which also serves further to retard the flow of the hot gases. Either
steam or air may be used as the atomizing agent in this furnace, and though air is
the more efficient, the cost of the air compressor detracts from its advantage, but
a good compressor saves steam. Mr. Billow considers that steam atomizing should
be done with 3.3 per cent. of the total steam; that a positive air blast blower will
only use 1.36 per cent. of the boiler output, but when air is compressed above 30
pounds absolute, it costs 6 per cent. with ordinary compressors. Hence the im-
192
AMERICAN STATIONARY PRACTICE WITH LIQUID FUEL
portance of well designed compressors. Exactly the same system is carried out in
the ordinary water tube boiler (fig. 47b). This furnace is applicable to the many
forms of water tube boiler. In this case the same grate cover of fire-brick is em-
ployed, but the bars are lowered considerably to provide room for the concave
bridge, which is also split to admit air. The burner points somewhat down so as to
strike on the brick floor at about half length, the flames curving round the bridge
hollow.
In fig 47c is the setting arranged for a 500 h.p. Heine boiler, which was pro-
vided with the Hawley down draught furnace previous to oil being used. The illus-
tration shows how the Hawley grate has been retained and covered with tiling on
the middle section only. In this boiler are five fire doors and six atomizers, the
middle door having two, and the others one each. The gases from the side furnaces.
pass between the bars or tubes of the Hawley grate and join the gases from the cen-
tral section in the combustion chamber. The illustration shows the central section
of the furnace.
It may be added here that for English practice the containers of oil pumping
systems of fig. 48 type should be of boiler plate and not of cast iron-a material,
the use of which for pressure work, and especially for pressure work with liquid
fuel, is considered indefensible, and would probably not be passed as safe by the
English Boiler Insurance Companies.
193
Chapter XXI
AMERICAN STATIONARY PRACTICE WITH LIQUID FUEL-(continued).
T
The Kirkwood System.
'ATE, JONES & Co., of Pittsburg, make the Kirkwood burner, for which they
claim that it can be worked by air or steam, does not clog, is easily cleaned,
and is regulated at the point of combustion. A graduated scale for both oil and
steam or air is fitted. Oil is pumped through a coil in the exhaust chamber of the
oil pump itself, which is in duplicate.
It is claimed that oil with a fire test of 180°F. to 200°F. (82°C. to 93°) is as safe as
coal, which will sometimes ignite spontaneously, that at 250° to 300°F. a red hot poker
will not ignite oil stirred by it, nor will hot coals do so if thrown into it. This may all
be true, but yet does not of course justify other than great care in regard to the
dangers inseparable from any self flowing oil.
Steam is considered the best atomizing agent, but this claim is supported by
the now exploded error that it assists the fuel value of oil by itself burning after
dissociation.
It is correct, however, to call for superheated steam as more effective than less
dry steam, and it need not be disputed that there may be a chemical action which
promotes the combustion of hydrocarbons in the presence of moisture, as claimed
by Professor Dixon; but this must not be confused with the erroneous claim that
steam, being split up, acts as fuel and gives out more heat energy than it absorbed
in the process of decomposition.
Professor Deniche, of the University of California, who tested oil at the Western
Sugar Refinery in San Francisco, where 700 barrels of oil are used daily, states that
there are 32 boilers, of which 22 are 6 feet 6 inches diameter by 21 feet long, and
have 27 square feet of grate surface. Each boiler has 113 three inch tubes, giving
688 square feet of heating surface. The ten other boilers are 6 feet 6 inches in
diameter by 26 feet long, have the same grate surface and 96 2½ inch tubes, giving
a heating surface of 1,098 square feet. The plant is rated at 2,540 horse power,
but 4,340 horse power is obtained. There are also three Green economizers, which
heat the feed water-two with 432 pipes and one of 360 pipes.
When coal was burned, forced draught was supplied by a 4 by 6 foot Sturtevant
blower, driven by 11 inch × 16 inch engine.
The oil is received in tank cars containing from 6,000 to 6,500 gallons. The
contract price for the oil is $1.30 per barrel, delivered (42 gallons per barrel, weighing
301·33 pounds) = 5s. 6d. per 35 imp. gallons.
"Seven cars are coupled to pipes along the track and the oil flows by gravity
to a centrifugal pump, driven by an electrical motor, which pumps the oil into closed
steel storage tanks of 10,000 barrels each. These tanks are surrounded by a con-
194
AMERICAN STATIONARY PRACTICE WITH LIQUID FUEL
crete dam, the space enclosed containing a little more than the contents of one tank.
From these main tanks the oil flows by gravity to a small underground tank near
the fire room. A network of fire-brick set on edge is laid directly upon the grate
bars, and against this the oil flame is directed. This network can be removed and
a coal fire started within twenty minutes, by actual practical trial. When oil was
first used it was blown with two or three per cent. of generated steam, but this gave
an imperfect flame and set up a vibration. Now eight per cent. is used, and a Bunsen
flame is obtained with little vibration.”
The fire-room cost of handling the fuel is stated to be less than one-third of that
of coal.
When coal was used as fuel, twenty-six firemen were employed; now twelve are
needed.
When coal was used careful tests were made, and from the results obtained there
has been prepared the following table, which shows a saving of $46,012.15 per year
by burning oil. But as it was based on the first test made under poor conditions,
since remedied, it is claimed that the minimum saving over coal is $60,000. This
does not take into account wear and tear on the boilers and general convenience.
Statement of Comparative Value of Oil and Coal.
BASED ON THE FIRST TRIAL TEST. COAL BASIS OF 1897.
Total bituminous coal received during 1897, tons
Average evaporation of that coal from and at 212°F., pounds
Total water evaporated on that basis, pounds
35,347
7.88
Fire room cost of handling that coal, reckoning 300 days at $64.26
Cost of coal for this work on basis of present price, 35,347 tons at
$6.55 (have paid as high as $7.25 this month) .
624,183,481
$19,278.00
$231,522.85
Total cost of evaporating above quantity of water, coal .
$250,800.85
OIL, BASIS OF $1.30 PER BARREL, AND 13.9 POUNDS EVAPORATION.
Oil necessary to evaporate above quantity of water, barrels .
Cost of oil at $1.30 per barrel
152,379
Fire room cost of handling oil, 300 days at $20.76 .
.
$198,560.70
$6,228.00
Total cost of evaporating above quantity with oil
Equivalent value per ton of coal on the above basis
$204,788.70—$19,278
35,347
Saving on year's work by burning oil under the above conditions.
$46,012.15
Tate, Jones & Co. give the following working figures for Beaumont oil-
Specific gravity of Beaumont Oil, 22°Baume.
$204,788.70
$5.25
One gallon
One barrel
Six barrels
One barrel
Flash point
Fire point
""
39
weighs 7.66 pounds.
322 lb.
1 ton nearly (2,000 lb.).
contains 42 gallons=35 imp. gals.
180°F.
200°F.
Theoretical calorific value of Beaumont oil, 1 lb. will evaporate 15½ lb. water.
Calorific value of ordinary Western coal, 1 lb. will evaporate 15½ lb. water.
From which it appears, 481 lb. oil will evaporate as much as 100 lb. coal.
They also consider that there should be from 6 to 7 per cent. of oxygen in the
195

LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
furnace gases.
As with most American systems, the Kirkwood system embodies a
heater and pumps. The heater consists of a steam chamber, the steam chamber
containing a pipe coil through which the oil passes before reaching the burner, the coil
being heated by the waste steam from the pumps. These pumps are in duplicate,
so that one may always be in reserve in case of breakdown. The relief valves in the
pressure chamber are designed to keep the oil in it and in the supply lines at a uniform
pressure of about 20 pounds or more, an automatic by-pass allowing any surplus oil
to return to the storage tanks without rise of temperature.
By applying the oil itself both hot and under pressure it is compelled to be
admitted through finer orifices and in a more thin and divided state for atomization.
The oil must not appear visible as a dark stream at the burner tip, but as an
almost imperceptible spray.
The Aerated Fuel Process.
This process is that of the Gilbert and Barker Manufacturing Company of
New York, and is simply a system of atomizing by compressed air. The system is
used in all manner of industrial arts, the flame being used direct in metal work,
glass making, japanning, etc. The apparatus includes an air compressor, oil pump
and receiver, storage tank and the burners and necessary pipes.
Compression is to 15 pounds per square inch, a pressure below which it is
stated that the fuel is not perfectly atomized.
E
D
AIR
OIL
B
E
D
B
Fig. 50. ATOMIZER. AERATED FUEL PROCESS
196
AMERICAN STATIONARY PRACTICE WITH LIQUID FUEL
The oil pump is itself worked by the air, and serves to keep a full receiver of
about 30 gallons capacity (25 imperial gallons). The receiver also contains com-
pressed air which forces the oil to the burner (fig. 50), where it meets the air coming
direct from the compressor. Valves regulate the proportions and the air pressure
preserves even working conditions, whether two or twenty burners are at work.
It is claimed that the combustion is really gaseous, clean and smokeless. The main
supply is a buried tank outside the building and away from the burners. The oil
pump is automatically regulated by a float, and all apparatus is below the burners,
so that no gravity flow can take place. The use of gravity is held by some to be bad
practice, and this view will bear argument in its favour. Low pressure air is specially
condemned as leading to imperfect atomization and large globules, which burn
imperfectly and deposit carbon and injure the fire-brick. From 60 to 120 gallons of
oil are claimed to do the work of a ton of coal.
The process is held to be very much superior to any steam atomizing process
for metallurgical work.
Low pressure air which throws oil upon the fire-brick unconsumed, causes these
to shell off and break, and smoke is made also while carbon is deposited in the
furnace.
Applied to metallurgy, to forge furnaces, crucible heating, and other industrial
work outside steam raising, the advantages of oil fuel are set out, in regard, not
merely to the absence of dirt and dust, but that there is no loss of time through men
waiting for fires to burn up. There are no times of good or of bad fires, no uneven
heat, but a full flowing flame is maintained with an even continuous degree of heat.
Then the economy of oil is largely secured by increased production and better work.
Oil has the advantage over gas fuel also, which, though equally good in the furnace,
cannot be produced without labour and dust and at a considerable outlay in plant
and apparatus.
A usual computation of the calorific capacity of various gases is as per following
table-
Natural gas
Air gas (gas machine) 20-candle power
Public illuminating gas, average
Water gas (from bituminous coal)
Water and producer gas (mixed)
Producer gas
Blast furnace gas
Heat units per
thousand cubic feet.
1,000,000
815,500
650,000
377,000
175,000
150,000
100,000
Since a gallon of fuel oil (7 pounds) contains 151,000 heat units, the following
comparisons may evidently be made. At three cents a gallon (about 1.8d. per
English gallon), for instance, the equivalent heat units in oil would be equal to-
Dollars
per thousand
cubic feet.
at 1987
Natural gas
Air gas 20-candle power
Public illuminating gas, average
Water gas (from bituminous coal)
Water and producer gas (mixed)
Producer gas
Blast furnace gas
∙1620
""
.1291
.0749
.0347
.0298
·0200
JJ
197
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
At four cents a gallon (about 2.4d. per English gallon) the equivalent heat units
in oil would equal—
Dollars per
1,000 cubic ft.
at 2649
Natural gas
Air gas, 20-candle power
Public illuminating gas, average
Water gas (from bituminous coal)
Water and producer gas (mixed)
Producer gas
•
Blast furnace gas
.2160
.1722
.0998
.0463
""
·0397
·0265
so that when oil will pay to use it may be installed at one-tenth the cost of a gas
plant and worked for a fraction of the cost in upkeep and wages.
The Gilbert & Barker Co. also work the Springfield System, in which air as low
as 18 or 24 ounces pressure is employed to atomize oil, which comes forward at forty
pounds pressure and is apparently contradictory of the statements above, that low
pressure air is not satisfactory. Possibly an explanation is to be found in the oil
pressure which, as in the Körting system, should itself do much towards atomizing
the oil.
198
IN
Chapter XXII
ENGLISH STATIONARY PRACTICE WITH LIQUID FUEL
The Kermode System.
N this system air at low pressure is the atomizing agent, the air being heated in a
thick retort pipe, which is carried round the furnace.
Oil is allowed to gravitate from an overhead tank, as very usual in marine work.
It flows thence by a 14 in. pipe to the furnace front and separates to the two burners
by equal branching pipes. Where two burners are supplied off one pipe the branches
to each must be symmetrically arranged in order that equal supplies of oil may reach
each burner.
The illustrations figs. 51, 51a represent one form of the furnace arranged by the
Wallsend Slipway Co. for this system, the lower part of the marine furnace being
filled with special fire-brick blocks through which air enters the furnace beneath the
flame. These blocks are covered with asbestos lumps similar to the ordinary grate
of fig. 52, which shows an alternative arrangement including also an oil heating
pipe in the furnace in addition to the air heating pipe.
The accompanying table of tests and copy of analysis of Borneo oil are given
from results of trials at the Wallsend Company's Works-
COPY OF ANALYSIS BY DR. GEORGE TATE, F.I.C. F.G.S. November 9, 1899.
Sample.
Astatki.
Borneo Crude Oil
as received.
Borneo Crude Oil
dried.
p.c.
p.c.
p.c.
Water
trace
11.75
Carbon
79.92
73.60
83.40
Hydrogen
12.00
9.08
10.29
Oxygen and undetermined elements
8.08
5.57
6.31
Total.
100.00
100.000
100.00
Calorific power in B.Th.U.
18.434
15.894
18.010
Equivalent evaporative power
19.0 lb.
16.4 lb.
18.6 lb.
199
"
2
OIL SUPPLY
TANK
OIL SUPPLY PIPE
BORE
HOT AIR PIPE
4 BORE
Fig. 51. LIQUID FUEL FURNACE. KERMODE'S SYSTEM
AIR PIRE 2 BORE
LOOR LEVEL
200
၁
OIL SUPPLY
BLOWING
ENGINE.
AIR
HOT AIR PIPE
Fig 51a.
ENLARGED DETAILS. KERMODE'S SYSTEM
710
SUPPLY
H
五
​HOT AIR
201
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
1-
TH
Pael
Pipe
Burne
Air
Supply
from
Pump
Air
from Pump
Air
Pipe for heating Air supplied to Burner
Joit Vapouriser
on Bars
Air Inlet
Aur
Supply
0000
Hot Air
Fig. 52. LIQUID FUEL FURNACE. KERMODE'S SYSTEM. ALTERNATIVE ARRANGEMENT
Date of Trial.
Duration of trial
Class of oil used
Mean pressure on boiler, lb.
Borneo crude Borneo crude
Sept. 6, 1899.
3 hours
Sept. 14, 1899.
4 hours
Sept. 19, 1899.
2 hours
Borneo crude
First hour.
Second hour.
111
110.5
109.8
110.4
Total lb. of water evaporated
24,161
35,323
9362.5
9511
Pounds evaporated per hour
8053.7
8830.75
9362.5
9511
Pounds of water per pound of oil
Ditto from and at 212°F.
11.1
10.9
10.93
10.92
12.9
12.75
12.85
12.84
Mean temperature of feed water
!
deg. Fahr.
•
89°
89°
83°
83°
Temperature of oil in measuring
tank, deg. Fahr.
68°
68°
67°
67°
Total gallons of oil consumed
225.3
!
337
88.8
90.2
pounds of oil consumed
2174
3244
856.5
870.3
Gallons consumed in 1 hour
75.1
84.2
88.8
90.2
Pounds consumed in 1 hour
721.7
811
856.5
870.3
Pressure on oil at burner pound.
Specific gravity of oil
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
.965
.965
.965
.965
Temperature of uptake deg. F.
650°
665°
720°
720°
Smoke at funnel top
Light brown
Light brown
Light brown
Air pressure in burner, pounds
3.2
3.2
3
Revolutions of blowing engine
310
350
320
Pounds of oil per sq. ft. of grate
18.1
20.3
21.5
Pounds of water per sq. ft. of heating
surface
4.75
5.5
5.5
qud
202
ENGLISH STATIONARY PRACTICE WITH LIQUID FUEL
7.5 per cent. of water in the oil is allowed for in the above results. This seems
rather excessive.
The boiler had the following dimensions-
Mean diameter
Mean length
Two furnaces
262 tubes, 21 ins. external diameter, 8 feet between
tube plates
Heating surface of tubes
Furnaces
Combustion chambers
Tube plates
Total
Grate area of one surface
Diameter of chimney
Height from bars
12 ft. 6 ins.
11 ft.
3 ft. 7 ins. inside diameter.
1,372 sq. ft.
123
""
125
75
1,695
20
5 ft.
•
55
The burners are arranged so as to be readily swung back when coal firing is to
be resumed, and there is very little change to the furnace in the system of fig. 52.
Probably the light smoke which is made might be reduced by the use of somewhat
more fire-brick in the furnace or combustion chamber.
Tests made at Birkenhead are said to have shown an evaporation as high as
15.5 pounds from and at 212°F. per pound of Russian astatki and without smoke.
Borneo oil is credited by Dr. Tate with less hydrogen than usually is found in petro-
leum fuels, the average formula apparently being C,H₁. The burner for this system
is described under the head of atomizers, fig. 82.
The Hydroleum Company's System.
In this system great stress is laid upon the spraying of the oil through a com-
Feeder
Fig. 53. SPECIAL BOILER.
..
""
“ HYDROLEUM LIQUID FUEL SYSTEM
203
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Feede
Fig. 53a.
WATER TUBE BOILER WITH HYDROLEUM LIQUID FUEL SYSTEM
paratively restricted area or passage upon a dash-brick, which, it is claimed, becomes
highly heated and vaporizes the spray. This is shown in fig. 53, which is a form
of water tube boiler fitted with the system, and in fig. 53a.
Tested with water gas tar at the works of Messrs. Muirhead & Co., Elmer's End,
Kent, the following results were obtained—
Date
•
Duration of test.
Mean temperature of feed water
Mean pressure on boiler
Pounds of water evaporated
consumed
•
Pounds of water evaporated per lb. from and at 212°F.
Price of tar
Price of coke
•
Oil.
Aug. 14, 1901.
2 hours
70 Fahr.
•
90 lb.
2,400
211
13.47
19s. Od. per ton
Coke.
May 15, 1901.
9 hours
60 Fahr.
90 lb.
10,100
1,792
16.73
102d. per lb.
21s. 8d. per ton
=116d. per lb.
N.B. In making the test the tar was taken as received, no deduction being
made for any water it contained.
Comparing these two tests it will be seen that-
To evaporate each pound of water with coke cost
To evaporate each pound of water with water gas tar
Saving by the system of oil firing
0.0172d.
0.0075d.
0.0097d. per lb.
The burner of this system will be found described under the head of atomizers,
but the Hydroleum Company do not profess to atomize. They lay stress upon the
use of a dash-brick only about 18 inches in front of the spray nozzle, an intense local
heat being developed on the face of the brick. Sufficient air to burn the vaporized oil
204
ENGLISH STATIONARY PRACTICE WITH LIQUID FUEL
205
Petrol trial on
road.
Petrol trial car
standing.
Hydroleum trial
on road.
Hydroleum trial
car standing.
Distance run-miles.
hs. m.
P
50
Time running—hours.
Col.
2
Water evaporated—gals.
Water evaporated—lbs.
Fuel consumed—gals.
Fuel consumed-lbs.
PETROL AND HYDROLEUM CONSUMPTION AND EVAPORATION TRIALS, WITH Two-SEAT CAR.
3
4
5
6
8
6
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Water evaporated gals. per gal. of fuel.
Water evaporated in lbs. per lb. of fuel.
2 0
18.25
182.5
2.78
19 6.56
9.6
11.5
9.12
2 0 19.0
190
2.091
19.4
9.1
9.8
11.92 | 9.5
Equivalent evaporation from and at 212°.
Water evaporated per hour-gals.
Water evaporated per mile-lbs.
31.0
3.0
3.5
24
8.86
12.9
15.8
7.92
6.2
0.07 0.48
14.3
.895
.685
0.84d.
Fuel consumed per mile-gals.
52
4 0 36.25
362.5
4.03 37.4 8.53
9.7
11.88 9.06
7.25
0.077
0.72
12.9
1.00
.928
0.155d.
1.04
Fuel consumed per mile-lbs.
1.38
Miles traversed per gallon fuel.
Fuel consumed per hour-gals.
Specific gravity of fuel.
Cost per mile for Petroleum Spirit at 1s.
Cost per mile for Texas Oil at 2d.
18
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
is induced through the openings provided round the spray nozzle. The sprayer is
made in three sizes, having capacities of 1, 3, and 10 to 12 gallons of oil per hour,
and the oil is induced to flow by the inductive action of the steam annulus. The feed
tank is kept at a level of half an inch below the nozzle by means of a ball float valve.
From 14.5 to 15 pounds of water are stated to be evaporated from and at 212°F.
pound of oil, the expense of steam being 5 per cent. of the evaporation.
· per
The Hydroleum system has been applied to steam motor cars, and Mr. W. Beau-
mont found that, per gallon of Texas oil, the Hydroleum burner evaporated
8.81 gallons of water from 48°F. against 7.71 pounds evaporated by a petrol burner.
The figures of the tests are here given. It must be noted, of course, that a gallon of
oil contains 32 per cent. more weight than a gallon of petrol. The final result, how-
ever, is greatly in favour of the cheap heavy oil, as might be anticipated. With oil
Steam
Feeder
18
Oil
Lungituulinal Section on A.B.
From Mat Steam Supply
A
Reducing Valve
From Oil Supply
Oil Level
Inlet fitted with
Ball Valve.
Front Elevation
B
Fig. 53b. LIQUID FUEL BURNING. HYDROLEUM SYSTEM. MARINE BOILER FURNACES
206
ENGLISH STATIONARY PRACTICE WITH LIQUID FUEL
fuel, in fact, a steam car was run at an expense for fuel under of a penny per mile,
where more expensive petrol spirit costs five or six times as much.
Though not claimed as an atomizing system, the Author considers that the
effects of the Hydroleum burner sufficiently resemble atomizing for this burner to be
held up as an example of the success of the system.
Experience shows that for a burner capable of burning 10 gallons per hour
there should be an opening for air round the atomizer of 8" x 8", which, after
deducting the cross section of the atomizer itself leaves sixty square inches of air
opening for ten gallons per hour. Worked out on the basis of 15 lbs. of air per lb.
of oil fuel and 13 cubic feet per lb. the velocity per second of the air stream is
only 13 feet. A gallon of fuel is taken as 10lb., which is about correct for tar. The
amount of fuel fed is simply regulated by the amount of steam used, and this draws
in more or less air as required by the fuel, and very little regulation of the air
inlets is required. The Hydroleum Company, to reduce noise, place a trunk casing
round each burner with opening downwards. This gives very effectual silencing.
If desired, these air trunks may be all coupled to a common air main brought from
outside the building. As seen by the Author, burning oil gas tar of Sp. Gr. 1.04 the
system was smokeless and very silent. The tar was being burned in a Lancashire
boiler. In fig. 53b is shown the application of the Hydroleum system to circular
furnaces of Lancashire or marine type, each burner having its air opening surrounding
it. The air trunks are not shown in the figure. The Hydroleum atomizer will be
found described and illustrated in the chapter on atomizers.
207
IN
Chapter XXIII
THE COMBUSTION OF VAPORIZED LIQUIDS
The Clarkson and Capel Burner
N this burner system the liquid employed is preferably the cheaper and com-
moner qualities of lamp oil. The burner shown fig. 55 is one that is fitted to
floating fire engines. It is capable of burning 40 gallons of oil per hour and of
developing up to 200 h.p. The No. 5 size will burn 20 gallons per hour.
In each of these burners there is a gas ring to give the necessary initial heat to
vaporize the oil. The gas jets heat the coils to which the oil is fed, and the vapour
passes from the coil to the rear of the long casting, which it enters through a small
orifice controlled by a needle point. Air is admitted by a door at the back end of the
casting and the mixed vapour and air are thoroughly mixed in the pipe and issue
round the lip of the mushroom valve, where ignition takes place and a large flaring
flame is formed of great intensity, the heat from which continues to vaporize the oil
in the coil, and the process is continuous. The oil is under pressure in the supply
tank, the pressure being easily generated by an air pump. The pressure forces the
oil through the system, and when, in vaporized form, this reaches the jet nozzle, it
issues with a high velocity and induces a large flow of air through the valve. The
needle of the jet nozzle is worked by the same controlling lever as regulates the cap
of the burner. In the course of this lever, which is of compound order, is a maximum
and minimum stop that can be regulated to prevent excessive opening or entire
extinguishing of the flame. The hand wheel, in fig. 55, of the large burner, shows
how this is effected.
Fig. 56 is the automobile pattern and its initial heating device is a spirit trough
containing a coil of nickel wire. Petrol or alcohol can be employed for this initial
heating. The burner is placed in the cylindrical base of the boiler; the case
bottom is perforated for air admission and provided with a door for inspection.
The air door of the burner trunk is shown open on the first notch of its catch.
In fig. 57 is shown the open tank system, the main oil tank not being under
pressure. From this it is pumped to the pressure tank into which air is also
pumped, and thence is fed to the burners. Any excess of oil pumped in, escapes
by way of a relief valve to the main tank. A pressure gauge is fitted to show
the pressure of the oil.
The application to a small boat boiler is shown in fig. 58, and shows that no
structural change is made in the boiler, the burner tube or trunk coming in under
the mud ring, and air admission being otherwise through the ash-pit. The fire bars
are removed. Fig. 59 is a diagram of the small vessel itself.
208
THE COMBUSTION OF VAPORIZED LIQUIDS
fan and fed with a limited quantity of paraffin from a small cup, the main
supply of oil being heated in the inch coil. After the cupful of paraffin is
finished the flame of the main burner will be burning and will provide heat
KIBL BOKNO TOP
BOTTOM PLATE
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A system of preliminary heating by means of paraffin is shown in fig. 54.
Here a series of asbestos wicks are provided with an air draught by a small
C. IRON.
FIT TO COCK
CUP LOFF G.M.
STARTER FOR No 5BURNER.
100°CRE
Fig. 54.
PRELIMINARY HEATER.
CLARKSON-CAPEL SYSTEM
209
Р
W
Fig. 55.
CLARKSON-CAPEL VAPORIZING BURNER, 200 H.P. FOR FIRE FLOAT
每
​210
10
THE COMBUSTION OF VAPORIZED LIQUIDS
for further vaporization.
For use in automobiles,
small steam boats, the cheap
forms of lamp oil are com-
mercially practicable, though
they would be too expensive
for ordinary continuous in-
dustrial steam raising pur-
poses. For other reasons
these same oils commend
themselves particularly for
the purposes of fire engines
and fire floats. Here the use
of expensive fuel in even
considerable quantity for a
few hours is warranted by the
extraordinary nature of the
service, namely, the extin-
guishment of a fire that may
be consuming valuable build-
ings and their contents. Even
the lighter petrols are used for
steam raising purposes in cer-
tain forms of steam cars, the
petrol being sprayed upon a
hot cast iron plate through
which fine jets of air are intro-
duced and the heat is utilised
to raise steam in coil boilers
of the flash type into which
water is injected to provide
the steam for instant use by
the engine.
In the Clarkson system one
pound of oil can be counted
upon to give an evaporation
of 10 pounds of water from
80°C., to steam at 200 pounds,
or an equivalent evaporation
from 212°F. of nearly 11
pounds. The oil receptacle is
usually worked at a pressure
of 40 pounds, and the cheaper
grades of Russian oil are per-
haps the most suitable, such
as Rocklight, Lustre, etc.
As stated elsewhere, the
calorific capacity of all the
petroleum products is prac-
+
4
28
-IN
Fig. 56.
CLARKSON-CAPEL VAPORIZING BURNER, AUTOMOBILE PATTERN
2II
TO BURNER
REGULATOR »
PRESS.GAUGE
HO
TO AIR PUMP
TOA
ENGINE
PRESSURE TANK
PUMP
ORIVEN OFF ENG
STRAINERS
BYE PASS RETURN PIPE
O
MAIN TANK
FILLING PLUG
}
Fig. 57. CLARKSON-CAPEL OPEN TANK SYSTEM
:
212
213
О
O
0000
оооо
о
о
о
о
оо
о
оо
O
О
О
O
оо
о
о
о
о
Fig. 58. CLARKSON-CAPEL BURNER, APPLIED TO SMALL BOILER
214
To Air Pump
Regulator
Burner
·PUMP
Pressure Tank
OIL DRUM
Strainer
Bye Pass to Tank
Stakehold
1 OIL DRUM
Fig. 59.
SMALL VESSEL WITH CLARKSON-CAPEL LIQUID FUEL SYSTEM
Connect 8 Pipe
THE COMBUSTION OF VAPORIZED LIQUIDS
tically identical, the lighter oils being most powerful because they contain the highest
percentage of hydrogen, but the difference is immaterial. The evaporative efficiency
of the small boilers of cars and canoes, is less than that of large boilers simply be-
cause it is not desirable to load up a car with too great a weight of heating surface.
In fig. 60 is shown the starting device employed on automobile cars, a pad fed
with a drop feed of oil being ignited by a match and giving preliminary heat to the
burner.
MAIN OIL VALVE
URNER
TO BURNE
TO OIL PRESS. TANK
STARTER Box
After saturating the Asbeslis pad
light with match & let the valve
drp about 150 drops to the minute
blowing with fan at same time…
SEAT
FRONT RAIL OF SEAT
Small Valve coupled on li Main Oil Supply Pipe withy for drip to Starter
04
COPPER PIPE
This pipo fixed in the most convenient place
Fig. 60. STARTING DEVICE EMPLOYED ON AUTOMOBILE CARS. CLARKSON-CAPEL SYSTEM
215
IN
Chapter XXIV
COMPARISON OF AIR AND STEAM ATOMIZATION
The Ellis and Eaves System.
N this system the atomizing is done by steam, and heated air is supplied to the
furnaces, the draught being fan induced. The air is heated in tubular heaters
having two-thirds of the boiler heating surface, and placed over the boiler in the
·3
79°
AIR HEATING BOX
ir of
12
NNNNNNIN
-278-
FAN
FAN
SUCTION
BRICK PILLAR
SILT TRAP
Fig. 61. ELLIS AND EAVES SYSTEM, MARINE BOILER ARRANGEMENT, For Heating Air
course of the gases to the fan, as shown in fig. 61; the admission of air to the
furnaces being, as in fig. 62, round the outside of the atomizer.
Tests were also made with air as the atomizing agent. The air pressure was
20 pounds per square inch, and the results are given below. A subsequent test
with air at 35 pounds pressure showed 11,108 pounds of water per hour from and
FAN DISCHARGE
216
COMPARISON OF AIR AND STEAM ATOMIZATION
at 212°F. and 15.49 pounds per pound of oil. This is somewhat less than air at the
more moderate pressure of 20 pounds. The atomizing air was not heated, and
had a temperature of 80°F. only, or it might have given better results.
The difference between steam and air atomizing seems to be practically nil.
HOT AIR
HOT AIR
Valves open for
all tests
-
-
POSITION OF OIL BURNERS
Valves closed
for air tests.
Fig. 62. ELLIS AND EAVES SYSTEM, FURNACE DOOR ARRANGEMENT
70
open
It remains simply to compare the amount of steam used direct with that used in
compressing the air.
2
The analysis of the flue gases showed a mean result of 11.2 per cent. of CO,
and 10 per cent. of oxygen in the left hand furnace and 14.1 per cent. of CO₂
and 8.4 of oxygen in the right hand furnace, the mean of both being CO₂=12·6,
0=9.6, CO=0.
The tests made with this system of induced draught and oil fuel burning of
six hours duration, were a success, but the question was raised whether the system
could be worked for a lengthened period without giving trouble through deposits of
soot and unconsumed oil becoming ignited in the air heater and casings.
A continuous test of 120 hours was made, careful observations being taken of
the temperatures, evaporation, etc., during that time.
Particulars of boiler, which were the same as in the previous tests-
12 ft. mean diameter by 11 ft. mean length, fitted with two Purves furnaces of
3 ft. 9 in. inside diameter.
148 Servé tubes, 32 in. outside diameter by 7 ft. 9 in. long and retarders.
Grate surface (for coal burning) 43 sq. feet.
Heating surface, 1,200 sq. ft.
Ratio of H.S. to G.S. 28 to 1.
217
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Fitted with the Ellis and Eaves system of induced draught. Surface in air
heating tubes, 800 sq. ft.
Diameter of Fan wheel, 7 ft. 6 in.
The boiler feed supply was taken from two tanks, each of 800 gallons and two
oil supply tanks for burners, having a capacity of about 900 gallons each were pro-
vided. These tanks were not fitted with heating coils, the oil being fed to burners at
75°F.
The steam to the burners was supplied at 70 pounds per square inch. Texas
oil was used, closed flash point 185, calorific value 18400 B.Th.U. Sp. gr. 0.915.
Smoke was only visible for a few seconds when changing over the oil tanks
about every eight hours. Heated air was provided; the difference in right and
left hand temperatures of air entering the fires being due to the fact that the right
hand air heating box and air casings are protected from the weather by a wall, and
also that the air entering these is at a higher temperature, due to radiation from the
fan discharge.
The test was started on Monday, December 15, 1902, at eleven a.m., the boiler
being cleaned before starting, and was continued night and day till eleven a.m. on
Saturday, December 20, the installation working without a hitch during the whole
of that time. Burners required cleaning occasionally, but this was carried out one
at a time, and only occupied a few minutes. Hot air was admitted to the furnaces,
the greater portion of this only being admitted round about the burners through
vena-contracta nozzles.
At the end of the trial the boiler, air heater casings, etc., were opened up and
examined by representatives of the Wallsend Slipway Co. and the International
Mercantile Marine Co., and were found to be perfectly clean and in good order, there
being no indication whatever of flaming in the casings. From the foregoing and
a perusal of the following tables, to the use of heated air the perfected combustion of
the oil may be attributed, no smoke is formed and there is no deposit of inflam-
mable oil or soot on the tubes or casings to take fire.
From the table on page 221 the advantages of air heating are shown up
clearly. Air which enters the heater at about 54°F. leaves it at about 284°F.,
having taken up 230° of temperature all of which is absorbed from the furnace
gases, which are reduced from about 760°F. to 520°F. more or less. They lose
the 230° gained by the air, and this alone represents a very considerable economy,
something like 33 per cent. of the otherwise waste heat passing up the chimney.
The fan efficiency is also increased. Assuming that the furnace temperature is
2,800°F. the heating of the air by the waste gases would appear to represent an
economy of fuel of 8 to 10 per cent., apart from the higher boiler efficiency due
to increased temperature head.
Air heating is thus advantageous both in economy and more perfect com-
bustion.
218
COMPARISON OF AIR AND STEAM ATOMIZATION
STEAM ATOMIZATION.
Vacu- Vac-
Steam
Time.
Fan
uum
Pres- Revo- at Fan at
sure. lutions Suc- Fur-
tion. nace.
um
Tem-
per-
ature
of Air
entering
Heater.
Heated Air
cntering Fires.
WaterTime
taken to
Left.
Escaping Escaping Feed
Gases Gases
entering at
Air
Fan
Heater. Suction.
Water
empty
Tanks.
Oil.
Tem-
per-
ature.
Tank Tank Gals.
Right.
1.
2.
Mins. Mins.
10.0
145 305
3"
21"
75°F. 235°F. 300°F. 700°F. 475°F. 60°F.
46
10.30 135
309
N
21″
3
75°
235°
290°
700°
475° 60°
49
82/1/1
11.0
140
308 21" " 75°
232°
285°
11.30 135 305
21″
1
3″
3" 75°
230°
285°
695°
695°
470°
55°
470°
58°
55
80
12.0 140 300 21″
12.30 137 299 21″
3"
4
2″ 75°
227°
275° 675°
455°
58°
3"
75°
233°
275°
4
700° 460°
58°
41
811
1.0
140 308
21″
3/1
4
3″
75°
242°
295° 715° 485°
58°
39
1.30
130 302
21″
3"
4
3″ 75°
247°
305° 710°
490°
58°
40
100
2.0
150 305 21" 2
3″ 75°
248°
308° 715° 490° 58°
2.30 145 305 21″ 3″ 75°
3"
248°
305°
715°
485°
58°
40
9331
4
3.0 140 312
21″ 3″ 75°
3"
245°
295° 705° 475°
58°
42
3.30 140
310 21″ 3″ 75°
3/1
4
245°
290°
705° 485°
58°
135gals.out 821
of last tank.
4.0 145 309 21″ 3″ 75°
246°
295°
710°
505°
58°
Total
6535 gals.
Total
530
Water evap. per hour.
Actual observed conditions.
10891
lbs.
Water evap. per lb. of Oil.
Actual observed conditions.
13.4
lbs.
Equivalent weight of water
evap per hour, assuming feed at,
110° Fah. to steam at 180 lbs.
11340
lbs.
Water evap. per lb. of Oil,
assuming feed at 110° Fah.,
to steam at 180 lbs.
13.9
lbs.
Water evap. per hour
13145
from and at 212° Fah.
lbs.
Water evap. per lb. of Oil
from and at 212° Fah.
16.1
lbs.
Water evap. per sq. ft. H.S.
Actual observed conditions.
9
lbs.
Water evap. per sq. ft. H.S.
from and at 212° Fah.
10.9
lbs.
Theoretical total heat value
of Oil in lbs. of water from
and at 212° Fah.
19.14
lbs.
Efficiency of Boiler.
84%
219
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
The steam tests were of 6 hours' duration, that with air of 4 hours'.
AIR ATOMIZATION.
Tem-
Time.
Steam
Pres-
sure.
Fan
Revo-
lutions um at
Fan
Vacu- Vac-
uum
at
per-
ature
of Air
Heated Air
entering Fires.
WaterTime
taken to
per
min-
Suc-
Fur-entering
tion.
nace.
ute.
Air
Heater.
Escaping Escaping Feed
Gases Gases
entering at
Air
Fan
Heater. Suction.
empty
Oil.
Water
Tanks.
Tem-
per-
ature.
Tank Tank Gals.
Left.
Right.
1.
2.
Mins. Mins.
10.30 130 297 21″ 11″ 74°F. 220°F. 225°F. 600°F. 360°F. | 50°F.
52
47 68.4
11.0 130 297
21" 11" 74°
216°
245°
630°
400° 50°
11.30 130 300 21" 11" 74°
225°
250°
630° 410° 50°
12.0 130 300
21" 11" 74°
225°
250°
630° 410°
50°
45
99.28
12.30 130 298
21" 11" 74°
223°
250°
630° 410°
50°
1.0 140 298
21" 11" 74°
223°
250°
630° 410°
50°
45
86.04
1.30
140 298
21" 11" 74°
225°
250°
630°
410°
50°
2.0 140 298 21" 11" 74°
225°
250°
630°
410°
50°
46
83.83
2.30 135 298 21" 11" 74°
225°
250°
630° 410°
50°
90 gallons
taken from
last tank.
Total Total
4,090 gals. 337-55
Water evap. per hour
Actual observed conditions.
10,225
lbs.
Water evap. per lb. of Oil.
Actual observed conditions.
13.24
lbs.
Equivalent weight of water
evap. per hour, assuming feed at
110° Fah. and steam at 180° Fah.
10,710
lbs.
Water evap. per lb. of Oil,
assuming feed at 110° Fah.
and steam at 180 lbs.
13.8
lbs.
Water evap. per hour
12,413
from and at 212° Fah.
lbs.
Water evap. per lb. of Oil
from and at 212° Fah.
16.07
lbs.
Theoretical total heat value
of Oil in lbs. of water from
and at 212° Fah.
19.14
Efficiency of Boiler.
84%
lbs.
220
COMPARISON OF AIR AND STEAM ATOMIZATION
46° F.
46° F.
31"
31"
2
11"
11″
3"
4
4
13″
Average steam pressure (gauge)
Average temp. of feed water
Vacuum at fan suction
Vacuum at furnace door
Vacuum at ashpit door.
FIRST DAY,
11 a.m. on 15th
to
11 a.m. on 16th.
138 lb.
SECOND Day.
11 a.m. on 16th
to
11 a.m. on 17th.
142 lb.
THIRD DAY.
11 a.m. on 17th
to
11 a.m. on 18th.
143 lb.
46° F.
31
T&
HN IN M
11"
FOURTH Day.
11 a.m. on 18th
to
11 a.in. on 19th.
FIFTH DAY.
11 a.m. on 19th
to
11 a.m. on 20th.
TOTAL FOR 5 DAYS.
11 a.m. on 15th
to
11 a.m. on 20th.
141 lb.
46° F.
31"
11″
3"
4
141 lb.
46° F.
143 lb.
45° F.
3½"
3
1호
​11″
13″
13″
12"
4
•
Temp. of air entering airheater
Temp. of air entering furnace (left).
Temp. of air entering furnace (right)
Temp. of gases entering airheater
Temp. of gases leaving airheater
Fan revolutions per minute
Total quantity of water evaporated
Quantity of water evap. per hour
Total quantity of oil used
Quantity of oil used per hour
Lb. of water evap. per lb. oil (actual)
Do. do. from and at 212° F.
11,583 lb.
46° F.
56° F.
54° F.
52° F.
48° F.
51° F.
256° F.
260° F.
262° F.
260° F.
270° F.
262° F.
272° F.
293° F.
280° F.
280° F.
284° F.
282° F.
721° F.
762° F.
826° F.
684° F.
777° F.
762° F.
513° F.
528° F.
524° F.
512° F.
530° F.
521° F.
416
403
400
401
397
399
278,000 lb.
283,900 lb.
291,500 lb.
285,900 lb.
298,100 lb.
11,829 lb.
12,146 lb.
11,912 lb.
12,421 lb.
23,161 lb.
23,802 lb.
24,024 lb.
23,767 lb.
24,670 lb.
965 lb.
991 lb.
1,001 lb.
990 lb.
1,028 lb.
12.003 lb.
14.63 lb.
11.927 lb.
14.54 lb.
12.133 lb.
14.79.lb.
12.029 lb.
14.66 lb.
12.083 lb.
14.729 lb.
1,437,400 lb,
11,978 lb.
119,424 lb.
995 lb.
12.036 lb.
14.66 lb.
221
IN
Chapter XXV
THE STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF LIQUID FUEL
N carrying or storing oil, it is necessary to provide for its expansion, and it is
also necessary to provide a safeguard against the rupture of the storage tanks
unless these are below ground level. Provision must also be made for the escape
of any gas or vapour generated from the oil and against danger from leakage.
The tanks used for oil storage have a diameter of from 40 to 70 feet. Some
are as large as 90 feet, and the largest will hold over one million gallons, or 3,300
gallons per inch of depth. In order to prevent danger, should a tank fail, it ought
to be surrounded by a moat capable of holding the contents of the tank. Both
crude oil and the refined products are now carried in specially constructed tank
steamers, some of which will carry as much as 8,500 tons of oil.
At Liverpool these steamers are discharged through an 8-inch pipe into vertical
tanks of 2,000 and 3,000 tons capacity. The carrying space in the steamers is
formed by riveted bulkheads across the ship, the skin of the ship itself forming
sides to the tanks, the screw shaft being laid in a tunnel. Refined oil possesses
such penetrative properties that the riveting of such tanks must be carefully
done, and the rivet spacing is closer than in ordinary work. The tanks ought to
be full of oil, and they must not be too large, a bulkhead being placed at intervals
not wider than 24 feet. These bulkheads must be stiff enough to stand the unsup-
ported pressure of the liquid upon one side only, together with such extra stress
as may be caused by the movement of the vessel. The specific gravity of petroleum
varies considerably, but an approximate rule to cover all cases of oil pressure is
P=0·40 H, where P is the pounds pressure per square inch and H is the depth
in feet below the top level of the oil, which may of course be some distance up the
expansion tanks.
It is not considered safe to store Texas crude oil nearer to boilers than 500
feet, and in case of a spouting well all fires within 500 feet are extinguished.
Mr. Schoen writes to Insurance Engineering on the subject of safe storage and
the system of piping, and an abstract of this is given in Appendix 1, with some fur-
ther abstracts in Appendix 2 on individual installations of oil. It is particularly
to be noted that where oil is used so very freely as fuel the proposal is to lead it to
the different establishments by pipes in preference to carting it through the streets
in tanks.
Pipes for this purpose ought to be of wrought iron or steel, carefully threaded
and fitted together with sound and carefully threaded sockets. Pipe joints may be
made in three ways (a) The pipes are screwed tapering and the sockets ought to be
222
THE STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF LIQUID FUEL
threaded similarly from each end by a tapering tap, so that a tight joint may be
secured; (b) Back nuts may be employed to reinforce the sockets by aid of an
interposed fibrous ring; (c) The pipe ends may be truly faced off exactly at right
angles to the axis of the threading, a compressible, but thin, washer of soft metal
or fibre being interposed between the ends of the abutting pipes. Such pipes meet
together in the sockets like artesian drive pipes.
Ordinary pipes, if found to leak after being put together, should be carefully
caulked round the ends of the sockets. Before screwing together the pipes ought
to be painted with some cement not soluble in petroleum. Litharge and glycerine
is recommended. The precautions to be generally observed in the use of oil are
well set out in Appendix 3, which contains the latest requirements of the American
Board of Underwriters, and may be studied with advantage. Many of the pre-
cautions with regard to oil arise from the fact that, being lighter than water, it may
be carried up and down a tidal river and spread a general conflagration. Being
liquid, it will travel by gravity to long distances from a ruptured tank or broken
or leaking joint. Where, to avoid these dangers, oil is stored in buried vaults,
there is danger of the accumulation of vapours of an explosive nature, and ventila-
tion is required to carry these away, and the outlet of a ventilating shaft should
be well exposed and out of any danger, such as the throwing of a lighted match
from some point above. Where ventilation does not take place freely, it might
be necessary to use some positive means of drawing out the air from a tank chamber
or to assist the action of the ventilating trunk by a warm water pipe within it and
a swivelling cowl head.
In order to deal with the 58 liquid fuel locomotives of the Great Eastern Railway,
there is provided a series of underground tanks of a capacity in the aggregate of
50,000 gallons. These are filled direct from the travelling tanks of the railway
(fig. 63).
From these underground tanks a small rotary pump lifts the oil to six cylindrical
tanks elevated 20 feet above rail level, and of a total capacity of 42,000 gallons.
Outlet pipes controlled by valves, operated from a gallery above, conduct
the oil to cranes similar to an ordinary water crane. Only four men are employed,
three for day work, pumping oil, receiving fresh supplies, and delivering to loco-
motives, and one at night to attend to delivery only.
A main line engine will take in 600 gallons of oil in four or five minutes.
Electric lighting is employed, with portable lamps for the cranes or filling arms.
At the country depots oil is stored underground only, and in air tight tanks,
which are caused to supply the filling arms by pumping air into the tanks above
the oil, the air brake pump of the locomotive itself doing this work.
The tanks of the tender are filled through a fine gauze strainer protected by a
perforated cylinder, so that everything in the shape of an obstruction is filtered out,
and the gauze also serves to prevent ignition of any possible vapour in the tank,
acting to prevent this on the well known principle of the miner's safety lamp.
This precaution is more necessary where crude oils are used than for the higher
flash point residues.
On the Grazi and Tsaritzin Railway Mr. Urquhart, in his 1884¹ paper gave the
length of line worked with petroleum as from Tsaritzin to Burnack, 291 miles, and
a total of 423 miles, including the Volga-Don branch. There is a main reservoir
¹ Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 1884.
223
CESTAR LINE OR ARE LICHT
CENTRE LINE OF STAND P
FRONT VIEW OF PLANT
O
O
о
о
о
ELECTRIC
STARD PEAL
==.
PLAN.
STEAM
BRAMY DAL
Fig. 63.
OFFICE
ENSING ROAD
VENTILATUMO PEPEL
ENGINE ROAD
TANK ROAD
STANO PIPL B
STAND NM
FOOTBOARD
ÊND VIEW OF PLANT.
TANK REPAIR ROAD,
68 00
DRAWING Nº335 L. F.
CAPACITY OF TANKS
ABOVE GROUND
BELOW
50,000 GALLONS.
40,000
TOTAL 90,000
- GREAT EASTERN RAILWAY.
LIQUID FUEL STORAGE
AT STRATFORD.
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF OIL STORAGE TANKS
1900.
TO SHED
224
THE STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF LIQUID FUEL
for petroleum at each of the four engine sheds, namely, Tsaritzin, Archeda, Filonoff,
and Borisoglebsk. Each reservoir is 66 feet internal diameter and 24 feet high,
and, when full, holds about 2,050 tons. The method of charging the reservoir,
which stands a good way from the line and at a convenient distance from all dwell-
ing houses and buildings, is as follows-
On a siding specially prepared for the purpose are placed 10 cistern cars full
of oil, the capacity of each being about 10 tons. From each of these cars a connec-
tion is made by a flexible india-rubber pipe to one of the ten standpipes, which
project one foot above the ground line. Parallel with the rails is laid a main pipe,
with which the ten standpipes are all connected, thus forming one general suction
main. About the middle of the length of the main, which is laid underground and
Distributing Tank
Elevation
Fig. 64.
(
3
DISTRIBUTING TANK FOR OIL FUEL.
10 Feet
GRAZI AND TSARITZIN RAILWAY
covered with sawdust or other non-conducting material, is fixed a steam pump.
As soon as the ten connexions are made with the cistern cars, the pump is set to
work, and in about one hour the whole of the cars are discharged into the main
reservoir, the time depending of course upon the capacity of the pump. The pipes
are all wrought iron, lap welded, 5 inch socketed.
1
At each shed there is also an elevated tank (fig. 64) 81 feet diameter by 6 feet
deep, built of in. plate, to serve as a distributing tank to the locomotives. Their
area is calculated, and a divided scale shows exactly how many poods ¹ of oil have
been drawn out, the amount being corrected for temperature at intervals of 8°R.=
18°F. -10°C., the scale ranging from 24° R. to-24°R. =86°F. to-22°F., the
quantity and temperature being entered in the driver's book. The heaviest refuse
1 pood = 36.114 English pounds 40 pounds Russian. 62.0257 poods 1 ton.
1
=
225
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
has a specific gravity of 0.921 at 0°C.=32°F., so that 39 cubic feet measure one
ton, or 57.4 pounds=1 cubic foot. Lighter refuse has a specific gravity of 0.889
-40 cubic feet per ton, or 55 pounds per cubic foot.
The engineer-in-charge at each station is provided with a hydrometer and
thermometer to deal with the ten different grades of liquid, each grade having its
own peculiar sp. gr. and co-efficient of expansion. Table XXVIII. gives useful
information on this subject.
The Thwaite Storage Tanks.
An ingenious storage tank devised by Mr. B. H. Thwaite is shown in fig. 65.
Thuvantes Safely. Petrosenmer
Storage Systém
Scale
va
a
2
5 feet
f
f
FR
Fig. 65. STORAGE TANK FOR OIL FUEL.
THWAITE'S SYSTEM
It is in form very like a gas holder with sides a, a, and bottom supported on girders
d. The rising bell, however, is of inverted form, the roof coming down as shown
at c into close proximity to the bottom of the holder. The bell is nearly balanced
by the usual weights, h, h. The outer case of the bell dips into a water seal b; the
inner case f, with the roof c, forms the inner bell, which occupies the whole interior
of the tank when in the position shown. As oil is pumped into the tank this bell
rises, being already nearly balanced. Thus there is no space for vapour to accumu-
late in the tank, and the bell is always filled with liquid. To prevent accumulation
of water in the inner bell a light cover ought to be provided, k. The full position
of the bell is shown by the dotted lines. By this holder the interior of a tank is
sealed off from the atmosphere. A telescoping filling pipe, j, rises and falls with
the holder in a similarly water-sealed valve chamber, R, the oil being entered and
226
THE STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF LIQUID FUEL
withdrawn from the highest point, g, of the bell. Any vapour that may accumulate
must always be first drawn off before oil can flow. If desired, a vent pipe with
gauze protected overflow may rise from the joint g, but if a vent pipe is used, it is
especially important that the holder should not be fully balanced by the weights
h, h, or the vent would perhaps draw in air. It should contain a non-reflux valve
at its upper end.
Oil Pumps.
Any pump which will pump water will pump oil. So long as an oil is free from
O
L
Fig. 70. WEIR'S OIL PUMP
the more volatile hydrocarbons, it can be lifted by suction from a depth greater
than is possible with water, in inverse ratio to its specific gravity. By weight also
a pump will throw less oil than water, but it should throw an equal volume.
For rapidly transferring large bodies of oil from a ship to a storage tank, the
centrifugal pump is very convenient. There are also numerous other rotary pumps.
of the positive propulsion type similar to the Roots' Blower.
Valves of india-rubber must of course be avoided, and only such substances
227
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
employed as will resist the solvent action of the oil. Metal valves should prove
most generally durable and efficient. Simplicity and reliability are the character-
istics desired in a pump. For bunker filling especially the pump must be of ample
capacity, so that a ship may not be long detained when calling for fuel in port.
An example of a bunkering pump is the Weir Patent Pump for oil pumping as
shown in fig. 70. This is of the direct double-acting type. The valve gear is
positive, i.e., the steam valve can never be in such a position that the pump will
not start immediately after the steam is turned on. The valve arrangements also
ensure constant length of stroke and certainty of action.
The steam valve consists of a "D" slide valve with a small auxiliary valve
working on the back. These are the only moving parts proper in the steam chest,
so that there is little opportunity for wear and no delicate adjustments to get out
of order.
The oil end is of special design fitted with Weir group valves, which provide
a large area with only a small lift, thus ensuring easy working and little wear and
tear. For this duty the valves are of the flat disc type.
The pump is specially economical in steam consumption, and is simple and
with all its parts easily accessible. The front elevation shows that there is a
separate valve chamber for each end of the pump cylinder, the valves being
grouped on the valve plate round a central valve. With long pump buckets
there should be no need to use rings. The bucket simply requires to be turned a
good but free fit in its barrel and grooved with square edged grooves 1″ wide x
deep, spaced about " centres. This plan is very effectual with water, and should
be perfect for oil of the consistency of fuel oil.
3/1
32
228
ΤΗ
Chapter XXVI
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
HE analysis of flue gases is undertaken for the purpose of showing the perfec-
tion of the combustion and the excess of air employed.
Considering that about 9 per cent. more coal is consumed if the percentage of
CO₂ is 8 per cent. instead of 13 per cent., the waste of coal will amount to 900 tons
a year in 10,000 tons burned.
2
In practice, about 1.3 times the theoretical quantity of air is required to effect
perfect combustion. If this proportion is exceeded, the fuel required to heat the
excess of air to the temperature of the flues is wasted, and whilst the percentage of
carbonic acid under perfect conditions should be about 15 per cent., the theoretical
maximum of 21 per cent. cannot, of course, be attained; it will be very consider-
ably below this figure, if a great volume of air is allowed to rush through the
furnace.
These figures refer to coal fed furnaces.
How much coal is wasted, if the percentage of carbonic acid gas falls to a low
level, may be seen at a glance from the following table-
Percentage of CO2
Loss of fuel in per cent.
against the theoreti-
cally lowest possible
quantity
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
90
60 45 36
30 26 23 20 18 16 15 14 13 12
It is not possible to tell from the appearance of the fire in the furnace the per-
centage of CO,.
As one pound of carbon requires a minimum of 11 pounds of air for perfect
combustion, it will produce 12 pounds of total furnace gas, and of this 33 pounds
will be CO₂ that is, fully 29 per cent. by weight or nearly 21 per cent. by volume.
For anthracite coal free from hydrogen the excess of air can be calculated from
the percentage of CO, in the flue gas.
2
:
For fuels containing hydrogen, the analysis being done cold, the steam which
is produced by the hydrogen is therefore not measured, this steam is less in
volume than the nitrogen of the air which supplied oxygen to burn the hydrogen.
The percentage of CO, in the flue gas thus appears smaller with the more hydro-
genous fuels than it does with the less hydrogenous fuel. But in every case
the actual percentage can be calculated, and, once known, all subsequent records
can be compared with the calculated datum line.
229
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
A fuel containing hydrogen to the extent of one per cent. demands 55.9 litres
of oxygen per kilo. of coal, or 0-9 cubic foot per pound, to satisfy the hydrogen.
The following tabular numbers give the volume of oxygen per kilo. and per
pound of coal for various percentages of hydrogen.
%
Litres per Kilo.
Cubit ft. per lb.
123 45
55.9
0.9
112.0
1.8
168.0
2.7
223.0
3.6
279.0
4.5
6
336.0
5.4
7
391.0
6.3
8
446.0
7.2
9
504.0
8.1
10
559.0
9.0
11
615.0
9.9
12
672.0
10.8
13
727.0
11.7
14
782.0
12.6
15
837.0
13.5
16
892.0
14.4
In calculating the volume of dry gas from analysis, any hydrocarbon gas is
calculated as though it were simply carbon vapour of a weight of 1.072 grams per litre.
At 0°C. and 760 mm. pressure,
1 litre of CO2
1
CO
Molecular weight
=1.966 gram=44.
=1.251
=28.
وو
""
1
=12.
,,
وو
Cvapour 1.072
11
11
Each volume of CO, contains of its weight of carbon, or 1.966 ×=0·536
grams per litre. Similarly, the proportion of carbon in carbonic oxide is of the
weight, or 1.251 × 0.536 grams per litre, the weight of carbon vapour being
1.072 grams per litre.
Thus the total weight of carbon is C=0.536 (v +v') + 1·072 v" where v, v' and v"
are the volumes of CO2, CO, and carbon vapour in litres per each cubic metre or
per 1,000 volumes of flue gas.
For British units the formula becomes C=0·0335 (v +v′)+0·06693 v" where
v, v′ and v″ are the volumes in cubic feet per thousand feet of flue gas.
Kent's formula for the weight of dry gas per pound of carbon is
11,CO₂ +80 +7 (0 +N)
W = 3 (CO₂+CO)
Having found this weight of dry gas from the analysis of the furnace gases, there
must be added the proportion necessary for the steam produced. This will measure
9 by weight for each unit weight of hydrogen, and, the density of steam being 9,
the relative volume may be found or it may be taken from the above table.
By formula the total volume of gases thus becomes
v =
C
0.536 (v +v') + 1·072v"
+55.9 H + A,
where H is the percentage of hydrogen in the fuel and A is the combined volume
of nitrogen and excess of air.
230
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
In British measures the formula becomes
V
C
+0.9 H + A
0.0335 (v +v′) + 0·06693 v″
2
Though a volume of nearly 21 per cent. of CO₂ would be obtained from pure
carbon burned with the chemical minimum of air, this minimum is exceeded in
practice, and a percentage of 12 of CO, is considered good with coal. As seen under
the head of Combustion, the amount must be still less with liquid fuel unless
this is burned to better effect, as it should be.
The Orsat-Lunge Apparatus.
This apparatus, fig. 66, as made by Messrs. Townson and Mercer, is one of
the most convenient for the practical analysis of furnace gases.
It consists of a burette marked to contain 100 c.cm. above the zero mark and
graduated to 40 cubic centimetres in fifths. The upper end of the tube is connected
to a small-bore glass tube, to the other end of which is connected the vessel con-
taining the gas to be sampled.
From this tube are four branches connecting to bottles below, and these are
connected at their bases to four other bottles of equal capacity or a little larger.
The front bottles are filled with small glass
tubes in order to provide a large area of wetted
surface. In the first bottle is placed a solution of
caustic potash or caustic soda, which is absorbent
of carbonic acid, CO,. The second bottle is filled
either with a solution of pyrogallic acid in caustic
potash or soda, or of yellow phosphorus in small
rods, or of fragments of phosphorus, and is in-
tended to absorb oxygen. The third bottle con-
tains cuprous chloride and hydrochloric acid, which
absorbs carbonic oxide, CO. The fourth bottle
contains water, and receives the gas after the first
three absorptions have been effected, and in its
passage to this bottle the gas passes through a
heated tube containing palladium asbestos, by which
any hydrogen or hydrocarbons are burned to water
and to carbon dioxide.
1
Fig. 66.
ORSAT'S GAS
ANALYSIS APPARATUS
At the base of the measuring burette is a con-
nexion to a gravity bottle, by raising which the burette can be filled with water,
the cocks above the pipettes being closed." To work the apparatus the burette
is filled by raising the gravity bottle and filling the burette with water to the top.
On lowering the bottle the water runs back to the bottle and draws in a supply of
gas to about 104 c.cm. The level of the water in the gravity bottle is then made
to coincide with the zero mark of the burette and the surplus gas is discharged by
the top cock.
There are now exactly 100 c.cm. in the burette. The cock to the first pipette
1 Previous to taking in a sample of gas the solutions in the absorption bottles are drawn up
to the containing mark on the connecting tube, by the aid of the gravity bottle, and the cock
closed.
231
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
2
is then opened and the gas is forced over into this by raising the gravity bottle.
This fills the burette with water, which must not be allowed to go so far as the cock
of the pipette. The contents of the pipette are forced out into the rear bottle, and
after allowing time for the CO₂ to be absorbed by the potash solution on the wetted
tubes, the gravity bottle is lowered until the absorbing solution again reaches its
containing mark; then the cock is closed, the water level adjusted to that in the
burette, and the percentage of gas absorbed is read directly off the scale. This
process should be repeated until no further absorption takes place, the reading
remaining the same. Closing the cock of the first pipette, that of the second is
now opened and the process repeated to find the absorption of oxygen, and so on
with the third.
Finally the decrease of volume due to the combustion of the hydrogen is found,
the product of course going to water.
The CO, formed in this last operation is exactly equal to the volume of the
oxygen absorbed by it, and this is determined by means of the first pipette.
Before the hydrocarbons can be burned it is of course necessary to provide oxygen.
As the oxygen has already been absorbed which was contained in the original
100 c.cm., it is necessary to add a further supply after the first three gases have
been absorbed, therefore a supply of air is drawn into the burette by means
of the gravity bottle, and the volume in the burette is again carefully
adjusted to 100 c.cm. The mixed gas is then passed over through the heated
palladium asbestos tube, and the hydrocarbon or hydrogen gas is oxidised. When
normal temperature has been regained, the volume in the burette is noted. The
amount which has disappeared represents hydrogen, for each two volumes of which
one volume of oxygen has disappeared also, so that the reduction in volume is two-
thirds hydrogen and one-third oxygen.
To correct the volume of gas to normal temperature and pressure-
V₁=volume at 0°C. and 760mm. of mercury column.
0
Then
V =
""
""
pressure P.
V₁=VP ÷ 760.
To correct for temperature-
Gases expand of their volume at 0°C; for each degree C.
Then
1
vis
V₁ =Vol. at 0°C.; V=vol. at t°C.
0
V₁ = V
273
273 +t°
For combined temperature and pressure corrections.
Where
=°4
V
0
V x 273 × (P-f)
(273 +1°) × 760
tension of aqueous vapour of damp gas at t°C. when completely
moisture saturated (See table XII)-
V=Volume at P and to saturated.
V。=
""
dry at 760 mm. and 0°C.
√ =
V₁ (273 +t) × 760
273 (P-f)
232
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
Absorbing Solutions.
For CO2, 16 grams of potassium hydrate=KHO in 100 c.cm. of water.
For Oxygen, 20 grams pyrogallic acid + 100 c.cm. of water will absorb the
oxygen of 100 c.c. of air.
2 49
2 2 7
For C₂H₁, H₂SO, or bromine water, 1 c.c. of Br. water will absorb 2 c.c. of C,H,.
For Carbonic Oxide, CO, Cuprous Chloride 15 grams in 100 c.c. of H.Cl
(1.19 sp. gr.); 1 c.c will absorb 20 c.c. of CO.
Tables XIII and XIV will be found useful to gas analysts.
2
When analysing producer or blast furnace gas suspected of having an appre-
ciable percentage of hydrocarbon gas, it is advisable, after having measured off
the contraction of volume due to passing the gaseous mixture through the palladium
asbestos, to pass the remaining gas into the CO₂ absorption tube, and measure the
further contraction of volume. Should there be a measurable contraction of
volume due to CO₂, then this may be for general purposes calculated as due to
marsh gas, CH4, having been present (this is only approximate, as probably there
was a mixture of various hydrocarbons), in which case the volume of CO, would be
the same as the volume of CH₁.
The results of analysis may be stated thus—
Volume of gas employed, 100 c.c.
I.
Passed into CO, absorption tube.
2
Reduction of volume =CO₂%•
2
II. Passed into O absorption tube.
Reduction of volume – reduction of volume due to CO₂ =0%•
III. Passed into CO absorption tube.
IV.
2
Reduction of volume – reduction due to CO₂ and O =CO%.
2
2
Volume in burette made up to 100 c.c. by drawing in air, after having cleared the tubes
by aspiration.
V. Heat palladium asbestos tube and slowly pass the gas over into the absorption bottle
containing water, and back again into the burette.
VI.
Measure the amount of contraction of volume.
2
Pass the remaining gas into CO₂ absorption tube and note further contraction of volume.
If the hydrocarbons present be taken as marsh gas CH₁, then the volume of CO₂ will
be the same, and will represent the volume of CH4%.
This is obtained by subtracting the contraction due to combustion in asbestos tube from
the total contraction of volume found.
VII. From the contraction due to combustion subtract the volume of CH₁ found, then two-
thirds of the remainder will give the hydrogen%.
VIII. The nitrogen present is the difference between the gases as found in percentage and the
total of 100.
The combustion of hydrogen and marsh gas may be represented thus-
2 H +0
2 vols. + 1 vol.
CH 4
+ 40
2 vols. + 4 vols.
= H₂O
2 vols.
=
= CO₂+2H₂O
2 vols. + 4 vols.
Where there is much hydrogen in the gas it may be necessary to add oxygen
instead of air, or to start with an originally smaller volume of gas. With flue gas
this is never necessary, of course. The burette is simply filled to the 100 c.c. mark
after the first absorptions. The small tube which contains the thread of palladium
asbestos is gently heated with a small flame. The gravity bottle is raised and the
233
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
gas passed over into the fourth pipette and back again to the burette. One end of
the palladium asbestos will become red hot during this operation if sufficient
hydrogen is present. The burette must then be read and the operation repeated
until no further contraction of volume is observed. Usually no contraction occurs
after the first passage. Two-thirds of the contraction is calculated as hydrogen.
Ethylene gas will be absorbed by the cuprous chloride, and oxygen to be absorbed
by the phosphorus requires the phosphorus not to be colder than 20°C. or 15°
at least 68°F. or 59°F.
The subject of gas analysis is too complex to receive full treatment here, and
can only be studied in a special treatise. In determining chimney gases, as a rule
it will be sufficient to ascertain the percentage of CO, alone, so that the excess of
air present may be approximated rapidly.
The "Ados" Recorder of Carbon Dioxide.
This instrument (figs. 67 and 68), is devised to give a continuous record of the
percentage of CO, in the flue gases, and its action is based on the property of caustic
potash of absorbing CO₂, whereas all the other constituents of flue gas are
unaffected.
The apparatus consists of motor, gas pumps and analysing and recording
apparatus.
A quantity of the flue gas is pumped through the recorder; part of it is bottled
up, measured, and passed through a solution of caustic potash, which absorbs all
the CO2 gas; the quantity of gas absorbed, which represents the percentage of
CO₂ gas, is determined and recorded on a diagram by means of vertical lines.
2
This process is repeated about every five minutes. The tops of the various
lines form a curve which shows a fluctuation of the percentage of CO₂ in the flue
gases during the time the recorder has been working.
2
It is advisable to have one recorder for each furnace. Where it is, however,
desired to test several furnaces by one recorder only, this may be connected with
each furnace by a system of tubes, and the furnace to be tested is switched on.
If the recorder constantly or frequently shows a very low percentage of CO2,
indicating that fuel is being wasted, the cause will be either due to carelessness or
want of skill on the part of the stoker, who may allow an excessive quantity of air
to enter the furnace, or it may be traced to the excessive size of the furnace, or to
cracks in the brickwork of the flues. As soon as such defects are made good the
recorder will show a higher percentage of CO2, and thus it serves the purpose of
detecting such constructional defects and of controlling automatic stokers.
The motor (fig. 67), consists of a tank and bell and fittings, the interior of the
bell being connected with the chimney by means of a tube.
The draught in the chimney creates a vacuum under the bell, which is pressed
into the tank by atmospheric pressure. Air is then admitted into the bell by the
automatic action of a valve, and the bell rises again.
This motion is utilized to raise and lower a bottle F filled with glycerine, and
to drive a pair of special pumps P which force the flue gases from the chimney
through the analysing and recording apparatus.
So long as there is any draught in the chimney, the motor will work without
supervision.
234
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
The gas pumps consist of two cylinders
(fig. 67), which dip into oil tanks and rise and
fall alternately, drawing flue gases from the
chimney, and forcing them through the re-
corder.
The analysing and recording apparatus
(fig. 68), consists of a glass tube which serves & chinned
as a measure to enclose 100 cubic centimetres
of gas; of a bottle containing a solution of
caustic potash which absorbs the CO2 gas, and
of a pen which records the percentage of Co
gas ascertained.
2
The bottle F, filled with a mixture of
glycerine and water, is raised and lowered by the
action of the motor.
In the lowest position the glycerine mix-
ture will touch the mark m,; in the highest
position, the glycerine touches the mark m₂;
the cubic contents of the tube between 0 and
m, is 100 cubic centimetres.
2
When the glycerine touches m₁ the gases
which enter through tube S, will pass through Fig. 67.
the passage G, and eventually through the
tube S, into the open air.
4
,,
to flues
ADOS CO, RECORDER
MOTOR AND PUMPS
1
When the bottle is raised, the glycerine rises and shuts off the passage G₁;
the moment the glycerine reaches the mark O, 100 cubic centimetres are enclosed.
The gases will then of course be unable to pass out through the tube G,, but
they will pass through the tube S, into the open, after overcoming the resistance
offered by the glycerine in the bottle S.
2
5
When the bottle rises still further, the glycerine is forced into the tube G and
presses the 100 cb,cm through the tube S into a bottle A filled with a solution
of caustic potash which absorbs the CO, gas contained in the above volume of flue
gases.
2
The non-absorbed volume of gas replaces an equal volume of caustic solution.
The solution is forced up the tube R, into the globe a, and shuts off the tube R.
By rising in a, it presses the air from this vessel through a tube S, into the bell T,
which rises and raises the lever R.
6
2
It is evident that the bell T will rise the higher, the less CO₂ gas has been
absorbed in bottle A.
The lever R moves a pen F, which makes a vertical stroke on the diagram. The
higher the bell rises, i.e. the less CO, gas been absorbed, the longer will be the
stroke of the pen.
The moment the bottle F has reached its highest position its downward motion
commences, the glycerine goes back to m₁, the gas shut off in bottle A recedes into
the tube G, and is forced into the open air through the tube S, by the action of
the pumps.
4
As the pumps deliver about twenty times the volume of gas required for an
analysis the same gas is never analysed over again.
The above process is repeated every 5 to 10 minutes, according to the rapidity
235
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
with which the motor works; each analysis is recorded by the stroke of the pen on
the diagram, and the work of the furnace is thereby automatically recorded.
It is necessary to change the diagram paper every day, to wind up the clock
and point the pen to correct time; and to keep the pen filled and ascertain whether
the liquids in the pump-valves, bottles and tubes are touching their marks, the
caustic potash solution touching the mark M, in the bottle A when the glycerine
in the tube G, is at the mark m₂.
1
F
--
R
Ss
Az
a,
M
S
Sa
S
S
VANHINKINIAINAYATU
R
-S5
R₂
20
15
-S3
10.
5.
-mu,
Fig. 68.
"ADOS" CO₂ RECORDER, ANALYSER AND RECORDER PORTION
2
The potash solution is mixed to a specific gravity of 1.27; the glycerine is mixed
with twice its bulk of water.
The gas from the flues should be drawn through some filtering material to
remove the dust. Wood wool is recommended and will last two or three months
without changing.
The bottle F, when at its highest point, is filled to drive the glycerine in the
tube G₁ up to the mark m₂.
1
The pen when at rest must point to line 20 of the diagram.
The gas suction pipe is to be cleaned every 3 or 4 weeks.
236
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
Any air bubbles showing in the water in the syphon S when the apparatus is
working, indicate that the suction pipe is blocked and wants cleaning.
RECIPE FOR MAKING THE CAUSTIC POTASH SOLUTION.
Take 395 parts by weight of caustic potash.
875
""
وو
""
distilled water.
1270 parts by weight of caustic potash solution of 1.27 sp. gr.
It will be noted when carefully following out the action of the recorder that
some of the gas is allowed to escape before it reaches the bell T. This is designedly
done, the volume escaping being a fixed quantity and the final volume measured
PEW
BAS
FILTER
TO CHIMNEY
OR MAIM
FROM BUILEN
FLUE
Fig. 69 ARNDT'S ECONOMETER
being simply a remainder. By these means the bell T is kept small and light and
the chance of error is reduced and the whole instrument kept smaller.
The Econometer of Arndt.
An instrument known as Arndt's Econometer (fig. 69) will show at any moment
the amount of CO, present in the flue gas.
2
It consists of a chemical balance, one end carrying a scale pan while on the other
end is a bottle through which is continually drawn a stream of the flue gas which
is first filtered through wood wool and cotton wool and dried by passing through a
bottle of calcium chloride. The proportion of CO, is shown by the finger on the
scale at the base of the balance central pillar.
237
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
For Coal of medium quality.
The proportions of the instrument are such that the reading is given in per-
centage of dry gas.
For ordinary average coal, the following table shows the loss of heat and fuel
with from 2 to 15 per cent. CO₂ in the combustion gases.
2
The proportion of air actually used to the theoretical amount required is in
the case of coal (according to Bunte) 189, being the amount per cent. of carbonic
acid in gases.
K
CC
If the Econo-
be
meter" shows
Then the quan-
tity of air
pass-
ing through the
flues is
With a surplus
supply of air of
30% or about
10.4
c.m. of
necessary air
per kilo. of fuel,
there will still
а further
2
3
4
5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15
Per cent. car-
bonic acid.
9.5
6.3 4.7 3.8 3.2
2.7 24 21 1.9 17 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3
Times the theo-
retical require-
ments.
excess of about 65.6 400 272 200 152 11.2 8.8 5.6
Cubic metres of
superfluous air
heated to a
temperature of
usually 270°
48 3.2 24 1.6 0.8 00 Centigrade.
And the loss of
fuel at 270° C.
| amounts to
90 60 45 36 30 26 23 20 18 16 15 14 13 12
Per cent.
One kilogramme of anthracite coal of medium quality requires theoretically
about 8 cubic metres of air or 127 cubic feet per pound.
2
If, for example, in the case of a steam boiler using a medium quality of anthra-
cite the "Econometer " shows an average of only 3 per cent. CO, (a case often
happening in practice) then the volume of air used for the combustion of a kilo-
gramme of coal and the almost equal volume of gaseous smoke is about 8 x 6.3=
50-4 cubic metres reduced to the temperature of 0°Centigrade.
If the air passes to the grate at a temperature of 20°C. and the gases leave the
boiler at 270°C., the difference of temperature amounts to 250°C., and the heat
carried away by the chimney gases (which on the average for each degree Centigrade
per cubic metre, require 0·32 of a heat unit) amounts to 50-4 × 250 × 0.32=4032
units.
Further, if the anthracite coal used has an actual heat value of 7,000 units,
the loss of heat or fuel loss can be calculated at about
4032 × 100
7,000
= 58 per cent.
If with the same firing and a larger quantity of air the amount of carbonic acid
falls to 2 per cent., the loss amounts at once to 8 x 9.5 × 250 × 0.32=6,080 heat
units, or about
6080 × 100
7,000
=87 per cent. of the coal.
The loss of heat, as calculated from the amount of carbonic acid, may be
variously caused. Usually the grate is not the right size for perfect combustion ;
it is generally too large. If by properly regulating the draught, thickness of fire, etc.,
238
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
until the "Econometer" shows the desired percentage of CO₂, there is excessive
production of steam, it may be taken for granted that the grate should be shortened
or otherwise reduced in area.
A very usual loss of fuel is made if the fire burns into holes, so permitting the
air to pass through without combustion; this will at once be shown by the " Econo-
meter."
By comparing the amount of carbonic acid at the entrance and exit of the
boiler flues, which can easily be done by fixing the apparatus at the corresponding
places, it can be discovered if any defects exist in the brickwork admitting air and
causing loss of heat and fuel.
The "Econometer," like the "Ados," is simply an automatic means of show-
ing approximately what is found by the first absorption pipette of the Orsat
apparatus. The action of the instrument is as follows--Being set level by means
of base screws, the balance is adjusted to zero under ordinary atmospheric con-
ditions. The funnel inside the gas vessel is connected to the flues whence it is
desired to draw the gas to be sampled.
2
2
The base vessel is connected to the chimney, or it may have a connexion to the
vacuum system of a steam engine. This draws air from the mouth of the bottle,
and the whole instrument being in a closed case, the only inlet is that from the flue.
The flask is thus always full of gas containing an average of CO₂ taken over the
time occupied in passing one flask volume through the apparatus. According to
the percentage of CO₂ present in the gas so will the index finger of the balance
point on the scale. In order that the air in the case may also represent the true
atmosphere and not become vitiated by a possible admixture of flue gases, there
may be also a small opening into the case suitably fitted with a wool filter so that
the air in the case may be continually changed. This opening must be, of course,
much less than the other two pipes so that the gas suction may not be seriously
impaired.
239

Fig. 71.
TH
Chapter XXVII
COMPRESSED AIR AND AIR COMPRESSORS
HE use of air as the atomizing agent has been unpopular merely because
steam is more readily obtained, and where the loss of fresh water in the
form of steam is not a serious matter, it is claimed that steam is a cheaper agent
than air, which must be compressed by steam power to begin with. But steam is
not a supporter of combustion, and air is; and there is a tendency to-day to employ
air where possible, and to use it hot. Air being so nearly a perfect gas, the whole
work of compressing it is practically converted into heat, and the temperature of
the compressed air is raised. In the compression of air to 60 pounds per square
inch or more it is usual to compress in two stages, cooling both cylinders by means
of a water jacket, and cooling the air between the two stages by means of a tubular
Qome
REAVELL A
ENGINEERS
IPSWICH
REAVELL DOUBLE QUADRUPLEX ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN TWO STAGE AIR
COMPRESSOR
240
REAVELL
ENGINEERS
IPSWIC
COMPRESSED AIR AND AIR COMPRESSORS
receiver or a sufficient area of exposed tubes. But in fuel atomizing a pressure of
15 pounds by gauge is held by some to be ample, and generally it is not necessary
to use air at the same high pressure.as steam. This is probably due to the greater
efficiency of this high pressure steam which can be employed in less volume. But
this does not apply to air which must of necessity be introduced into the furnace
and is required for the proper combustion of the fuel. As a rule, air compressors
are somewhat long and awkward machines, and, especially on shipboard, they are
not easily housed. A modern compressor of an entirely different type is that of
fig. 71-72, which is made by Messrs. Reavell and Co. In this machine there are
逐
​IND
รา
Ө
WHEN
IN
Fig. 72.
SECTION OF REAVELL TWO STAGE QUADRUPLEX AIR COMPRESSOR
four cylinders set round a circular framing tank. The pistons of the four cylinders
are driven by short rods off one crank-pin, and the crank shaft is most conveniently
driven by a direct connected electrical motor, the armature of which is keyed upon
the shaft, which carries a crank at each end and drives a double compressor. Thus
· one combination has eight cylinders and eight maximum torque points per revolu-
tion, so that it will run steadily without fly-wheel. For oil atomizing it is not
necessary to employ a two-stage compressor. The heat of compression is not great
for the first moderate stage of 15 to 30 pounds, and after the air leaves the com-
pressor it should be heated on its way to the atomizer. This is usually effected by
means of pipes in the flues of the stationary boiler or in the smoke box of the loco-
motive, as in fig. 26.
The curve of isothermal compression of a perfect gas is the hyperbola, the
equation to the curve being such that Pv=constant.
Thus two cubic feet at 40 pounds absolute pressure become one cubic foot at
80 pounds, but the temperature remains constant.
241
R
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
When air is compressed adiabatically, or without loss or gain of heat, its curve
has the equation—
P
Ρ
= ( )
V\1'408
P being the pressure corresponding to the small volume v, and V the volume at
small pressure p.
Assuming the volume v=1 we have
P V1408
Ρ 1
or P=p V1408
Thus air at pressure p=15 is compressed to P=90.
P
Then
Ρ
= 6 and the relative volumes before and after compression are for v1.
1
V1408 P
Ρ
= 6
The log. of 6 is 0.77815
and 0.77815÷1·408=0·55266, which is the log. of 3.57=V.
Thus in place of an original 6 vols. of air, only 3.57 will be needed to give a
final volume of 1, owing to the increased volume due to temperature rise. For a
moderate compression of 2 only we shall have V1408-2. The log. of 2 is 0-30103
and 0.30103 ÷ 1.408 0.2138, which is the log. of 1.636, this being the number of
compressions necessary to give a double pressure instead of two compressions, had
the temperature been kept down or V-1.636
The heat generated in compressing a gas from a pressure of p to a pressure of p₁
Ρι
is-
H
53.15 T
2-1
[(
7-1
P₁
γ
— 1
1]
(1)
where y, according to Rankine, is 1.408; p and p, are the initial and final pressures
in atmospheres and H-foot pounds, T, being the absolute temperature
whence the heat units per pound of air compressed will be H÷772, and the tem-
perature
H
772 × 0.237
; 0.237 being the specific heat of air.
The work done in compressing and delivering one pound of air is thus, in foot-
pounds—
W = 53·15 T₂
1·408
0.408
(1)
0'408
1.408
-1
(2)
whence can be found the power required for compression. The efficiency overall
from motor switch-board should not be taken above 70 per cent. when designing
a motor for the purpose. The overall efficiency of a first-class air compressor is said
to exceed 70 per cent. with its electric motor, but ordinary compressors cannot be
calculated above 50 per cent.
As free air weighs one pound for each cubic 13 feet at ordinary temperatures,
242
COMPRESSED AIR AND AIR COMPRESSORS
the size of compressor required for any weight of air is easily calculated from the
speed and piston displacement.
In a water-cooled compressor the index of the curve of compression of a
good compressor may be safely taken at y=1.2 in place of 1·408, as in adiabatic
compression.
The subject of air compression is one of such importance in respect of liquid
fuel combustion as to justify full explanation of the peculiar action of a perfect gas.
Air is so nearly a perfect gas that there is very little internal work done upon
it when it is compressed. All the work appears as heat. In fig. 75 this action is
shown diagrammatically. A volume of air a b at the pressure b n of one atmos-
phere, if compressed to several atmospheres so slowly that it loses all the heat of
compression at once, will occupy a volume c d at the pressure a c.
The area a b n i will be exactly equal to the area a c d m; in other words, the
product of pressure and volume is constant.
If compressed quickly, without loss of heat, the curve n k will be described
b
m
Fig. 75.
k
Fig. 76.
b
and the volume of the compressed air will be ck. The rectangle d a is equal to the
rectangle a n for d and n are points in the isothermal curve n d. Consequently the
rectangles d i and m n must be equal and n k c i is equal to m b n k d, or, in words,
the mechanical work of adiabatic compression is equal to the work done in com-
pression and delivery.
If, in place of single-stage compression, the double-stage system be adopted,
the principle of intermediate cooling can be employed. Thus, in fig. 76 compres-
sion is first carried to the point o; the compressed air is cooled in the receiver to
the point j, and arrives at the ultimate pressure a c with a volume very little greater
than cd. The diagram is less in area than fig. 75 by the area jo k q, and this repre-
sents energy economized during compression.
These same principles and arguments may be applied to the use of air in two
stages in place of one. Thus, the compressed air may be made to run a pump the
exhaust from which is carried to a hoisting engine or other motor.
When compressing air the heat of compression is dissipated to the atmosphere,
and when the air is used again in a two-stage expansion it is reheated between the
stages by absorption of heat from the atmosphere, which thus serves the part of a
243
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
general equalizer, absorbing heat from compressed air and giving it out again to
expanding air.
In the use of compressed air two systems of regulation are employed by
Messrs. Reavell. Where the compressed air is in constant use at an approxi-
mately steady pressure, the compressor must not stand still, but must run constantly
at varying speeds. To secure this end, there is a field-regulating rheostat connected
to a pressure cylinder, the piston of which is balanced by a weight. This apparatus
can be arranged to take up its extreme positions with a range of, say, five to ten
pounds of air pressure. At one end the motor runs at full speed; at the other end
it runs down to half speed.
There is, of course, a maximum pressure beyond which a compressor cannot
work. This upper limit is governed by the clearance of the compressor pistons,
and is one argument in favour of two- or three-stage compression. With no clear-
ance in the compression cylinder, there is no limit of pressure short of the strength
of the machine. With clearance in front of the piston, the clearance space is
always filled with air at the reservoir pressure, and it expands as the piston re-
treats and reduces the volume of new air drawn in on the suction stroke. Thus,
with a clearance of one-sixth the cylinder capacity, the maximum pressure possible
is six atmospheres. In a two-stage machine clearance can seriously affect only the
first cylinder. In ordinary machines with large clearances it is a usual practice to
inject water into the cylinders to assist in cooling the air and to fill up clearance
spaces, but this is not desirable for purposes of atomizing. Obviously, therefore,
the effect of clearance will be to reduce the efficiency of a compressor. Hence the
fallacy of running tests from an initial of one atmosphere, instead of at the steady
final pressure thoughout.
The following figures were obtained by the writer at a test of a two-stage
Reavell compressor made for work in a tube railway. One end alone was tested
in order that the longest possible time might be taken in filling the reservoir-
Mean revolutions of compressor = 236.
Capacity of reservoir =37 cubic feet.
Time to fill reservoir 1 min. 30 secs.
――
Delivery pressure =82 pounds per square inch.
4-Single-acting cylinders, 1st stage 10"-5" diameter x 4.7" net stroke.
4-Single-acting tandem cylinders, 2nd stage 5″ diameter × 5″ net stroke.
Equivalent free air delivered per minute =1344 cubic feet.
Volume swept by pistons=153 cubic feet.
Volumetric efficiency=87 per cent.
In making this test the reservoir was filled to 82 pounds pressure through a
throttle-valve from an auxiliary vessel in which the pressure was maintained at
82 pounds all through the run. The volumetric efficiency was found to be 87 per
cent., on the basis of one atmosphere being 15 pounds per square inch. The actual
output is, therefore, a trifle better than 134.5 cubic feet.
The cylinder ratio was 4 to 1; but as the first stage of compression takes place
between the 10-inch and 5-inch pistons, the true ratio is 3 to 1.
In a second test, the throttle-valve was wide open and the compressor delivered
into an initial pressure of one atmosphere, the total volume of the reservoir being
increased by the volume of the auxiliary reservoir. Yet the efficiency was only
90-75 per cent., a small increase above the previous result. The effect on the
244
COMPRESSED AIR AND AIR COMPRESSORS
apparent efficiency of the adoption of 15 pounds as one atmosphere is to give a
less result by 21 per cent., but each test is equally affected.
Mean revolutions of compressor =240 per minute.
Capacity (total) of reservoir and connexions =37 +2.975=39.975 cubic feet.
Time to fill reservoir =1 min. 35 secs.
Delivery pressure = 82 pounds per square inch.
Equivalent free air delivered per minute=141 cubic feet.
Volume swept by pistons = 155 cubic feet.
Volumetric efficiency=90.75 per cent.
The importance of small clearance is thus made manifest and the advantage
of two-stage compression is undoubted for pressures above about four atmospheres.
It is stated by Lieutenant Winchell (see Appendix III, p. 317) that tests made
on various atomizers show that each pound of water evaporated from and at
212°F. requires one cubic foot of free air compressed to 20 lb. gauge pressure 35 lb.
pressure=35lb.
absolute. Assuming that 1 lb. of oil will evaporate 13 lb. of water, and that
13 cubic feet of air are equivalent to 1 lb., the figures represent 1 lb. of air to
atomize 1 lb. of oil. How much power, then, will be required to atomize the
fuel for 1,000 h.p., using, say, 16 lb. of steam per h.p. hour, with an evaporation,
say, of 14 lb. per pound of oil? Here 1,000 × 16
Here 1,000 × 16 = 1,143 lb. of oil per hour,
or 1,143 lb. of air. This is 19 lb. of air per minute, to compress which, according
to equation (2) adiabatically from a temperature of 62°F = 522° absol., will
require per pound of air-
4
53.15 × 522 × 1408
408
Х
35 0.29
15
÷ 33000
95745 × 0.286
= 0.8384 h.p.
33000
per pound of air compressed to 20 lb. gauge pressure per minute. At 70 per cent.
efficiency, this becomes 1-2 h.p. nearly, or a total of 22.8 h.p. for the total engine
power of 1,000, which is less than 2 per cent. of the total power; whereas steam
atomizing requires 3 to 5 per cent. of the total power of a boiler. The citation
of the air per pound of evaporation is hardly a correct method, but not much is
yet known of this part of the subject, and meantime one pound of air, or 13 cubic
feet of free air, should be provided per pound of oil; and probably with the cooling
effect allowed for, one brake horse-power will compress one pound of air to 20
pounds gauge pressure. The figures thus confirm M. Bertin's original ideas,
as given below.
The above calculation is for adiabatic compression.
Per kilogram of air per minute the power expended in air compression will
be nearly 50 h.p.
To spray one kilo. of oil requires 28.6 cubic feet of free air, or 812.0 litres. As
it is usual to order air compressors by their capacity in cubic feet of free air, the
amount of one unit weight per unit of oil works out at 13 cubic feet per h.p.
hour, more or less, according to the efficiency of steam engine and boilers, or from
20 to 25 cubic feet per minute per 100 h.p. From this the size of air compressor
can be calculated.
Thus an eight cylinder air compressor will have, say, a total useful piston
stroke equal to 3 feet per revolution. At 240 revolutions per minute, this repre-
245
246
m
BJ
Fig. 73.
REAVELL SINGLE STAGE WATER COOLED AIR COMPRESSOR
HO
OMIA
COMPRESSED AIR AND AIR COMPRESSORS
-
should supply about 1,400 to 1,700 h.p. of burners in a fairly economical plant. An
allowance of ten per cent. for slip is enough in these compressors for 80 pounds
compression, and is therefore more than ample for ordinary low pressure work.
sents 720 linear feet. With 10 inch diameter pistons the capacity is thus about
390 cubic feet per minute, less, say, 10 per cent. for slip or 350 cubic feet, which
Fig. 74.
REAVELL SINGLE STAGE UNJACKETED AIR COMPRESSOR
247
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
The Reavell compressor lends itself very readily to direct electric driving, as
per fig. 71, which shows a double two-stage machine driven off one central motor.
These compressors require no fly-wheel, the torque all round the circle being so
even that the armature provides sufficient fly-wheel energy. In fig. 73 is shown
the simple stage machine with water casing, the same machine without casing being
shown in fig. 74. Cooling is not important at low air pressure, and as the air is
always heated by compression and is wanted hot at the atomizers, it is perhaps
doubtful economy to cool during compression to moderate pressures. In fig. 72
the section of the two-stage compressor of fig. 71 is given. The illustrations are,
to a large extent, self-explanatory. It may be remarked that in all compressors
the delivery valves are alike, and the requisite valve area is given by varying the
numbers of the valves, which are self-contained gun metal fittings with light steel
cup valves. The air cylinders are supplied with air through the cross head-pin,
and finally filled up to the full atmospheric pressure by the uncovering of ring
ports by the piston. Automatic regulating devices are fitted to maintain the
air pressure constant in the case of electric driving by rheostatic control actuated
by the air receiver pressure.
M. Bertin, of the French Navy, states that a good compressor will not use
half the steam that is used where steam atomizing is employed, for steam will
compress more than its own weight of air up to its own pressure; and it can hardly
be doubted that for naval and marine purposes generally the use of air for atomizing
must eventually become general.
In the foregoing calculations the compression of the air has been assumed to
be adiabatic. This is not strictly correct even in uncooled cylinders, and some
distance from correctness in cooled cylinders, but any error is on the right side, and
it is better to proportion the air compressors on an adiabatic basis, so that there
may be a fair allowance of power.
As already stated, where the index of the adiabatic curve is y=1.4, and that
of the isothermal curve is. y=1.0, practical work may be done at values of y=1.2.
Expanding air becomes so very cold that between the compressor and the atomizer
air should be heated as hot as possible, in order to counteract the chilling effect.
For compound compressors, which so far hardly come into the sphere of liquid
fuel work, the power required to compress up to an absolute pressure of 2, 4 or 6
atmospheres is as follows, compared with adiabatic compression in a single-stage
machine-
Pressure in Atmo-
spheres. Absoluto.
Ratio of Power.
W2: W1.
Probable Ratio
in practice.
2
.951
.975
4
.901
.950
6
.871
.935
Even in single-stage compression the actual power required in a cooled
machine will probably be about midway between the figures for adiabatic and two-
stage intercooled work. See column 3 above.
As explained elsewhere, the economy of cooling is doubtful; though if there
are suitable means of heating the air, it is expensive to heat it by expending power
upon it.
In the following table is given the horse-power necessary to compress one
pound of air to 2, 4 and 6 atmospheres pressure absolute from the ordinary tem-
248
COMPRESSED AIR AND AIR COMPRESSORS
perature of 60°F. =15.5°C. The figures are for adiabatic compression of one pound
per minute-
Absolute Atmospheres.
Horse Power.
Actual h.-p. of driving motor.
Gauge Pressure.
2
4
0.645
0.860
14.7 lb.
6
1.433
1.972
1.911
2.629
44.1
73.5,,
The difference between adiabatic and isothermal compression is of no serious
account up to 30 lb., or even to 45 lb. The volumetric efficiencies of good
compressors at these low pressures may be safely taken at 90 per cent. of the
piston displacement. The efficiency of the machine being, say, 75 per cent. overall
from engine to compressor, the indicated horse-power actually required will be found
by adding one-third to the figures in column 2, whence is found column 3.
Apparently, therefore, air for atomizing may be compressed by one horse-
power to the extent of about 60 pounds weight per hour. Now, one horse-power in a
good steam engine will consume, say, 16 lb. of steam per hour, or, say, 20 lb.
per electrical horse-power hour, so that under favourable circumstances 1 lb. of
steam should compress 3 lb. of air; and air should, apparently, be the better
agent to employ, quite apart from the advantage at sea of not wasting fresh
water. Further experiment is, however, required to afford reliable and fuller
figures before a hard and fast ruling can be even attempted. The Author's own
opinion is in favour of air heated to a considerable temperature and more or less
charged with moisture to assist in preventing fouling of the atomizers.
Flow of Air.
Mr. D. K. Clarke gives the velocity of air flowing from any pressure P into any
other lower pressure of not more than of P as 880 feet per second.
Actual experiments upon orifices having a length greater than their diameter
give about 750 feet per second.
The following results were obtained-
50 lb. gauge pressure blowing through 3″ nozzle to atmosphere =775 ft.
= 725
30
""
""
45
""
16
25
""
7,
""
""
25,
པ
""
,,
""
""
""
""
""
The last two results were doubtful.
""
""
1/
""
12 HQ LO∞0 10100 COKH Cotti
""
5"
""
3"
4
〃
=778
--725
""
=748
པ
""
""
39
=898
=675
""
It will be safe to count upon a velocity of 750 feet in making calculations as to
the weight of air which will pass an orifice. The above velocities are calculated,
of course, on the air at the higher pressure. The weight of air is proportional to
the absolute pressure, twice as much air escaping at 35 lb. gauge pressure as at
10 lb., that is to say at 50lb., and 25 lb. absolute.
On the relative economy of air or steam for atomizing, Professor Williston says
unquestionably that air at 2 to 5 or even 10 pounds per square inch is more eco-
nomical than steam, so far as the spraying is concerned. At higher pressures there
is a doubt as to economy, for the cost of compression increases so rapidly with the
pressure, and yet the atomizing capacity of the air does not increase at the same
249

LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
rate.
Thus in the U.S. Navy tests already referred to (Chapter XVII) the most
economical results were found with air pressures of only one or two pounds. All
atomizers will not work at this pressure. At these low pressures, however, less than
two per cent. of the steam generated would compress the air. At an air pressure
of four or five pounds, four per cent. of the total steam was required to
compress the air.
Obviously, where atomizers will act satisfactorily, it
will be advantageous to use much air at a low pressure in order that the combus-
tion may be improved, for air must enter the furnace, and in air atomization there
is not the risk of fire extinguishment that there is with steam.
Small Duplex Compressor.
A small duplex compressor, electrically driven, on the Reavell system, is shown
in fig. 77. The capacity is 18 cubic feet of free air per minute, compressed if required
Co
LTO
Fig. 77. ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN DUPLEX COMPRESSOR. REAVELL SYSTEM
to 30 pounds pressure. The compressor runs at 400 revolutions per minute,
and is driven by a 1 to 2 h.p. motor at 1,200 revolutions, geared down by 3 to 1 raw
hide pinion and cut cast-iron spur wheel. The space occupied is 30" x 18" x 30" high.
The capacity of the compressor should be such as to produce 1,000 to 1,200 pounds
of steam per hour, according to the evaporative efficiency secured.
250
Chapter XXVIII
CALORIMETRY AND DRAUGHT
Calorimetry.
HILE the calorific value of a fuel may be calculated approximately by the
Dulong formula from its chemical composition, for more exact figures the
value is found by experiment. For this purpose an apparatus called a calorimeter
is employed. It consists of a closed vessel in which a small weight of the fuel can
be burned by means of a supply of oxygen. The heat developed by the combustion
is found by calculation from the rise of temperature of the apparatus and its
water contents and the known specific heat of the apparatus.
There are many forms of calorimeter. Two only will be here described, namely
the Thompson and the Berthelot-Mahler.
The first is a comparatively simple instrument and is shown in fig. 78. It
consists of a graduated water vessel holding a definite weight or volume of water
of, say, 2,000 c.c. or 2 kilograms, and of an inverted glass bell which contains a platinum
crucible, this latter holding the fuel to be tested. A bottle of oxygen completes
the outfit, the gas being led by suitable pipes to the interior of the crucible. Be-
tween the bell and the outer casing the annular space is provided with four or
five discs of fine gauze through which the gaseous products of combustion must
rise, and to which and the water encircling them, they give up their heat by bubbling
from the bell up through the water and through the gauze discs and escape as cold
as the water they have passed through.
Oxygen is fed down the bell from its upper part where the supply is admitted,
and there is a special central rod by which the burning fuel is kept stirred. A
delicate thermometer is placed inside the instrument, and another one is placed
outside in the air. Coal or other solid fuel is pulverized. Liquid fuel may be
mixed with powdered pumice stone.
The instrument is set level on a stand by means of two self-contained levels,
and the container is filled to the 2,000 c.c. mark.
The crucible is supported on the base of the bell glass at such a height that
its upper lip is above the level to which the water can rise in the bell when immersed.
The outer casing of the crucible is fireclay. Oxygen is supplied through the tube
i in which is the stirrer j.
A weight of five grammes of fuel is placed in the crucible and a bit of lighted
wax vesta is dropped in with it. Oxygen is then turned gently on and the bell
lowered to the bottom of the container. Combustion is rapid, and the gas produced
bubbles through the water and gauze diaphragms. When combustion is complete
251
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
the tube n is opened to the air, and water rises in the bell and cools the crucible.
The bell is raised and lowered several times to equalize the temperature, and the
thermometer is read and its rise noted. The instrument is evaluated for its specific
B
Agitator
2000 CCS
ل
Container!
From Oxygen
Thermometers
d
d
Water Vessel
a
Inverted Bell
$
Crucib
68
Fig. 78. THOMPSON'S CALORIMETER
equivalence of water by pouring into the empty instrument 2,000 grams of water
raised 15°C. above the temperature of the atmosphere. The lowering of the tem-
perature of the water is noted, and the water equivalence is calculated by taking
half the difference of temperature.
Thus if the water poured in has a temperature of 35°C. and the atmosphere
or laboratory temperature is 30°C. and the final water temperature is 34.5°, the
water equivalent will be
2,000 (35-34.5)
35-30
2
= 400
This number of grams is to be added to the weight of water used in each deter-
mination, so that the equivalent total water in this case will be 2,400 c.c. This
figure must be determined once for all for each instrument.
Then assuming that the test of a 4-gram sample of fuel gave a rise of 4°C.
4° × 2,400
we have
=2,400 calories or the calorific value per gram or per kilogram
4 grams
in little and great calories respectively. Mr. Thwaite, to whom I am indebted for
information on calorimeters, states that sixteen determinations did not vary more
252
CALORIMETRY AND DRAUGHT
L
OLĀŽ
S
20
30%
Atmosp
-10
40-
COLAZ
PARIS
Σ
stone and burns freely, these substances promoting the contact of the oxygen.
than an average of 0.75 per cent. Liquid fuel is absorbed in asbestos or pumice
W
A, External isolating annular water vessel.
B, Enamelled combustion vessel
C, Platinum saucer.
D, Central calorimeter.
E, Electrode.
Fig. 79.
F, Igniting coil of iron wire.
G, Agitator support bracket.
K, Mechanism of agitator.
L Lover of agitator.
M. Pressure gauge.
BERTHELOT-MAHLER CALORIMETER
O, Oxygen container.
P, Bichromate battery.
S, Agitator.
T, Thermometer.
7, Table vice.
Berthelot bomb (fig. 79). Combustion takes place in a steel bomb B with a tightly
A more elaborate and accurate instrument is the Mahler modification of the
253
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
screwed cover. It is made of mild steel of a tenacity of 55 kilos. per mm.² and
22 per cent. elongation. The shell is 8 mm. thick and its capacity 654 c.c. It is
nickel-plated outside and enamelled inside.
The top cover is traversed by a well-insulated electrode for ignition and a
valve to admit oxygen. Ignition is effected by a little bit of spiral iron wire which
is heated by the electric current.
A helicoidal agitator is worked by the lever L. A small bichromate battery
of 2 amps. x 12 volts provides ignition.
Two thermometers and a gauge to show 150 atmospheres are provided. A
bottle of oxygen containing 1,200 litres (free) at 120 atmospheres suffices for 100
tests.
The fuel being placed in the crucible and the bomb screwed up with the ignition
details in place, oxygen is admitted till 25 atmospheres are recorded on the gauge,
when the oxygen is shut off. The fuel is not too finely pulverized and oxygen is
admitted very gently. The bomb is now immersed, the water agitated and the
temperature carefully noted every minute for five minutes before ignition. Ignition
being now effected, the temperature is noted half a minute after and one minute
after, and then at intervals until it shows signs of going back. Readings are then
made for five minutes, the agitator working all the time. Correction for loss of
heat during test is thus found by Newton's law of cooling.
1. After maximum temperature has been read the descent of temperature
represents the loss of heat from the calorimeter before the attainment of the maxi-
mum, and for one minute on the condition that during this minute the mean tem-
perature does not vary more than 1°C. from maximum.
2. If the difference is over 1°C. and under 2°C. the law of descent of tempera-
ture at the maximum moment diminished by 0.005 gives the correction.
After completing observations, the bomb is washed out to recover acidulous
liquor formed during combustion. The hydric-nitrate (N₂O,H,O) is tested for acid.
The definition of the thermic value of the fuel is now determined as follows--
A
difference for corrected temperature.
W = weight of water.
W'=water equivalent of apparatus.
n = weight of hydric nitrate found.
f=weight of iron ignition spiral.
0.23=heat of formation of 1 gr. of dilute nitric acid.
1.6 heat of combustion of 1 gr. of iron.
x = calorific power of combustible.
Then x= ▲ (W + W') − (0·23n + 1·6 ƒ)
3
Any SO, may be usually neglected, but if necessary to allow for it, 2 grams of
fuel should be used under a pressure of 30 atmospheres.
The formation of SO,H,O disengages 0.73 calories per gram.
The following temperatures were noted in a particular test of oil-
DURING COMBUSTION.
AFTER COMBUSTION.
5 minutes
6
10.80°C.
12.90°
9 minutes
13.82°C.
10
13.81°
";
7
13.79°
11
13.80°
""
8
13.84° max.
12
13.79°
13
13.78°
دو
254
CALORIMETRY AND DRAUGHT
PRELIMINARY PERIOD.
13.84-13.78
Then ▲ =
= 0.012
5
The temperature variation has been 13.84-10-25 3.59°C. The corrections
are as follows-
Start at 10.23°C.
1 minute 10.23°.
2 minutes 10.24°C.
3
10.24°.
5
4 minutes 10.25°C.
10.25°.
During the two minutes 7-8 and 6-7 the thermic loss has been 0.012×2=0.024°
for maximum cooling. In the half minute 5-6 the loss has been (0.012 −0.005)
0.0035, and during the half-minute 5-5 a gain of
10.25 10.23
-
5
X=0·004 × 0.0020
whence the relative loss in the minute 5-6 will be 0.0035- 0.0020=0.0015°.
=
Thus during the experiment the thermic loss is 0-024 +0-0015 0.0255 to be
added to 3.59°=3.615°. Consequently the heat value absorbed by the instrument
and water is where W-2200 and W, 481 grams, the weight of water and the
equivalence of the instrument.
1
(2,200 + 481) x 3.615=9.69181 calories.
from which, say, 0·13 grams of nitric acid formed will require 0.13 × 0.23=0·0299
calories to be subtracted, and for the iron spiral of 0.025 grams a further subtraction
of 0.025 × 1·6=0·04.
The final result is 9.6918-(0.0299 +0.0400)=9.6219 cals. or 9,621.9 per kilo-
gram of oil 17,319-4 B.Th.U.
Mahler's original paper, from which these figures were taken, was read before
the Société d'Encouragement de Paris in June, 1892.
The water equivalent of W' of a calorimeter may be determined by burning
in it 1 gram of naphthalene of well known value, first, say, with 2,300 grams of
water and then 2,100 grams. of water with 0.8 grams. of naphthalene, the dis-
crepancy from the known value of naphthalene being obviously the instrumental
effect.
Calorimetric Values by Berthelot-Mahler Calorimeter.
Elementary Analysis.
Character of Combustible.
Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen.
Nitrogen. Calorific Value.
Heavy oil from American petro-
leum
86.894
13.107
10,912.7
Refined American petroleum
85.491
14.216
0.203
11,045.7
Treble refined American petroleum
80.583
15.101
4.316
11,086
Crude American oil
83.012
13.389
3.099
11,094.1
Heavy Baku oil.
•
86.700
12.944
11,804.6
Novorossisk petroleum, Caucasian
84.906
11.636
9.458
10,328
Tar from hydraulic main
89.910
4.945
5.145
8.9428
Tar from cooler
87.222
5.499
6.279
8.8310
Tar from condenser
85.183
5.599
9.218
8.5384
255
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Draught
The draught due to a chimney arises from the difference of pressure of two
columns of gas of the height between the grate surface and the chimney-top. The
column inside the chimney is hot because of the furnace through which it has
passed. That outside the chimney has the temperature of the outer atmosphere.
At a temperature of 300°C. (572°F.) the inner column is just about double the abso-
lute temperature of the outer column, so that the relative density is one-half.
The velocity of flow of a gas under any head is v= √2g h where v is the velocity
in feet per second, h is the head in feet and 2g=64.4 or 2 gravity.
Expressed in metres values of v and h we have v=√2 g h where g=9·81.
Assuming that at ordinary temperatures 13 cubic feet of air weigh one pound,
the atmospheric pressure of 2,115 pounds per square foot represents a column
27,495 feet in height, which would flow into a vacuum at a velocity of approximately
8√27,495=1,321 feet per second.
The pressure to produce draught, however, is only measured by inches of water
pressure. If a chimney has an internal absolute temperature double that of the
external atmosphere, it will contain only one pound of gas for each 26 feet of a
column of gas 1 foot square, or, what is the same thing, the external column is half-
balanced only. Thus if H be the height of the chimney H ÷ (2× 13) will give the
pressure per square foot, producing draught. Thus a chimney of 104 feet will
give an acting pressure of 4 pounds. As 1 inch of water gives a pressure of 0.036
pounds per square inch, the draught pressure of the above chimney would be
4
144 ×·036
=1.3 inches nearly
Having found the pressure, the air column equivalent to this must
be found. Water weighs 62.4 pounds per cubic foot. Air weighs 0.077 pounds,
whence the equivalent air column in feet per inch of water column will be found
62.4
12 × 0.077
=67 feet
The velocity of flow is then 8√67H or fully 64 √H where H is the pressure in inches
shown by the actual water gauge. In coal-fired furnaces the reading of the draught
gauge is much greater at the chimney base than in the flues, for the friction of the
flues exerts considerable resistance. The simplest form of water gauge is a bent
glass tube of U form, one end being open to the atmosphere, the other connected
by a piece of indiarubber tubing to a piece of pipe which enters the flues at the
point where the draught intensity is sought.
It is convenient to remember that where the velocity of flow due to head in
feet is v=√2 gh, that due to a pressure as shown in inches of water is almost
exactly v=2g√ H. All these figures can only be approximate, because they will
vary with the temperature. They are sufficiently accurate to base designs upon in
respect of providing sufficient openings for air to burn the oil.
The following table of velocities of air for a few pressures in inches of water
will be useful-
256
CALORIMETRY AND DRAUGHT
Velocity of air in feet.
Pressure in
inches of water.
Per second.
Per minute.
0.1
20.7
1243
0.2
29.3
1758
0.3
35.8
2150
0.4
41.4
2485
0.5
46.3
2778
0.6
50.7
3043
0.7
54.8
3287
0.8
58.5
3513
0.9
62.1
3726
1.0
65.4
3927
2.0
92.4
5547
An ordinary Ụ gauge is not capable of being finely read. It possesses a capil-
larity which is difficult to allow for and will not serve for accurate work. A better
gauge consists of a glass-fronted box in two divisions partly filled with water
(fig. 80). A hook gauge, reading on a scale, permits the water level in one division
to be determined to 0.01 inch easily.
I
OMMATA
A very sensitive gauge (fig. 81) consists of
a U tube with a drum at the top of each leg.
Half the height is filled with water and
alcohol. A stop-cock at the bottom of the
U is then closed and the upper parts are
filled with olive oil to the middle of the top
drums, which intercommunicate by a cross
tube. The oil has a specific gravity of 1 to 2
per cent. less than the alcohol mixture. One
tube is open to the air, the other to the pres-
sure to be gauged. The lines of contact of the
oil and spirit move up and down in the two
tubes respectively, and they move through a
distance as many times as the difference of
specific gravity of the two liquids. Thus for
2 per cent. difference the reading is fifty times
greater than that of a plain water tube. The two tubes are about 30 inches long, to
provide length for reading, and there are two scales to read, respectively the up
and down travel of the point of liquid contact. In Hoadley's design of this gauge
he used tubes 0.4" diameter and drums at the top of each 4.25" diameter with
glass fronts. The large area of these drums prevents any great variation in their
level for quite a large range of movement in the tubes.
Fig. 80.
In coal firing, about three-fourths of the draught is swallowed up by grate
and fuel friction, and much of the remainder in the flues and chimney itself. With
oil firing alone and no grate friction there is usually ample velocity of the inflowing
air. The chimney, in fact, ceases to possess so much importance, but must be
large enough in area to carry off the waste gases.
The weight of a cubic foot of air at 0°C. =32°F. being 0.08 lb., that at any
other temperature will be
0.08 × 273
273+t°
where to is expressed in degrees Centigrade
257
S
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
¿UARIUTUTKIMUSOMATIKUJESTA UMUWAM MINDERITUMUMIDI
Fig. 81.
and
0.08 × 491
t° + 459
where to is in degrees Fahrenheit.
By these formulæ may be calculated the weight of air
inside and outside a chimney. The difference of the two is
the pressure to produce draught per foot of chimney height.
Calling D and d the greater and less densities the equivalent
height of a column for any chimney of height = h ft. will be
L=h (Pd) and the velocity of flow per second will be
√2gL where L is the equivalent column in feet.
D
v =
D
In all the foregoing the specific gravity of furnace gas
is assumed equal to that of air of the same temperature, the
steam balancing the carbonic acid more or less closely.
Seeing that draught is of less importance with liquid fuel,
it is permissible to reduce the furnace products to a lower
temperature if facilities can be had for doing this. The smaller
excess of air with which perfect combustion can be secured is
a factor in rendering more efficient the heating surfaces of the
boiler, and reduced flue gas temperatures are a natural con-
sequence of liquid fuel.
A chimney must be large enough to pass all the products of
a furnace at a certain given velocity of flow. The calculation
of chimney area is thus simple. Assuming the velocity of flow
of gas to be 30 feet per second, it is simply necessary to divide
the volume of gas produced per second by 30. The result is
the area in square feet of the chimney. To find the volume
of gas produced per second, the coal consumption per second
is first found as follows in pounds--
W × 2,240
P=
H × 3,600
where W is the daily coal consumption in tons
and H the daily hours. Then P x 20 pounds of gas G. At ordinary tempera-
tures one pound of gas measures 13 cubic feet very closely. At the chimney
temperature it will measure 20 to 25 feet. Let 22 be assumed : then G × 22 ÷ 30 will
give the area of the chimney inside=A. The chimney will measure, if square, ✔A,
on each side, or, if round, its diameter will be D=1.128 A. Chimneys for liquid
fuel are similarly calculated from the weight of fuel burned, and the ratio of P to G
will still be 1:20, for though a pound of oil uses up more air than a pound of coal,
the excess supplied will be less, and in each case the furnace gases will weigh about
twenty times the fuel burned.
√
When coal is burned it rests upon a grate surface, the bars of which and the
fuel resting upon and obstructing the spaces offer great resistance to the inflow
of air. A fan or a chimney is necessary to draw in the air which is necessary to
burn the coal.
With oil it is quite different. Air is either blown in with the oil or induced
through free openings by the action of the steam or air atomizer, and a very small
draught will draw in enough air for perfect combustion, and it is usually considered
necessary rather to check the flow of the gases through the flues, only sufficient
draught being required to remove the products of combustion as formed. Chimneys
of small altitude will do this, for they do not require to overcome any grate or fuel-
258
CALORIMETRY AND DRAUGHT
4:
bed resistance. In locomotives, for example, the steam-jet may be considerably
reduced in the chimney, and on the Great Eastern Railway of England the MacAllan
variable blast-pipe is enlarged from 5 inches with coal to 5 inches diameter with
oil to the reduction of the back pressure on the pistons and economy of steam in
consequence. In foreign locomotive practice it is usual to employ caps over the
chimney-top in order to save the loss of heat when running down grade or standing
idle. Mr. Urquhart continued to use this cap with his oil-fired engines, and though
it presents an odd appearance to English eyes, the cap has advantages. Applied
to stationary work it is represented ordinarily by a damper at the chimney-base,
and is thus recognized as good, but it is not used in locomotive work. It affords,
however, a ready means of regulating the fires, and cannot quite be replaced by the
ash-pit damper, which is heavier to work and is by no means always so tight-shutting
as it should be.
A very usual remedy for a bad draught in coal-fired furnaces is a steam jet.
This is very effective in moving the gases forward to a poor chimney, which then
appears able to deal with them. In oil-firing this aid to draught is inevitably
present in the atomizer, which really replaces the need for a certain chimney or
fan effect. The area for chimneys must not be calculated from the horse-power
to be developed at a station. The actual fuel consumption should be worked from.
The fuel per horse-power hour will vary according to the load-factor and other
conditions, and large stations will use less fuel per horse-power hour than will
small stations with smaller load-factors. Each case must stand by itself. A very
small draught will give a velocity of 30 feet per second. The resistance to draught
is chiefly the fuel on the grate and the long flues, especially if narrow, and the
economizer.
Ordinary rules for chimneys provide for areas that will reduce the velocity of
flow to much less than the foregoing 30 feet per second, but it is doubtful if such
large areas are necessary with liquid fuel, and it is certain that a chimney hitherto
used for solid fuel will serve well when a change is made to liquid fuel. Experience
so far is lacking on the question of chimney practice for liquid fuel work, but the
subject may be approached from the standpoint above, viz., that with liquid fuel
not only is the resistance of the fuel on the grate eliminated but there is added a
propelling force in the atomizer which, if applied to a poor draught in a coal-burning
furnace, would render such draught good and sufficient. Bearing these points in
mind, the ordinary treatises on draught may be studied with advantage as regards
the effect of height upon velocity of flow. But the ordinary rules otherwise have
very little application to liquid fuel conditions.
259
SINC
Chapter XXIX
THE ATOZIZING OF LIQUID FUEL
INCE liquid fuel of the heavy varieties cannot be burned except by the system
of atomizing, the burner, injector, sprayer or atomizer, as it is variously
termed, is an important detail in any oil burning system.
The object aimed at is the pulverizing of the liquid fuel, so that, mixed with
air in the act of pulverization, and supplied with any further amount of air that may
be necessary, the liquid atoms may burn like vapour. The spray must not be so
directed that an intense blow-pipe flame impinges severely upon any small area
of furnace plate.
It is sought to fill the furnace with a full soft voluminous flame which shall
envelope the whole interior of the furnace. Given a sufficiently long space in front
of the burner, a spray jet directed straight ahead and gradually coning out would
doubtless produce a satisfactory effect, but the space between the point of the
burner and that part of the cone of flame which first touched the furnace plate
would be of little use as heating surface. What should be aimed at is such a burner
and spray device as will produce a certain disrupture and outward expanding effect,
so as at once to spread the oil to a considerable extent normally to the axis of the
burner as well as parallel; to give a sort of balloon effect, so that, in a locomotive
boiler for example, there shall be flame well to the back of the box as well as forward
under the arch. Various forms of atomizers will be found illustrated here or else-
where, including—
The Holden (figs. 21, 24 and 27).
The Baldwin (fig. 37).
The Urquhart (fig. 45).
The Guyot (fig. 89).
The Rusden and Eeles (figs. 7 and 81a).
The Billow (fig. 47).
The Oil City Boiler Works Co. (figs. 9 and 13, The Williams (fig. 102).
Appendix 3).
The Hayes (fig. 11, Appendix 3).
The Grundell-Tucker (fig. 5, Appendix 2).
The Hydroleum Co. (fig. 81).
The Swensson (fig. 86).
The Aerated Fuel Co. (fig. 50).
The F. M. Reed (fig. 14, Appendix 3).
Kermode's Burner (fig. 82).
Orde's (fig. 10).
Körting's (figs. 19, 19a).
The Holden
Atomizer.
The Holden Injector (figs. 21, 27, 24) consists of a gun-metal casing with oil,
air and steam inlets. Air comes in at the back, preferably hot, and is delivered
at the point where the oil escapes to the inner nozzle. Steam comes between the
oil and air, and the mixed jet escapes forward and slightly laterally by two orifices.
A further air supply is directed upon the spray by a ring of several fine jets of steam.
260
THE ATOMIZING OF LIQUID FUEL
The atomized fuel is directed along the plane of the fire when the fire-bars are
retained, as this gives the best action. Mr. Holden does not confine himself to
the use of steam as an atomizing agent, but recognizes that air may be prefer-
able for chemical reasons. Two burners deal with about six pounds of oil each
per mile, or, say, 240 pounds per hour.
Rusden and Eeles.
In this burner (fig. 7 and fig. 81a), steam escapes by a central annular jet, and
Steam Jacket
Steam
Scam
Oil
Steam Jacket
OIL
STEAM
Fig. 81a. ATOMIZER.
RUSDEN-EELES
is directed outwards on a fine annular jet of oil, which is heated also by a steam
jacket. This disposition gives a balloon flame. The burner is largely used in
marine work.
The Urquhart.
This burner (fig. 45), one of the earliest of the successful atomizers, employs
central steam, external air, and an annular oil jet between the two, the expansion
of the steam atomizing the oil into the air and mixing the two.
For tyre heating, Mr. Urquhart used the arrangement of fig. 112a, the oil
simply dropping into a jet of air under pressure, which induces also a supply of air
round the oil supply.
The Baldwin Company's Burner (fig. 37).
The burner is very simple, being simply a broad thin jet of steam which is
directed upon oil escaping from a parallel passage. It could not well be simpler,
but it is claimed to act well, and there appears no reason to doubt this.
The Aerated Fuel Company's Burner.
This is of the central air jet type, as shown in fig. 50.
The Oil City Boiler Company's Burner.
Fig. 9, Appendix 3, shows this Company's air spray burner, air being admitted
261
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
outside a central oil jet and directed inwards upon the oil which escapes at the
centre. This burner was used in the tests of the Bureau of Steam Engineering,
Nos. 1 to 8. These burners were arranged in pairs, so that they inclined towards
each other, and produced impinging flames. Each burner dealt with about 140
pounds of oil per hour. The same company supplied the steam actuated burner
(fig. 13, Appendix 3), the oil being here admitted by a cone or needle valve, and
steam being admitted outside. Both these burners appear to have given satis-
faction, and in both it was found that the best results followed on the highest oil
pressure, which in tests 10, 11, 12, was 20, 30, and 45 pounds per square inch re-
spectively. High steam pressure was also conducive to efficiency, but more steam
was used. It appears to be thought also that higher air pressure would be an
improvement in the case of air burners.
The F. M. Reed Burner.
Fig. 14, Appendix 3, is a combined air and steam burner, not recommended
as economical in steam. Here the provision for air is very large, and in no way
resembles the small air passage of the Holden burner, and it would appear as though
the ring jets of the Holden burner were more efficient than the air bulbs of this
burner.
The Grundell-Tucker Burner.
This, as used in the ss. Mariposa trials, Appendix 2, is given in fig. 5 of Ap-
pendix 2, the mixed oil and air being gyrated by special blades and ballooned out.
Air was used at 40 lb. pressure and heated. The oil enters the air stream through
several small holes drilled normal to the air jet. Twenty-four burners appear to
deal with 3,000 to 3,400 pounds of oil per hour, or 125 to 140 pounds per hour each.
What apparently is necessary to good operation is an air pressure not under
15 lb. by gauge, while even better results will accompany higher pressures. High
pressure of the oil also appears good, probably because of the self-atomizing ten-
dency of the oil as it escapes through the fine openings necessary where the pres-
sure is considerable.
The Hayes Burner.
Fig. 11 of Appendix 3 was not found to be a success, probably because the
long pipe nozzle destroyed the atomizing effect. Atomizing, to be a success, appar-
ently requires to be performed close to the point of escape into the furnace.
Fig. 81b shows the nozzle of the Hydroleum Company's burner. Oil is cen-
The Hydroleum System
18
Dil
Inlet
Steam
FEEDER
Inlet
Dit
Stram
Scale
$
a
Fig. 81b.
trally regulated by a needle, and issues from a mouthpiece flared out externally
262
THE ATOMIZING OF LIQUID FUEL
in such a way as to direct the atomized spray slightly outwards, the oil being in
the middle. The oil mouthpiece is in advance of the steam, and an inductive
action is produced which draws the oil forward when communication is opened
with the reservoir.
Kermode's Burner, fig. 82, contains a central passage, down which both oil
OIL
T
a
AIR
Fig. 82. ATOMIZER.
KERMODE'S SYSTEM
and heated air flow together. A long helix assists the breaking up of the oil and
the combined jet atomizes at the nozzle. The air is carried round the furnace in
a pipe and raised to a high temperature, but its pressure is only about three pounds
per square inch.
External hand wheels regulate the position of the oil and air cones, and vary
the amount of air allowed to escape round the nozzle.
An atomizer employed in the shops of the Grand Trunk Railway at Montreal
to heat the small rivet and spring furnaces (fig. 83), is shown in fig. 84. It consists
of a small internal oil pipe flattened,
split, and forked. Air from a blower
carries into the furnace the drops of oil
as they escape from the forked pipe.
An elementary form of atomizer
consists simply of two lengths of gas
pipe, one inside the other for the
oil and steam. In fig. 85 this is shown.
developed somewhat, the steam pipe.
being swaged, to form a jet, and
drilled to admit the oil. The flame of
this burner is small, and produces in-
tense local heat, and must in boiler
work always be accompanied by plenty
of suitable brickwork. This form is
that used in various forms in South
Russia.
Of self-atomizing oil-jets the Körting (figs. 19 and 19a) has been considerably
employed at sea, and is described under the head of The Körting System, p. 131.
Fig. 83. RIVET FURNACE, GRAND
TRUNK RAILWAY
Another self-spraying oil-jet is the Swensson (fig. 86), in which the oil passes
through a fine jet, and is divided into spray by striking a cutter placed a little in
front of the orifice. These self-sprayers have a certain advantage of simplicity.
No bulky air pump is required, to compress air, for atomizing the oil. There is
no waste of fresh water as in steam atomizing. A small oil pump will spray all
0
263
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
the oil of a large steamship, as a simple calculation will show. With a horse-power
of 5,000 there may be used 5,000 pounds of oil per hour, or, say, 600 gallons per
Pint
AIR
BHINA
OIL
STEAM
Fig. 84. ATOMIZER FOR RIVET FURNACE
Fig. 85.
hour=10 gallons per minute, which would fill a three-inch pipe 400 inches long.
Thus a three-inch oil pump with a six-inch stroke, if run at sixty-seven strokes
per minute, or, say, thirty-four revolutions, would feed oil for 5,000 horse-power, and
LOD
Fig. 86. SWENSSON ATOMIZER
two or three smaller pumps would in practice be employed in any ship. The oil
pumps are thus very insignificant in size, and this fact will no doubt help to popu-
larize the self-spraying atomizers if they prove satisfactory under ordinary con-
ditions. Of course, the oil will not spray unless heated sufficiently to be limpid
and easily flowing. If too viscous it will spray in strings, and not burn as thoroughly
as it should.
The Symon-House Burner.
This is one of the vaporizing burners which use the paraffine or kerosine grades
of oil, a cellular reservoir above the flames serving as the vaporizer through which
the oil travels in a long circuitous course, passing down the pipe to a turned-up
264
THE ATOMIZING OF LIQUID FUEL
jet below, this being regulated by a needle,
and surrounded by a cone which conducts air
to the flame. Preliminary heating by a lamp
of petrol or alcohol is necessary. This burner
is used by the Liquid Fuel Engineering Com-
pany for small launch boilers, and is shown.
in fig. 87.
It is claimed that in small work the use
of atomizing produces too intense a heat, and
that vaporized petroleum is better. Steam
can be raised to a 100 pounds pressure in
twelve or fifteen minutes, and by means of
the igniter above the vaporizer the fire will
relight after several minutes if put out by a
sudden jar or a gust of wind. The igniter
consists of a hollow disc full of broken fire-
brick.
In the French navy the Guyot burner has
been generally used. This is shown in fig. 88,
the oil entering centrally and being impinged
upon by an annular jet of air or steam
directed upon it round the cone, which can be-4
regulated for supply. The oil is also regulated
by a valve. The atomizing nozzle should not
project as in fig. 89, but should be kept short,
as in fig. 90.
The Atomizing Agent.
100 0 0 -
Fig. 87. SYMON-HOUSE BURNER
AND VAPORIZER
b
Though in the early French trials of 1887
as much as 1.2 pounds of steam was used per pound of oil, the quantity was gradu-
ally reduced until, in 1893, less than half a pound of steam was used in the Godard
boiler, says M. Bertin, and in 1895 M. Guyot got down to as low as 0.25, results
which also have been obtained in the Italian Navy. Indeed, on a Schichau torpedo
boat as low as 0.102 is claimed.
Compressed air, said M. Bertin some years ago, has some theoretical advan-
tages, because a given weight of steam will compress up to its own pressure a weight
of air superior to itself, and the pulverizing effect of a jet depends on the energy
of the jet rather than upon its volume. Probably the resistance of the machine.
overbalances any theoretical advantage, but at sea the loss of fresh water, where
a steam atomizer is employed, must amount to about 5 per cent. of the total steam
generated. M. Bertin, however, said that a good air compressor will not use half
the steam necessary where this is used direct. When starting from the cold boiler,
auxiliary means must be employed to get steam in one boiler at least. The com-
pressed air for this boiler may not inaptly be raised by a small compressor driven
from a storage battery, or by a small petroleum engine, or even by hand. Steam
atomizing is also open to the objection that should priming occur the fires may be
extinguished, and where the steam comes over wet, as it may do from a priming
boiler, it is quite common for burners to be extinguished, and the red-hot brick-
work fails to ignite the oil, and it is necessary to do this by means of a flaming torch.
265
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Steam
10il.
d
Steam should therefore be super-
heated, both to render it dry and
to improve its general action.
In 1885 M. D'Allest found in
l'Aude that atomizing by steam used
up 15 per cent. of the total steam
produced. A little later, at Cher-
bourg, the Torpedo-boat 22 used as
little as 1.2 k., and the Buffle only
0.75 k., per kilo. of oil pulverized,
until finally the results as detailed
above were secured, though actual
facts are not easy to obtain, and tests
require to be undertaken with a
special boiler to supply atomizing
steam. With this results of 0.5 and
0.7 are frequently obtained, and have
gone below 0.3. Such a figure as this is to be considered very good indeed. To save
fresh water at sea is so much to be desired that could compressed air be substituted
for steam it should be. M. Bertin, formerly favourable to air as more economical,
saw reason to change his views. Air was necessary at much higher pressure than
Fig. 88. GUYOT ATOMIZER
Fig. 89. NOZZLE OF GUYOT ATOMIZER.
INCORRECT FORM
Fig. 90. NoZZLE OF GUYOT ATOMIZER.
CORRECT FORM
that required for forced draught. It is affirmed that 1.4 k. of steam at 6 k. pressure
must be expended to compress 1 kilo. of air to 1.5 k., and more air must be expended
to pulverize each unit of oil as compared with steam. Thus Torpedo-boat 60 at
Cherbourg expended 0.6 k. to 0.8 k. of air in place of 0.4 k. of steam.
During a test at Indretinot less than 0.5 k. of air was expended. In brief, with
ordinary apparatus to obtain 2 k. of air, which is needed to do the work of 1 k. of
steam used direct, one must use 3 k. of steam in the compression engine.
The difficulty is that compression is slow in an ordinary machine, and steam
cannot be used at all economically, for the air attains its highest pressure when the
steam is ready to exhaust, and a heavy flywheel is necessary to help the expanded
Hence the benefit of such a machine as that of fig. 71, wherein the torque
is even all round the circle, and no flywheel is needed. M. Bertin is further most
sympathetic to-day on the physical and chemical advantages of steam, which,
he affirms, secures the Ragosine effect as utilized in the distillation of petroleum
without cracking, owing to a certain solvent action of steam on petroleum which
is yet little understood.
266
THE ATOMIZING OF LIQUID FUEL
The particular form of the Guyot atomizer (fig. 88) is that of Torpedo boat
No. 22, the furnace of which is shown in fig. 91, the boiler being of return tube type.
Fig. 91. BOILER OF FRENCH TORPEDO-BOAT No. 22
M. Bertin finds from French experience that though regulation of an oil atomizer
is most delicately effected by means of the central needle of the feed water injector,
yet a valve is a less delicate detail, and many atomizers have no central moving
cone, but are regulated solely by valves.
It is necessary when atomizing that the steam should flow at a certain speed.
If too rapid, the flame is extinguished; if too slow, there is incomplete pulveriza-
tion, and the oil escapes in drops too large to burn well.
Hence the steam orifice must be regulated to suit the boiler pressure.
25
The opening for oil should not be less than 1 mm. inch. If too large
the oil flows in too great a quantity. It is, of course, essential that both steam
or air and oil shall be capable of regulation when at work, and also that the interior
of the atomizer should be readily removed while at work, so that the orifices can
be cleared quickly, and the whole replaced immediately.
After numerous experiments with atomizers producing both thin flat jets,
and thin annular or cylindrical jets,
M. d'Allest devised the atomizer of
fig. 92, for which is claimed the best
results in regularity of effect and
steady working. It is very simple in
form, and can be rapidly dismounted
for cleaning. It consists of an outer
case containing an inner cone and
spindle; a steam inlet at the side N
admits steam to the casing. The whole
is attached to a conical mouthpiece.
ल
X-
Fig. 92. D'ALLEST ATOMIZER
267
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Oil
Steam
Hot Air
Fig. 93. D'ALLEST DOUBLE ATOMIZER
Steam is regulated by a valve, and
escapes round the two cones, while oil
comes round the central spindle.
Air is induced through the sur-
rounding opening R.
The cone can be screwed upon the
nose of the case for partial adjustment
of the steam, which is further regu-
lated by a valve in the steam pipe.
M. d'Allest places these vaporizers, if
necessary, in couples in one furnace,
connecting them to the same oil pipe
to the number of three, or even four.
Each burner will dispose of from
10 to 80 kilos.=22 to 176 pounds of
oil per hour. Two burners, using each
80 kilos. of oil, will evaporate 13 kilos.
of water per kilo. of oil, or say 2,080
litres per hour=4,576 gallons. Allowing 30 litres per square metre of heating
surface; about 6 pounds per square foot; these two burners should serve a boiler
of 70 square metres of heating surface or 753 square feet.
In a torpedo boat, however, the desired evaporation exceeds this amount per
square metre. With this in view, M. d'Allest has designed a double atomizer, in
which oil is admitted round the central tube in an annular jet. Steam comes out-
side this, and hot air is induced round the whole, the heating being effected by a
tube in the chimney. This apparatus
(fig. 93) will burn as much as 400
kilos. 880 pounds of oil per hour
without a trace of smoke.
It was tried in l'Aude, one of
the ships of the Compagnie Frassinet.
A weight of 120 kilos. of oil per hour
=264 pounds produced 170 horse-
power, the evaporation being 14.1
units of water per unit of oil, but
the French Navy considered 12 units
as the maximum that should be cal-
culated upon.
M. d'Allest has also devised an
atomizer for working with air com-
pressed to two or three kilos. =28 to
42 pounds per square inch. The
Guyot small tube boiler arranged for
liquid fuel, is shown in fig. 94.
Fvardofski System.
This system applied to locomo-
tives consists in the placing of an
atomizer in each wall of the furnace
b
Fig. 94. GUYOT SMALL TUBE BOILER WITH
LIQUID FUEL ARRANGEMENTS
268
THE ATOMIZING OF LIQUID FUEL
(fig. 95) two and two exactly opposite, the jets meeting centrally and promoting
mixture. The grate is covered with firebricks, between which air enters.
Though a special pulverizer was used (fig. 96), it would appear that any
atomizer could be arranged on this system.
b
b
6
Fig. 95.
6
FVARDOFSKI SYSTEM
LOCOMOTIVE FIREBOX
Fig. 96. FVARDOFSKI ATOMIZER
The special atomizer consists of two simple passages for steam and oil uniting
at a special nozzle plate, and regulated by means of valves on each supply pipe.
The orifice is flat and wide, the flame being fan-shaped.
The Brandt burner consisted of a circular box (fig. 97), with a tapered slot
all round it nearly closed by the
edge of a disc. Steam escaped
under the disc and oil above it.
The burner was set in the middle of
the firebox and gave a large hollow
flame, but it had the disadvantage
of being inaccessible when at work,
and the flame was easily extin-
guished, as by the slipping of the
wheels of a locomotive, the sudden
pull of the blast extinguishing the
flame and chilling the box.
ata
Oil
Fig. 97. BRANDT ATOMIZER
Steam
The atomizer of Vetillard
Scherding (fig. 98), employed on the
Chemin de fer de l'Est of France,
consists of a primary injector, with an annular steam jet and central oil passage.
The mixed jet passes to the secondary cone, through which it induces an inner
supply of air, and finally, at the entrance to the furnace, air is induced outside
the whole, and the mixed jet is considered to be of correct proportion for perfect
combustion. The express compound engines on this railway are furnished with
two of these burners, each of a capacity of 100 kilos. 220 pounds of oil per hour.
The atomizers, two per boiler, are similarly arranged to those on the Great
Eastern of England for coal burning in conjunction with oil.
The Soliani burner (fig. 99) is of simple form, resembling the scent spray.
The Artemeff burner (fig. 100) is an old form with a curved face, round which
oil is atomized in a flat wide-spreading sheet of flame, steam coming below the disc
and oil above it, and regulation being by cocks on the steam and oil pipes.
The Bereznef burner (fig. 101), like the Brandt, has the disadvantage of being
269
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Fig. 98. ATOMIZER VETILLARD-SCHERDING
surrounded by flame, exposed to
high temperature, and not to be
got at while at work. Tests made
with this burner may be found on
page 11.
The Williams atomizer (fig. 102)
is that which was used by Prof.
Denton, and referred to in Chapter
V. under the head of "Texas Oil
Efficiency." It consists of the usual
body and of an annular steam
nozzle. Across the steam jet drops
the oil from a tube above, regu-
lated by a cock, the flow of steam
being regulated by the central cone
and screwed spindle.
In the atomizer of the Com-
pagnie Russe Standart the oil jet
is central and annular (fig. 103),
steam issuing round the oil cone.
Some atomizers direct their
sprays divergently, others, as the
Chaukoff (fig. 104), have convergent
jets. This atomizer, like the Urqu-
hart and some others, is often
surrounded by an air inlet tube, and the action of the jet is to entrain air. The
Guyot atomizer is not unlike the Chaukoff, except that the oil in the Guyot instru-
ment arrives centrally.
The Nobel, Lenz and others, in place of annular jets, throw out flat jets, but
these atomizers appear to involve more complication of make and mechanism
without any corresponding advantages.
There are numerous other forms, some complex, others crude,
but to enumerate all would occupy great space, and serve no good
purpose. Those illustrated will show the general trend of prac-
tice and what has been done, the chief point being apparently
that the annular form of jet is preferable and conduces to best
mixtures.
oil
Fig. 99.
The difficulty with burners which vaporize has been the
deposit of carbon. This will occur even with kerosene, the car-
bon being a pulverulent coke. The difficulty was got over by SOLIANI BURNER
M. Serpollet by means of easily replaced burners. Heavy oils
can then be burned. Too high a heat seems to be the cause of carbon deposit,
the oil being "cracked " exactly as in a highly heated still. At present not much
is being done in vaporizers, at least for large powers, the atomizer becoming more
general.
On the question of pre-heating, the French Naval tests are in accord with
others as to the advantage of this.
Long recognized as an advantage to heat to 80°C.=176°F., it is to-day estab-
lished that Mazout may well be heated to 132°C. =269-6°F.
270
THE ATOMIZING OF LIQUID FUEL
CILIK (TAND MATERNE),
19
At this temperature the fuel gives off a certain amount of vapour, which raises
the pressure in the burner, helps the velocity of the jet, and ignites promptly at
LA
Steam
B
8.
AB
SL
す
​Fig. 100. ARTEMEFF ATOMIZER
Fig. 101. BEREZNEF ATOMIZER
the nozzle, and assists the combustion of the whole. Heating the oil raises the
efficiency of the combustion, cuts short the flame, and increases the effect of the
heating surface.
It is not desirable to generate too much vapour at the orifice of the atomizers,
or no air can get access to the jet, and combustion cannot occur. Air admixture
is, of course, absolutely necessary, and when atomizing is done with compressed
air this is a mere fraction of the total air required. The air itself is best heated,
especially if this can be done by recuperation of otherwise wasted heat.
Steam
Oil
Fig. 102. WILLIAMS' ATOMIZER
Fig. 103. ATOMIZER, STANDART
The object of an atomizer is to fill the furnace with flame, and the furnace
must avoid contact with the flame pending complete combustion. The accom-
plishment of these various ends has brought about the many forms of atomizers
already described. All of them bear a strong family resemblance. In Russia
there appears a tendency to employ flat jets, such as given by the Artemeff and
271
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
similar burners. Hence also the various forms of furnace with their refractory
linings of firebrick, as in the figure 105 annexed, which represents a boiler made
Steam
Fig. 104. CHAUKOFF ATOMIZER
at Cherbourg in 1893, and bears a general resemblance to the much older forms
devised by Urquhart. In this boiler the atomizers are placed as shown in the
side walls of the furnace.
Railway practice in America tends to the use of flat jets. On the Southern
Pacific Railway a simple atomizer, which allows the oil to fall from an orifice over
the front of a flat steam jet, has this jet 3 inches wide. The petroleum escapes
at an orifice half an inch high and of the length of three inches, the steam opening
being about 0.8 mm. high, or inch. The width of the jet of steam is 3 inches,
extending inch at each end below the flow of oil, so that no oil escapes
unatomized. The flat pulverizers are stated by M. Bertin to be suitable for boilers
of the Belleville or Niclausse type, in which the flames rise directly from the grate
4
1
32
O
Fig. 105. LOCOMOTIVE TYPE BOILER TESTED AT CHERBOURG WITH LIQUID FUEL
to the water tubes. The broad flat flame probably burns over a wide area, and
does not enter between the pipes so rapidly as if it were a less wide spreading jet.
Should a pulverized jet encounter a cold boiler plate at a temperature of 400°
to 500°C. =752° to 932°F., the oil will condense on the plate and not again ignite.
In the boiler of Torpedo-boat No. 22 (fig. 91) the furnace is fitted with an air
advance chamber in which oil is atomized and meets air streams admitted radially.
•
272
THE ATOMIZING OF LIQUID FUEL
The furnace is brick-lined, with a low striking bridge. In this boiler 11.6 k.
and 10.8 k. of water have been evaporated per kilo. of oil with a draught of 20 to
30 mm. (1 inch mean) of water. At heavier draughts of 95 to 110 mm. water gauge
(or a mean of four inches), only 9.45 k. and 8.5 k. were evaporated. A similar
boiler, with the air arriving parallel with the jet, however, evaporated 13.25 k.
of water, which shows the difference due to arrangements.
5
M. Guyot's boiler of the Du Temple type, with four atomizers, showed from
12.5 k. to 113 k. evaporation, with draughts of 8 and of 45 mm. of water (
and 12 inches). The above results are given by M. Bertin from 16°C. 61°F.
at 12 kilos. of pressure. See Table XLVI.
It may be stated finally that, taking a review of all atomizers, the more suc-
cessful are those which atomize the oil right at the nozzle or point of exit. This
class appears least liable to choke with dirt or to permit of the oil becoming car-
bonized within the body of the atomizer.
COMBINED ATOMIZING AND VAPORIZING SYSTEM.
Thwaite's System of Oil Firing.
The system of boiler firing proposed by Mr. B. N. Thwaite is based on a
recognition of the fact that oil firing is often accompanied by an excessive use of
air. He proposes to use the air or a portion of it twice. For this purpose he
employs a double apparatus containing an oil atomizer with its own supply of
atomizing air or steam, and an inspirator which draws hot gas from the flues of
the boiler through a pipe and delivers it about the atomizing nozzle, thus heating
up the oil and supplying air for combustion and at the same time diluting the air
supply with neutral or burned gas and reducing the intensity of the combustion
by producing what is known as a softer flame of larger volume. Heating the air
supply by direct admixture of flue gases has not previously been attempted, and
there is no practical installation by which to judge of the result, but the inven-
tion possesses merits prima facie, and offers a cheap means of heating the air supply
and the oil atoms. Mr. Thwaite terms his system the Recuperative system, and
justifies it on the ground that the excess of air passed through a furnace is so
great that the waste gases consist largely of oxygen. He also aims particularly
at producing the soft flame at a temperature less local, and therefore less severe
on the furnace apparatus and surroundings.
273
T
Chapter XXX
THE APPLICATION OF LIQUID FUEL TO METALLURGY
IQUID fuel lends itself particularly well to the operations of metallurgy, especi-
well to the of
ally of a small nature, or, perhaps, the smallness of the operations thus far
carried on are due merely to novelty. In metallurgical work it would appear that air
is on the whole the more suitable atomizing agent. In the sequel will be found a
few examples of what has thus far been accomplished. In America furnaces of
•
-85 -
Fig. 106. PORTABLE RIVET FURNACE
274
THE APPLICATION OF LIQUID FUEL TO METALLURGY
large size for heating boiler-plates and for other purposes of considerable bulk have
been built by the Rockwell Company. The extension of liquid fuel in this direction
finds, of course, a powerful rival in producer gas made from cheap coke fuel, and,
within limits, fully equal to oil, being capable of equal uniformity of temperatures,
equality of heats and economy, though, perhaps, for many purposes not capable of
such high temperatures as oil, except in the case of the more powerful water gases,
which are made at some sacrifice of fuel.
Rivet Furnace.
A rivet furnace with a Holden Atomizer is shown in fig. 106, the furnace being
portable for more convenient use and carrying its own oil tanks. A connexion is
made between the valve C and the steam or compressed air pipe.
Rivets are fed in at the top door where they are exposed first to the waste heat.
They are moved down to the full heat below as required and removed through the
lower door.
The furnace is started with a little flaming oily waste, and oil is fed more and
more as needed during the heating up of the brickwork lining, the air valve G
being regulated until smokeless combustion results. One hundred inch rivets
per hour can easily be heated at an expense of 1½ gallons of oil.
Oil Fired Brass Crucible Furnace.
In fig. 107 is shown an arrangement of furnace for four brass-melting crucibles.
SECTION
PLAN
北
​Fig. 107. FURNACE FOR FOUR CRUCIBLES
With this furnace 112 pounds of brass can be melted in one hour at an expense of
three gallons of oil. The furnace being small, less heat is thrown away in getting
the lining hot, and small charges can be melted at irregular intervals without so
much expense as is incurred where large bodies of brickwork must be heated up.
275

LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Assaying Furnace.-The Bickford Burner Co., of Camborne, make the apparatus
shown in fig. 108. This small furnace can be got to work in less than half a minute,
Fig. 108. FURNACE OF BICKFORD BURNER CO.
and within half an hour a weight of 40 pounds of brass can be melted at an expense
of half a gallon of oil.
The fan-blast necessary is 2 inches of water column or more for small work;
5 to 8 inches for general work, and 8 to 12 inches for fine brass and cast iron.
In a large foundry using this apparatus the comparative cost of coke and oil for
melting 40 pounds of brass is given as under-
COKE
d.
cwt. oven coke at 1s. 3d. . . . 3.75
FUEL OIL
d.
3 per cent. waste of brass.
8.4
Crucible (20 charges per crucible, 5s.) 3
gallon oil at 21d. (bought in
small quantities).
2
1 per cent. waste of brass . 3.6
Crucible (30 charges per crucible,
5s.).
. 2
15.5
7.6
showing a saving of over 50 per cent., exclusive of any advantages of labour and
saving or cleanliness.
The action of the furnace and its arrangement is shown in fig. 109. Oil is stored
276
THE APPLICATION OF LIQUID FUEL TO METALLURGY
in the air-tight reservoir (W), flows through the cock (T), into the filter tank (N),
containing the filter (O). When the oil level in N reaches the end of the pipe (T),
the flow from W stops (as when a bottle of water is inverted in a tumbler). The
level of the oil in N then remains constant. From N the oil flows through the tube
(N) and the stopcocks (MM) to the oil spout, and thence round the air nozzle (I)
through a slot, by the air issuing from which it is blown to the bottom of the com-
bustion chamber (K). The resulting flame is blown through the hole (F) into the
furnace (D), around the crucible (E), and up through the warming cylinder (B),
warming the overlapping charge (X). Air is supplied through the valve (L). That
part of the charge (X) in the warming cylinder is the first to melt.
0
E
0
B
N
Σ
K
T
M-
N
HI
T.
-W
TM
Fig. 109. SECTION OF FURNACE OF BICKFORD BURNER Co.
Usually one ton of brass will require 40 gallons (Impl.) of oil, where not less
than 80 pounds at once are melted.
Iron requires twice the time and fuel of brass, and about 15 inches of air-blast
and not less than 10 inches for ordinary cast iron. Mild steel requires 25 inches of
blast.
Tube-welding furnaces will turn out 50 to 80 heats per hour, when oil fired, and
the work done is clean.
Generally in all metallurgical furnaces a clean heat is secured, as well as
uniform temperature. This makes liquid fuel a most suitable fuel for glass
furnaces, glazing and japanning work, and all work where dust is to be avoided.
277
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
The Schwartz Melting and Refining Furnace.
This furnace (fig. 110), is similar in appearance to a small Bessemer converter.
10
Bary
AIR
Fig. 110.
THE SCHWARTZ FURNACE
ala
DOOR TILE
N93.
BOTTOM MIXTURE
Fig. 111. SECTION OF SCHWARTZ FURNACE
SPOUT
TILE.
278
THE APPLICATION OF LIQUID FUEL TO METALLURGY
A section is given in fig. 111. The fuel is injected at the upper portion, and the
flames play on the charge, and the gases escape at the pouring spout. When melted,
the charge can be well mixed, to give regularity, by rocking the furnace to and fro,
and the finished product is then poured.
Annexed are given the results of tests made in December, 1901, with this
furnace, and endorsed by the Mechanical Department of the Chicago, Rock Island
and Pacific Railway Company-
Test started with furnace cold at
The furnace was hot at
Time consumed in heating furnace
•
7.25 a.m.
8.11
""
46 minutes.
Heat
No.
Charge.
lbs.
Time of Time
charging. to melt.
Time poured.
Amount Amount
charged. received.
Shrinkage.
min.
lbs.
lbs.
New Copper
201
8.15
53
9.10-9.16
235
227
3.40%
1
Zinc
211
Lead
7
9.08
Block Tin.
51
New Copper
300
9.10
60
10.17-10-29
356
353
0.84%
2
Block Tin .
32
Lead
24
10.10
Light Scrap
Copper.
130
10.30
58 11.33-11.39 460
4491
2.28%
3
Old Brasses
220
11.0
Brass Borings.
100
11.20
Lead
10
11.32
Light Scrap
Copper.
1591
11.40
72
11.59-12.6
460 443/1/
3.58%
4
Old Brasses
1901
12.12
Brass Borings
100
12.34
Lead
10
12.58
New Copper
300
1.42
56
2.43-2.56
356
349 1.96%
LO
5
Block Tin
32
2.41
Lead
24
•
New Copper
2711/
2.57
56
3.54-4.05 3211
3152
1.78%
Zinc
30/1/0
6
Lead
10/1/
3.53
Block Tin.
9
Old Brasses
500
4.08
48
4.57-5.13
510
500
1.96%
•
7
Lead
10
4.53
Total amount charged
Total amount received
Shrinkage
2,698 lb.
2,6373 lb.
603 lb. or 2.25%
279
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Oil Consumption.
U.S. Gallons.
Pounds.
65.83
483.85
9.50
59.82
56.33
414.03
2.44
17.93
Total amount used
Amount used in heating surface
Amount used in melting
Amount per hundred pounds of metal melted.
From Heats Nos. 1, 2, 5, and 6, sample test bars were poured and drillings
analyzed. Test bars were not poured from the other three heats on account of
scrap having been used in the mixtures. The analyses of the test bars are as
follows:-
Heat No.
% Copper, calculated from mixture
Tin
Lead
""
Zinc
""
""
,,
""
Copper, actual analysis
Tin
Lead
""
Zinc
""
""
1.
2.
5.
6.
85.53
84.27
84.27
84.45
•
2.34
8.99
8.99
2.80
2.98
6.74
6.74
3.27
9.15
9.48
85.36
83.57
83.81
84.53
2.58
9.28
9.08
3.21
2.86
81.55
6.19
2.78
8.51
8.35
Ordinary or crude oil can be used for fuel, and a brick liner is said to endure
300 heats.
The dimensions and capacities of furnaces are given below—
Number.
Capacity per hour.
Size O.D.
1
2
400 lb.
1000 lb.
42 inch
60 inch
Weight.
3650
10400
Lining.
6 inch
9 inch
No. 1 Furnace. Space required, 15 ft. square No. 2 Furnace. Space required, 20 ft. square.
Floor space, 8 ft. square.
Floor space 10 ft. square.
One of the economies of this furnace is that it saves the cost of crucibles.
The furnace is lined with fireclay blocks or tiles, the bottom being pugged in
from a mixture of crushed quartz, pure washed silica, sand, and best fireclay in equal
proportions mixed and rammed in place sufficiently damp to hold well.
The furnace requires to be slowly dried by a wood fire and then to be glazed by
heat before use. It is started in the usual way with shavings or oily waste, and when
alight and regulated the cap is replaced and the furnace is heated ready to charge.
It is well to tilt the furnace slightly from time to time during each heat. This
saves the lining. Oil should be heated to about 100°F. for best results, and its
pressure should not exceed 20 pounds, the air pressure being 16 to 20 ounces, or as
low as 12 to 14 ounces for yellow brass, or when much borings are used. It is best
to melt copper or heavy scrap before adding the lighter metals. Borings should
also be added after the heavy metal is melted, zinc and lead may often be added in
the ladle from ten to fifteen minutes before pouring. Little loss is then made.
The Atlantic Brass Company, of Jersey City, N.S., give the following results of
working a furnace—
280
THE APPLICATION OF LIQUID FUEL TO METALLURGY
450 lb. metal.
FIRST HEAT
77% scrap copper.
10% tin.
13% lead.
Melted in 30 minutes. Result, 445 lb.
Making fine grade of brass.
Loss 41 lb.
SECOND HEAT
100 lb. copper.
661 lb. copper wire, etc.
216 lb. composition.
66 lb. lead.
448 lb. Result, 444 lb.
Loss
4 lb.
Oil may either be supplied by pump or by air pressure on the oil surface in a
closed supply tank.
Application of Liquid Fuel to Tyre Heating.
The employment of liquid fuel to the heating of tyres was carried out by
Mr. Urquhart in the shops of the Grazi and Tsaritzin Railway in 1884 or earlier.
Fire for heating Tyres.
Section
Petr-
oleum
m
#
##
Blast
Petroleum
Blast
о
Ins. 12 6 0
سیا
Fig. 112.
Plan
2-
3
5 Feet.
281
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
The spraying agent is cold air supplied by a Roots blower, and the cost is only one-
third that of bituminous coal, while the amount of work per day can be increased by
25 per cent. Four sprayers are used, which blow tangentially, as shown in fig. 112,
Petroleum
Longitudinal
Section
Transverse
Spray Injector
Five-lay
Blast
2
5
10
15
Section.
20 Ins.
Fig. 112a. SPRAY INJECTOR FOR TYRE FURNACE, ENLARGED
and give a flame circulating round the tyre. The arrangement rather suggests
that a cover, to be lifted by a light crane, would produce an economy in time and
fuel. The principles of liquid fuel heating for other purposes are embodied in this
tyre furnace, namely, the placing of an object to be heated in an oven of firebrick,
and arranging the burners to direct their flame in such a way as not to produce local
heating, but to spread the flame as evenly as possible over the whole surface of the
object to be heated.
Forge Fire.
A simple form of forge fire is shown in fig. 113. A casing of plate is filled
h
9
a
b
C
h
e
d
Fig. 113. FORGE FIRE
with fire-brick, leaving a central passage with a
lateral opening c about two inches diameter, into
which an air blast enters from an air main d.
Oil is supplied at e from a pipe ƒ and flame issues
at g. The central passage a has a diameter of
three to four inches. Iron up to four inches can
be heated in this furnace.
The lower opening of the passage a is closed
by a door protected by fireclay. Through this,
dirt and oxide can be cleared into the pit below.
Fire-bricks h are built above the flame, and can
be melted by the intense heat developed; the
flame will rise 10 feet above the uncovered
opening.
The general form of a larger furnace is that
of fig. 114. Here the oil enters at one end into
a chamber a, and passes through the heating
chamber constructed with an arch, and with a fire-brick bed 4 inches thick, the
whole carried on a plate bed or frame, and held together with angle irons as
usual. The chamber a is double, and is called the generator. It is pierced with
2
282
THE APPLICATION OF LIQUID FUEL TO METALLURGY
a round sight hole and a hole
for the atomizer, which consists
of an air tube and an oil tube
with a funnel and a sight feed
as in the last example. A
hole is provided through which
to light the oil when starting
up the furnace, and there is a
narrow inclined passage to the
furnace proper. This furnace
is in trough form, covered with
an arched roof supported on
loose bricks, and it is filled on
the bed with broken bricks to
Fig. 114.
LARGE FURNACE
facilitate contact of the flame with the article to be heated.
a
юбо
Lighting up is done with flaming waste or shavings, and the air is regulated
to the oil, the opening of the passage from the generator to the furnace being
higher than the atomizer. The fire becomes white when the generator has become
hot, and regulation then ceases. Good results are got with two inches of air
inches in the generator. About 40 pounds of
pressure in the pipes, and about 1
oil per hour will be consumed.
Six smiths will use an ordinary furnace. Two of them will work objects
of some size, and not be in the way of the others.
Larger objects require double furnaces with a central chimney, two fire beds,
and two generators.
Brick or Lime Kilns. In one form of kiln the brickwork of the kiln contains
three to five basins, kept full of oil by means of pipes. Air for combustion is brought
in by slots between the basins.
Copper also, and other metals, may be melted in crucibles.
In one works, at Chemnitz, a malleable cast iron is made in crucibles heated
by oil, the vapour of which is mixed with hot air before entering the combustion
chamber in which the crucibles stand two and two.
In other apparatus oil falls drop by drop or in fine streams; the vapour,
brought into contact with air, burns freely and gives a high temperature. This
class of apparatus is successfully employed for re-heating and brazing or welding,
but the oil must be gasefied in a particular space before the flame is applied to
its work.
Atomizers may also be used for metallurgical furnace work, actuated prefer-
ably by air. In the recuperative Siemens-Martin furnace the depth of the air
chambers and of the gas chambers placed directly under the bottom should not be
too great, because the vapour of oil contains less carbonic oxide than does coal gas,
and is liable to condense if left too long in the state of gas, and form tars and
coke.
Across the front wall of the recuperator is fixed a thick iron plate with an open-
ing through which passes a hollow fitting of iron with the oil tube.
Oil is supplied by the tube, and spreads over the fitting of iron previously
heated. It gasefies and at once passes to the furnace by two passages, air coming
in by three other openings.
The iron vaporizer is heated by an atomizer. In a puddling furnace on
283
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
this principle were produced in twenty-four hours five to six tons of iron. The loss
was seven to eight per cent., and the consumption of oil 550 pounds per ton of
finished metal, which represented an economy of 80 per cent. as compared with
coal.
The Körting atomizer (fig. 19) is much used in Siemens-Martin furnaces, oil
being pumped at 75 to 105 lbs. pressure into an accumulator, whence it passes
by a pipe to the atomizer, which plays directly into a heating chamber whence
issue the heated vapours to the furnace, where they mix with air introduced by
slits below the opening for the vapour. With a furnace of 10 to 15 tons capacity,
the consumption of oil is 20 per cent. of the weight of metal. Other simple furnaces
have the oil introduced by five air-worked atomizers, two at each end and one in
the middle of the furnace. The atomizers are water jacketed for protection.
Oil greatly simplifies the work of attendance, the highest heats are obtained, and
the fire can be extinguished any time and fuel saved. Furnaces are as durable
as gas heated furnaces and have as high an output.
Copper Smelting.
In the Caucasus at Kedabeg and Kalakent the melting of ores roasted in the
heap for the production of copper matte is done in reverberatory furnaces heated by
oil, as also is the refining of crude copper. The furnace for ore smelting consists
of a working chamber with a quartzose floor, and covered with a very flat vault
or arch. Two steam atomizers and two air tuyeres are placed symmetrically at the
back of the furnace, the air and petroleum obliquely towards the front. The two
oil jets, in flames, having crossed the circular furnace nearly diametrically, recurve
in semicircles and escape by a flue opening close to the injection openings. The
flames act by reverberation. A furnace will pass 40 tons of ore of 7 per cent.
quality in 24 hours, with one skilled man and three labourers.
284
Chapter XXXI
EXAMPLES OF LIQUID FUEL CARRIERS BY RAIL AND SEA
IT
Oil Carriage by Rail.
T is of great importance that the carriage of oil by rail should be conducted
only in such vehicles as are safe in case of the most severe accidents occur-
ring to the train of which they form a part.
The form now considered best is that of figs. 115 and 116, for which I am indebted
to Messrs. Renshaw & Co., Limited, of Stoke-on-Trent. They show an all steel
railway tank wagon having a capacity of 2,800 gallons of oil at a specific gravity
of 82, being one of ninety built for the Shell Transport Company.
5
16
The shell plates are made in one length, inch thick and the dished ends are
3 inch thick.
The manhole is provided with a screwed cover, thereby forming an air-tight
joint. The outlet has a plug valve worked by a handwheel at the top of the
tank inside the manhole, and to the stool in which this valve rests is connected
a wrought iron branch tee piece giving two outlets, one on either side of the
wagon. These have each a 2 inch gun metal sluice valve, and the end of the pipe
is covered by a gun metal cap to protect the screw to which hose coupling may
be attached for discharging the oil.
A wagon throughout must be of high-class workmanship, the whole of the
riveting being done by hydraulic and pneumatic machinery, and the tanks must
be tested to 20 pounds per square inch pressure, and must be absolutely water-tight
before being passed.
The steel underframe should be of exceptional strength, a special feature
in the wagon illustrated being the method by which the sole bars are joined to
the head stocks, both by flanging of the bars and by cover plates.
The axle-boxes have open sliding fronts to allow easy access to the grease
chambers, and altogether an oil wagon must be strongly and soundly built.
The oil tank is attached by four side brackets to the framing, and is also sup-
ported at each end against the headstock by blocks of timber.
There is a longitudinal stay plate between the two dished ends and a pair
of diaphragm or swash plates to distribute surging stresses throughout the whole
tank structure.
Made of tough steel plate of boiler quality, such a tank should bear a good deal
of rough usage or collision without failure.
285

LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
In Fig. 117 is illustrated the oil carrying steamer, Newyork, built by the
Palmer's Shipbuilding and Iron Company, Ltd., of Jarrow-on-Tyne. In this
class of vessel all the seams and butts of the shell plating, decks, and bulkheads
7-16-2
8
Fig. 115. TEN TON RAILWAY TANK WAGON FOR OIL FUEL. RENSHAW'S LIMITED, ETRURIA
are riveted, and the rivets are spaced, for oil tightness, 3 diameters centre to
centre, instead of 4 diameters as required for water-tight work. Special care is
also taken to avoid as far as possible any rivet passing through more than two
286
EXAMPLES OF LIQUID FUEL CARRIERS BY RAIL AND SEA
Fooope
pairs of oil tanks with expansion trunks for each pair. There is a cofferdam at
7.3
fiamo
ing Spring'
G
5609500,
Fig. 116.
17.6 Over
Still Benalisa
17.0 Outs
· Loa
บา
རྒྱ་,༧4•༡ crzz
וד
રી
(Gusset plates falised
Buffing Spring
taplatos 3 1/2
Korsets Spilet
.
Journals. gje
t
·
Platesó
TEN TON TANK WAGON FOR OIL FUEL. RENSHAW'S, LIMITED, ETRURIA
thicknesses of plating. It will be observed that the vessel is divided into eight
287
STORES
STORES
288
ENGINEERS
MESS Room
WATER]
BALLAS
F. W.
TANKS
ENGINE
STORE Room
BOILER
Room
SYPL IZAZER BAZIJASTI
8
i
BUNKER
W
LENGTH BETWEEN PERPENDICULARS 428 09
BREADTH MOULDED
DEPTH
-54·6
32.0
CREYY
PUMP
CROSS ROOM
EXPANSION TRUNK
HOIL CARGO HOLD
BUNKER NO JOIL TANK NO2 OU TANK NO3 QU TANK NO 4 OIL TANK NO 5.01L TANK NOG OIL TANK NOT OIL TANK NO 8. OIL TANK
NO3OUL
CHAI
LOCKE
30
• 49
55
91
84
97
110
123
136
147
163
ENGINE CASING.
HATCH
-TRUNK
HATCH
SIDE
BUNKER
T
DONKE
KOAL
BOILER HATCH
OIL
TIGH
QIL
¦ FIGHT
HAT COYER
HEN
HOUS!
HATCH COVER
HATCH COYER
Do
20
60
เด
1001
Scale
100
180
HATCH
Fig. 117. OIL CARRYING TANK STEAMER, "NEWYORK
WATER
BAL
194
UPPER OK.
HATCH
[011]
TIGAT
HATCH COYER
CARGO
HATCH
Ө
DO
220
26oft.
EXAMPLES OF LIQUID FUEL CARRIERS BY RAIL AND SEA
the back of No. 1 tank, separating it from the power department. A small hold
for miscellaneous cargo is placed forward by No. 8 tank, from which it is separated
by a cofferdam. The oil tanks are divided along the centre line of the vessel by
an oil-tight bulkhead, so that there are really sixteen oil cargo tanks. The length
of the Newyork is 428 feet between perpendiculars, the breadth 54 feet 6 inches,
and the depth 32 feet. The water ballast tanks extend the full length of the ship
below the oil tanks. Coal bunkers are provided on each side of the engine and
boiler compartments, and also forward of the boilers, between the boiler com-
partment and the after cofferdam.
MIOSHIP SECTION
_Poop AK_
CONTINUOUS
TRUNK SIDE
..UPPER DK..
EXPANSION
OIL TRUNK
MAIN DK.
OILTIGHT
CENTRE LINE
BULKHEAO
T
I
Fig. 117a.
ENLARGED CROSS SECTION OF OIL TANK STEAMER,
66
NEWYORK"
289
U
T
Chapter XXXII
Ringelmann's Smoke Chart.
HIS chart (fig. 118) is very useful as a means of comparing smoke. The chart
should be ruled in squares of about eight inches, and hung about 50 feet
No. 1.
No. 2.
Darker Gray Smoke.
Light Gray Smoke.
No. 4.
No 3.
Very Dark Gray Smoke.
Black Smoke.
Fig. 118. RINGELMANN'S SMOKE CHART. No. 0—ALL WHITE. No. 5-ALL BLACK
from the observer, at which distance each square assumes a uniform tint all over,
the rulings being indistinguishable. There are six cards in a set, No. 0 being all
white and No. 5 all black.
290
RINGELMANN'S SMOKE CHART
The proportion of the lines is as follows-
No. 1. Black lines 1 mm. thick, spaces 9 mm. wide
No. 2.
No. 3.
""
""
2.3 mm.
7.7
""
""
""
""
3.7
6.3
""
""
""
""
""
""
""
No. 4.
5.5
4.5
""
وو
""
""
""
""
""
The illustrations are reduced from a larger size, and the proportion of black and
white is of course preserved.
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER XXXI
According to Lloyd's Register for the year 1902, there were 195 steamers and
19 sailing ships engaged in the carrying trade of petroleum in bulk. The largest
steamers were the s.s. Tuscarora of 3,925 net tonnage, built in 1898 for the Anglo-
American Oil Co., and the s.s. Pinna, of 4,100 net tons, built in 1901 for the
Shell Co. There were building and now launched the s.s. Pecten and Spandilus, of
7,300 gross tons, for the Shell Co.
•
The largest sailing ship was the Quevilly, of 1,710 net tons, owned by a
Rouen firm. This ship was built in Rouen by Laporte et Cie.
There were also 77 steamships fitted for burning liquid fuel, and nearly all
included in the oil carrying class above named.
291
Part III
APPENDICES
APPENDIX No. I
EXTRACT FROM REPORT OF THE CHIEF OF BUREAU OF STEAM ENGINEER-
ING, RELATING TO COMPARATIVE TESTS OF COAL AND OIL MADE UNDER
A WATER-TUBE BOILER OF THE HOHENSTEIN DESIGN, ALSO OFFICIAL
REPORT OF THE STEAMSHIP MARIPOSA BURNING LIQUID FUEL
The Problem of the Water-Tube Boiler-The Hohenstein Boiler Trials (Coal Tests).
TH
HE experience of the United States Navy with the boilers of the torpedo boats and
torpedo-boat destroyers ought to afford some startling evidence as to the manner
in which incompetent or untrained men can impair or destroy the efficiency of these steam
generators. The agitation of Great Britain over the navy-boiler question ought also to
convince naval administrators that the boiler problem is the naval problem of the hour.
In view of the British experience with the Belleville boiler, it is not surprising that
the general public of that Empire regard the Boiler Commission, now in session, as the
most important board appointed by the Admiralty during the past ten years. The mem-
bership of this board comprises distinguished experts within and without the naval service.
This board has been in session nearly two years investigating the question as to which type
of marine boiler is most suitable for use in the navy as the one of approved design. The
Admiralty regard the solution of this problem as of vital importance to the efficiency of
the British fleet, for it has been discovered, after installing over a million and a quarter
of horse-power of boilers of particular design, that a doubt has arisen as to whether or not
this particular form of boiler should have been settled upon as the approved type for the
naval service. A series of evaporative and endurance tests have been made, and the more
carefully the question is investigated the more important does it appear in relation to the
operation of a modern navy.
The work of the British Boiler Commission will have a very important influence upon
naval construction, since it will cause thoughtful experts to give more attention to the
design, construction, installation, and operation of the boiler. One must have experience
in the operation of a modern marine boiler to appreciate the intelligence, skill, and care
that must be devoted to keeping it in a state of efficiency. The boilers are the lungs of a
vessel, although this fact is not generally understood. It was not many years ago when a
naval officer of high rank spoke of the boilers as "the steam tanks in the bottom of the
ship,” it being probably his impression that these tanks could be tapped like a gasometer,
and it was the fault of the fireman if the boiler output was not sufficient at all times.
The boiler problem has been unsolved. Without taking into consideration the ques-
tion of personnel, the value of the warships of the different naval Powers can be measured
by the efficiency and endurance of the steam generator installed in the vessel. This fact
may not be appreciated in its fullness at the present time, but the experience of the coming
five years with the ships nearing completion will conclusively show that in future naval
conflicts the question of victory may be quite as much dependent upon the battle of the
boilers as the contest between the guns.
With a deep appreciation of the necessity of soon settling upon an approved type of
marine boiler for the battleships and armoured cruisers of the United States Navy, the
295
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Bureau has invited competition among designers. It believes, however, that, if possible,
a boiler of American design should be adopted, and that this marine boiler should be a
development of one in general use on shore. By seeking a design that is familiar to thou-
sands of firemen on shore, an important military advantage would be secured, since in
time of emergency there could thus be recruited for the naval service water tenders and
firemen who had operated almost similar steam generators, and would therefore
require but little training to familiarize themselves with the duty on board ship. While
the navy can and ought to do some efficient work in training firemen, it would be very
advantageous to the service if the enlisted force in the stokeholds could have considerable
preliminary training with boilers of nearly like design to the one in most extensive use as
the approved type for the navy.
There is now being built, for the battleships in course of construction, water-tube
boilers of three distinct types. Practically four-sevenths of this boiler power will be of
the Babcock & Wilcox design, two-sevenths of the Niclausse, and one-seventh of the
Thornycroft. These types include the best of representative groups of water-tube boilers,
and a sufficient installation of each kind will be secured to test the efficiency and endurance
of the several designs.
About two years ago the Bureau was informed that another American boiler firm,
with considerable financial backing, desired to enter the field of marine-boiler construction.
In keeping with the Bureau's policy of inviting competition, encouragement was therefore
given the Oil City Boiler Works to design and build a marine boiler and turn it over to the
Bureau for test as to its evaporative efficiency and endurance, and they placed at the
disposal of the Bureau a boiler of the Hohenstein design, installed in an air-tight steel
house, approximating to one of the fire rooms of the cruiser Denver. All the limitations
and difficulties that were met with in the installation of the boilers of the cruiser Denver
were therefore designedly encountered in the installation of the experimental plant.
Information has been secured in regard to the best means of baffling the gases, thus
increasing the evaporative efficiency as well as permitting the boiler to be forced for emer-
gency purposes. Particular care has also been given by the Board to the investigation of
the circulation of the water, for probably the key to the boiler problem is the question of
circulation.
While only seventeen official tests were made with coal as fuel, there were a great
many unofficial experiments. Between the several official tests the experts of the Oil City
Boiler Works conferred with the Bureau, and therefore each test represents the result of
study and experiment. An examination of the data will conclusively show that in many
respects the completeness and character of the tests have never been surpassed.
The first six tests were run by a picked crew of firemen who had experience in torpedo-
boat work. It was believed that these men by training and experience were particularly
well fitted to operate the boiler when under severe forced-draught conditions. An experience
of a few weeks with this force showed that new methods in firing had to be employed in
efficiently operating water-tube boilers, and that the best means of securing efficient work
was to have skill and intelligence from those in charge of the fire room and implicit obedi-
ence upon the part of the subordinates. The remaining eleven tests were thus made by
firemen living in the city, not one of whom had ever before worked a boiler under forced-
draught conditions. The second set of firemen implicitly obeyed orders, and it was therefore
possible for the Board to have its instructions carried out. A uniform pressure of steam
was maintained, as well as a regularity in firing that was productive of good results.
The data secured can be regarded as reliable, for checks and counter-checks were used,
so that the Bureau could be placed in possession of information that could be relied upon
as to completeness and accuracy. As this same boiler is being used to carry on the extended
series of tests to determine the value of liquid fuel for naval purposes, it is proposed to
duplicate every one of the coal tests with oil as a combustible. The comparative informa-
tion thus obtained ought to afford valuable data as to the relative value of the two com-
bustibles.
296
APPENDIX
In view of the present condition of this experimental boiler after eighteen months of
use with both coal and oil as a combustible, considering the results secured, and by reason
of the following report submitted by the Board which conducted the series of tests, the
Bureau has no hesitation in regarding the boiler as the equal in efficiency and endurance
of any used in a foreign battleship.
Report of Board on Hohenstein Boiler Trials.
NAVY DEPARTMENT,
BUREAU OF STEAM ENGINEERING,
July 1, 1902.
SIR,―The Board appointed to conduct an extended series of tests to determine the
ift
•
2
3
4
5
6
Fig. 1.—ARRANGEMENT OF HOHENSTEIN EXPERIMENTAL BOILER FOR COAL BURNING TESTS
efficiency and adaptability of the Hohenstein marine boiler for naval purposes submits the
following report—
The boiler was built by the Oil City Boiler Works, of Oil City, Pa., in conformity with
the Bureau specifications for the cruiser Denver and class. The limitations as to weight,
height, and floor space in regard to the Denver's steam generators were therefore taken
into account in the construction of this boiler. A noteworthy feature of the boiler is the
297
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
arrangement of the tubes in pairs in such a way that each tube is free to expand independ-
ently of other tubes, thus effectually preventing longitudinal stresses. Fig. 1 shows a
longitudinal section of the boiler. The entire downflow takes place within tubes which
are located in a comparatively cool place, while there is invariably an upward trend to the
current in all tubes and headers exposed to the hot gases. It is therefore highly probable
that there are no reverse currents at any part of the water circuit, and the cross-section
areas of tubes and headers are equitably apportioned with a corresponding degree of
certainty. The feed water is introduced at the top of the down-take tubes, which is obvi-
ously the best possible place as regards influence on the circulation; at the same time the
head due to the velocity of the feed water is conserved by means of injector nozzles point-
ing in the direction of flow.
The following are the more important dimensions—
Boiler Data.
Drums at water-surface level: One front drum, 24 inches diameter (inside one rear drum, 24 inches
diameter; four connecting drums, 16 inches diameter.
One lower rear mud drum, 24 inches diameter.
Tube-heating surface: Three hundred and eighty-four 2-inch tubes 9 feet long; sixteen 4-inch tubes
7 feet long.
Fifteen down-take tubes 5 inches diameter.
Floor space occupied, 9 feet wide x 10 feet 11 inches deep.
Height above floor line, 12 feet & inch.
Height over all, 2 feet 62 inches.
Heating surface: 2,174 square feet for tests No. 1 to No. 6, inclusive; 2,130 square feet for tests No. 7
to No. 17 inclusive. Per cent water-heating surface, 100.
Grate surface: 50.14 square feet, 6 feet 4 inches long, 7 feet 11 inches wide.
Ratio of heating surface to grate surface: 43-4 to 1 for tests No. 1 to No. 6, inclusive; 42.5 to 1 for
tests No. 7 to No. 17, inclusive.
Volume of water at steaming level, 142 cubic feet.
Volume of steam space, 50 cubic feet.
Area of steam liberating surface, 75 square feet.
Weight of water at steaming level and 275 pounds pressure, 7,559 pounds.
Weight of boiler and fittings, excluding uptake and smoke pipe: Without water, 46,568 pounds; with
water, 54,127 pounds. Without water per square foot of heating surface, 21-4 pounds for tests No. 1 to No.
inclusive; 218 pounds for tests No. 7 to No. 17, inclusive. With water per square foot of heating surface,
24.9 pounds for tests No. 1 to No. 6, inclusive; 25.4 pounds for tests No. 7 to No. 17, inclusive. With water,
per square foot of grate surface, 1,080 pounds.
Height of furnace, 2 feet 5 inches.
Volume of furnace above bars, 121.14 cubic feet.
Width of air spaces between grate bars: Five-eighths inch for tests No. 1 to No. 11, inclusive; three-
fourths inch for tests No. 12 to No. 17, inclusive.
Ratio of grate area to area of air space: 13: §-1:0.555 for tests No. 1 to No. 11, inclusive; 12:31:0-60
for tests No. 12 to No. 17, inclusive.
Height of smoke pipe above grate, 70 feet.
Area of smoke pipe, 8.73 square feet.
Ratio of smoke-pipe area to grate area, 1:5.75.
Number of fire doors, 3.
The steel structure was built especially for these tests and has the following dimensions
-Floor space, 16 feet by 24 feet; height, 14 feet. The structure was air-tight, had an air-
lock for entrance and exit during forced draught trials, and seven windows that could be
opened during natural draught trials. Figure 3 shows the ground plan. The auxiliary
machinery, together with facilities for making observations, were, so far as possible, placed
in an adjoining lean-to wooden structure. The auxiliaries consisted of a Davidson suction
pump, two weighing tanks, one feed tank, a Snow high-pressure feed pump, a small
upright boiler with independent feed pump, and a direct-connected blowing engine and
fan. The fan had an impeller 72 inches in diameter and a discharge duct 20 inches by
42 inches, which led to the fire room and terminated in a box placed so as to direct the air
current toward the ceiling. The pipe connexions were such that steam for the auxiliaries
could be taken either from the small upright boiler or from the main boiler. The bottom
blow valve was blanked, but in plain sight, so that leakage from that source would be
particularly observed.
298
APPENDIX
Suction pump.
Feed pump
Donkey
boiler.
Feed
Yank
T
Feed
pump
Boiler
Raised
platform
(Weighing
hank
Stock
N
Suction pipe
Blow off pipe
E
Fan
13 Stop volve
Air lock.
Coal
Scales
S.
(Muffler
Fig. 3.-ARRANGEMENT OF HOHENSTEIN EXPERIMENTAL BOILER PLANT FOR COAL BURNING
TESTS.
The feed water was weighed in two tanks, each of 1,000 pounds capacity, resting on
1,500-pound tested scales, on a platform above the feed tank. The weight of each tank
was taken when filled, and the water was then allowed to flow into the feed tank as needed.
As soon as the weighing tank was emptied the weight was again taken and the time noted.
The feed tank was provided with a graduated water-level gauge. The height of water by
this gauge was noted at the moment of beginning the test, and at the end of each hour it
was again brought to the same level. The feed tank had a steam coil for heating the water,
wide variations in the temperature of which were easily avoided by keeping the water level
fairly constant. In most of the forced-draught trials the weighing tanks had to be filled,
weighed, and emptied with such rapidity, owing to their insufficient size, that the above
method of catching the weight at the end of each hour could not be used. The weighing
tanks were accordingly each fitted with a water-level gauge graduated to 5 pounds, by
the aid of which the weight within 5 pounds could be caught at any moment without inter-
fering with the rapid manipulation of the tanks. The temperature of the feed water was
taken at an elbow of the feed pipe between the pump and the boiler.
The several air-pressure gauges and two steam gauges were placed near each other on
the wall of the steel structure, on the opposite or fire-room side of which the necessary pipe
connexions were made.
The steam was blown off into the atmosphere, the pressure being controlled by a
hand-operated stop valve.
The coal was weighed in cans or bags, the method being to adjust each can or bag to a
uniform weight of 220 pounds, or 130 pounds while on the scales, and then keep tally of
the number passed into the fire room. Beginning with the seventh test, the coal account.
was balanced at the end of each hour by estimating and deducting the weight of coal lying
at the moment on the fire-room floor.
299
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
The ashes and refuse were weighed in sheet-metal cans as they accumulated, and the
weight of sweepings from tubes and baffles was ascertained for each test on the day follow-
ing the test.
A sample of coal for analysis and for the determination of moisture by weighing and
drying was taken from a box which had been gradually filled during the test by specimens
taken from each can or bag as weighed.
The following table gives the results of analyses of samples of each lot of coal, made by
the chemist at the New York Navy-yard--
Analyses of Fuel.
Pocahontas coal, run of mine.
New River coal,
run of mine.
Pocahontas coal,
hand picked and
screened.
1, 2, 3.
Fuel burned in boiler test No.-
4, 5, 6.
7, 8, 9.
10 to 17.
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS.
Per cent.
Fixed carbon
Volatile matter
Moisture
73.30
Per cent.
75.78
Per cent.
72.99
Per cent.
76.81
17.61
19.53
21.79
19.62
.49
.79
·49
-73
Ash
•
D
8.60
3.90
4.73
2.84
100
100
100
100
Sulphur, separately determined
.48
.71
.46
.82
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS.
Carbon
•
Hydrogen
Oxygen
•
•
Nitrogen
Sulphur
Ash
82.26
84.96
83.60
85.94
3.89
4.07
4.85
4.45
4.12
5.46
4.87
4.50
.64
·90
1.41
1.14
-49
.71
.46
.82
8.60
3.90
4.81
3.15
100
100
100
100
CALORIFIC VALUE (B.TH. U.'S PER POUND.)
Coal
Combustible
·
•
14,067
15,391
14,534
15,124
14,841
14,992
15,684
15,475
The quality of the steam was determined by means of a Barrus throttling calori-
meter, which drew steam from the main steam pipe at a point 8 inches from the boiler.
The sampling nozzle consisted of a half-inch pipe reaching nearly across the steam pipe
on a horizontal diameter and having four rows of perforations (top, bottom, and sides)
extending the length of the diameter of the inside of the steam pipe, save for one half-inch
at each end. An extra calorimeter was fitted and readings were taken from both.
The temperatures at the base of the stack and the samples of flue gas were taken above
the roof at a point about 5 feet from the nearest heating surface of the boiler, measured
along the path of flow of the gases. In the natural draught trials the temperatures were
taken with a mercury-nitrogen pyrometer, and attempts were made to do the same in the
forced-draught trials. Momentary flaming in the stack, however, caused so many breakages
of glass bulbs that reliance had finally to be placed on a Brown quick-reading pyrometer,
the readings of which were, however, checked as well as could be by the melting points of
zinc, aluminium, and copper.
The samples of flue gas were drawn by means of an aspirator improvised from two
half-gallon bottles. The sampling tube was one-half inch diameter and extended to the
centre of the stack, the inner end being nearly closed and the sides being perforated with
one-eighth-inch holes spaced 4 inches apart.
300
APPENDIX
The aspirator, charged with gas, was carried to a neighbouring building, where the
sample was analyzed by the aid of an Orsat apparatus.
The following determination was made of the actual weight of water contained in the
boiler at a temperature of 56°F. and at different gauge-glass readings, the correct steaming
level being at 1 inch---
0
1 inch
Height of water in gauge.
Total weight of
water.
Difference.
Area of water
level.
Pounds.
Pounds.
Sq. ft.
8,588
281
52.2
8,869
366
70.5
9,235
413
79.6
9,648
385
74.2
10,033
372
71.7
10,405
2 inches
3 inches
4 inches
5 inches
The feed water was always muddy, and especially so for the fourteenth and subsequent
tests. The water was drawn from the Potomac River through a suction pipe that ran
out to the end of a dock. When about to start the fourteenth test, a long reach of the
suction pipe was found frozen solid. To avoid postponing the test the pipe was quickly
rearranged so as to draw from a point farther in, where the water was only 3 or 4 feet deep
and very muddy.
The last test was to have been of three and one-half hours' duration, but it was brought
to a sudden close at 1.02 p.m. by the failure of the feed water. The outflowing tide had
exposed the end of the suction pipe, but before this became known the furnace doors were
thrown open and the fires hauled. It was several minutes before the blowing engine was
stopped, so that, in the meantime, the tubes were exposed to the blast of cold air from the
4 inches of air pressure. There was no appearance of leakage at this or any at other time
during the seventeen trials. In this connexion the construction of the plugs in the headers
opposite the tube ends is worthy of special remark. These plugs are of composition. There
Draught Preserve in inches of water.
3"
N39813
2
No IT
N°13
Trial N°9
No 16
No 14
N°15
Combustion o
chamber of
Above
-Tubes
Base
tubes
Fire room
Ash pit
below
nace
drums
Stack
Abscissas are roughly proportional to measurements along the path of gases.
Fig. 4. CURVES SHOWING VARIATION OF AIR PRESSURE WITHIN THE BOILER DURING CERTAIN
COAL BURNING TRIALS. SPOTS INDICATE POINTS WHERE MEASUREMENTS WERE MADE,
301
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
are two sizes, 23 inches and 4 inches in diameter with, respectively, 11
threads and
8 threads per inch. The material of the plugs, together with the use of a graphite lubricant
on the threads, makes it possible to remove and replace them without difficulty after any
length of service. Also, by virtue of the greater expansion coefficient of composition as
compared with steel, the plugs are tighter at steaming pressure than at ordinary tempera-
ture (70°F.) by 0·0026 inch and 0·0049 inch, respectively, for the 23-inch and 41-inch sizes.
Part of these plugs were made with tapering threads such as are inserted in the ordi-
nary screwed pipe joints and depend for tightness on the threads alone. The joints thus
formed were tight, but the plugs could be removed only with great difficulty. The others
had parallel threads and a narrow flange at the end. A "McKim " gasket, consisting of a
copper ring fitted with suitable packing material, was used under the flange to make a
tight joint. The plugs thus fitted were tight and could be easily removed or replaced
when desired. The same gasket could be used for an indefinite time. A good graphite
lubricant was used on all the threads of all the plugs.
By varying the connexions of the draught gauges during the early trials it was found
that the draught was seriously interfered with by the resistance of the uptake.
The uptake was accordingly increased in size for the later trials, with the result that
the boiler showed a greater capacity, the fireroom temperature was much lower, and there
was no further trouble, as there had been previously, with the burning of grate bars. The
variation of draught pressure within the boiler, together with the improvement that resulted
from the change just alluded to, is shown diagrammatically in fig. 4.
In the accompanying tables of the individual trials the "pounds of air per pound of
carbon" is calculated by the approximate formula—
11.55 (CO₂+0+ ½ CO)
CO₂+CO
2
which takes no account of the air consumed in burning hydrogen. In the table of sum-
maries the weight of dry gas per pound of carbon is calculated by the accurate formula as
there given.
The amount of smoke is designated in a rather crude manner by a scale in which
O stands for no smoke and 5 stands for very thick smoke.
The first six tests were run by a crew of firemen experienced in torpedo-boat work,
but the remaining 11 tests were made by firemen picked up around the wharves, not one
of whom had ever before fired a boiler under forced draft conditions.
Careful examination of the boiler after each of the tests showed no distortion of
the tubes, nor any damage to the boiler.
The notes that are recorded in connexion with the several tests will show the
severe work to which the boiler has been exposed. Under these several trials the boiler
shows no indication of injury whatever. Not a leak has developed and not a tube has
been bent. The tubes have frequently been examined, and they are clear of mud, show-
ing that a good circulation has been maintained.
The casing of the boiler has not proved satisfactory, the lining not being able to stand
the effect of strong forced draught. This has been probably due to the use of improper
non-conducting material. This defect is one which can be easily remedied by a more
liberal use of fire tile or fire-brick.
The front drum is only 24 inches in diameter. Although this boiler is so baffled that
it has given reasonably dry steam, and the design of the boiler is such that there is a much
greater water surface in the drums, and at least an equal weight of water to that used in
other water-tube boilers, yet the Board considers that for marine work, where the ship will
roll and pitch, and thus cause the water level to vary, the front drum should be increased
to about 42 inches in diameter.
With an improved casing and a larger front drum for the boiler, the series of experi
302
APPENDIX
ments conducted indicate that this boiler is a satisfactory steam generator for the naval
service. The Board therefore recommends that the Hohenstein boiler be given a place
on the very limited list of straight-tube water-tube boilers of American design that have
been found suitable for naval purposes.
(Signed),
JOHN R. EDWARDS, Lieutenant-Commander, U.S. Navy.
WYTHE M. PARKS, Lieutenant-Commander, U.S. Navy.
FRANK H. BAILEY, Lieutenant-Commander, U.S. Navy.
Rear-Admiral GEORGE W. MELVILLE, U.S. Navy, Chief of Bureau of Steam
Engineering.
303
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
1
Num-
ber of
trial.
Kind of fuel (P., Poca-
Duration
Date of
trial.
of trial
(hours).
hontas coal; N.R., New
River Coal; r.
m.,
of mine; h. p. s., hand
picked and screened).
1
2
3
4
Summary of Seventeen Tests of Hohenstein
run
State of weather.
5
1234
1891.
Apr. 23
Apr. 26
8
P., r.m.
Clear
•
30.02
6
do.
May 8
4
do.
May 29
8
do.
5 June 5
6
do.
Dull and overcast
do.
Squally
Bright and sunshiny
30.12
29.86
•
29.70
30.08
6
June 8 3 /1/1
-2
do.
7
Oct. 21
8
N. R., r.m.
do.
Clear
29.95
30.34
8
Oct. 23
6
do.
Cloudy
29.95
9
Oct. 26
4
do.
•
Smoky
30.25
10
Nov. 6
8
P., h.p.s.
Clear and damp
30-20
11
Nov. 9
do.
Cloudy, occasional sun
30.18
12
Nov. 18
6
do.
Grey and overcast
30.09
13
Nov. 27
4
do.
Thin clouds
30.23
•
14
Dec. 16
6
do.
Smoky, with thin clouds
30.13
15
Dec. 18
8
do.
do.
30.01
16
Dec. 21
4
do.
Smoky, no clouds
30.28
1892.
17
Jan.
11
3
do.
29.58
•
Approximate fire-room air pressure.
Number of trial.
External air (Deg. F.).
Air in fire room (Deg F.).
Average temperature.
Dark, fog and smoke
Chimney gases (Deg. F.).
Feed water entering boiler
(Deg. F.).
Steam at gauge pressure (7) from
steam tables (Deg F.).
Weight of wood used in starting
fires (pounds).
Weight of coal used in starting
fires (pounds).
(pounds).
Weight of coal used during test
8
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Fuel.
Total weight of fuel used (pounds),
(21)+(22) + (23),
Weight of ashes before beginning
test (pounds).
Weight of ashes
(pounds).
during test
12345
0
0
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
OI2O1QOHQOOI QION3
57.2 93.8
594
144
410.4 350
70.3
117.8
751
72.8 121.7 1,089
145.4
145.8
64.4 114
688
137
84.1
139.5
712
129.3
74.8
127.3
1,105
116.5
0
71.3 144
74.3 124
68
106.5
413.3 300
413.7 390
412.7 340
413.1 360
412.5 (?)
563 131.8 413.6 360
654 126.1 413.6 250
688
(?)
2,400 9,720 12,470 260
2,000 10,445 12,745 160
2,500 10,569 13,459 195
2,000 8,633 10,973 175
2,200 10,695 13,255 200
8,461 8,461 (?)
377
575
459
226
1,038
591
2,000
8,056 10,416 198
485
1,910
9,698 11,858 161
365
111.8 413.6 361
2,200
9,000 11,561 152
391
0
62.7
125
548
125.9 413.6 350
2,792
8,299
11,441 225
214
55.1
125.4
521
122.3 413.6 350
52
105
580
2
40.2 86
717
1
32.3 77
766
0
26
87
568
125
2
22
64
800
98.4
35.4
76.5
943
88
1,435
119.7 413.6 350 2,762
91.4 413.6 310 2,762
104.6 413.6 350 3,256
413.6 360 2,440 9,181
413.6 450 3,130 12,612
413.6 350 3,554 10,862
7,436 9,221
303
584
8,388
11,500 526
837
10,694
13,766 267
460
14,029
17,635 271
714
11,981 235
702
16,192 105
646
14,766
151
254
6
Height of
barometer
at noon.
304
APPENDIX
Weight of refuse from furnace,
tubes, baffles, etc. (pounds).
re-
Total weight of ashes and
fuse (pounds), (25)+(26)+(27).
Steam pres-
sure by gauge;
corrected for
water level,
pounds per
square inch.
Marine Water-tube Boiler, burning coal.
Average pressures.
Draft pressures, in inches of water.
Fire-room.
Ash pit.
Furnace.
Combustion
chamber.
Tube
chamber.
Above tubes
and below
drums.
7
8
9
1.0
11
12
13
14
15
263.9
0.0
-0.05
-0.52
0
272.9
1.08.
1.02
.65
250
274.6
2.06
2
·84
335
271.3
0.0
.04
-0.18
-0.20
--0.21
.24
0
272.5
1.06
1.02
.80
.62
·41
243
270.5
2.03
2
1.56
1.41
.22
375
273.5
0.0
.05
16
.12
•22
·50
0
273.5
1.07
273.5
2.10
12
.81
.72
•52
.46
243
1.43
1.25
1.08
.98
375
273.5
0.0
.05
15
.14
+
19
55
0
273.5
0.0
.05
09
.09
.11
.55
273.5
.99
.97
79
-69
.51
.55
240
273.5
2.10
2.00
1.58
1.18
.86
77
375
273.5
1.00
.57
-32
.06
-0.20
-59
243
273.5
0.00
•20
.20
.25
-38
.51
0
273.5
2.00
1.41
.93
•24
.07
.64
332
Fuel.
273.5
3.00
2.16
1.44
.82
.10
.55
423
Percentage of ashes and refuse,
(28)÷(24) × 100.
Weight of ashes and refuse from
coal used during test (pounds),
(23) × (29)÷÷100.
drying
and
Percentage of moisture in coal
sample; †by chemical analysis).
(* by weighing
Weight of moisture in coal used
during test (pounds) (23) × (31)
÷100.
Weight of dry coal burned during
test (pounds), (23)—(32).
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Weight of
combustible burned
during test (pounds), (33)—(30).
Quality of steam.
640 1,277
550 1,285
10.24 995
*0.50
49
9,761
8,676
0-980
2
815
1,469
10.08 1,053
10.91 1,153
* .50
52
10,393
9,340 .968
3.2
* .50
53
10,516
9,363
·989
1.1
549
950
539
1,777
8.66
13.40 1,432
747
† 79
68
8,565
7,818
·990
1
† 79
85
10,610 9,178
.988
1.2
626
1,217
14.37
1,216
•
† 79
67
8,394
7,178
·990
1
561 1,244
11.95
963
*3.14
253
7,803
840
.986
1.4
528
1,054
8.89
862
*3.14
304
9,394
8,532
.976
2.4
732
1,275
11.03
993
*3.14
283
8,717
7,724
.980
2
526
965
8.44
700
*2.04
169
8,130
7,430
.988
1.2
356
1,243
13.48
1,003
*1.15
85
7,351
6,348
.987
1.3
562
1,925
16.75
1,405
*1.59
134
8,254
6,849
.983
1.7
936 1,663
12.08
1,292
*1
107
10,587
9,295 .979
2.1
923 1,908
10.82
1,518
† 73
102
13,927
12,409 .980
2
576 1,513
12.63
1,160
† 73
67
9,114
7,954
.985
1.5
895 1,646
10.18
1,285
† 73
92
12,520
11,235
.978
2.2
1,355 1,760
11.92
1,295
† 73
•
79
10,783
9,488
.974
2.6
Steam.
Percentage of moisture in steam,
100–100 × (35).
Base of
stack.
Revolutions
of blower
per minute.
305
X
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
1
8
Number of trial.
Approximate
fire-room
pressure.
air-
Carbonic acid, CO₂ (per
cent.).
Chimney-gas analysis.
Number of trial.
Approximate fire-room air pres-
sure.
Total weight of water fed
to boiler (pounds), (cor-
rected or inequality of
water level and steam
pressure at beginning
and end of test).
Equivalent
weight
of
dry steam
water evaporated into
(37) × (35).
(pounds),
evaporation
(H—h)÷965'7.
of
Factor
Water.
Summary of Seventeen Tests of Hohenstein
Economic results.
1
8
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
Equivalent
weight
of
dry steam from and at
212°F. (pounds), (38) ×
(39).
water evaporated into
coal as fired (pounds),
(37)÷(23).
Feed water per pound of
123456
76,016
74,455
1.134
84,430
7.82
8.69
8.73
9.74
1
86,673
81,260
1.133
92,060
8.30
8.81
8.86
9.86
2
79,803
78,700
1.133
89,170
7.55
8.44
8.48
9.52
77,953
77,120
1.142
88,070
9.03
10-20
10.28
11.26
1
92,458
91,300
1.150
104,740
8.65
9.79
9.87
11.41
2
60,539
59,800
1.163
69,540
7.15
8.22
8.28
9.69
7
68,415
67,450
1.147
77,360
8.50
9.60
9.91
11.30
8
1
80,747
78,800
1.153
90,950
8.33
9.38
9.68
10.66
6
2
71,644
70,200
1.169
82,070
7.96
9.12
9.42
10.63
10
70,148
69,300
1.154
79,980
8.45
9.64
9.84
10.76
11
12
13
14
65,430
64,570
1.157
74,710
8.80
10.05
10.16
11.77
70,273
69,070
1.159
80,060
8.38
9.55
9.70
11.69
15
16
17
21023
86,194
84,370 1.189
100,320
8.06
9.38
9.48
10.79
108,763
106,580
1.176
125,350
7.75
8.94
9.00
10.10
81,018
79,790
1.155
92,160
8.82
10.04
10.11
11.59
92,423
90,390
1.182
106,840
7.33
8.47
8.53
9.52
77,857
75,820
1.193
90,450
7.17
8.33
8.39
9.53
Oxygen, O (per cent).
Carbonic oxide, CO (per
cent.).
difference.)
Nitrogen, N (per cent. by
Pounds of dry gas per pound
of carbon [11 (56) +8 (57)+7
(58)+7(59)]÷[3 (56) +3 (58)].
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
5
6
6
8
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
01201 QOT2001QION3
123+
9.85
6.85
1.67
81.63
21.5
9,4 00
9.46
6.50
1.96
82.08
21.7
9,520
12.42
4.85
1
81.73
18.7
9,190
778
486
2,320
505
2,970
566
3,930
11.08
4.75
2.19
81.98
18.8
10,870
11
492
2,290
10.35
5.03
2.20
82.42
19.8
11,020
12
487
2,400
13.77
3.73
.93
81.57
17.2
9,360
14
564
3,570
9.26
6.48
1.52
82.74
23
10,910
43
555
2,050
8.87
6.94
1.59
82.60
23.6
10,290
44
584
2,650
9.20
6.40
1.70
82.70
23.7
10,260
46
600
2,800
8.89
10,390
27
501
8
11,360
16
496
7.15
11,290
24
516
8.64
10,410
15
551
8.10
9,750
11
565
7.90
11.4
.90
79.80
28.1
11,190
11
521
2,740
8.90
6
1.10
81
24.8
9,190
11
577
3,880
9.70
9.1
09.
80-60
23.8
9,200
12
600
4,380
Heat absorbed by the
boiler (B. Th U.'s), (44)
× 965·7.
Heat balance
heating value
or
distribution of the
of the combustible.
Loss due to moisture in
coal (B. Th. U.'s).
Loss due to the moisture
formed by the burning
of hydrogen (B. Th. U.'s).
Loss due to heat carried
away in the dry chimney
gases (B. Th. U.'s).
Equivalent
evaporation
from and at 212°F. per
pound of coal as fired
(pounds), (40)÷÷(23).
Equivalent
evaporation
from and at 212°F. per
pound of
dry
coal
(pounds), (40)÷(33).
Equivalent
evaporation
from and at 212°F. per
pound of combustible
(pounds), (40)÷(34).
306
APPENDIX
65
Loss due to the incom-
plete combustion of car-
bon (B. Th. U.'s).
99
Loss due to unconsumed
hydrogen, etc., to heat-
ing moisture in air, to
radiation, etc. (B.T.U'.s).
Heat value of one pound
of combustible calcu-
chemical
from
lated
(B. Th. U.'s).
ultimate
analysis
Coal as fired per
hour
(pounds) (23)÷÷(3).
Dry coal per hour (pounds),
(33)÷(3).
Marine Boiler, December 21, 1901.—Continued.
Fuel per hour.
Combustible
per
hour
pounds), (34)÷(3).
Coal as fired
per hour
per
square foot of
grate
(pounds), (45) -:-50·14.
Dry coal per hour per
square
foot
of
grate
(pounds), (46)÷÷50·14.
Combustible per hour per
square foot of
grate
(pounds), (47)÷÷50·14.
water
per
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
hour
(pounds), (37)÷(3).
Feed
for quality of steam
(pounds), (38) ÷ (3).
Water per hour corrected
1,215 1,209 1,085
24.2
24.1
21.6
9,502
9,307
10,554
210
4.85
1,741 1,732
1,557
34.7
34.5
31
14,446
13,543
15,343
306
7.05
2,642 2,629 2,341
52.6
52.4
46.7
19,951
19,675
22,292
445
10.25
1,079 1,071
977
21.5
21.3
19.5
9,744
9,640
11,009
219
5.06
1,782
1,769
1,530
35.5
35.2
30.5
15,410
15,180
17,457
348
8.03
2,417
2,398
2,051
48.2
47.8
40.8
17,297
17,086
19,869
396
9.14
1,007
975
855
20.1
19.4
17
8,552
8,431
9,670
193
4.53
1,616 1,566
1,422
32.2
31.2
28.3
13,458
13,133
15,158
302
7.11
2,250
2,179
1,931
44.8
43.4
38.4
17,911
17,554
20,518
411
9.64
1,037
1,016
929
20.7
20.2
18.5
8,769
8,663
9,998
199
4.69
930
919
794
18.5
18.3
15.8
8,179
8,071
9,339
186
4.38
1,398 1,376
1,142 27.8
27.4
22.7
11,712
11,512
13,343
266
6.26
2,674 2,647
2,324
53.4
52.8
46.2
21,549
21,092
25,080
500
11.77
2,338 2,321
2,068
46.6
46.3
41.2
18,127
17,763
20,892
417
9.81
1,148 1,139
994
22.9
22.7
19.8
10,127
9,974 11,520
229
5.40
3,153 3,130
2,809
62.9
62.4
56
23,106
22,598
26,710 533
12.54
3,621
3,594
3,163
72.2
71.7
63.1
25,952
25,273
30,150
602
14.15
Heat balance or distribution of the heating value of the combustible.
Heat absorbed by boiler
(per cent.).
Loss due to moisture in
coal (per cent.).
Loss
due
to moisture
formed by the burning
of hydrogen (per cent).
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
1,325
1,853
15,391
61
0.1
3.2
15.1
8.6
12
61
60
1,571
818
15,391
61.8
•
· 1
3.3
19.3
10.2
5.3
61.8
60.8
682
1,015
15,391
59.7
· 1
3.7
25.5
4.4
6.6
59.7
58-2
1,388
73
15,124
71.8
· 1
3.3
15.1
9.2
.5
71.8
68.3
1,569
-364
15,124
72.8
· 1
3.2
15.9
10.4
-2.4
72.8
65.6
567
1,049
15,124
62
·1
3.7
23.6
3.7
6.9
61.9
55
1,265
861
15,684
69.5
.3
3.5
13.1
8.1
5.5
69.6
64.4
1,362
754
15,684
65.6
.3
3.7
16.9
8.7
4.8
65.6
63
1,398
580
15,684
65.5
·3
3.8
17.8
8.9
3.7
65.4
61.3
15,475
67.1
3.2
67.1
63.3
15,475
73.4
3.2
73.4
65.4
15,475
72.9
3.3
73
62.4
15,475
67.2
3.6
67.2
61
15,475
63
3.7
63
57.9
908
105
15,475
72.2
1
3.4
17.7
5.9
.7
72.3
65
989
828
15,475
59.4
•
· 1
3.7
25.1
6.4
5.3
59.4
54.9
519
764
15,475
59.4
1
3.9
28.3
3.4
4.9
59.4
54
Loss due to heat carried
away in the dry chim-
ney gases (per cent.).
Loss due to incomplete
combustion of carbon
(per cent).
Other losses due to radia-
tion, etc. (per cent. by
difference).
Of boiler (per cent.), (61)
÷(67) × 100.
Efficiency.
965.7
Of boiler and furnace (per
cent.)
(43)÷-
B. Th. U.'s per pound
of dry coal × 100.
Water per hour.
from and at 212°F. per
hour(pounds),(40)÷(3).
Equivalent evaporation
Equivalent
and at
evaporation
212°F.
square
foot of grate (pounds),
per hour per
(53)÷50·14.
Equivalent
evaporation
from and at 212°F. per
hour per square foot of
heating surface (pounds)
(53) ÷-heating surface.
307
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Liquid Fuel for Naval Purposes.
The use of crude oil as a combustible for marine purposes has probably increased to
a greater extent during the past two years than during the previous century. This has
been due to several causes. The character of the oil lately discovered throughout the world
is particularly applicable for use as a fuel. The oil fields are likewise near tide water, and
therefore it is possible to construct pipe lines to the sea and deliver the product on board
the tank steamers at comparatively slight cost. There is also good reason for believing
that the wells are not likely to be soon exhausted and that an ample supply can be assured
for an increased demand of the future.
It is evident that there is a very strong desire and purpose upon the part of many
shipowners to substitute oil for coal. The thermal, mechanical, and commercial advantages
that would result from a change are so well known that it is unnecessary to recount them.
Nearly every reason that can be advanced for using oil as a fuel in the mercantile marine
is also applicable to the Navy. In the case of warships, however, there are also military
benefits to be secured that are as important as the commercial and mechanical
advantages.
Any fuel installation which will obviate the smoke nuisance, reduce the complement
in the fire room, extend the steaming radius of the war vessels, and permit maximum speed
to be obtained at shorter notice, increases the efficiency and value of the fighting ship.
The numerous experiments that have been made by several naval powers during the
past forty years in the attempt to use oil as a fuel show how important this question is
regarded by military experts. It is now plain why success was not attained. There was
too much effort exerted to burn oil in the same manner as coal. It is now realized that
the oil should be atomized (it is impossible completely to gasefy it) before ignition, and that
the length of the furnace, the volume of the combustion chamber, and the calorimetric area
are factors which must be considered. In fact, it is highly probable that it may be found
advisable to design a special boiler for burning oil.
As more time, talent, and money are now being devoted to the solution of the problem,
the hope of securing success has been greatly strengthened. Many unreliable statements
have been published as to the success secured, but careful investigation shows that they
were inspired by interested parties. It can be well understood that it is exceedingly difficult
to secure reliable data at the present time. The several shipowners, manufacturers, and
inventors are not inclined to tell of their disappointments, reverses, or failures. Those
who have attained success as a result of experiment and experience do not feel called upon
to give the world information that has been obtained at considerable cost and trouble.
In view, therefore, of the trifling amount of reliable data extant, the Bureau has pro-
jected an extended series of tests to determine the value of liquid fuel for naval purposes.
These experiments commenced a few months ago. Taking into consideration the inevit-
able delay that must result from the installation of various burners, and recognizing the
fact that competitors expect and should be permitted to make preliminary trials, it can be
stated that the experiments have been conducted with considerable rapidity. It takes
about one week to instal a new burner, make preliminary tests, and conduct two official
trials.
It is expected that each competitor will carefully study the detailed drawings fur-
nished him of the experimental plant, and therefore be prepared to fit his appliance and be
ready for a preliminary trial in two days from the time the plant is placed at his disposal.
The problem of using liquid fuel for naval purposes is quite distinct from the problem of
its use in the mercantile marine, although the conditions on passenger and freight ships.
approximate very closely in some respects to service requirements. For ships of war the
problem can therefore be solved only by the Department making its own tests and experi-
ments. The performances, however, of the merchant ships having oil-fuel installations.
have been carefully observed. The owners of the steamers J. M. Guffey, Paraguay,
City of Everett, and Mariposa, having permitted the Bureau to report upon the oil-fuel
308
APPENDIX
installations of those vessels, a careful and extended investigation as to the character of
each of their plants has been made.
The more this question is investigated the more intricate seems the problem of success-
fully installing an oil-fuel appliance on board a battle ship. It ought to be successfully
used on the torpedo boats, as well as upon auxiliary naval vessels that steam between
regular ports. For the army transport service it might prove very desirable, since a
supply of oil could be maintained at the several calling ports. In regard to the installation
on the large-powered battle ships and armoured cruisers, there are three distinct features
which must be considered, viz: the mechanical, the commercial, and the structural. Re-
garded from two of these viewpoints, it seems as if it would be some time before coaling
ship ceases to be an evolution upon the war vessel. While both the naval and mercan-
tile vessels traverse the ocean, there is a wide difference in their construction as well as in
the nature of the duty performed, and this must be taken into account in designing the
motive plant.
""
66
In the investigation of the subject of using liquid fuel for naval purposes, it will be
necessary to give due weight to the various features that will influence, if not determine
the solution of the problem. The question, therefore, comprises the following divisions :-
First. The engineering or mechanical feature.
This relates to the efficient and economical burning of oil, and to the possibilities of
increasing the consumption at short notice, so that maximum power can be readily and
easily obtained. From the time the mechanical experts realized that the efficient, econ-
omical, and rapid burning of liquid fuel was greatly dependent upon the success secured
in atomizing the oil, there was rapid development. It was only a few years ago when the
oil was simply thrown into the furnace by means of an injector. When that method was
used the evaporation was dependent to a great extent upon the amount of incandescent
surface that could be secured to ignite the fuel. It has only been within the last three
years that the exceeding importance of atomizing the oil has been recognized.¹
It may therefore be affirmed that the efficiency of the burner is simply proportionate
to its power to atomize the oil and then to burn these minute particles of oil into
a mixture of combustible gas and fine particles of carbon, so that complete
combustion, as well as ability to force the consumption of the oil, can be secured.
There are many burners which can atomize the oil quite satisfactorily, and, as constant and
progressive improvement is being made in this direction, the engineering and mechanical
problem is nearing solution. The heating of the oil, as well as the heating of the air
required for combustion, must be provided for, and extended experiments should be made
to determine the simplest and the cheapest methods of attaining these objects.
The necessity for heating the air requisite for combustion should be impressed upon all
contemplating the use of liquid fuel as a combustible. It would be best to force the passage
of this air over heated surfaces either by forced or induced draft, but as this might involve
considerable expenditure for installation, it is possible that simpler means might be effec-
tual. The Bureau hopes before these experiments are concluded to make a special series
of tests showing the evaporative efficiency secured when admitting the air to the furnace at
different degrees of temperature.
The mechanical method of introducing the oil was so inefficient in the past that even
experts were not able to burn the amount of oil desired. It has always been possible to
burn some oil and to secure nearly the full thermal efficiency of the combustible. The
great difficulty in the past was due to the fact that no one seemed to know how to burn
enough oil and yet have it under control. There is therefore no record that, previous to
two years ago, any boiler ever evaporated the amount of water with oil as a combustible
that was secured under forced-draught conditions with coal as a fuel. Stated in another way,
the boiler could not be forced with oil to the same extent as with coal. The experiments
conducted by the liquid fuel board have shown that it is now possible to force the com-
bustion of oil, and that the greatest evaporation per square foot of heating surface secured
1 This is not true of English practice, which has atomized for many years with the best results.-AUTHOR.
309
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
with coal can be greatly exceeded by an oil-fuel installation of modern design where pro-
vision has been made for atomizing the combustible and heating the air and oil. Continued
experiments should therefore be conducted under Government supervision.
Second. The commercial feature.
This relates to the question of cost and supply. It may be regarded as a certainty that,
except where unusual conditions prevail, the cost of oil for marine purposes will generally
be greater than that of coal. The cost is even now less for vessels departing from the Gulf
and California sea ports, but the rule will hold elsewhere. While the question of cost
should be of secondary importance in military matters, it must be taken into consideration
in industrial matters. It is the expense of transportation that now prevents the oil from
being a cheap combustible for marine purposes, but this disadvantage ought to be soon
removed. While it may be put on the tank steamer very cheaply at ports like Point Sabine,
its commercial value will be determined by the cost of delivery at commercial and maritime
centres. This feature of the problem is beyond the ability of the Navy to control, but it
must be regarded as an important phase of the subject.
In considering the matter of cost, the fact should be remembered, however, that but
comparatively few tank steamers are carrying oil between Point Sabine and the North
Atlantic seaports. The expense of fitting up these vessels has been very heavy, due to
the fact that unexpected difficulties developed in the cost of making the installations.
This has compelled the owners of the oil steamers to charge comparatively high prices
for transportation of the fuel. It can certainly be expected that when a large fleet
of vessels are used for carrying oil and when terminal storage facilities are provided, there
will be a material decrease in the price of oil in the leading cities on the coast. This is
a very important commercial phase of the question, and should be carefully considered
in determining the probable relative value of the two combustibles in the early future.
It is undoubtedly a fact that the transportation charges per mile for oil at the present
time are excessive compared with the freightage for coal, and this incongruity of expense
account against oil cannot continue much longer.
As regards the question of supply, it may be more expensive if not difficult to trans-
port and to store oil than coal. The fumes of all petroleum compounds have great search-
ing qualities, and therefore extreme precaution will have to be taken to guard the
storage tanks.
If it be true that for military purposes it is best in time of war
to keep all reserve fuel afloat, then liquid fuel is at a disadvantage in this respect.
The mining and railroad companies have invested so heavily in the coal industry, and the
transportation facilities have been so perfected, that it is now possible quickly to deliver
a cargo of coal at any point in the world. There has been, likewise, a development in the
method of loading and unloading cargoes of coal. Since it will require progressive develop-
ment to perfect the transportation and the storage of oil, and as the world's supply is still
an unknown quantity, it will be some time before there may be a reserve supply of oil at
the principal seaports.
It must also be remembered, when considering the problem of supply, that the naval
vessel must be kept in readiness for orders to proceed at any time to any port within her
steaming radius. The merchant vessel steams between regular seaports, where it would not
be difficult to induce merchants to keep a supply of oil as soon as there is a regular and con-
stant demand for it. The question of supply for battle ships and cruisers may therefore
not only be a commercial affair, but prove to be a military problem, since the oil require-
ments of naval vessel for service conditions might only be met by the Government estab-
lishing oil-fuel stations. The military aspect of the question may prove to be a serious
problem, since it not only necessitates heavy expenditures, but it may involve the greater
question as to the wisdom of maintaining a complete chain of fuel stations between country
and colony.
Third. While the engineer may be most interested in the mechanical features and the
shipowners in the commercial aspect, the constructor will meet with difficulties in solving
the structural problem relating to the installation of oil fuel on board ship.
310
APPENDIX
The structural feature of the battle ship may prove a serious detriment to the instal-
lation of an oil-fuel appliance. The problem of storing oil on board war ships which possess
protective decks is much more complex than the problem of its storage in vessels of the
merchant marine. Everything on board the battleship is subordinated to making the
vessel a gun platform. There are many more compartments in the war vessel than in the
merchant ship.
In all probability the great bulk of the oil in the war ship would have to be kept
in the double bottoms. As the petroleum vapours are quite heavy, it may
be a difficult matter to free these compartments of explosive gases, especially when
the compartments are partly empty. By reason of the great number of electrical appliances
in use on board the war ship, thousands of sparks are likely to be caused, any one of which
might cause an explosion and set the oil fuel on fire. Our limited experience with sub-
marine boats may give us an object lesson as to the liability of hydrocarbon gases to ex-
plode.
In the merchant service the oil is often stored in expansion tanks or trunks which
rise to the height of the deck, and on some of the vessels there is a cofferdam around these
tanks so that any leakage of oil can be quickly discovered. It is also a comparatively easy
matter to free such tanks of any dangerous gases that may accumulate. Inspection
of the tanks at all times can also be readily accomplished.
In view, therefore, of the more difficult conditions under which the oil will have to be
carried in the naval service, the structural features are certain to have an important
bearing upon the question as to whether or not an oil installation is possible in large ships
of war.
The Bureau is not inclined to be pessimistic in regard to the successful solution of the
problem. It believes that it is expedient frankly to state the difficulties that are likely to
be encountered, so that every means can be considered for overcoming them.
The Bureau has no hesitation, however, in declaring that in view of the results already
secured by the liquid-fuel board, an installation should be effected without delay on at least
a third of the torpedo boats and destroyers. The junior officers of the service are very
much interested in the matter, and if several boats are equipped entirely with oil-fuel
appliances, a spirited and keen but friendly rivalry will be created which will result in a
material increase in the efficiency of the torpedo-boat flotilla. Such an installation would
also permit a competition to be established between the boats using coal and those using
oil, and this would be another incentive to cause systematic and careful study of the sub-
ject upon the part of all connected with the torpedo fleet.
The data which have been secured by the liquid-fuel board will be exceedingly appre-
ciated in maritime and industrial circles. A careful analysis of these data will show how
complete they are and how carefully they have been collected. Although the experi-
ments have only been in progress for a short time, practically every engineering principle
that enters into the oil-fuel question has been touched upon by the board. The tests have
been of such a diversified nature, and so many deductions can be made, that other experi-
menters will now be enabled to ascertain in what direction research should be carried
on to secure further definite information.
The completeness and character of the experimental plant has probably never been.
surpassed, and it is due to this fact that the data collected will command attention in the
engineering world.
While the information secured may not hasten the introduction of oil as a fuel in
armoured cruisers and battle ships, it will materially increase oil-fuel installation in ships.
of the merchant marine and in shore establishments.
It is the engineering or mechanical feature which is of commanding importance in the
industrial or mercantile marine world. The structural disadvantages which are so serious
as regards naval development will only be encountered in a less degree in ships of the mer-
cantile marine.
The structural disadvantages that may prove so serious in the Navy will not be
311
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
encountered in the installation of liquid fuel appliances in shore establishments. The in-
suring of a reserve supply of the fuel ought also to be a less serious problem for industrial
plants. It should therefore be understood that the naval problem is distinct unto itself,
and that while the experiments so far conducted show that an installation on a battle ship
is a serious question, the tests also prove that for manufacturing purposes crude petroleum
is in many respects an incomparable fuel.
The data collected during the official oil tests should be compared with the results
secured under the same boiler when coal was used. The evaporation efficiency, as well as
the ability to force the boiler with two kinds of fuel, can thus be compared and the engineer-
ing advance that has been made of late can best be appreciated. It will be mainly by reason
of the fact that this comparative data is obtainable that important conclusions can be
drawn from the information already secured.
The Bureau submits a copy of the report of Lieut. Ward P. Winchell as to the per-
formance of the steamer Mariposa when using oil exclusively under her boilers in making
the round trip between San Francisco and Tahiti.
The Bureau also submits a copy of the preliminary report of the liquid-fuel board.
(Appendix No. 3).
312
Appendix No. 2
The Voyage of s.s. "Mariposa," using an oil-fuel Installation exclusively under her Boilers.
The following is a description of the steamer Mariposa, of the Oceanic Steamship
Company, as fitted for oil-fuel burning, with an account of the preliminary trial trips of the
vessel as witnesssed by Commander H. N. Stevenson, United States Navy; also the report
of Lieut. Ward P. Winchell, U.S. Navy, who officially represented the Department on
the round trip of the steamer between San Francisco and Tahiti.
The Mariposa is a single-screw iron steamer, built at the yard of William Cramp &
Sons, Philadelphia, Pa., in 1883. She has just had new engines and boilers installed by the
Risdon Iron Works, San Francisco, Cal. The oil-burning plant has just been installed by
the same company.
This vessel has been employed in the Pacific trade, and is now running to Tahiti from
San Francisco, making the round-trip voyage of 7,320 knots each month.
Gross tonnage
Description of the
66
Mariposa."
Length between perpendiculars
Beam
Mean draft
•
Depth of hold
•
•
•
feet
3,160
314
41
22
""
173
•
""
There is a single bottom with four watertight athwartship bulkheads, and two masts,
square rigged on the foremast.
The total crew was formerly 81, but since the change from coal to oil, 16 men have been
taken out of the engineer's force, reducing the crew to 65 men and making the engineer's
force for oil burning 20 men, as follows: 1 chief engineer, 3 assistant engineers, 3 oilers,
1 electrician, 1 attendant for ice machine, 1 attendant for air compressor, 3 water tenders,
6 firemen, 1 storekeeper; total, 20.
THE ENGINES AND BOILERS.
There is one triple-expansion engine of the inverted direct-acting type, with cylinders
29 inches, 47 inches, and 78 inches by 51-inch stroke, designed for 2,500 indicated horse-
power, fitted with piston valves on the high pressure and intermediate pressure,
and slide valves on the low-pressure cylinders, all driven by link motion. The con-
denser is part of the back framing. The cylinders are not jacketed.
The air, feed, and bilge pumps, of which there are two sets, are driven from the forward
and after crossheads. The centrifugal circulating pump is driven by a separate engine.
The 4-bladed propeller is 16 feet 6 inches diameter and has a pitch of 23 feet.
There are three cylindrical tank boilers placed fore and aft in the line of the ship-
313
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
two are double ended 15 feet 3 inches diameter by 17 feet 3 inches long, and one single ended,
14 feet diameter by 9 feet 9 inches long, the latter placed amidships forward of and worked
from the forward fire room. Each double-ended boiler has six corrugated furnaces;
the double-ended boilers have a common combustion chamber for opposite furnaces, while
the single-ended one has a common combustion chamber for its three furnaces. There
is one smokestack for all the boilers. The combustion chambers of the double-ended boilers
have a brick bridge wall, and the back sheet of the single-ended one is covered with fire-
brick. The decision to use oil in place of coal was not made until the changes in engines and
boilers were well under way, and it was decided to put the ship on the route to Tahiti.
The steam pressure is 180 pounds. There is one auxiliary boiler, two-furnace return-tube
type, in upper fire-room hatch, and fitted to burn coal only.
THE OIL TANKS.
These were constructed out of the old coal-bunker space forward of the boilers, and as
the steamer is intended to carry oil for the round trip of about 7,320 miles some additional
space had to be taken from the fore hold. They are arranged as follows: Just forward
of the boiler space a solid water-tight bulkhead, well braced, was built from the berth deck
to the single bottom of the ship, extending to the single skin of the ship, from side to side;
4 feet, or two frame spaces, forward of this was also built another similar solid bulkhead,
which formed the after ends of the oil tanks; 48 feet farther forward another similar solid
bulkhead was built to form the forward ends of the oil tanks, and 4 feet forward of this
another solid bulkhead. The spaces of 4 feet at each end of the tanks being a cofferdam
space to catch any oil from leakage or accident, these cofferdam spaces can be filled with
water if necessary. The tank space is divided into six tanks by a middle bulkhead and two
side partitions. Splash plates to break the impact of rolling are placed in each tank, a
small opening at the top allowing any accumulation of gas to pass off to ventilating trunk.
Small openings at the bottom allow free communication for the oil. Along the top of
the tanks is provided an expansion head or trunk, being 4 feet high and 4 feet wide.
Over each a ventilating trunk connecting with the top of each tank extends up to about
5 feet above the hurricane deck. The cofferdam spaces are ventilated by tubes reaching
to the upper deck, fitted with cowls, one tube reaching to near the bottom to carry off
any heavy gas that might accumulate there. From the upper deck the sounding pipes.
to each tank are reached. There are no pipes in or through the tanks except those con-
nected with the oil service. The total capacity of the tanks, exclusive of expansion trunk,
is 6,338 barrels of oil-about 905 43 tons. One barrel of oil equals 42 gallons of 231 cubic
inches or 35 Imperial gallons.
2
To fill the tanks, on the port side outside the ship a 6-inch hose connexion is fitted ;
from this a pipe leads to the forward fire room where the tank oil pump is placed. This
pump, horizontal duplex, steam cylinders, 9 inches, oil cylinders 8½ inches, stroke 10 inches,
can be used to draw its supply from the pipe and deliver into each of the tanks, or by
using by-passes, which are provided, the oil barge alongside can fill all the tanks; an over-
flow pipe from each tank, carried at height of the deck above them, leads to an over-
flow outside the ship near the supply-hose coupling.
There are two service or settling tanks placed in pockets formed on either side of the
single-ended boiler. They are reached by doors from the forward fire room; each of
these tanks holds about twelve hours' supply. They are filled by the oil-tank pump and
have overflows back to the main tanks, ventilating tubes lead from near the bottom of
the pockets in which they are placed to the smoke stack.
Each service tank is provided with glass gauges, by means of which the amount used
every hour or watch can be easily measured.
All the
Each settling tank has two suction pipes, one at bottom to draw off water if necessary,
the other at a height of about two feet for the oil supply to the service pumps.
tanks are provided with manholes to reach the interior.
314
APPENDIX
THE OIL-SERVICE PUMPS.
The oil-service pumps, of which there are two, horizontal duplex, steam cylinders
6 inches, oil cylinders 4 inches, and stroke of 6 inches, one being large enough to supply all
the burners, are placed in the forward fire room on either side. They draw their supply
from the settling or receiving tank through removable strainers so placed that they can be
easily changed for cleaning, and discharge into the bottom of the small heating tank near
them where the oil is heated by a steam coil to not more than 150°F., and thence by a pipe
to the burners. The air from the compressors, under a pressure limited to 40 pounds,
discharges into the top of the heater tank on its way to the burners, so that the oil and the
air go to the burners under the same pressure. The heater tank is provided with glass
gauges, also a float to work a telltale and automatic control of oil-supply pump.
THE AIR COMPRESSOR.
The air compressor is placed in a pocket off the upper engine-room platform, and
consists of duplicate steam and air cylinders connected to a crank shaft carrying a fly
wheel turning between the cylinders. Either set is large enough to supply all the air
necessary. The air compressor is horizontal, double acting, duplex. Air cylinders 22
inches, steam cylinders 12 inches, diameter, by 18-inch stroke for all cylinders. Capacity
equals 1,000 cubic feet of free air per minute compressed up to 30 pounds at 120 revolu-
tions per minute. Air is used at the heat of compression, or as heated by the air heater.
THE ATOMIZER.
The atomizer, shown in fig. 5, consists of a hollow plunger for the oil, screwed into a
pipe through which the air passes. The outlet for the oil is through a series of small
أسيساً
ฝ่
OIL
5
AIR
AIR
Fig. 5.-THE GRUNDELL-TUCKER BURNER USED ON STEAMSHIP
.
CC
MARIPOSA."
315
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
holes at right angles to the central hole, the air meets the oil through spiral directors and
is sprayed into a rose shape by the expanded end of the atomizer.
The air and oil pipes have globe valves to regulate the supply of either, also plug
cocks connected together to a handle by means of which each burner can be shut off
immediately, in case of necessity, a slow-down bell, or other cause. The air-supply pipe
is also connected to the steam line so that steam can be quickly substituted for air, if
desired. The length of the oil plunger is adjustable, to give the best form to the rose-
shaped flame. Two burners are fitted to each furnace.
THE AIR HEATER.
A part of each furnace front is a hollow iron casting through which the air passes
on its way to the atomizers and becomes heated. The chamber surrounding the burner
is lined with a crucible lead (sic) lining, a by-pass to the burners is provided for use in
case of accident to the heater. The lower part of the furnace front is a door on hinges
that can be fastened open at any desired degree to give air for combustion.
There are
also two louvres in the door for the same purpose. Near the front of the furnace inside
the door is placed a brick wall made to deflect upwards the inward current of air to meet
the rose-shaped flame from the burners. There is ample space over the brick wall for a
man to enter the furnace through the ash-pit door. The double furnace combustion
chambers have a brick bridge wall reaching above the top of the furnaces, and in the single-
ended boiler the common combustion chamber has the back sheet covered with fire
brick to protect it.
THE TRIAL TRIPS.
Two trial trips with the vessel under way were made on July 5 and 11, the vessel
being under way about eight hours each day, running from the vessel's dock to the Faral-
lone Islands and return, and were made for the purpose of ascertaining if the oil apparatus,
the new engines and boilers, were in good working condition. On the first run the boilers
primed badly, owing to the construction dirt not having been thoroughly cleaned out.
Before the second run they were cleaned and worked well on this run.
It was impossible to obtain any data other than observation of the working of
the oil apparatus.
Very few of the fire-room force had any experience with oil burners on steamers, and
one object was to give the force practical experience. When properly regulated the
burners gave no smoke, but that they were not properly regulated is shown by the fact
that more or less smoke was visible most of the time, and at times dense black. Owing to
lack of the telltale and regulating device of the small heating tank the pump tender once
allowed this tank to fill up and the oil to flow over into the air pipe and flood the burners.
As soon as this was discovered every burner was immediately shut off by means of the
lever connecting to the plug cocks on the oil and air supply pipes at the burners.
The atomizer tubes were unscrewed, and on some of them, where the oil had caked,
considerable force had to be applied to pull them out. New, clean atomizers were screwed
in, and as soon as the oil-heater tank could be brought to the proper oil level the burners
were started again. Some steam pressure was lost during this delay, but the engines did
not stop nor slow down very much; some of the burners were started in a few minutes
and all of them in not over fifteen minutes. The value of being able to shut off the oil
and air quickly and clean or substitute other atomizers was shown by this mishap. The
burners made considerable roaring noise, and the air pressure was, in order to clean the
burners from dirt, carried at about twice the intended pressure, owing to the lack of the
strainers, which allowed dirty oil to choke them, and they had to be taken out frequently
for cleaning. By shutting off with the lever the regulating valves were left in adjustment.
for starting the fire again provided it was right before. The new fire is started by a torch
inserted into the plug hole around the burner.
316
APPENDIX
On the second run the strainers and regulating device for the heater tank had been
completed. The oil apparatus was handled with greater ease and uniformity, and less
smoke was noticeable. For intervals of an hour or more scarcely any or none would be
observed. On the run in from the Farallones the engine was speeded up to 74 to 77 turns,
and an average speed of 144 knots was obtained. The steam pressure was uniformly
maintained at the point desired without difficulty, and the oil-burning apparatus gave
no trouble whatever and worked well.
The oil used on both runs was from the Kern River district, near Bakersfield, Cal.
The following data were observed:
Steam pressure
Revolutions of engine
•
Revolutions of air compresser
Pressure of air
Temperature of oil entering heater
Temperature of oil leaving heater
Temperature at base of stack.
pounds
160-170.
74-77
60
•
pounds
20
degrees F.
80
120-130
""
750
It is to be regretted that the nature of the trials did not permit of obtaining a greater
amount of data beyond observing the apparatus in use.
The chemist at the New York yard submitted the following report upon the sample
of the Kern River district oil sent him for analysis-
The sample is practically free from low boiling naphtha, as on distillation only a small percentage passed
over below 150° C., and less than 10 per cent. below 225°C. A boiling point above 360°C. was reached before
the second 10 per cent. was collected.
It shows on ultimate analysis the following composition-
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sulphur
Oxygen
•
•
•
•
This gives a calorific value, by Dulong's formula, of 18,806 B.Th.U.
0.962. Flash point, 228°F. Fire point, 258°F. Vaporization point, 178°F.
12.01 per cent.
Per cent.
84.43
10.99
.65
.59
3.34
The specific gravity at 60°F. is
Loss for six hours at 212°F.
Report of Lieut. Ward Winchell on the Voyage of the "Mariposa."
August 15, 1902.
I took passage on the Oceanic Steamship Company's steamer Mariposa, leaving
San Francisco at 10 a.m. on July 15, 1902, for the round trip to Tahiti.
In accordance with the instructions of the Bureau, I took two sets of indicator cards
each day, making forty-five sets in all, the data of which were worked up.
There have been no tests to determine the evaporative efficiency of the two main
double-ended boilers used on the run, and the chief engineer was unable to improvise
apparatus by which the feed water could be determined with accuracy.
The amount of oil is of much importance; the tanks hold barely enough to make
the round trip, and but one day's supply of coal is aboard. The oil was measured first
by the amount pumped into the two settling tanks, as shown in inches on the scale back
of the gauge glasses on the tanks; secondly, this amount was checked by the number of
inches used out of each tank for each watch; thirdly, and most accurate as dealing with
large quantities and small errors, by sounding the tanks from time to time and comparing
the amounts taken out with the expenditures in the log. The latter method gave a cor-
rection which was applied to the daily log, increasing the daily expenditure slightly, as
summed up by inches in the settling tank.
The most careful inspection at Tahiti failed to show any bad effect of the flame upon
the boilers. No leaks nor defects developed anywhere about them, and there was no
difficulty at any time in feeding them. As I was ordered to the Boston immediately on
my arrival at San Francisco, I lost the opportunity of again inspecting the boilers, but
317
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
no defects showed from the outside. At Tahiti the tubes were swept by tube scrapers,
and back connexions, uptakes, ash pans, and furnaces were cleaned. All the refuse from
these various places barely filled two ash buckets.
This refuse, mainly soot, was the result not only of the twelve days' run to Tahiti,
but also of the three preliminary trials by the contractors. The first one, a four-hour
trial of engines and boilers, was made with Comax coal, and the other two were free runs
at sea, of about eight hours' duration each, burning oil. The tubes had never been cleaned
previous to arrival at Tahiti. It is the intention hereafter to make the round trip of
twenty-four days' steaming without sweeping tubes.
There are no precautions other than those usually taken on board ship to guard
against fire or explosion. All spaces to which oil has access are well ventilated by both
inlet and outlet ducts. The oil is a thick, dark fluid, like molasses, and in the open air
burns slowly, giving off much smoke. It gives off volatile gases which form explosive
mixtures with air, tanks empty or nearly so being more dangerous than full ones in this
respect. The ship is electrically lighted, but in addition an open hand lamp is burning
in the fire room all the time to light the burners; the firemen smoke on watch, and the oil
is treated no more tenderly than if it were coal.
Of the six firemen, three were relieved from watch the second day out, leaving but
one man on a watch to fire twelve furnaces in two different fire rooms separated by the
length of the double-ended boilers. The water tender did not touch the burners except
in emergency, his duty being to tend water, fill settling tanks, and record height of oil
in them, record temperatures of oil at settling tank and in heater of fire room and of
superheated air, take reading of lower pyrometer where the two uptakes meet, and run
oil pump supplying oil to the settling tanks and small oil pump supplying oil to the oil
heater.
As a coal burner the Mariposa formerly had the following engineer force one chief
engineer, three assistant engineers, three oilers, twelve firemen, twelve coal passers, three
water tenders, one messenger, one storekeeper; total, thirty-six.
A reduction of sixteen men in the fire-room force is effected by oil burning. At sea
she needs now but three firemen, but carried six. This would reduce the force by nine-
teen men.
Temperatures of fire rooms seem to be about what one would expect in coal burning,
but the temperatures of the uptake and smoke-pipe gases run high, the maximum being
925°F., which shows an undue loss of heat here. The temperature of the oil in the settling
tanks ranged between 68° and 100°F. on the trip out, and between 90° and 108°F. on the
trip back.
The oil auxiliaries comprise one large oil pump, two small oil pumps, two oil heaters,
one air compressor, and four strainers.
There is a steam-pipe connexion to blow out the oil strainers, and another one to
blow out the oil burners when clogged.
On August 3 the air compressor needed overhauling, and steam atomizing was kept
up for two and one-half hours until the compressor was again working. During this time.
the evaporator supplied enough feed water to use twenty burners; the engines were not
stopped while shifting from steam to air atomizing, and averaged 67.8 turns for the two
and one-half hours. They had before been making seventy turns. During the four days
in port at Tahiti the forward main single end three-furnace boiler was used, atomizing
with steam. Generally two burners in the middle furnace gave ample steam to run the
following auxiliaries, all exhausting into the atmosphere, the boiler being fed with fresh
water from the dock: Ice machine, dynamo, flushing pump, feed injector, two cargo
winches, small portable steam pump, and steam for cooking, bath tubs, etc.
At first two firemen and a water tender were on watch at a time, each fireman having
one fire room of six furnaces or twelve burners. The men had but little experience, com-
bustion was poor, much smoke was made, much oil burned, and poor speed attained.
To locate the responsibility for bad adjustment of burner valves, but one fireman was
318
APPENDIX
put on at a time to attend twelve furnaces (twenty-four burners). This made an im-
provement in the combustion.
The top of the funnel cannot be seen from either fire room, and while the fireman
can tell by the appearance of the flame as shown in the sight-hole, or even by the roar of
the burner, when the combustion is perfect, in designing a boiler room for liquid fuel the
ventilators should be so arranged that a view of the top of the smoke pipe can be had
from each fire room.
The work of the fireman would be even easier than it is and better results attained
if the oil and air pressure and the heated temperature of the oil were kept constant.
The apparatus then, once properly adjusted, would need very little change. To get
these results is a mere matter of detail easily arranged. If the temperature of the oil
rises it feeds more freely, and a readjustment is necessary, and the same conditions hold
with regard to the pressure.
In addition to the independent oil and air supply valves, the burners are fitted with
an air plug cock and an oil plug cock connected to one lever, which then controls both
air and oil supply, enabling the operator to shut them both off at once in emergency. At
first when steam went up too high and a burner was shut down this lever was used;
but shutting off the air thus gave the air compressor less work, and as its governor is not
sensitive the air pressure increased, making a readjustment of all oil and air supply valves
necessary, with consequent smoke. Later on, when it was desirable to shut down a burner,
the oil alone was shut off by the independent feed valve on the burner, and the untouched
air valve kept the air compressor's work more nearly constant; then when the burner
was again required, the oil valve was opened and immediately lighted from the flame of
the adjacent burner.
In starting fires with everything cold, steam is raised on the auxiliary boiler, which
burns coal, and the air compressor, oil pumps, and oil heater are started. The oil is
lighted by inserting oil-soaked rags in the air space surrounding the burner and touching
a lamp to them, or an arrangement like a gas lighter may be used.
Sometimes when the air pressure is too high, or insufficient oil is feeding, the flame
flickers and may go out. If the oil is kept feeding under these conditions, on relighting
there is a small explosion of the gases in the furnace, with a momentary back draft through
the peep-holes and ash pans.
When shut down July 19, for two and one-half hours, plugging condenser tubes, one
burner at each end of each boiler (four burners in all), furnished steam to run all aux-
iliaries, including feed pump, bilge pump, air compressor, ice machine, dynamo, and
flushing pump, all of which were exhausting into the atmosphere.
Generally two burners in the middle furnace gave ample steam to run the following
auxiliaries, all exhausting into the atmosphere, with boiler fed from fresh water on the
dock: Ice machine, dynamo, flushing pump, feed injector, two cargo winches, and small
portable steam pump.
In the Grundell-Tucker burner (see fig. 5) the oil, heated by a steam coil under boiler
pressure, throttled down, passes through the inside pipe and is thrown out radially through
the series of small holes. The air, first heated by compression up to twenty pounds, is
further heated to a temperature of about 350°F. in the air chamber surrounding the
burner, and called the air superheater. Air can be used at the temperature at which it
leaves the compressor, and was so used on the trip down until July 17, when the super-
heaters were connected up. This air under the pressure of about twenty pounds sur-
rounds the oil pipe in the burner and passes axially along the pipe until near the end,
where it is given a whirling motion through small helical passages arranged like the rifling
of a gun. It crosses axially and whirling through the fine oil streams spurting radially
from the end of the burner, breaking up the oil into fine spray, the drops of which can be
seen before they ignite. A further air supply (cold) is admitted through the hinged door
of the ash pan, and is directed up across the path of the flame and heated also by a curved
fire-brick wall built in the ash pan close to the front.
319
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
This ash-pan door is not moved much, but the regulation of the air supply is by the
valve control of the air and oil in the burner. The flame should be a steady, full, white
or yellowish white one, filling the furnace.
The principal difficulties encountered were in the regulation of the supply of oil to
the heaters by the pump, and the consequent variation of the temperature of the heated
oil and the freedom of flow through the burners. An automatic submerged float, arranged
like a steam trap and fitted in the oil heater to control the throttle of the pump, failed to
give good automatic results, and the supply of oil was regulated by hand. If the oil is
heated with too much (above 150°F.) some of the volatile gases are given off and mingle
with the air pressing on top of the oil in the heater, thence passing with the air into the air
superheaters, and burners, the result being that on one occasion a heater got red hot
from this cause.
Another difficulty was due to the choking of the strainers by foreign matter and
impurities in the oil, shutting off the supply of oil, and on one occasion, August 10, putting
out all the fires. Just previous to the fires going out, and while the usual air supply was
on, and an insufficient amount of oil being fed, a dense white smoke like steam arose
from the funnel.
This strainer difficulty will be solved by fitting the strainers in pairs, so that a clean
one can always be switched in while the choked one is being cleaned.
Generally the revolutions of the engines did not vary much during the day, and in
calculating the horse-power for each day's average revolutions, when the cards for that
day differed much, that set was selected whose revolutions were near the average for the
day with the indicated horse-power, assumed to vary as the cube of the revolutions. If
the two sets of cards for the day had the same number of revolutions their average indi-
cated horse-power was used as a basis to compute the day's horse-power as before.
It will be noted that the log accompanying this report is kept from noon to noon.
This was done as the patent log was inaccurate, and the speed of the ship was got from
noon positions as given by sights.
It will be noted that speed was much higher on the return trip than on the outgoing,
which is ascribed partly to the better combustion as the firemen got experience, partly to
the overhauling of the bearings at Tahiti by the force on board, and mostly to the in-
creased oil consumption allowed after the run down had proved that there was plenty of
oil for the return trip, which was a matter of some doubt before, the ship being provided
with coal for twenty-four hours to cover possible emergency.
Full power was not developed in the two boilers used, as schedule time was easily
exceeded with from two to four burners shut off, though it would not appear, from the
tabulated results, that the indicated horse-power would equal what can be got by a good
system of forced draft. This burner, however, works well with the Howden system of
forced draft, as seen on the tank steamer George Loomis.
It must be remembered that the tabulated calculations are all based on the indicated
horse-power of the main engines only, as it was considered better to use only data actually
obtained, and afterwards estimated data, such as indicated horse-power of auxiliaries,
could be supplied without vitiating the observed data and results. No cards could be
taken from any of the auxiliaries, but careful estimates give the following results—
Air compressor, at 60 revolutions per minute
Auxiliary feed pump and two oil pumps, one in intermittent use
Dynamos
Ice machine
Circulating pump
Flushing pump
Baths, steam tables, evaporator, cooking, etc.
Total
I.H.P.
110
30
30
7
5
2
11
195
The steering engine is not used except near port.
320
APPENDIX
The size of air compressor was based on the assumption that it requires one cubic
foot of free air for every pound of water evaporated from and at 212°F., as shown by tests
of various oil burners at Western Sugar Refinery, San Francisco.
The weights of oil auxiliaries are as follows-
•
Air compressor
Two settling tanks
Two oil heaters
Two oil pumps (small)
One oil pump (large)
Fifteen superheaters (air) front
All pipe, valves, fittings, ventilators, etc.
•
Tons.
9
12
2
.5
1 25
3.1
8
It should be remembered that the boilers were designed for coal burning; that the
oil-burning plant was fitted in a hurry, the machinists not leaving the ship until the gong
rang for people to go ashore; that the firemen were without experience in oil burning, and
that most of the automatic gear did not work properly.
With the air pressure constant; with the oil heated at constant temperature near
140°F.; with oil strainers arranged in pairs, so that one is always efficient, and with
experience in firing, the results in economy of oil should be much better on the next trip;
and the fireman's work, already very easy, will approach supervising automatic regulation.
The fireman does not need strength nor previous training with coal. He should have a
good eye, good ear, some common sense, and a desire to learn a new and easy trade.
(Signed) WARD WINCHELL, Lieutenant, United States Navy.
CHIEF OF BUREAU OF STEAM ENGINEERING,
Navy Department, Washington, D.C.
321
Y
LIQUID
COMBUSTION
FUEL AND ITS
Date.
General summary of Log of "Mariposa," burning oil, round trip, Tahiti and San Francisco, July and August, 1902.
NOTE.-For convenience in comparing with engineer's log, the day is taken from noon until noon. July 16 begins at noon July 15 and ends noon July 16. This leaves
but two hours' run on July 15, which was thrown out of the calculations. The average indicated horse-power of main engines was got not by averaging the daily runs, but by
taking average revolutions for the eleven days' run, and taking the cards near these revolutions as a basis in computing the horse-power.
Heating surface,
two double-
ended boilers.
I. H. P. main
engines
square
of grate.
per
foot
I. H. P. main
per
pound of oil
per hour.
engines
Square feet of
face per I.H.P.
heating
sur-
per hour per
Pounds of oil
I.H.P.
Pounds
of oil
per knot run.
Knots made per
ton of oil.
Knots made per
barrel of oil.
Slip of screw in
per cent.
Actual time.
Remarks.
San Francisco to
T'ahiti.
h.
m.
July 16
12.08 58.74
July 17
July 18
July 19
July 20
285
July 21
321
July 22
July 23
July 24
July 25
July 26
289
58.74 1,475 258
298 12.3 61.1 1,768 260
302 12.5 62.5 1,950 260
311 12.8 63.4 1,864
260
13.1 65.7 2,200 230
13.26 65-6 2,398
306 12.6 65.8
2,270 255
307 12.5 65.7
335 13.8 68
351 14.5 69.8
333 13.9 69.1
36.86 3,451 258
5.64
8,302
0.427
5.63
2.33
286
7.84
1.12
9
23
55
258
37.14 3,438
37.14 3,438
258
37.14 3,440 258
6.85
8,302
8,302 i
·57
7.55
8,302 7.20
•51
4.70
1.94 279
4.25
1.76 275
•·51
4.44
1.84
267
8.02 1.15
8.13
8.38 1.20
11
24 12
1.16 12
24 12
10.4
24
8
32.86 3,484
258
8.50
8,302
.63
3.77
1.58
258
8.67 1.24
12.1
21 7
July 20 stopped 2
hours to plug leaky
tubes in condensers.
235
33.60 3,133
258
8,302
9.30
.76
3.60
1.30
234
9.55
1.36
10.8
24 11
36.43 3,365
258
8,302 8.80
·67
3.66
1.48 270
8.40 1.20
15.5
24 15
2,240 240
34.30 3,200
258
8,302
8.70
-70
3.70
1.43 253
8.95 1.28
15.7
24 27
2.386 250
35-71 3,299
258
8,302 9.20
.72
3.60
1.39
239 9.35
1.34
10.7
24 16
2,470 257
36.71 3,398
258
8,302 9.57
.72
3.36
1.38
2,129 258
36.86 | 3,432
258
| 8,302
8.25
.65
3.90
1.61
234.8 9.59 1.27
244.6 9.03 1.29
8.3
24
11.7
11
24 3
(Jib and fore try-sail
set, trade wind port
beam.
Total
3,438
Average
13.12 | 65.2
2,193 254:8
2,803 400.43
36.40
262 57
3,412
258
8.302
8.593
.643 3.786
1.556 260.9
8.585 1.22 13.14
Tahiti to San
Francisco.
August 1
August 2
323
August 3
322
August 4
334
298 12.6 65.3 2,172 240
13.6 70.1 2,190 280
13.6 70.1 2,646 280
14 71.3 2,785 290
34.3 3,222 258 8.302
8.42
.674
3.82
1.49 258 8.7
1.24 15.6 23 50
August 5
357
15.04 72-4
August 6
346
14.6 71.9
August 7
322
13.5 71
August 8.
343
14.4
71.9
August 9
327 13.7 69.4
August 10
August 11
73-54 2,968
322
258
3,772
41.43 3,954 258 8,302 10.8
2,892 305 43.57 4,111
8,302 11.21
2,772 310 44.3 4,177 258 8,302 10.8
44.3
2,777 310
4,177 258 8,302 10.7
2,936 315 45 4,207 258 8,302
2,553 305
43.57 4,109 258 8,302 9.89
347 14.6 72.9 2,863 320 45.71 4,313 258 8,302 11.10
341·1 14.8
46 4,480 258 8,302 11.5
40
40
3,774 258 8,302
9.65
.66
3.33
8,302
10.24
.70
258
.66
3.14
.704 2.98
.703 2.87
3
.66
2.98
11.38
·698
2.83
1.402 297 7.62 1.09
1-51 277-4 8.08 1.15 15
1.428 278.2 8.85 1.15
1.42 277.8 8.06 1.15 13
1·39 274 7.96 1.14 9
1.50 287 7.8 1.11 10 23 45
1.50 308 7.27 1.04 15.7 23 45
11.3
15
NNNNNN
10 10 10 3 a
23
44
23
45
23
46
23 44
Strong head wind and
sea.
Wind and sea mode-
23 43
rate ahead.
·621
3.212
1.606
295.4
295.4 7.272 1.07
12.6
23 45
.663 2.90
1.507
295.1
295.1 7.60 1.084
11.7
.663
2.79
1.51
302-8 7-407 1.06
12
23 44
23
Total
3,660.1
•
Average
14.05 70.91 2,770
Total knots
7,098.1
3,277
| 302
6,080
468.14
260 31
43.18 4,026 258 8,302
10.73
.688
3
1.45
286.3 7.818 1.111
12.8
Average, 2 runs
3,549 13-58 68-05 2,481 278.4
34.29 | 3,719 258 8,302
9.661
.665 3.393
1.503 273.6 8.201 1.165 12.97
Average speed 325.7
made during
round trip.
322
APPENDIX
NOTE.-The Bureau has also received the following summary of the second voyage of the steamship
Mariposa on the round trip between San Francisco and Tahiti. These data show that the oil consumption
on the second voyage was considerably less than that on the first, due to two causes: Improvements in detail
of the oil-fuel installation, and increased skill and intelligence upon the part of the engine-room force.
The Occidental Steamship Company is fitting an oil-fuel installation on the sister ship Alameda, and it
can be expected that when a spirited rivalry is created between the crews of the Alameda and Mariposa, even
better results can be anticipated.
O.S.S. "Mariposa," voyage No. 2, from San Francisco to Tahiti, 1902.
Slip of
Distance
run per
barrel propeller,
of oil, in per cent.
knots.
August 21
Date,
Knots
per
Knots
per
day.
hour.
Revolu-
tions per
minute.
in
barrels.
Oil used
Oil used
per day,
per day, in tons of
2,240
pounds.
Oil used
per hour
in
pounds.
Pounds Knots
of oil per made per
knot run. ton of oil.
328
13.3
63.7
•
22
297
12.3
62.6
23
282
13.3
64
>
24
330
13.6
65.9 235
25
310
12.8
62
220
26
311
12.8
62
210
255 36.43
225 32.14
210 30.00
33.59 3,133 227.9 9.82
31.43
30.09
3,400
3,000 242.8 9.24
2,800 237.4 9.43
248.8 9.00
1.29
7
1.32
13.4
1.35
9
1.40
8.8
2,933 227.1
2,800
9.86
1.41
8.8
216.1
10.37
1.48
8.5
27
292
12.1
62
220
31.43 2,933 241.1
9.29
1.33
13.8
28
305
12.6
62.1
220 31.43
2,933 230.8
9.70
1.39
10.3
29
305
12.6
62.2 220
31.43
2,933 230.8
9.70
1.37
10.5
30
322
13.3 65
31
326
13.5
66
230
240
32.86
3,066 228.6
9.80
1.40
9.5
34.28 3,200
235.6
9.51
1.35
9.4
309.9 12.96 63.4
312.7 13.12 65.2
226 32-28
3,013 233.3
9.60
1.37
9.9
254.8 36-40 3,412 260-9 8.585 1.22 13.14
Average, 11 days
Voyage 1, 11 days
Average temperature of uptake, 548°; average temperature of superheaters, 360°; average temperature
of cold oil, 91°.
O.S.S. "Mariposa," voyage No. 2, from Tahiti to San Francisco, 1902.
Oil used
Oil used
per day,
per day, in tons of
Distance
run per Slip of
barrel propeller
of oil, in per cent.
! knots.
Knots Knots
Date.
per
per
day.
hour.
Revolu-
tions per
minute.
in
barrels.
2,240
pounds.
Oil used
per hour
in
pounds.
Pounds Knots
of oil per made per
knot run. ton of oil.
September 6
292
12.2
62.1
215
•
30.71 2,867 235.6
9.51 1.36
12.6
7
301
12.6
62.6
220
8
288
12.1
62.9 220
9
298
12.5
63.1 220
31.43 2,933 233.8
31.43
31.43
9.57
1.37
11.2
2,933 244.4
9.16
1.31
15.5
2,933 236.2
9.48
1.35
12.6
10
276
12.2 64.7
220
11
327
13.7 66.9
12
303
12.7 67.1
•
13
317
13.2 67.3 265
14
307
13.2
67.4
260
15
324
13.8
69
265
16
321
13.5
69.2 270
31.43
245 35
250 35.71 3,333
37.44 3,533
37.45 3,466
37.94 3,533
38.57 3,600 269.1
2,933 255.1
8.46 1.25
13.4
3,267 240
9.34
1.33
19.4
264
8.48
1.21
6.5
267.5
8.53
1.20
13
271
8.20
1.18
13
261.7
8.54
1.22
12
8.32
1.19
13.9
Average, 11 days
304.9
•
12.7 65.7 241
Voyage, 1, 10 days
34.46 3,212 252.6 8.87 1.27 13.01
331.9 13.96 70.6 295.5 42.22 3,981.6 284.79 7.841 1.122 12.89
Average temperature of uptake, 546°; average temperature of superheaters, 360°; average temperature
of cold oil, 90°.
323
Appendix No. 3
EXTRACT FROM REPORT OF BOARD ON TESTS OF LIQUID FUEL FOR
NAVAL PURPOSES.
DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY,
BUREAU OF STEAM ENGINEERING,
WASHINGTON, D.C., October 1, 1902.
SIR,--The board appointed to conduct an extended series of tests to determine the
value of liquid fuel for naval purposes submits the following preliminary report—
The board is of the opinion that the best interests of the Navy will be subserved by
making public at this time the data and information collected during the fourteen official
experiments that have been conducted.
Upon investigation the board finds that much of the data published is very reliable,
particularly upon the most important features of the problem. As an illustration, it has
been asserted that the boilers of some merchant vessels only consume, for sustained sea work,
1 pound of oil to develop 1 horse-power. When it comes to checking this information by
the consumption from the storage tanks it will be found that a much larger quantity is
used.
It is directly within the sphere of the Navy Department to conduct an extended series
of experiments that will be of great value to the shipbuilding and manufacturing interests,
even if the Navy does not receive an immediate return.
The naval problem is a quite complicated one, and an extended series of experiments
to determine the value of liquid fuel for ships of war should be conducted for at least a year.
The board recognizes the fact that the commercial phase of the liquid-fuel question as
regards the Navy is quite different from what it is in the merchant marine, and that it will
be much more difficult to ensure an adequate supply for ships of war than for merchant
vessels. It will also tax the ability of the naval constructor to solve the construction
problem involved in installing oil-fuel appliances on board the battle ship, since it will not
be possible to find such satisfactory storage compartments in the fighting ship as in the
freighter.
Engineering Features of the Oil-Fuel Problem.
It is the engineering or mechanical feature of the problem that the board is concen-
trating its energies upon. Therefore the board proposes to try to solve some of the follow-
ing problems in connexion with the subject-
1. The relative advantages of air and steam as an atomizing agent for liquid fuel.
The question of supply of fresh water is very important in the Navy, and therefore the use
of steam should be obviated, if possible. On the other hand, the air compressors are quite
heavy and take up considerable room. As air compressors, however, are used for many
purposes on board ship, it might be possible to have a central plant for all purposes. It
is also important to know to what extent it will be necessary to superheat the steam in case
it is used as the atomizing agent.
324
APPENDIX
Water Street.
2. There is a wide divergence of opinion as to the pressures at which oil, steam, and
air should be delivered to the burners. Progressive tests may afford valuable information
upon this point.
3. The design of the steam generator. As the experimental boiler now in use by the
liquid-fuel board is of the water-tube type, it will be possible to extend the length of the
furnace and make other changes which will give important information as to whether or not
it would be advisable to design a special form of marine boiler for oil-fuel installation.
4. The simplest and most economical means of heating the air and the oil. In view
of the result of the present experiments and of the information obtained from outside
sources, there is no doubt but that the air should be heated; and it would seem that,
particularly in a water-tube boiler, such heating could be effected in a simple and cheap
manner by utilizing the heat radiated to the ash-pit.
5. The value or necessity of an air receiver when compressed air is used as the atomiz-
ing medium. Can the pulsations of the compressor be reduced or minimized by installing
such an intermediate receiver between the compressor and the burner?
6. Experiments could be made concerning the baffling of the gases, for the tests
already conducted show that the calorimeter area can be somewhat reduced when using
oil.
7. The relative value of leading types of burners. Particularly is it necessary to know
whether a simple burner should be installed and provision made for heating the air, or
whether an appliance should be installed which partially gasefies the oil before ignition.
There are on file in this Bureau over 2,000 drawings and specifications pertaining to the use
of liquid fuel, and it is said that new patents are being issued at the rate of about 30 a week.
In view of such widespread interest in the subject, the board deems it important to test
representative types of the various classes of burners.
Suction pump.
Feed pume
O
Donkey
boiler.
W⋅TT
Teed
pump.
Feed
Raised
Boiler
tank. platforni
Weighing
tank.
Fan
Root blower
Engine.
Thermometer.
Air duct.
S
Feed suction. E
Blow-off
W
Raised
platform.
N
oil feed pump,
Suction
битр.
Qil
weighing
Oil feed tank.
Oil
storage
tank.
tank
Stack.
Air chamber.
Oil teed pipe.
Stop valve.
Air lock.
Apparatus for weighing
feed water and oil for
tank boiler.
Piping and pumps not shown.
Mercury columna.
Muffler.
Auxiliary
tank boiler.
Used for
Supplying
steam to
burners of
main boiler.
Fig. 6.—ARRANGEMENT OF HOHENSTEIN EXPERIMENTAL BOILER PLANT FOR LIQUID FUEL TESTS.
325
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
8. The problem as to whether the oil could be consumed under all conditions without
producing smoke. In the naval service this is an important question. As there is also a
tendency to compel manufacturers to take means to prevent smoke issuing from the stacks
of their plants, the question also concerns the general public.
Opportunities Possessed by the Board for securing Trustworthy Data.
The board considers it but just to acknowledge that through the generosity of the
Oil City Boiler Works the Bureau of Steam Engineering has had placed at its disposal
fet
a
IF
kulubl
1
oa
Tea
오오
​و
Fig. 8.-ARRANGEMENT OF HOHENSTEIN EXPERIMENTAL BOILER FOR LIQUID FUEL TESTS.
a, Draught Gauge Connection; b, Mica Windows.
without cost for rental a thoroughly equipped experimental plant. The experimental
boiler is of the Hohenstein design, and it is the same boiler that was used by the Navy
Department in conducting the extended series of tests that were made with coal at various
rates of combustion. The value of the data collected during the liquid-fuel experiments
can only be appreciated in its fullness by comparing the various tables with those secured
during similar tests when coal was used as a combustible.
General Description of the Plant.
Fig. 6 is a ground plan of the plant. Fig. 8 shows a longitudinal section of the boiler
with the oil burners in place. Fig. 9 shows the construction of an air burner of the Oil City
326
APPENDIX
1
U
U
Oil pipe
Lumi i
Air
pipe.
2
W
-in
9
Fig. 9.—THE OIL CITY BOILER WORKS BURNER USED IN TESTS NOS. 1 TO 8 INCLUSIVE.
Boiler Works design. This burner was used during the seven general tests that were con-
ducted to show, among other things, whether or not it would be possible to secure a greater
evaporative efficiency from the boiler with oil than was secured with coal. Six of these
burners, spaced 18 inches apart, were ranged across the front of the furnace, there being a
separate opening in the furnace wall for each burner. Considering the burners as arranged
in pairs, those of each pair were inclined toward each other at an angle such that their flame
impinged near the transverse centre line of the furnace.
The arrangements for weighing the feed water were substantially the same as during
the coal-burning tests. The facilities for securing forced draft were likewise the same.
Uniform Quality of Oil used during Experiments.
The oil was secured from the Standard Oil Company. The product of different
localities will be tested, for the evaporative efficiencies of each field should be ascertained.
Method of Weighing Oil Used.
From the storage tank the oil was pumped, as desired, into a weighing tank, from
which it flowed by gravity into the oil-feed tank. From this reservoir the oil was pumped
into a pipe leading to the burners, constancy of the pressure being secured by an air
chamber and a relief valve. An overflow pipe led from relief valve back to the feed tank.
The weighing and feed tanks were fitted with gauge glasses graduated to 5 pounds, by the
aid of which the exact weight of oil was secured at the end of each hour, the same as with
the feed water.
The air for atomizing the oil is supplied by a Root blower driven by a direct connected
engine. This blower delivered 8 cubic feet of free air per revolution, at pressures ranging
from 0.78 pound to 4.68 pounds per square inch. The air pressure was measured by a
mercury column, the location of which was such that it gave substantially the same pres-
sure as at the discharge of the blower. The temperature of the compressed air was taken
327
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
near the same point. A Rand air compressor has been bought and will be installed,
enabling higher pressures of air to be used.
The process of getting up steam in the main boiler was somewhat slow, as dependence
had to be placed on a small auxiliary boiler for driving the Root blower until sufficient
steam pressure could be secured for that purpose from the main boiler. The auxiliary
boiler was only equal to the task of supplying the air to two burners.
The oil used was from the Beaumont, Tex., field. It is said to have been subjected to
an inexpensive treatment which removed the sulphur and some of the more volatile hydro-
carbons. The board believed that it would be best to use an oil that had been thus treated
until some positive information could be secured as to whether or not it was advisable to
attempt to use crude oil.
Chemical Composition of the Oil used during Tests compared with the Crude Product.
The character of the oil used during the official tests can be best appreciated by com-
paring it with the average grade of the crude product. The changes wrought by the re-
fining process can thus be clearly seen by comparing the analyses of the crude Beaumont
product and that used in the experiments.
ANALYSIS OF BEAUMONT CRUDE OIL.
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
·
·
•
Sulphur (S)
Oxygen (0)
·
>
Per cent.
84.60
10.90
1.63
2.87
The amount of sulphur in different samples of the crude Beaumont oil varies from
2 to 3 per cent.
Calorific value per pound of combustible
Specific gravity
B.Th.U. 19,060
0.924
Flash point
·
degrees Fahrenheit
180
Fire point
200
""
""
On distillation at atmospheric pressure to 524°F. it was found that the—
Degrees Fahrenheit.
428
428 and 485
485 and 524
524 and 554
•
•
First 10 per cent. passed over below.
Second 10 per cent. passed over between
Third 10 per cent. passed over between
Fourth 10 per cent. passed over between
•
•
Analysis of Oil used by Liquid Fuel Board as determined by the Chemist of the Navy Yard,
New York.
On distillation at atmospheric pressure to 680°F. it was found that with the oil used
during the tests-
First 10 per cent. passed over between
Second 10 per cent. passed over between
Third 10 per cent. passed over between
Fourth 10 per cent. passed over between
•
•
Degrees Fahrenheit.
216 and 482
482 and 523
523 and 552
552 and 680
This oil showed on analysis to be composed of the following constituents-.
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Sulphur (S)
Oxygen (0)
•
•
Per cent.
83.26
12.41
50
3.83
The sulphur was determined by oxidation with fuming nitric acid in an open capsule.
328
APPENDIX
Specific gravity at 60°F.
Flash point
Fire point
Vaporization point
•
Loss for six hours at 212°F.
·
""
0.926
degrees Fahrenheit. 216
240
142
per cent.
""
21.65
The calorific value of the combustible, calculated on the analysis of the United States
Chemist by Dulong's formula, viz.--
B.Th.U. =14500 C+62100 (H-g)
-19481
These analyses show that nearly all the sulphur was removed from the crude petroleum.
It will probably be best to continue using a uniform grade of oil for some time, so that
comparisons can be made of the burners as well as the efficiency and advantages of the
various methods of atomizing the combustible.
Conditions between the Combustion Chamber and Smokestack.
The temperatures in the base of the stack were remarkably free from the rapid
fluctuations that characterized the coal-burning trials. There was no flaming in the stack
except during the last two hours of the eighth test, and even then the fluctuations of
temperature were absent. This was a test where everything was forced to the utmost, and
therefore unusual conditions prevailed. The stack temperatures were noted by a Taglia-
bue mercury-nitrogen thermometer. It was used without mishap throughout the series of
trials. Advantage was taken of the constancy of the stack temperature to check the
readings of a Brown quick-reading pyrometer. The pyrometer was afterwards used in the
furnace and elsewhere to record temperatures that were not excessive. For temperatures
higher than 1,600°F. a platinum-rhodium electric pyrometer was used. The measure-
ments secured with this instrument show a maximum furnace temperature of 2,200°F.
for both natural and forced draft conditions.
The draft pressures were measured at the same points as in the series of coal-burning
tests, and the average readings are shown diagramatically in fig. 10.
4
Draught Pressure in Inches of Water.
3
2
Trial N° 8
No 4
Combustion
chamber
Fubes
Above
tubes
below
Fire room
VA Furnace
divms
HD
HD
Base
af
theck
N°3
Abscissas are roughly proportional to measurements along the path of gases.
Fig. 10.-CURVES SHOWING VARIATION OF AIR PRESSURE WITHIN THE BOILER DURING
CERTAIN TRIALS.
Spots indicate points where measurements were made.
:
329
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
As an aid to the proper regulation of the supply of oil and air to the burners, a mirror
was so placed that the man in charge of the fire room could quickly note the colour of the
gases that issued from the top of the stack. The board considered it of great importance
that those operating an oil-fuel installation should possess some device whereby the con-
dition of affairs at the top of the stack can be immediately ascertained.
After considerable study and discussion, it was decided that it would be best to give
each burner an excess of oil, and this would be shown by the smoke issuing from the stack.
Then there was a gradual reduction of the quantity of oil until just a faint trace of smoke
could be noticed.
Provision was made for introducing extra air at the sides of the furnace. Holes were
cut 8 inches by 1½ inches through the side walls, on a level with the furnace floor and close
to its back wall. A flue was built of loose fire-brick across the furnace floor, thus connecting
the two openings. The roof of the flue had openings between the bricks, thus permitting
extra air to be introduced where the combustion was most intense. This extra air supply
was cut off during the natural draught and maximum forced-draught trials. The aggre-
gate area of all openings for the admission of atmospheric air into the furnace is given in
the detailed report of each trial.
Character of the Information desired.
Before attempting to test the relative merits of individual burners, the board sought
general information along the following lines—
The evaporative efficiency of oil as compared with coal under like conditions.
The degree to which the combustion of oil could be forced with both steam and air
as atomizers when using both natural and forced draught.
The ability of a hydrocarbon burner to work under forced draught conditions.
The liability of the boiler to injury when using oil under forced draught conditions.
The amount of steam or air requisite for atomizing purposes.
The degree of pressure which should be applied when steam or air was used as the
atomizing medium.
The effect of preheating the air necessary for combustion.
The time required to train men to operate the burners.
The best means of reducing the noise caused by the numerous but minute explosions
within the furnace.
The attitude of the firemen as regards operating an oil installation.
Experimental Plant thoroughly overhauled before commencing Liquid Fuel Tests.
The experimental plant was not turned over to the Bureau of Steam Engineering for
experimental purposes in connexion with the liquid fuel tests until the Oil City Boiler
Works was assured that the Congress would make a special appropriation for this pur-
pose. The Naval Appropriation Bill having become a law July 3, 1902, the board was then
informed that the plant was at its disposal.
The test of June 27, 1902, having been a very severe one, and the casing of the boiler
having been considerably warped, it was deemed necessary thoroughly to overhaul the
plant before commencing the extended series of tests, projected. The boiler was opened,
cleaned, and thoroughly examined. The baffling bricks were renewed where necessary.
As these bricks were of particular shape, some time elapsed before new ones could be
secured. The casing was repaired, and an asbestos lining was put underneath the fire-
bricks of the furnace floor. All auxiliary machinery about the experimental plant was
overhauled and put in order. The cylindrical-tank boiler received from the Navy Yard,
New York, was covered with a non-conducting material. The necessary platforms for
holding the scales and tanks for weighing the oil and water required for this extra boiler
were installed in place. The request was also made that several warrant machinists and
the crew of a small naval vessel be detailed for duty in connexion with the tests.
330
APPENDIX
Endurance Test of 116 Hours.
The board particularly deemed it expedient to make an endurance test of the plant.
(See Table 6.) A test of this nature was therefore conducted for a continuous period of
116 hours. The torpedo boat Gwin was ordered from the Naval Academy, and the tor-
pedo boat Rodgers from Norfolk, to assist in the experiments. The day watch of eight
hours was conducted by a regular crew of employees of the Oil City Boiler Works, although
all the data during this period were taken by observers from the draughting-room staff of the
Bureau of Steam Engineering. The crew of the Gwin operated the boiler and auxiliaries
during half the night, the crew of the Rodgers taking the other night watch during the
entire test. The data during the night were taken by the leading petty officers of the two
torpedo boats, the commissioned and warrant officers in charge of the respective watches
checking and verifying the data. The character of the data collected during the night,
compared with that secured during the day, shows the efficiency of the crews of the torpedo
boats even as compared with the highly trained force of draughtsmen in the Bureau of
Steam Engineering.
The test was conducted under the general supervision of the Oil Fuel Board. The
following four commissioned officers had entire charge of the crews and observers during
successive watches: Lieut. A. M. Procter, United States Navy; Lieut. G. S. Lincoln,
United States Navy; Lieut. William R. White, United States Navy; Ensign John Halli-
gan, junr., United States Navy. These officers not only supervised the work of the entire
watch, but checked and counter-checked the data.
Four warrant machinists, Messrs. Steele, Johnson, Schreiber, and Rowe, were detailed
to assist the commissioned officers. These warrant officers were placed in charge of the
fire room.
After a preliminary run the test was commenced at noon on August 4.
The oil burners during the endurance test were so regulated that they consumed
about 830 pounds of oil per hour. Although the data were only recorded at hourly inter-
vals throughout the test, there were unofficial readings and checks made between the hours,
thus insuring uniformity in the performance of the boiler.
The smoke issuing from the stack was quite light and uniform in colour. From the
records of ten observations made during the day watches, it appears that the maximum
variation was from 0 to 1 by Ringelmann's charts, the average colour throughout the day
being 0.4.
Temperatures taken with a platinum-rhodium pyrometer showed 1,980°F. near the
middle of the furnace. At the receiving end of the combustion chamber the temperature
was 1,900°F.
Toward the end of the test the water in the boiler became very muddy. It should be
stated that during the entire endurance trial the boiler was fed with Potomac River water
that had not been filtered. It might also be stated that during the past eighteen months
the experimental boiler has been subjected to just this kind of work. The notes appended
to the coal and oil tests will show in detail the treatment the boiler received. Occasionally
the gauge-glass connexions would get clogged with mud, and toward the end of the en-
durance test it was necessary to blow steam through them every half hour. ·
Two pieces of carbon were removed from the vicinity of the second burner from the
left: one piece on August 7 and the other on August 9. Each piece was about 64 cubic
inches, and was caused by the burner being so placed as to permit the flame to impinge
on the brickwork of the front furnace wall.
The Hayes Hydrocarbon Burner.
The construction of this burner is shown in fig. 11 and the manner of its installation
in fig. 12. Part of the air supply is introduced at the sides of the furnace near the back
wall. It then passes through heating pipes AA to the pipe B, the latter extending across
the furnace just inside the front wall.
331
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
·
5
6
C
2
I
Stean
סיו
Fig. 11.—THE HAYES BURNER USED IN TEST No. 9
The burners project diametri-
cally through the pipe B, and it is
contended that the hot air in this
pipe will cause the oil to be com-
pletely gasefied before it escapes
from the burner orifices. There is
no doubt but that the heating of the
air is a direct benefit. Careful and
extended experiments will have to
be made to show whether this heat-
ing could best be effected as in the
Howden system of forced draught,
or by a simple arrangement of pipes
which receive the direct heat of the
furnace. The experience of simply
heating the pipes during these tests
would rather tend to show that this .
arrangement would not have much
endurance. The edges of the holes
in the pipe B were found somewhat
burned upon completion of the
official test. If such impairment
could occur after the pipe had been
in actual service about twenty
hours, it is probable that very little
endurance can be expected of such
an installation under forced draught
conditions.
Two preliminary tests were
made. Some representatives of the
company owning the burner were
present during these trials, and
suggestions were sought of these
men, who were supposed to have
expert knowledge of that particular
appliance. At no time were they
able to secure from the boiler an
actual evaporation of 11 pounds of
water. During the first experi-
mental trial, on September 10, it
was manifest that the bulk of the
combustion was above the tubes
and in the uptake and stack. In
consequence of this loss of heat,
and before the second unofficial
trial was attempted, the draught
opening above the tubes was re-
duced in the proportion of 16 to
101. This caused a noticeable
improvement. It should be stated
that it required ten days for the
company to prepare for the first preliminary trial. Their experts had been furnished blue
prints showing in detail the character of the experimental plant, also the position and
arrangement of the baffle plates in the experimental boiler. Representatives of the com-
332
APPENDIX
pany had also been per-
mitted to witness some of
the previous tests. The ex-
perience with this company
has now caused the Liquid
Fuel Board to compel every
inventor to make arrange-
ments whereby he can install
his appliance within three
days.
Steam for the burners
was supplied from an inde-
pendent boiler at a uniform
pressure of 90 pounds. Dur-
ing the unofficial trials the
steam was not superheated,
the inventor having pre-
viously maintained that he
could use exhaust steam
and attain the object de-
sired. It might also be
incidentally stated that the
claim was made that one
single burner would consume
all the oil that would be
required for even forced-
draught purposes.
+
Oil
-Steam
B
A
Magnesia covering
BARY>(3) JUGA ME
DISKMISA
A
A
Oil was supplied to the
six burners during the un-
official tests at a uniform
pressure of 80 pounds. Be-
sides the air introduced through the heating tubes, some additional air was admitted
through what were formerly the ash-pit openings. The aggregate area of these ash-pit
openings was about 60 square inches.
Fig. 12.-INSTALLATION OF HAYES BURNER TESTS No. 9
During the official trial (test No. 9), which continued for six hours, the steam for the
burners was superheated. There was fitted, in the opening above the tubes and below
the steam drum of the main boiler, 44 feet of 1½ inch pipe. This pipe was in the form of
three return bends. Steam from the cylindrical tank boilers was led through this pipe
and thence to the burners.
The leading experts of the company did not attend this official trial. The mechanics.
who installed the burners, however, operated these appliances under the direction of the
warrant machinists. The board was informed that it was these mechanics who operated
the burners during an official test that had been made at an electric-light station in the city,
where it was claimed that there had been evaporated 18 pounds of water per pound of com-
bustible. It is needless to say that no such results were secured under the experimental
boiler.
Progressive Tests with Burners using Steam for Atomizing.
These tests were made September 19, 20, and 22. One of the special purposes of con-
ducting these trials was to ascertain the exact amount of steam that would be required
for atomizing the oil. Every possible check was used to secure trustworthy data. All
during the trials there were searches for leaks, but none were discovered.
The board was desirous of ascertaining just how much steam was required for atomiz-
ing, and therefore a separate boiler was installed for generating steam for this purpose. It
333
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
is a cylindrical return-tube boiler with two plain cylindrical furnaces. This boiler is piped
to furnish steam for the oil burners, and has no other steam pipe leading from it. The
opening from the safety valve was blanked. This boiler is fitted with two oil burners of
Oil City Boiler Works' design in each furnace, these burners using air for atomizing pur-
Steam.
ข่า
GRA
oil
2
3
t
O
Fig. 13.—THE OIL CITY BOILER WORKS BURNER USED IN TESTS Nos. 10, 11 AND 12
poses. After steam was raised
one burner in one furnace was
found sufficient to keep the
steam pressure uniform.
This boiler was in thorough
order and tight at 100 pounds
pressure. During the oil burn-
ing test great care was taken to
keep both the water level and
the steam pressures in this boiler
uniform. The water used was
carefully weighed in a separate
weighing apparatus, in exactly
the same manner as the water
supplied to the experimental
boiler.
The pressure for atomizing
purposes, as well as the pressure
at which the oil was forced to
the burner, was increased each
day. It was found that the
higher the pressure the greater
the amount of water that was
evaporated. The efficiency was
also slightly greater as higher
The per-
pressures were used.
centage of steam required for
atomizing the oil, however, also
slightly increased as higher pres-
sures were used.
During these tests deflectors
were placed in the ash-pan
openings, so as to cause the air
to be drawn up near the burners,
thus effecting combustion nearer
the front of the furnace. The
average percentage required for
atomizing purposes was about
41 per cent. of the entire evapora-
tion. The atomizer is shown in
fig. 13.
In these three tests the side
burners were directed toward
the centre of the furnace more
than heretofore, in order to re-
duce the amount of heat ab-
sorbed by the side walls. The
amount so absorbed was judged
of by the condition of glow
immediately after extinguishing
334
APPENDIX
the burners. This glow of the
side walls, and also of the back
and bridge walls, generally
showed a more intense com-
bustion on the right side of the
furnace than on the left. The
fact that the steam and oil con-
nexions to the burners were also
at the right side of the furnace
front suggests the desirability of
proportioning the piping, both
as to size and location, so as to
get substantially equal pressure
at all burners.
Before making further tests
the front wall of the furnace
was rebuilt with ferruled open-
ings 8 inches in diameter for the
burners. Ample latitude was
thus allowed for the angular
setting of the burners, and
there was also opportunity for
trying the effect of admitting
air round the burners.
An accident to the engine.
of the fan blower prevented the
continuance of these trials with
different pressures of forced
draught. It should be ascertained
just how much steam is required
for atomizing purposes when the
boiler is forced to its utmost.
The board deems it impor-
tant, when opportunity will per-
mit, to make an extended series
of tests with steam
as the
atomizing agent. Fresh water
can be secured in unlimited
quantities at nearly all naval
stations, and it might not be a
difficult matter to make ar-
rangements whereby the torpedo
boats and destroyers could be
furnished with an ample supply
in specially constructed tanks,
thus obviating the risk of being
compelled to feed salt water into
the boilers.
Even if compressed air
should be used on the torpedo
Steal!l.
120
Air
1/
5
T
2
3
Fig. 14.—THE F. M. REED BURNER USED IN TESTS Nos. 13 AND 14
boats as the atomizing agent, an accident might happen to the compressor plant which
would compel the temporary use of steam. There is therefore an urgent necessity to
secure reliable data upon the subject or how much steam is required for spraying pur-
poses under various conditions of natural and forced draught.
335
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
The F. M. Reed Combined Air and Steam Burner.
One preliminary and two official tests were made with this burner, whose construction
is shown in fig. 14. The "from and at " evaporation during the first official experiment
fell short of the best yet attained in these trials (test No. 3) by only about one-half of 1 per
cent. On the other hand, the amount of steam consumed in spraying the oil was excessive,
being about I pound of steam per pound of oil, or several times as much as in test No. 3.
Apart from any question of furnace efficiency, the board considers that the combined use
of both air and steam in the burners is undesirable.¹ Such an installation involves un-
necessary expense and complication, and requires much more skill and attention in the
adjustment and manipulation of the burners.
The board gave particular attention to watching the operation of this burner, since
it is desirous of securing definite information upon the subject as to whether or not it was
advantageous to use a combination of both air and steam as the atomizing agent. The
inventor personally operated the burner, and every effort was made to reduce the amount
of air and steam used for spraying purposes.
It is by a process of eliminating undesirable classes of burners that the best form can
be secured, and therefore the board has no hesitation in stating that further experimenta-
tion with the combined air and steam burner should not be made.
Thermal Efficiency not Increased by the Use of Steam.
There is quite a widespread misconception regarding the part that the steam which
is used for atomizing purposes plays in effecting combustion. It is supposed by many
that after atomizing the oil the steam is decomposed and that the hydrogen and carbon
are again united, thus producing heat and adding to the heat value of the fuel. While
it may be true that the presence of steam may change the character and sequence of the
chemical reaction, and result in the production of a higher temperature at some part of
the flame, such an advantage will be offset by lower temperatures elsewhere between the
grate and the base of the stack. All steam that enters the furnace will, if combustion
is complete, pass up the stack as steam, also carrying with it a certain quantity of waste
heat. The amount of this waste heat will depend upon the amount of steam and its tem-
perature at entrance of the furnace. The quantity of available heat, measured in thermal
units, is undoubtedly diminished by the introduction of steam. In an efficient boiler it
is quantity of heat rather than intensity that is wanted. For many manufacturing pur-
poses intensity of heat may be of primary importance, but in a marine steam generator a
local intense heat is objectionable on other grounds than those of economy, viz., its
liability to cause leaky tubes and seams from the unequal expansion of heating surfaces.
Information Already Obtained.
It is believed that expert engineers will be able to make important deductions from
the trustworthy data that have been so carefully collected. The tables should be carefully
studied in connexion with the information secured during the coal tests, and the board
enjoins that the two reports be studied together.
The following information has undoubtedly been secured—
(a) That oil can be burned in a very uniform manner.
(b) That the evaporative efficiency of nearly every kind of oil per pound of com-
bustible is probably the same. While the crude oil may be rich in hydrocarbons, it also
contains sulphur, so that, after refining, the distilled oil has probably the same calorific
value as the crude product.
This does not agree with other experience, as for example that of the Great Eastern Railway, England,
-AUTHOR.
336
APPENDIX
(c) That a marine steam generator can be forced to even as high a degree with oil as with
coal.
(d) That up to the present time no ill effects have been shown upon the boiler.
(e) That the firemen are disposed to favour oil, and therefore no impediment will be
met in this respect.
(f) That the air requisite for combustion should be heated if possible before entering
the furnace. Such action undoubtedly assists the gasefication of the oil product.
(g) That the oil should be heated so that it could be atomized more readily.
(h) That when using steam higher pressures are undoubtedly more advantageous
than lower pressures for atomizing the oil.
(i) That under heavy forced-draught conditions, and particularly when steam is used,
the board has not yet found it possible to prevent smoke from issuing from the stack,
although all connected with the tests made special efforts to secure complete combustion.
Particularly for naval purposes is it desirable that the smoke nuisance be eradicated in
order that the presence of a war ship might not be detected from this cause. As there
has been a tendency of late years to force the boilers of industrial plants, the inability
to prevent the smoke nuisance under forced-draught conditions may have an important
influence upon the increased use of liquid fuel.¹
(j) That the consumption of liquid fuel can not probably be forced to as great an extent
with steam as the atomizing agent as when compressed air is used for this purpose.
This is probably due to the fact that the air used for atomizing purposes, after entering
the furnace, supplies oxygen for the combustible, while in the case of steam the rarefied
vapour simply displaces air that is needed to complete combustion.
(k) That the efficiency of oil fuel plants will be greatly dependent upon the general
character of the installation of auxiliaries and fittings, and therefore the work should only
be entrusted to those who have given careful study to the matter, and who have had ex-
tended experience in burning the crude product. The form of the burner will play a very
small part in increasing the use of crude petroleum. The method and character of the
installation will count for much, but where burners are simple in design and are con-
structed in accordance with scientific principles, there will be very little difference in their
efficiency. Consumers should principally look out that they do not purchase appliances.
that have been untried and have been designed by persons who have had but limited ex-
perience in operating oil devices.
Necessity of Permitting Unofficial or Preliminary Trials.
Between the several official tests there are invariably conducted a number of un-
official trials, and by reason of this experimentation valuable suggestions are received.
Those who have received permission to instal their appliance find that it is quite a
different matter to apply it to a boiler that is capable of developing 2,000 horse-power
from what it was to instal it on some boiler that supplied steam to a small vessel or medium-
sized manufacturing plant.
Up to the present time no firm has been able to tell the board the best manner in which
their device should be operated. In fact, the details of installation of every burner yet
tested are quite different when completed from that projected at the beginning of the
test. The two or three days that are given to experimental trials invariably furnish
surprises to the inventor. Probably no better illustration could be given of the lack of
definite knowledge in regard to the correct way of operating burners than has been shown
during these experiments. The experience of the board in this particular respect shows
the necessity of having some disinterested experts conduct an extended series of tests to
determine the guiding principles which should be followed in the burning of liquid fuel.
There has been sufficient evidence already produced to prove that in all probability special
1 The Hohenstein boiler does not appear specially favourable for smokelessness.-AUTHOR.
337
Ꮓ
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
forms of burner will be required for different types of boilers. It can hardly be expected
that a burner which could do efficient and economical work in some small steam generator
would be equally applicable to the largest steam generators of the marine type.
In noting the evaporative efficiency secured, it should be remembered that the ex-
perimental boiler was designed for actual Navy conditions, and that the limitations pre-
scribed by the Department as to height, weight, and floor space were of a severe nature.
There is not only considerable radiation from the boiler, but the proportion of heating
to grate surface is not as large as in land boilers. Taking these facts into consideration,
the results are exceedingly satisfactory. The engineering world is looking for comparative
results from the series of tests that are now being conducted, and trustworthy information
in this respect will be furnished.
An Oil Installation should be fitted to Boilers of several Torpedo Boats.
The information and data already secured warrants the immediate installation of oil
fuel appliances on two torpedo boats and two torpedo-boat destroyers, to test the adapta-
bility for use with water-tube boilers of bent-tube type. The installation could be effected
on boats of similar character, so that an earnest but friendly rivalry would be created
between the crews of the several vessels. There will come development and success by
boldly equipping several boats with different types of installation. The morale of the
torpedo-boat flotilla can be strengthened in no better way than by experimenting along
this line.
In all probability but one or two of the bent-tube types of boilers fitted in our torpedo
boats or destroyers will burn oil efficiently, unless extensive baffling is resorted to in the
furnaces so as to direct the products of combustion among the tubes. Extended tests
should be made with torpedo boats, to find out the best means of securing effective baffling,
and some junior officers of the line should accompany the Liquid Fuel Board on inspection
trips.
An Efficient Experimental Crew Secured.
The experience of the past two months has undoubtedly caused the crew of the
torpedo boat Rodgers to be well trained in the handling and operating of oil fuel devices.
This crew has been so well drilled and has been so receptive for information that they can
now quickly tell whether the burners are efficiently or properly regulated. By noting
the character and length of the flame, the colour of the escaping gases from the chimney,
the condition of affairs in the furnace and combustion chamber as observed through the
sight holes, the roar of the air as combustion takes place, and the appearance of the bridge
wall, they can quickly adjust the several valves and secure the best possible results. The
efficiency of the crew in this respect has been due in great part to the zeal, intelligence,
and ability of the commanding officer of the boat, Ensign John Halligan, junr.
The Experiments should be Conducted Entirely by Persons within the Navy.
The board desires to state that these experiments can not be conducted to the best
interest of the service without the aid of a Navy crew of firemen and observers. It is
essential that the board should be able to call upon such crew for either day or night work.
While most of the official tests are only of eight hours' duration, it requires several hours
properly to warm up the boiler and get things in good running shape. Then it requires
one or two hours after the completion of the test to secure the plant and guard against fire.
A civilian crew will only work eight hours, and then at stated intervals. They de-
mand extra compensation for overtime, and it is no easy matter to get them to stand up
to forced-draught conditions, particularly when the higher air pressures are used. A crew
of firemen that is changed from day to day, and who are apprehensive of their personal
338
APPENDIX
safety when forced-draught trials are made, can not be interested in the work. The experi-
ences of the Oil City Boiler Works for over a year in the conduct of the coal experiments
show excessive trouble, annoyance, expense, and delay, arising from attempting to use
such employees in experimental research.
The experimental crew must be under military control and discipline, and this can
only be secured by having some regular vessel of the Navy, regularly in commission,
assigned to duty in connexion with the experimental board.
(Signed)
JOHN R. EDWARDS,
Lieutenant-Commander, U.S. Navy.
WYTHE M. PARKS,
Lieutenant-Commander, U.S. Navy.
FRANK H. BAILEY,
Lieutenant-Commander, U.S. Navy.
The CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF STEAM ENGINEERING.
339
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Num-
ber of
trial.
1
2
3
Summary of tests of Hohenstein marine
Date of trial,
1902.
Duration
of trial
(hours).
Kind of fuel.
Oil burner used.
State of weather.
4
5
6
6
123H5ON8
June 11
6
Beaumont oil
O. C. B. W. (air)
Bright sunny day
30.02
June 12
4
do.
do.
do.
30
•
•
June 26
do.
do.
do.
29.70
4 June 27
do.
do.
Bright sun, few clouds
29.94
Aug.
Aug. 4-9
2
5
do.
do.
Bright sunny day
30.13
116
7
Aug. 15
Aug. 20
63
9
Sept. 12
6
10
Sept. 19
do.
11
Sept. 20
12
Sept. 22
13
Sept. 13
14
Sept. 29
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
do.
do.
8
do.
웅웅​은 ​은은​응​은 ​은은
​do.
do.
(See log)
29.89
•
do.
do.
Thin fleecy clouds
30.10
do.
•
Smoky occasional
30.08
clouds.
do.
Hayes (steam)
Partly cloudy
30.16
O. C. B. W. (steam)
Thin clouds
30.20
do.
do.
do.
do.
30.18
Partly cloudy
30.05
Reed (air and steam)
Fair.
29.92
do.
Clear
29.96
Approximate fire room air pressure (inches
of water).
Number of trial.
Oil.
Weight of oil used during test
(pounds).
Weight of steam consumed directly
or indirectly in spraying oil, in the
latter case assuming 34 evapora-
tion units per hour per indicated
horse-power.
Quality of steam.
Steam.
Percentage of moisture in steam,
100-100 × 21).
to
fed
water
boiler, pounds (corrected for in-
equality of water level and steam
pressure at beginning and end
Total weight of
of test).
eva-
porated into dry steam (pounds),
(26) × (24).
Equivalent weight of water
Water.
Summary of tests of Hohenstein marine
Factor of evaporation, (H-h)÷965·7.
Equivalent weight of water evapo-
rated into dry steam from and at
212°F. (pounds), (27) × (28).
1
10
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
39
31
Economic
results.
Feed water
per pound
(pounds), (26)÷(22).
of
oil
Equivalent evaporation from and at
212°F. per pound of oil (pounds),
(29)÷(22).
12345678
1.3 10,584
2,820
0.983
1.7
2.3
9,180 3,770
.980 2
0
6,122
827
.984 1.6
117,976
96,928
78,000
3.3
8,602 2,550
.981 1.9
88,604
0
4,668 1,153
.986 1.4
58,529
0
96,517 18,240
.985 1.5
1,192,482
0
9,089 7,800
.995 .5
3.75
9,909 3,950
.988 1.2
104,631
92,997
9
3,600 2,524
.991
.9
43,761
115,960 1.159
94,980 1.177
76,740 1.151
86,915 1.161
57,700 1.151
1,174,500 1.160
104,100 1.160
91,870 1.161
43,367 1.153
11.73
66,380 12.54 14.22
1,363,000 12.36
120,780
106,690
134,400 11.15 12.70
111,800 10-56 12-18
88,330 12.74 14.43
100,900 10-30
14.12
11.52
13.29
9.39
10.77
50,000 12-16
13.89
10
0
7,360 3,412
.995
.5
85,791
11
0
8,257 4,252 .994
.6
96,469
12
0
8,974
5,305 .995
·5
105,547
13
0
7,692
8,166 .996
14
0
9,216
6,838
.998
.2
خرفه
.4
95,605
112,115
85,350 1.162
95,880 1.160
105,020 1.160
95,310 1.158
111,890 1.159
99,170 11.65
13.47
111,190 11.68 13.45
121,840 11.77
110,370 12.43
13.58
14.35
129,570 12.17
14.06
7
མ
Height of
barometer
at noon.
340
APPENDIX
Economic results.
water-tube boiler burning oil.
Pounds of steam used in spraying oil
per pound of oil, (23)÷(22).
Steam used in spraying oil (per cent.
of total steam generated), (23)÷
(26) × 100.
Cubic feet of free air used in spray-
ing oil per pound of oil sprayed.
Oil per hour (pounds), (22)÷(3).
8
Steam pressure by
gauge; corrected for
water level (pounds
per square inch).
Pressure of medium
used for spraying
oil (pounds per
square inch).
Fire room.
6
water-tube boiler burning oil.
Average pressures.
Draft pressure in inches of water.
Furnace.
Combustion
chamber.
Tube chamber.
Base of stack.
Revolutions of fan blower
per minute.
External air.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Air in fire room.
273.5
3.20 1.27
0.78 0.642
0.25 -0.49
327
85.4
121
(?)
273.5
4.62
2.31
1.55
1.38
.83
.50
423
86
121.5
(?)
704-6 120.7 413-7
779 103.2 413-7
273.5
.78
0
-15
-19
25
.35
0
79
106 102.5
503-6 128.5 413.7
273.5
3.37
3.25
2.60 2.02
1.25
.41
483
81
108
122
854 119 413.7
273.5
1.41
271.5
1.31
272.5 4.66
0
0
-15
–·20
28
.40
0
87
112
120
557
129 413.7
-.17
--23
.30
-
.46
0
79 112
|
113.5
585
119.4 413.1
60.-
-.13
21
-
.54
0
77.6
120
161
747
119.7 413.4
1
276
4.68
3.75
3.40
2.30
1.86
M
-53
506
82
115
136
1,017
119 414.5
273.5 32
0
-.20
-.20
20
-38
0
75
86
(?)
449
127 413.7
273.1 ! 29.9
-.20
-.20
·28
09.
69
98
444.4
596
118.3 413.6
273.7 61.4
-14
-.20
.28
.53
77
106
408.2 628
120.2 413-8
274.2
91
-.14
-
-·16
21
-
- ·53
0
77
103
401
661
119.6 414.0
276.7
92
-.15
-15
.20
.45
80.4
99.4 375
578
121.9 414.8
277.4
68
-.097
-10
—
·20
·50:
85.4 111.5 416
645
120.8 415.0
Oil per hour per horizontal square foot
of furnace (pounds), (35)÷50.14.
Fuel per hour.
Oil per hour per square foot of heat-
ing surface (pounds), (35)÷÷21.30.
Steam consumed in spraying oil
(pounds per hour), (23)÷(3).
Feed
water per
hour (pounds),
(26)÷(3).
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
Water per hour corrected for quality
of steam (pounds), (27)÷(3).
0.303 2.39 34.3
1,764
35.15
0.83
535
19,663
19,327
22,400
447
10.5
.474 3.89 37.4
2,295
45.8
1.08
1,088
24,232
23,745
27,975
558
13.1
.153 1.06
62.8
765
15.25
-36
117.5
9,750
9,593
11,041
220
5.18
337
2.88 36.7
2,867
57.2
1.35
967
29,535
28,972
33,633
671
15.8
.280
1.97 70
933.6 18.6
·44
262
11,706
11,540
13,276
265
6.23
.216
1
1.53
55.4
832 16.6
-39
179.5
10,280
10,125
11,750
234
5.52
.990
7.45
78.3
1,515
30.2
.71
1,501
17,447
17,360 20,137
402
9.45
.458 4.25 36
3,303
65.9
1.55
1,511
31,001
30,629
35,560
709
16.7
.701 5.77
0
600
11.97
-28
421
7,294
.464 3.98
0
920
18.34
.43
427
.515 4.41 0
1,032
20.57
.48
532
-591
1.062
5.03
0
1,122
22.35
.53
663
8.54
81.4
962
19.15
.45
1,021
.742 6.09
78
1,152
22.95
.54
855
7,228
10,724 10,669
12,057 11,985 13,899 277
13,193 13,128 15,230
11,951 11,914 13,796
14,014 13,986 16,196
8,333
166
3.91
12,396
247
5.82
6.52
303
7.15
275
6.48
323
7.60
Water per hour.
Equivalent evaporation from and
per hour (pounds),
at 212°F.
(29)÷(3).
Equivalent evaporation from and at
212°F. per hour per horizontai
square foot of furnace (pounds),
(41)÷ 50.14.
Equivalent evaporation from and at
212°F. per hour per square foot
of heating surface (pounds), (41)
÷21.30.
Average temperature (Deg. F.).
used
spraying oil.
Medium
in
Chimney gases.
Feed water entering
boiler.
Steam at gauge pres-
sure(8), from steam
tables.
341
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Loss due to heat carried away
in dry chimney gases.
Loss due to incomplete com-
bustion of carbon.
Other losses-due to uncon-
sumed hydrogen, to heating
moisture in air, to radiation,
etc., by difference.
Heat value of one pound of
oil, calculated from chemi-
cal analysis.
Heat balance, or distribution of the heating value of the oil.
In British thermal units.
In percentages of the total heating value of the oil.
Number of trial.
Approximate fire room air pressure (inches
of water).
Carbonic acid, CO₂ (per cent).
Oxygen, O (per cent).
Carbonic oxide, CO (per cent).
Nitrogen, N (per cent. of difference).
Summary of test of Hohenstein marine water-tube boiler burning oil.
Chimney gas analysis.
Heat balance, or distribution of
the heating value of the oil.
In British thermal units.
Pounds of dry chimney gas per pound of
carbon. [11(44) +8(45) +7(16) +7(47)]÷[3
(44)+3(46)].
1
10
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
analysis.
Percentage of carbon in oil by chemical
12345C7
1.3
6.97
8.77 1.50
82.76
28.99
83.26
24.1
12,250
1,440
2.3
6.96
9.20
1.20
82.64
30.11
83.26
25.1
11,760
1,480
0
7.24
10.2
.425
82.135
32.15 83.26 26.8
13,930
1,350
3.3
7.50
10.4
.3
81.80
31.64
83.26 26.4
11,320
1,540
7.70
10
•
13
82.17
31.54
83.26 26.3
13,720
1,370
6
7.68
10.25
90·
82,01
31.91
83.26
26.6
13,620
1,390
10.1
6.64
275
82.985
24
83.26
20
12,830
1,470
3.75
7.87
9.66
-22
82.25
30.54 83.26
25.4
10,400
0
1,620
6
5.5
13.05
.27
81.18
10
6.99 11.05
·013 81.95
42.47
35.16
83.26
35.4
13,413
58
1,366
83.26 29.3
13,008
77
1,445
H23L
7.47
10.66
·086 81.78
32.64 83.26 27.2
12,989
79
1,458
12
8.44
9.29
.014 82-26
29.29
83.26
24.4
13,114
93
1,470
13
8.70
9.85
075 82.37
31.70
83-26
26.4
13,857 125
1,481
14
8.53
9.04
-05
82.38
28.85
83.26
24
13,578 112
1,465
Heat absorbed by boiler.
Loss
anp
to superheating
steam used in spraying oil.
Loss due to moisture formed
by the burning of hydrogen.
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
3,375
1,495 921 19,481 62.8
3,925 1,242 1,074 19,481 60.3 0
2,565 469 1,167 19,481 71.5
4,720 326 1,575 19,481 58.1
2,800 141 1,450 19,481 70-4
3,020 66 1,385 19,481 69.9
2,945 224 2,012 19,481 65.8
5,480 230 1,751 19,481 53.4
0
7.4
17.3
1
7.7
4.8
62.8
61.3
666
7.6
20.1
6.4
5.6 60.3
58
666
6.9
13.2
2.4
6
71.5
70.7
124
7.9
24.2
1.7
8.1
58.1
56.4 666
7
14.4
·7 7.5
70.4
69 275
7.5
7.1 15.5
15.1
.3 7.2
69.9
68.8 348
1.2 10.4 65.8
60.9 642
8.3
28.1
1.2
2,990 395 1,259
19,481 68.9
3
6.9
15.4
2
96
53.4
51.1 642
6.5 68.9
64.9 180
3,500
16 1,435 19,481 66.7
.4
7.4
18
.1 7.4 66.7
64.1 500
3,410
97 1,448
19,481 66.7 ·4
7.5
17.5
.5 7.4
66.7
63.8 500
3,270
14 1,511
19,481 67.3 .5
716
16.8
.1
7.7
67.3
63.9
500
3,000
82
986
19,481 71.1
9.
7.4
15.4
.4
5.1
71.1
65
165
3,070
49 1,207
19,481 69.7 .6
7.5
15.7
·3
6.2
69.7
65.4
664-408
Loss due to heat carried away
in dry chimney gases.
Loss due to incomplete com-
bustion of carbon.
Other losses--duc to uncon-
sumed hydrogen, to heating
moisture in air, to radiation,
etc.
× 100%(58).
Of boiler (per cent.), [(51)÷(57)]
Of boiler and furnace (per cent.).(64)
X
--T
[1
(33)
100
Square inches of draught opening.
Efficiency.
Pounds of dry chimney gas per pound of
oil, (48) × (49).
Heat absorbed by the boiler.
(31)+965.7.
SSOT
due to
superheating
steam used in spraying oil.
Loss due to moisture formed
by the burning of hydrogen.
342
Appendix No.
No. 4
LLOYD'S REGISTER OF BRITISH AND FOREIGN SHIPPING
Rules for the Burning and Carrying of Liquid Fuel
The following rules for steel vessels have been approved :-
1. In vessels fitted for burning liquid fuel, the record "Fitted for Liquid Fuel " will
be made in the Register Book.
2. The compartments for carrying oil fuel must be strengthened efficiently to
withstand the pressure of the oil when only partly filled and in a seaway. They must be
tested by a head of water extending to the highest point of the filling pipes or 12 feet
above the load line, or 12 feet above the highest point of the compartment, whichever of
these is the greater.
3. If peak tanks or other deep tanks are used for carrying liquid fuel, the riveting of
these should be as required in the case of vessels carrying in bulk. The strengthening of
these compartments must be to the Committee's satisfaction.
4. Each compartment must be fitted with an air-pipe, to be always open, discharging
above the upper deck.
5. Efficient means must be provided by wells and sparring or lining to prevent any
leakage from any of the oil compartments from coming into contact with cargo or into the
ordinary engine-room bilges.
6. If double bottoms under holds are used for carrying liquid fuel, the ceiling must
be laid on transverse battens, leaving at least two inches air space between the ceiling
and tank top and permitting free drainage from the tank top into the limbers.
7. The pumping arrangements of the oil-fuel compartments and their wells must be
absolutely distinct from those of other parts of the vessels and must be submitted for
approval.
If it is intended to sometimes carry oil and sometimes water ballast in the various
compartments of the double bottom the valves controlling the connexion between
these compartments and the ballast donkey pump, and also those controlling the
suctions of the special oil pump, must be so arranged that the suctions for each separate
compartment cannot be connected at the same time to both pumps.
8. No wood fittings or bearers are to be fitted in the stokehold spaces.
9. Where oil-fuel compartments are at the sides of, or above, or below the boilers,
special insulation is to be fitted where necessary to protect them from the heat from the
boilers, their smoke boxes, casings, etc.
10. If the fuel is sprayed by steam, means are to be provided to make up for the fresh
water used for this purpose.
11. If the oil fuel is heated by a steam coil the condensed water should not be taken
directly to the condenser, but should be led into a tank or an open funnel mouth, and
thence led to the hot well or feed tank.
12. The above arrangements are applicable only to the case of oil fuel, the flash
point of which, as determined by Abel's close test, does not fall below 150° Fahrenheit.
NOTE. The foregoing alterations and amendments also apply to the Rules for Iron Vessels.
By order of the Committee,
71, FENCHURCH STREET, E.C.
December 18th, 1902.
A. G. DRYHURST,
Secretary.
343
Appendix No. 5
RULES AND PERMITS OF VARIOUS AMERICAN BOARDS OF FIRE
UNDERWRITERS
N.B. For use in Cities, or where it is impracticable to place the supply tank fifty
feet or more from the building.
CRUDE PETROLEUM FUEL PERMIT
In consideration of the following conditions, it being warranted by the assured that the
apparatus shall be maintained as conditioned below during the life of this policy, permission
is hereby granted to use Crude Petroleum for fuel.
CONDITIONS
(a)-Supply tank to be substantially constructed
of three-sixteenths inch, or heavier iron,
and equipped with indicator and man-hole;
(b)—To be under ground, and
(c) -Below the lowest point at which the oil is
burned;
(d)-To be enclosed in a brick vault of substantial
construction;
(e)—To be located OUTSIDE all buildings; and
(/)-Entirely free from the FOUNDATION of any
building;
(g)-Filling pipe to be perfectly closed, except when
used in filling ;
(h)-A vent pipe, not less than ONE and ONE-
HALF INCH diameter, to be attached to
tank ;
(i) —To extend at least FIVE FEET HIGHER than
adjacent buildings;
(j)—Top to be made weather proof;
(k)-Oil to be conveyed DIRECTLY from SUPPLY
TANK to FURNACE by an approved
duplicate system of AUTOMATIC PUMPS;
(1)—All connexions to be made perfectly tight, with
well-fitted joints.
(m)—The feeding of oil by gravity pressure, whether through a stand-pipe or other-
wise, is strictly prohibited.
(n)—Where storage tank for holding reserve supply of fuel oil is situated so that
top of tank is above the level of the atomizers at furnace, it is prohibited to connect same
with supply tank by any pipes whatever.
This form attaches to, and is hereby made a part of Policy No.
of the..
•
UNDERWRITERS' AGENCY OF LOUISIANA,
NEW ORLEANS, L.A.
•
Insurance Company of
...Agent.
N.B. For use in the County, or where it is practicable to place the supply tank fifty
feet or more from the building.
CRUDE PETROLEUM FUEL PERMIT
In consideration of the following conditions, it being warranted by the assured that the
apparatus shall be maintained as conditioned below during the life of this policy, permission
is hereby granted to use Crude Petroleum for Fuel.
344
APPENDIX
CONDITIONS.
(a)-Supply tank to be substantially constructed
of three-sixteenths inch, or heavier iron,
and equipped with indicator and man-hole;
(b)-To be under ground, and
(c) -Below the lowest point at which the oil is
burned;
(d)-To be fifty feet or more from any building;
(e)—Filling pipe to be perfectly closed, except when
used in filling ;
(ƒ)—A vent pipe, not less than ONE and ONE-HALF
INCH diameter to be attached to tank;
(g)-To extend at least FIVE FEET ABOVE the
ground;
(h)—Top to be made weather proof;
(i)-Oil to be conveyed DIRECTLY from SUPPLY
TANK to FURNACE by an approved
duplicate system of AUTOMATIC PUMPS ;
(j)—All connexions to be made perfectly tight, with
well-fitted joints.
(k)—The feeding of oil by gravity pressure, whether through a stand-pipe or other-
wise, is strictly prohibited.
(1)—Where storage tank for holding reserve supply of fuel oil is situated so that top
of tank is above the level of the atomizers at furnace, it is prohibited to connect same with
supply tank by any pipes whatever.
This form attaches to, and is hereby made a part of Policy No..
of the.
• •
•
. Insurance Company of
UNDERWRITERS' AGENCY OF LOUISIANA,
NEW ORLEANS, L.A.
....Agent.
No. 1-TEXAS FORM.
PERMIT TO USE CRUDE PETROLEUM FOR FUEL IN STEAM PLANTS
Permission is granted to use Crude Petroleum, or earth oil, for fuel for generating
steam on the premises described in this policy under the following conditions only, the
strict observance of which is hereby warranted by the assured, otherwise this entire
policy shall be null and void:
(1) The tank for storage of oil supply shall be of boiler iron, or No. 18 galvanized iron
or steel, having proper ventilation at top, and shall be located not less than 50 feet from
the risk described, if wholly underground, or 100 feet if wholly or in part above ground, in
which latter case tank shall be enclosed by a substantial brick or stone wall, or earth
embankment, of sufficient capacity to hold contents of tank in event the oil is released
from any cause; and in every case tank shall be so placed that the highest point in said
oil supply shall be lower than the furnace where such oil is to be burned or converted for
burning.
(2) Where the oil supply does not exceed 50 gallons, tank shall be underground, or
encased above ground in a brick vault with 8-inch walls, having proper ventilation at top,
and in every case located outside of building described; tank to be so placed that top of
tank shall be lower than the furnace where such oil is to be burned or converted for
burning.
(3) The conveying of oil to furnace shall be by artificial pressure or suction, whether
by pump, vacuum or other means that will accomplish the purpose. This expressly pro-
hibits the feeding of oil by gravity pressure, or by other means from a storage supply
higher than the furnace; provided, that oil may be fed to burners at furnace, under a
maximum pressure of eight pounds to the square inch, from an iron stand-pipe-having
a maximum capacity of five gallons-located at storage tank, and supplied from storage
tank by pump while oil is being conveyed to furnace. Stand-pipe shall have an overflow
pipe (with capacity equal to discharge of pump) to storage tank, and shut-off cock where
supply-pipe leaves stand-pipe for furnace.
This permit is attached to and made part of Policy No..
of the...
Insurance Company of
UNDERWRITERS' AGENCY OF LOUISIANA,
NEW ORLEANS, L.A.
...Agent.
345
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
No. 2-CHICAGO FORM-Amended.
RULES GOVERNING THE USE OF CRUDE PETROLEUM FOR FUEL
Permission is granted to use Crude Petroleum, or earth oil, for fuel for generating
steam on the premises described in this policy under the following conditions only, the
strict observance of which is hereby warranted by the assured, otherwise this entire policy
shall be null and void :-
VAULT
Vault to be located so that the oil it contains can
burn out without endangering property.
Location of vault to be left to the approval of an
authorized inspector. Distance from any property
to be regulated by the size of tanks.
Vault to be underground, built of brick or con-
crete, sides and ends to be at least 16 inches thick
and to be made practically water-tight with hydrau-
lic cement; bottom to be dished toward centre and
inclined to one end, so as to drain all overflow or
seepage to that end, said incline to be towards the
end from which the tank is to be tapped; top to be
supported with heavy iron I" beams, with arches
of solid brick or concrete sprung from one beam to
its neighbours.
(C
Vault to be accessible by one or more large
manholes, which, when not in use, are to be kept
securely locked, key to be held by some responsible
party.
A trough must run from one end of the vault to
the other, directly under each tank, and in the same
direction as the tank or tanks.
The vault shall be air-tight as near as possible.
A siphon or pump to be arranged so as to carry
out any seepage or leakage from the vault, and dis-
charge same upon the ground.
TANK
3
16
8
Tank to be of substantial construction, say:
boiler iron or steel at least of an inch in thick-
ness, rivets to be not less than 3 of an inch in dia-
meter and not over 14 inches apart between centres;
the entire outer surface of tank to have two good
coats of coal tar or mineral paint before the tank is
placed in position.
Size and number of tanks to be left to the
Underwriters' organization having jurisdiction.
When tank is set, the bottom of the tank must
be three inches above the floor of the vault, and
must be in saddles of masonry not less than 8 inches
in thickness, built from the floor of the vault, and
laid in hydraulic cement, with an opening through
centre for drainage.
The filling pipe, telltale or indicator, pump
supply connexion, steam connexion and ventilating
pipe, where they connect with tank, must be made
petroleum-tight by the use of litharge and glycerine
cement. Man-hole should be at least 16" in diameter
with a vapour-proof screw top, contact surfaces to
be faced.
4
Flanges to make tank 3 of an inch in thickness
to be riveted so as to furnish a satisfactory joint
where pipe connexions are made.
2
Filling pipe connexion must have gas-tight
valve which must be kept closed and locked unless
the tank is being filled. Each tank must have a
ventilating pipe at least 1½ inches in diameter, so
arranged that the outlet be weather-proof and
project into the air at least 10 feet, so that all the
gases that form in the tank will be constantly dis-
charged.
Tank must have indicator to show at all times
height of oil in tank.
All pipes leading from the tank to the furnaces
or place of burning must incline toward the tank,
and must be so constructed that the feed-pipe from
pump to burners shall be entirely below burners.
PUMPING SYSTEM
All systems of delivering fuel to furnaces should
be so arranged that oil will be fed automatically to
the atomizers in such quantities as may be required
for burning-oil to be freed from mechanical impur-
ities and from the time it leaves the tank until it
escapes to the furnace the oil is not to be exposed
to the atmosphere-this is intended to prohibit the
feeding of oil by gravity pressure whether through
a stand-pipe or by any other method.
All systems shall have twin pumps, so that each
one can be used independently of the other.
All pipes between tank and furnace within the
building shall be placed within a box with movable
top, so as to be easily accessible.
The oil and steam pipes, if any, between the
supply tank and oil pumps shall parallel each other
and be placed in the same box.
This permit is attached to and made part of Policy No..
of the.
•
.Insurance Company of
UNDERWRITERS' AGENCY OF LOUISIANA,
NEW ORLEANS. L.A.
....Agent.
346
APPENDIX
BOARD OF FIRE UNDERWRITERS, OF THE PACIFIC
OFFICE OF DISTRICT" C "
LOS ANGELES, CAL.
Before any permit for the use of crude petroleum for fuel will be granted, an inspec-
tion of the premises must be made by a surveyor of the Board of Underwriters, and his
report must show that all the conditions hereinafter named shall have been complied
with.
No policy will be issued to cover on or in premises in which petroleum for fuel is used.
unless such permit is endorsed thereon, and additional premium charged at the rate of one-
quarter of one per cent. on the sum issued.
(A plant installed strictly in accordance with these specifications and under the
immediate supervision of the Board Surveyor will not entail the one-quarter of one per
cent. additional charge.)
After a plant has been approved by the Board Surveyor, any changes in its arrange-
ments without due notice, inspection and approval of same will invalidate former certifi-
cates.
Permission granted for the use of petroleum for fuel must be in the following words.
(See form of permit and conditions below).
Form of Permit to be Attached to Policy.
In consideration of the following conditions, it being warranted by the assured that
the apparatus shall be maintained as conditioned below during the life of this policy,
permission is hereby granted to use crude petroleum for fuel.
CONDITIONS.
(a)-Storage tank to be constructed of two-
sixteenth inch or heavier iron;
(b)-To be not less than four feet underground, and
(c)-At least two feet below the lowest point at
which the oil is burned;
(d)-Surrounded on all sides by at least two feet of
earth or masonry;
(e)-To be located outside all buildings, and
(/)-Not within five feet of the foundation of any
building;
(g)—Filling pipe to be perfectly closed, except when
used in filling;
(h)-A vent pipe not less than 3 inch diameter to be
attached to tank;
(i)-To extend at least 10 feet higher than adjacent
buildings;
(j)—To be covered at the top with copper gauze;
(k)-Petroleum to be forced directly from storage
tank to furnace by an improved pump;
(1)-All connexions to be made perfectly tight with
well-fitted joints;
(m)—All pipes, connexions, and pumps to be capable of
resisting a pressure of 300 lb. per square inch;
(n)—Storage tank to be connected with the boiler
by a steam pipe with shut-off cock;
(0)—Feed and overflow pipes not to exceed 2″ in
diameter;
(p)-To be run in such a manner that they will
drain into the storage tank;
(q)~Drain pipes to be not less than 1-4″ in diameter
(r)—Overflow and drain pipes to be free from all
check, spring or shut-off valves.
347
Appendix No. 6
EXTRACT FROM REPORT OF MR. SCHOEN ON OIL STORAGE
In Beaumont the point I was most struck with was the general difference in the
opinions given by various experts. In most instances I found their opinions very greatly
biassed by that particular class of industry they represented, although their statements
were made in perfect honesty. In many of the opinions obtained the statement of one
man of acknowledged standing was entirely opposite to that of another standing equally
as high as a man of experience and judgement, and it was rather a difficult matter to
arrive at the true conclusion to be derived from this mass of conflicting evidence. For
instance, one engineer considered an oil-tank fire a matter of small moment, and one which
he would not hesitate to put out by means of going on top of the tank with wet blankets
or other paraphernalia and smothering it, while another stated that no man with good
sense would attempt such a thing and that he would not go near a tank under such cir-
cumstances, but would shoot a hole, by means of a cannon kept for the purpose, through
the base of the tank, and allow the oil to escape into the surrounding reservoir and burn
itself out there.
Mr. McDowell, the general manager of the Guffey Oil Company, places great reliance
on the reservoir [or Moat] built around the tanks. He is a man of wide experience, and
states that one of the greatest dangers from this oil is that, when burning in a tank, it
becomes heated through and through and boils up like a yeast and is scattered over every-
thing near, and that, without the reservoir walls, property is endangered within a large
area adjoining the tank itself; but if the oil is allowed to run out and burn in a reservoir
having a depth of say 4 feet, this boiling will not occur and the oil will burn itself quietly
out without doing further damage. The only vital point on which Mr. McDowell differed
from the engineers' committee was the 500 feet requirement as to location of tanks near
the water front, as he thought that distance excessive, and that circumstances should
determine the location. The practice of his company was to leave a distance of 300 feet
from outside to outside of tanks, each tank being properly surrounded by its own levee.
Mr. Brown, of the Lone Star and Crescent Oil Company, did not think the 500 feet
space excessive; he was separating his tanks from each other 400 feet from outside to
outside, and surrounding each tank with suitable levees [Moats].
Mr. McFadden, of the Byrd Syndicate of London, was inclined to think the hazard
slight, and the 500-foot distance excessive. There were other opinions, unnecessary to
mention here, but none convinced the writer that there is any reason for changing the
500-foot space requirement..
I made flash-tests of the oil with an Eimer & Amend closed test apparatus. The flash
varied a good deal, according to the well from which the oil was taken. One test of oil
taken from a well and not opened until tested, showed a flash of 122 degrees F., while
another sample flashed at 91 degrees F., which was at the ordinary temperature, without
any fire being applied; and with the fire applied flashed freely and frequentlyafter passing
97 degrees F., the burning point being reached at 135 degrees F.
348
APPENDIX
On the subject of pipe lines the engineers at Beaumont agreed that they should be
constructed of wrought iron of standard oil pipe line thickness and dimensions, joints to be
threaded not less than eight to the inch (11 threads per inch is English practice) and
the line constructed to maintain a pressure of at least 1,200 pounds to the square inch,
a maximum pressure being allowed of say 300 pounds to the square inch-in other words,
allowing a factor of safety of four.
Pipes to be laid underground at such depth as to be unaffected by either heat or
cold and the equipment arranged to be drained back to the main tank and empty itself
when not in actual operation, such draining back to be through siphoning or pumps.
The connexions with the individual tanks for supplying boiler equipments not to be per-
manent, but in every instance to be connected up through double valves and a lose break
joint. This hose to be removed as soon as the small supply tank has been filled. The
idea is to have a regular time for filling these tanks and the attendant connected with the
pipe line company to go to each tank separately, connect up his hose length, open the
valve on the pipe line side and the one on the tank side, meter the oil passing into the
smaller tank, and when the proper volume has been supplied, shut off both the before-
mentioned valves and remove the section of hose. This avoids either hydrostatic or
hydraulic pressure.
At all times when the equipment is in service and the pipe line attendant not present,
there should be a blind cap for each end of the pipes where broken, the pipe from the pipe
line to the hose connexion to be arranged to drain back and a vent pipe connected thereto,
equipped with convenient hand valve in order that accumulating gases may be allowed to
escape. Several pipe line breaks had occurred, due to the accumulation and expansion
of these gases, and, therefore, at proper intervals, vent pipes should be installed.
Desulphurizing was being carried on by means of which the flash point of the oil is
raised before it is sent out as a fuel. This is a very important part of the process, as
otherwise the oil is liable to vary in flash from that of gasoline up to such point as may
have been reached through the volatilization of the lighter oils and drawing off of the gases,
which is, of course, largely dependent on the temperature to which it has been subjected,
and to what extent the oil has been handled and stored.
The desulphurizing process is in itself a simple one and merely consists in driving
off the more highly volatile oils in the shape of gases by means of a steam coil in the tank
containing the oil. It would seem that the German Admiralty requirement is 188
degrees F., the British Admiralty 270 degrees F., and the Lloyds 160 degrees F. Some
of the German Admiralty oil was being obtained at the time of my visit, and no trouble
whatever was found in obtaining the flash test of 188 degrees demanded.
As a further important reason for desulphurizing this oil and raising the flash test.
it has been found that the gases given off from the low flash oil attack the metals with
which they come in contact, forming sulphides. Thus, it was found that sulphide of
iron, sulphide of copper and sulphide of zinc had been formed, according to whether the
gases came in contact with iron or brass. Some of the oil men in the field had experienced
considerable trouble from this chemical action occurring, the metal principally affected
being that above the ordinary level of the oil, it being the part most in contact with
the gases.
349
Appendix No. 7
EXTRACTS FROM REPORT BY MR. SCHOEN ON INSTALLATIONS OF FUEL OIL
Accidents sometimes arise from failure to keep open the main damper connected with
the boiler equipment. The result of this had been an accumulation of gases in the fire
box, followed by explosions which had varied in the damage done from blowing a few
bricks out of the stack to blowing off the brickwork of the firebox and sides of the boiler.
In every instance it had resulted through carelessness and the damper being allowed to
fall shut or partially so. The necessary draught can be regulated through the doors at the
front of the furnace, and the writer thinks that it would be best to require either the
removal of the damper altogether or else that it should be strapped open permanently.
1
The questions of burners or jets is one so broad in its scope that after investigating
a large number of these the writer feels that it would be inadvisable to make any recom-
mendations or comments regarding them. Almost every engineer either using or installing
the apparatus has a different idea as to the burner, and who is right and who is wrong
must be left to time to determine.
Of course, it was found that the opinions of the various men using this apparatus
varied according to the equipment they had in service and their individual ideas. Some
felt that a standpipe was necessary to insure an even, steady feed; others considered it
quite unnecessary. Some thought a pop valve desirable for regulating the oil pressure
on the burners; others thought this unnecessary and that the regulation should be at
the pumps. Some considered steam heat necessary both in the tanks and in the base of
the pump in order to bring up the oil more readily, others thought this heat unnecessary
and that better service would be obtained through drawing the oil in at ordinary tem-
peratures; consequently I thought the wisest way of dealing with these matters would
be to go to the oil equipment manufacturers themselves and discuss every phase of the
situation with them, which was done in New Orleans, as will be stated further on in this
report.
At Dallas I met with the members of the Fuel Oil Committee of the Texas Fire Pre-
vention Association, and discussed the question of wood and also of cement tanks for
holding this oil. The chairman felt that such tanks should be permitted, but the writer
did not agree with him for reasons that will be indicated later on.
On the question of location of individual supply tanks under sidewalks the committee
did not feel that there were sufficient reasons to justify the underwriters in refusing to
permit equipments to be installed in this manner, and they also recommended that
overground tanks be permitted where the ground space and conditions justified this being
done. In other details they pretty well agreed with the Engineers' Committee as to
method of installing equipments.
350
APPENDIX
In New Orleans the matter of individual equipments was fully discussed with concerns
contracting for this class of equipment.
The general idea seemed to be that a small standpipe of say not exceeding 10 gallons.
capacity should be permitted, in order to bring about an even and steady feed to the
burners.
It was thought that a steam coil leading into the tank was quite unnecessary, and,
in fact, objectionable, for, although the oil was heated and would therefore flow more
readily in cold weather, at the same time the heat would be sufficient to drive off gases
which might prove troublesome. The manufacturers seemed to think this coil unneces-
sary in connexion with the class of oil being used. They all recommended, however,
that a free steam pipe be run into the tank for the purpose of extinguishing fire in case
of accident.
I found the oil pressure varying from 15 pounds as the lowest to 80 pounds as the
highest of the different equipments. The manufacturers agreed that a maximum limit
of 60 pounds would be ample for any equipment, this pressure to be controlled, not by a
pop valve, or arrangement on the oil pipe, but through the medium of a steam valve
most of which valves are operated by means of a spring and disc. The reason for the
pressure limit is that the apparatus is not ordinarily built to withstand excessive strain.
All were agreed as to the necessity for a duplicate system of pumps. There was no
exception to this whatever
Most of them felt that tanks having a maximum capacity of 12,000 gallons would
be quite satisfactory, the capacity mentioned being on account of the capacity of the
largest tank cars which I understand will be made as large as 12,000 gallons.
They did not feel that vaults were in any way necessary in connexion with the con-
struction of these tanks, but were strongly in favour as a whole of insisting on properly
constructed steel or iron tanks built of not less than -inch metal. A maximum
diameter of 8 feet was recommended, or 10 feet at the outside, this being in the interest
of strength.
16
As to burners, the Rockwell Company laid great stress on having a combustion
chamber at the point where the steam and oil jet enters the firebox.
Of course, the necessity for checkerwork for thoroughly dividing up and consuming
the gases goes without saying.
The question of burners, though thoroughly investigated, admits of little comment.
Some of them are arranged to mix the oil with the steam as they leave the jet, others have
a mixing chamber just before issuing from the jet to the furnace. I am inclined to think
that in this latter type of burner the method of bringing the steam and oil together
accounts for the extra high pressure used at the pump for forcing the oil through the opening,
the explanation lying in the fact that the back steam pressure at the end of the burner
has to be overcome by the oil.
With the increase in horse power required by the boiler there is generally an increase
in the number of burners, and limiting one burner to say 75 horse power, met with the
approval of most. Some objection was made on account of one form of burner, which,
instead of sending out steam and oil as a jet, spreads it out in the shape of a fan; I under-
stand this has been found suitable for over 200 horse-power, and calorimeter measurements
have proven the results entirely satisfactory.
My reason for wishing to limit the number of horse power to a burner was to prevent
throttling, as far as possible. With a single burner, as the demand on the plant decreases,
it is customary to throttle the fuel at the burner, and when too closely throttled, the fire
has been known to go out while the gas continued to accumulate under the boiler, causing
an explosion when re-ignited. If two or more burners are used, the burners will be shut
off at one time, and thus throttling to any very great extent is avoided. This point is
mentioned in the report as being desirable, but possibly not practicable at the present
time.
At each point visited I made a flash test of oil procured from plants in actual operation.
351
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
That is, a bottle was dropped into the tanks supplying the boilers, and the oil taken was
actually as used. The results were as follows:—
Galveston
Houston
Dallas
Dallas
•
New Orleans.
Beaumont
Flash Point. Burning Point.
Degrees F.
Degrees F.
120
105
158
96
140
87
•
118
122
91
128
Beaumont
It would seem that a properly constructed and operated pipe line or system would
be an ideal method of supplying the individual installations with oil. Such an arrange-
ment should prevent possible spilling and loss of oil in the streets and avoid the necessity
for large storage on the premises, do away with tank cars standing about the premises,
and with various other possible dangers and annoyances that would be incident to the
usual method of supplying the oil; and while every restriction should be imposed tend-
ing to the careful installation and equipment of these lines to prevent possible breakage
and waste of oil in the streets, if this is done the advantages accruing would appear to
overbalance the disadvantages of such installations.
Outside of its being readily changed into gas, a dangerous feature of oil over coal is its
liquid state. A large volume of it, if not properly safeguarded, and cut off carefully from
other than its own proper limits, would be liable, in case of accident, to flow over a large
area, carrying destruction with it, and especially if on water and flowing past the water-
front of a town. The ordinary fire fighting apparatus is worse than useless in such
emergencies and the hazard faced is conflagration rather than individual losses. There-
fore it behoves the underwriters and municipalities to see that all proper precautions
are taken where large storage tanks are erected, for by taking these precautions, every
possibility of danger may be removed.
The extent to which this ideal fuel will be used depends, of course, on the extent
of the oil fields, and the prices to consumers. At the present time oil is being sold at
Spindle Top as low as 3 cents per barrel, though the prices generally range from 10 cents.
to 20 cents per barrel.
According to Professor Denton, of Stevens' Institute of Technology, coal at $3 per
ton would be the equivalent of oil at from 58 cents to 85 cents per barrel, depending on
the grades of coal to which reference is had.
With these prices before us and having in mind the cleanliness and convenience of
handling, absence of smoke, etc., it is probable that, unless some unforeseen difficulties
arise, such as the decrease in yield at the fields, this fuel will become a factor in the com-
mercial prosperity of this country, and it is the part of wisdom to provide proper re-
quirements for safeguarding its use, in the beginning.
352
Appendix No.
No. 8
RULES AND REQUIREMENTS OF THE NATIONAL BOARD OF FIRE UNDER-
WRITERS FOR REGULATING THE HAZARD OF THE STORAGE AND USE
OF FUEL OIL, AND FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION OF
OIL BURNING EQUIPMENTS, AS RECOMMENDED BY ITS COMMITTEE
OF CONSULTING ENGINEERS, EDITION OF 1902
Fuel oil is a term applied to oils having numerous variations as regards source of
origin, composition, manufacture and flash point. The latter chiefly interests the fire
underwriters and governs the hazard. The objectionable and volatile gases should first
be driven off from the oil, and this chief danger thereby removed. These rules therefore
relate to such a safeguarded oil having a minimum flash test of 160° F.
CLASS A
Large Supply or Storage Tanks for Fuel or Crude Oil.
1. Capacity
Shall have a capacity not exceeding 37,500 barrels; 42 gallons * to the barrel, or
1,575,000 gallons. [1,312,500 imp. gals.]
Shall not exceed 30 feet.
3.
2. Height
Material
Shall be strongly built of steel or iron plates, properly riveted together having a
factor of safety of at least 4, and properly braced inside.
4. Top
Shall be provided with an air and water-tight top having a non-inflammable upper sur-
face, which shall be properly vented through a pipe not less than 6 inches in diameter.
This vent pipe to be provided with a copper screen.
5.
Location
α. Shall be so located as to leave a clear space of not less than 500 feet between it
and any burnable property, other than oil tanks, and shall be at the lowest point available.
b. Tank shall be located at least 500 feet back from the water front. (High water.)
town.
C.
When near a stream without tide, tank shall be located down stream from the
d. On tide-water, tank shall be located well away from the shipping districts.
6. Distance Between Tanks
The minimum distance between tanks shall be at least 300 feet.
* The American gallon of 83 lb. of water. The English or Imperial gallon-10 lb. of water.
353
A A
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
a.
7. Embankment
Each tank shall be surrounded by an embankment having a height of not less
than 4 feet, nor more than 6 feet.
b. To be firmly and compactly built of good earth, from which stones, vegetable
matter, etc., have been removed. To have a crown of not less than 3 feet and a slope of
at least 2 to 1 on both sides.
C.
To be provided with properly built steps where it is necessary to pass over the
embankment.
d. Reservoirs thus formed to have a capacity of at least one and one-half times that
of the tank surrounded.
a.
8. Steam Pipe
Each tank shall be equipped with an independent steam pipe for use in case of
fire, the outlet of which shall be inside the tank, above the surface of the oil.
NOTE. This pipe to be of ample capacity, but never smaller than inch.
b. Steam to be supplied from the boilers used in connexion with the pump or from
other boilers conveniently located.
9. Pumps
Pumps used in connexion with the supply and discharge of the tank shall be located
outside the reservoir walls and at such a point that they will be accessible at all times, even
if the oil in the tank or reservoir should be on fire.
α.
10. Pipe Connexions
All oil conveying pipes to be laid underground, but under no circumstances shall
they break through the reservoir walls.
The above rule does not apply to pipes passing under the reservoir wall and laid well
below the surface of the ground.
b. Separate pipes shall be used for discharging oil from and supplying oil to the tank.
11. Controlling Valves
α. There shall be a gate valve located at the tank in each oil conveying pipe. In
case two or more tanks are cross-connected there shall be a gate valve at each tank in eack
cross-connexion.
b. There shall be a gate valve in the discharge and suction pipes near the pumps, and
a check valve in the discharge pipe located underground.
12. Plans and Specifications
A complete set of plans and specifications of proposed installation shall be submitted
to the underwriters having jurisdiction before beginning construction.
CLASS B
Individual Oil-Burning Equipments. For other than Household Purposes
Apparatus using oil for fuel, however safeguarded, introduces a distinct increase in
hazard which should be recognized by underwriters.
Where used the following rules should be rigidly observed.
All oil used for fuel purposes under these rules shall show a flash test of not less than
160° F.
13. Tank Capacity
a. No single tank shall have a capacity in excess of 300 barrels ; 42 gallons to the
barrel, or 12,600 gallons. [10,500 imp. gals.]
b. Where the supply is taken from tank cars, two tanks shall be installed, each tank
to have a capacity equal to that of the tank car from which it is filled, but never in excess
of 300 barrels. Tank cars not to remain on the premises except when filling supply tank.
A tank should be shut off from the system while it is being filled and the pumps sup-
354
APPENDIX
plied from the second tank. The above rule provides sufficient capacity for this arrange-
See Rule 27 b.
ment.
C.
Where the supply is taken from tank wagon, a single tank having a capacity not
exceeding 300 barrels may be used.
α.
14. Location
Tanks to be located outside of the building, underground, at least 2 feet below
the surface, at least 30 feet removed from all buildings, and the top of the tank to be below
the level of the lowest pipe in the building used in connexion with the apparatus.
b. When owners prefer to put the tank in a vault (which would increase the danger
of a mixture of gas with air in a confined space and be liable to result in explosion by
ignition from lightning or otherwise) and the same is permitted by underwriters having
jusrisdiction, the tank shall be enclosed in a properly constructed vault and shall be con-
nected to moist ground to carry off lightning.
The following general rules of safety should be complied with in the construction
vaults for this purpose; vault to be underground, at least 30 feet removed from buildings,
built of brick or concrete, sides and ends to be at least 16 inches thick, to be made practi-
cally water-right; bottom to be of concrete, dished toward the centre and inclined to the
opposite end from which the tank is tapped; top to be supported with heavy “I” beams
with arches of brick or concrete.
A trough to run from one end of the tank to the other, directly under each tank, and
in the same direction as the tank or tanks. A siphon or pump to be arranged so as to
carry out any seepage or leakage, suction to be from a cesspool at lowest end. Vault to
be accessible through one or more man-holes, which, when not in use, are to be kept securely
closed and locked. Vault to be well ventilated and no open lights to be used.
C. When permitted by the underwriters having jurisdiction, tank may be located
above ground subject to the following conditions: It shall be located at least 200 feet
from burnable property; at the lowest point available; shall have a capacity not excced-
ing 1,500 barrels; top of tank shall be located below the level of the lowest pipe used in
connexion with the apparatus. It shall otherwise comply with the rules for large supply
tanks. See Rules 2, 3, 4 and 7 to 12 inclusive.
15. Materials
Tanks shall be built of iron or steel, having a thickness not less than 3-inch for tanks
buried in earth and 1-inch for above ground and vault tanks. To be sufficiently strong
to support the weight of the earth under which it is buried, and to withstand corrosion and
the most severe strains to which it is liable to be subjected in practice with a factor of
safety of at least 4. The shell of the tank to be properly reinforced where pipe connexions
are made.
16. Coating
Tanks shall be painted on the outside with a heavy coat of tar or other suitable material
impervious to the corrosive action of moisture and mineral salts contained in the earth.
17. Vent Pipe
Each tank shall be equipped with a vent pipe not less than 2 inches in diameter
attached to the top of tank and extending at least 10 feet above the ground. Vent pipe
to be provided with a weather-proof top.
18. Indicator
Each tank shall be equipped with a device indicating the level of the oil, installed in
suitable iron piping extending within 2 inches of the bottom of the tank.
19. Man Head
Shall be of metal, oil and gas-tight and securely bolted in position, to be kept tightly
closed except when cleaning or repairing the tank.
355
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
20. Filling-Pipe
Shall have a screw cap which shall be kept in place and tightly closed except when tank
is being filled.
21. Hose for Filling
Filling shall be through a section of hose suitable for the purpose, which shall be de-
tached from the filling pipe when not in service.
α.
Flexible metallic hose is recommended.
22. Oil Feed
Oil to be fed from supply tank to the burners by an approved duplicate system of
oil pumps. Pumps to be equipped with a pressure gauge for oil, and shall be so arranged
that either pump can be cut entirely out of service while the other is in use.
b. System shall be so arranged that the oil pressure cannot at any time exceed 60
pounds. This is to be accomplished by the automatic control of the pumps and an auto-
matic spring relief valve in the oil system. The relief valve to be arranged to return the
surplus oil back to the supply tank.
23. Gauge Glasses
Gauge glasses, the breaking of which would allow the escape of oil, are prohibited,
24. Receivers or Accumulators
α. If used, they must safely withstand a hydrostatic pressure test of 250 pounds per
square inch, maintained for 5 minutes. They shall be equipped with a thermometer,
proper oil strainers, and so arranged that the oil will automatically drain back to the supply
tank immediately upon closing down the pump.
b. The capacity of the oil chamber shall not exceed 10 gallons.
25. Stand Pipes
a. If used, their capacity shall not exceed 10 gallons.
b. To be substantially constructed in every respect, equipped with an overflow and
so arranged that the oil will automatically drain back to the supply tank immediately upon
closing down the pump.
26. Piping
a. . Standard wrought-iron pipe to be used, the same to be carefully protected against
mechanical injury. Fittings to be of heavy cast iron.
The pipe connexions to burners, particularly to forge shops, are often subject to
breakage, and should be installed so as to avoid injury.
Where flexible connexions to burners are essential, metallic hose must be used.
b. All pipes leading from the supply tank shall be so laid that they will drain back
to it, and all piping in connexion with the apparatus to be so arranged that it can be
drained back to the supply tank.
Where practicable, the latter should be arranged to operate in connexion with the
automatic drain from the accumulator or stand pipe. See Rules 24a and 25b.
c. Openings for pipes through outside walls shall be securely cemented and made.
oil-tight.
d. Fill and vent pipes leading to the surface of the ground shall be boxed or jacketed
to prevent loosening or breakage of connexions by frost.
e.
Overflow and return pipes to be at least one size larger than the supply pipe.
f. All connexions to be perfectly tight with well-fitted joints. Threaded joints to
be made with litharge and glycerine cement. Flanges, when used, to be faced and
packed with copper gaskets.
g. The entire system of piping must safely withstand a test of at least 200 pounds to
the square inch.
27. Shut-off Valves
α. A valve for cutting off the oil supply in case of accident shall be installed where
356
APPENDIX
readily accessible, and as near as practicable to the point where the supply pipe leaves
the tank.
b. When the oil supply is taken from two tanks the necessary valves and connexions
shall be installed for shutting off either tank while the other is being filled.
CLASS C
Oil Conveyors or Carriers
28. Steamers, Etc
a. Steamers, barges or vessels loading or discharging oil, whether having same in
bulk or otherwise, shall not load or discharge at wharves other than those used by the oil
company, and such wharves shall be well isolated from all burnable property or wharfage.
b. There shall be a gate valve immediately at the point in the pipe line where con-
nexion is made with the hose leading to the ship, for the purpose of shutting off the oil, and
there shall be another gate valve in this line of pipe, at a distance of at least 10 feet back
from the wharf, where it will be readily accessible for the purpose of shutting the oil off in
the event of failure on the part of the valve first mentioned.
C. A tight connexion shall be made with the hose length at the wharf by means of a
carefully threaded coupling, to prevent leakage and accumulation of oil around the piers.
2. Lights. No fire or open lights to be allowed on the vessel while at the wharf.
CLASS D
Apparatus for Cooking and Heating
The use of oil as fuel for domestic purposes is regarded from an insurance view-point
as much more hazardous than the use of ordinary fuel, such as coal, wood and coke.
Wherever equipments are installed the following general precautions should be
observed-
All oil used for fuel under these rules shall show a flash test of not less than 160° F.
29. Storage Tank.
α. Shall be located at least 30 feet removed from all buildings, underground where
possible, and below the level of the lowest pipe in the building used in connexion with the
apparatus.
b. If impracticable to bury the supply tank, the same may be installed in a non-
combustible building or vault (for danger of gas accumulation and ignition at vault see
Class b, Rule 14, Sec. b) 30 feet removed from all buildings, properly ventilated, preferably
from the bottom, always remembering that it must be below the level of the lowest pipe
in the building used in connexion with the apparatus.
C. To be constructed of iron or steel having a thickness not less than 3-inch for tanks
buried in earth and 1-inch for above ground and vault tanks, securely riveted together or
pressed into form. Tanks should be galvanized, or painted with rust proof paint.
d. To be provided with a fill pipe and a vent pipe.
30. Auxiliary Supply Tank
α. Shall, if inside the building, not exceed 1 gallon in capacity, and if outside the
building not exceed 5 gallons in capacity, except by special consent of the underwriters
having jurisdiction.
b. Shall be located at least 10 feet from the burners.
C.
Shall be provided with an overflow connexion draining to the storage tank and a
vent pipe leading outside the building, the latter to have a weatherproof hood.
d. To be constructed of brass, copper or iron, well put together and of sufficient
strength to withstand any usage to which it may be subjected in practice. Joints not to
rely entirely on solder.
e.
An oil pump to be used in filling the auxiliary from the storage tank.
357
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
α.
31. Piping
None but standard wrought iron or brass pipe to be used.
b. Connexions to outside tank shall not be located near nor placed in the same trench
with other piping.
c. Openings for pipes through outside walls shall be securely cemented and made
oil-tight.
d. Piping to be run as direct as possible and joints to be made as specified in Rule 26 f.
e. Piping for oil feed and overflow from auxiliary supply tank shall be installed with
a good pitch so the oil will drain back to the storage tank.
f. Fill and vent pipes leading to the surface of the ground shall be boxed or jacketed
to prevent loosening or breakage of connexions by frost.
g. A shut-off valve to be provided in the supply pipe near the burners and another
close to the auxiliary supply tank.
32. Installation of Burners
α. Overflow.-Burner shall be installed with overflow attachment so arranged that
any surplus oil will drain from the burner through a pipe, by gravity, into a reservoir
having capacity not less than that of the auxiliary tank, and to be supplied with a similar
vent.
b. Draught. The damper in the smoke pipe shall be permanently fixed wide open,
and any regulation of the draught accomplished through the dampers in front.
33. Instruction Card
A card giving complete instructions in regard to the care and operation of the system
to be permanently placed in the vicinity of the apparatus.
34. Construction of Burners, General Precautions
Owing to the apparently undeveloped condition of burners and appliances designed
to use oil for fuel, no detailed specifications covering safeguards in their construction can
be given at this time.
α. The size of the orifice through which the oil is supplied to the burners should be
limited to furnish only sufficient oil for the maximum burning conditions when the con-
trolling valves are wide open.
b. Burners containing chambers which allow the dangerous accumulation of gases.
are prohibited.
C.
Burners containing oil conveying pipes or parts subject to intense heat or subject
to stoppage from carbonization are prohibited.
d. Burners should be so designed that they can be easily cleaned and so arranged
as not to allow leakage of oil under any conditions.
358
Part IV
TABLES
TABLE V.
THE PROPERTIES OF GASES (KEMPE'S YEAR BOOK).
Required to burn one unit.
Nominal temperature of combustion.
Critical T° and Pressure (Atmospheres).
Temperature.
Lb.
Mole-
Lb. per
Cubic
Grams
Litres
Weight.
Volume.
Air.
Oxygen.
Heat generated by combustion of one
Cubic foot. Gram.
Litre.
Molecule.
Heat of formation
at 15°C. per Molecule.
Density of
Liquid.
Lower Limit.
Upper Limit.
Boil.
Fusion.
Specific Heat.
Water=1.
Molecular.
Name.
Symbol.
Density
H=1.
cular
Weight.
cubic
foot
feet.
per lb.
per
Litre.
per
Grara.
Air.
Oxygen.
Air. Oxygen.
F°.
C°.
F°.
Co.
B.Th.U.
B.Th.U.
Cal.
}
Cal.
Cal.
Constant
Constant
Cal.
T° C.
Absol.
Atmos.
T° C.
Atmos.
C°.
Cº.
Water=1.
Liquid.
Pressure.
Volume.
Pressure.
Volume.
Elementary Specific Heat
at High Temp.
Temp. Heat
of igni- of solu-
tion.
tion.
a *
023
Air
N76
14.44
·08073
12.385 1.29318
773
133
39
-192.2
-192.2
-933
.2375
.1686
.0010
X₁
Ammonia
•
NH3 8.5
17
·05324
18 783
.761
1.313
to CO
6.13
Diamond
12
to CO2
1.41
5.797 1.334
11.594
3.58
•750
2.667 S
Carbon C.
Graphite
Amorphous
:
to CO2
(to CO
{to CO2
Vapour
12
.06696
14.930 1.0727
932
9.54
2.00
6955
2753
3846
3762 2090 8278 4599
(2402 1317 6880 3804
4786
2659 17780 9879
4812 2673
2673.5 1485
4988
17875 9931
7725 4292
18440 10226
25752 14290
9666
3915
14146.5
14222
14415.9
14647
20461
514.6
5.371
2.175
4:087
91.3
(12.2 gas
403
115
-38.55
- 75
.636
Sol.
.508
·391
9.64 gas
7.6
8.51+00531 T.
4.4
·0071
16.6 liq.
15.1 liq.
7.85917
2.859173
26.1
·501
.1468
(11-3 at 1000°
3600
6.85 at
200°
94.31
3.342
•285
14.2 at 2000°
2.842
7.901
94.81
.2018
7.12 at
200°
18.8 at 3600°.
---503
2.4533
29.44
2.841
•2415
4.6 at
100°
2.1376
97.65
-3.343
-38.762
8.42+00144 T.
1370.5 11-367.
12.193
136.41
.285
6.85
-42.13
68.204
Carbon Dioxide
CO2
22
44
•12344
8.147 .967
.508
94.313
306
77
-78.2
-115
.83
216.9
171
8.40106 T.
97.652
Carbonic Oxide
CO
14
28
Carbon Bisulphide
CS₂
38
76 .21242
12.80
-07817
4.706 3.4058
1.2515
⚫800
.2947
2.484
•571
2.381
•500
3494
1923
12892
5.478 1.26 14.30
3.00
6590
3661 24271
per unitofC.
7144
13484
=10232)
4383
§
342.5
799-3
(5.684
12.436
{
7.105
13.047
68.2
9344
1985
5-197
17'66
394.5
1 29.42
{
26.13
137.5 35.5
-190
--207
245
.173
6.8
6.4+
0106T. J
4.8
19.1+0030 (F. 2000°
=25.1 at 4000°
4 8+·0032 (T.1600°)
5.6
·0084
.0010
(-25-4 gas
546
77.9
277.55 95.86
46.2 -116
1.298
-20884
.157
.130
(21.7 gas
-19.0
liq.
18.2 liq.
{10 +-0746 T. }
to 230°
Hydrogen
H2
1
2 .00559 178.83
·08961
11.16
34.785
8.000 2.39
·500
4813
(Water Vapour)
12108
2674
52290
( 293
29.15
2.611
58.3 gas
4.8+0032(T. -1600°
6727
at 32°F.
347
62100
34.50
3·091
69.0 liq.
39
20
-243
0714
3.410
234146
6.82
4.8
.0010
14.1 at 4500°
70.4 solid
Water Liquid.
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Steam
.
•
02
16
32 .08926 11.203 1.4298
.699
154.2 50.8
-181.4 -211+ 1.124
-217
.15481
6.95
4.95
4-95+00324(T. – 1600°)
0010
N₂
14
28 07845 12.763 1.25616
.796
| |
127
35
-194.4 -203
.855
•244
.173
6.83
48
4·8+·0032 (T.— 1600°)
·0010
H₂O
9
18 ·05022 19.912 .8047
.1242
Solid 70.4.
Liq. =69.0
Gas =58.3
per H₂
1·0 liq.
370
195.5 100
1.00
·504
-479
-370
8.65
6.65
16.2+038 (T.-2000°)
Solid
.900
16.2
Steam at 2,000°
H₂O
Steam at 4,000°
H₂O
1.32
23.8
Acetylene
C2H2
13
26
.07267
•
Benzine
Ethylene
Ethane
Methane
C6H6
39
78 .208
13-456 1.190
4.808 3 333
.840
30
13.378
13.378
3.077 11.93
3.077 35.80
2.500 6120
7.500 5022
3400 20340 11300
2790 16830 9350
21856
1624 12.142
14.46
( 18094
17930 3764
052
33.496
315.7
(784-1 gas
-58.1
310
-1.8 sol.
960
2776-9 liq.
-4.1 liq.
569.7
68
60.5
-85
81
.451
-373
9.7
580
5.3
34 liq.
80.8 4.5
·899
.43602
-3754
350
-11-3 gas
29.2 gas
(116°to 218°).
17.45+0798 T.
·0510
9.42 at 0
C 2H4
14
28
·07814 12.797 1.2519
.799
C2H6
15
CHA
8
30 •08565 11.950 1.3415
16 .04466 22.391 .7155
.746
1.397
14.903 3.428 14.30 3.000 5400
16.484 3.733 16.70 3.500 4354
17.392 4.000 9.54 2.000 4036
3000 16886 9381
2419 14848 8249
2245 14348
21927
22338
7971 24017
1744
1912
182
15.250
341.1
-14.6
283
51
-103 -169
·404
-332
9.42+0798 T.
0137
14.0 at 200
142410
16.641
372-3
23.3
307
50.2
-93
-151+
9.5
1073
1/3·342
9.547/
213.5
18.9
200
56.8
-164 -185.5
.415
-593
.468
100° to 200°}
616
667
Ethylene Chloride
C2H4Cl 49.5
99 .2767
3.631 4.4357
.22626
3.855
0.808 11.93
2.500 5144
2858
13179 7321
5490
1511.8
3.050
13.52
302-0
(34.4 gas?
283
84.9
128
.23
41 liq. S
=
Ethyl .
Methyl
C2H6O 23
46 .12857
7.775 2.061
.287
9.074
2.037 14.30 3.000
4630
2573 12583 6690 12744 1639.1
1779780
14.54
325.7
59.8 gas
235-39 66.78
69.9 liq. S
.60 liq.
78.3 -90+
.809
-320
CH₂O 16
32
·08926
11.203
1.4208
.699
6.521
1.500
7 15
1.500
4186
2325
10216
5675
9596
856.5
5.31
7.627
170.6
53.3 gas
て
​202-76 72.85
233
69.7
66.8
·814
66 liq.
61.7 liq.
.46 gas
50 gas
}
.451
!
Liq.=28.9+
·0044 T.
Gas
22.7 at 111°
to 211°
51.2 liq.
20.8°
(110°to 220°)
(21-4 liq.
14.7 gas
(101° to 225°)
2.5
Cyanogen
•
Glycerine
Blast Furnace Gas [CO]27 N65 (CO2)6 H2
Producer Gas [CO]25 (Sundry)15. [CO2]2'5
[CH4]2, N69
Water Gas [CO]76, [CH12. [Sundry]'s (CO2)10
N2'5
Coal Gas, H₂ [CH]57 [CO]₁5 N4, (Sundry)16
15
Natural Gas (CH4)90, N6, Sundry
C₂N2 26
C3H6O3
52 .1453
6.88 2.338
.427
5.348 1.23
92
18.148
S·100
9.54 2.000 6099
4.174 16.70 3.500
•22
3388
18222 10215 9086
1320-6
5.048
12.02
262.5
-73.9 gas
7.2
3.6
124
4000
2222
8078 4488
7770
2-68.5 liq.
161.7 liq.
14.317
397.2
61.7 -20.7 -40
290-4
17
.87
1.267
2.0
$6.8 gas
1.4
liq. S
5.4
165.6 sol.
( 1223 to
96.7
14+
-079
12.65 1.2515
·800
.82
.164
2160
1200
4500
2500
-700
2.721
.166
1237
97.8
.900
1.99
.21
( 3440
14+
-079
12.65 1.2515
.800
-721
.166.
2160
1200
1910 }
1265 to
100 to
773 to
9674 to
4500
2500
2530
200
1·370
1.713
4230 to
330 to
2.35 to
3:00 to
8
∞ +i ∞
8+
.045
22.5
.726
1.40
3.878
-788
4850
2700
5458
700
3.03
6.33
(The sign[+] indicates that the actual temperature
is lower than that given.
4.7
·032
31.6
.516
1.97
13.89
2.81
6.16 1.23
4500
2500
21400
685
11.9
6·099
.045
22.5
.726
1.40
15.00
3.06
4200
2333
24444
1160
13.58
10·6
NOTE.-Gases expand by heat to the extent of of their bulk at 0°C for each degree Centigrade, or of their bulk at
32°F. for each F.°.
* The specific heat of gases varies with the temperature, being greater for higher temperatures. At the absolute zero the values
Lechatelier therefore gives a formula for
of the molecular heat of all gases seems to converge at 6.5 for constant pressure values.
specific heat Cp 65+a T, where T is the absolute temperature Centigrade, and a is a co-efficient greater according to the com-
plexity of the molecule. For values of a see table. This has an important bearing on the theory of the gas engine.
(T=Temperature Centigrade.)
1
[Face p. 360.
1 From Graphite.
2 From Amorphous Carbon.
From
3 From Diamond.
From Carbonic Oxide.
:
Heavy Virginia
""
""
Ohio
Pa.
Gas Coal Oil
E. Galician
W. Galician
Java
Caucasian
Rangoon
•
Name.
TABLE I. Composition of Crude Oils.
C.
H.
0.
Sp. G.
Per deg. C.
Coeff. of Ex-
B.Th.U.Cal.
capacity.
pansion.
83.5
13.3
3.2
.873
.00072
10180
84.2
13.1
2.7
.887
-0.0748
10399
•
84.9
13.7
1.4
.886
·000721
10672
82
7.6
10.4
1.044
.00744?
8916
82.2
12.1
5.7
870
.000813
10005
85.3
12.6
2.1
885
.000775
10231
87.1
12.0
0.9
.923
.000764
10831
•
85.3
11.6
5.1
9405
·000696
83.8
12.7
3.5
875
·000774
TABLE II. Calorific Capacity of Liquid Fuel Oils.
Locality.
Fuel.
Sp. G. 0°C.
C.
H.
0.
Calorific Capacity:
Actual
Calculated
Calories.
Calories.
Russian
Pet. refuse
928
87.10
11.7
1.2
11018
Astatki
.90
84.94
13.96
1.2
10340
11626
Caucasus
Heavy crude.
938
86.60
12.30
1.1
11800
11200
American
Solid residuum
97.855
0.489
1.196
8057
Scotch
B. F. Oil.
920
83.64
10.59
9.458
10328
Penna
Canada
Alsace
Virginia
Alsace
•
TABLE III. Coefficient of Expansion of Crude Oils.
Sp. Gr. × 1,000.
Coefficient of
Expansion of Crude
Oil x 1,000,000.
Wallachia
E. Galicia
Rangoon
Caucasus
W. Galicia
Ohio
Baku
•
•
•
Hanover (Odesse)
Pechelbronn
Wallachia
Hanover (Oberg)
Hanover (Wiesse)
·
Dr. Engler.
816
840
828
843
829
843
841
839
861
858
862
808
870
813
875
774
882
817
885
775
887
748
800
784
892
772
892
792
901
748
944
662
955
647
Heavy viscous oils 0.0007 to 00-00072 between 20° and 78°C. = 68° to 172·4°F. containing Paraffin and
solid below 20°
00075 to 00081.
361
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
TABLE IV. Calorific Power of Crude Oil.
W. Virginia
Oil Creek, Pa.
Java
Baku
•
E. Galicia
W. Galicia
Parma
Schwabweiler (Alsace)
•
Sp. Gr.
Cal. capacity
Calories.
.873
10180
.816
9963
.923
10831
.884
11460
.870
10005
.885
10231
•
786
10121
•
.861
10458
TABLE VI. Temperature.
C°.
Fo.
Water freezes
0°
32°
Water boils
•
100°
212°
Absolute zero of temperature
Red heat in daylight
Iron red in dark
Bessemer furnace
Common fire
Copper melts
-273°
-459°
577°
•
1070°
400°
752°
2205°
4000°
595°
•
1100°
1232°
2160°
Lead
316°
600°
Tin
215°
420°
Steel
1371°
2500°
Grey cast iron melts
White
1100°
•
·
2012°
1050°
1922°
Mercury freezes
Carbon vaporizes
-40°
-40°
3600°
6512°
Aluminium
Copper
Brass
Iron, cast
wt.
Steel, hard
Lead
Glass
soft
•
Air
Oxygen
TABLE VII. Specific Heats of Solids.
2143
-0951
0.939
Bricks
Carbon
Wood
.89 to 241
Wood oak
.5700
•
•2411
fir
.6500
.46 to 65
•
.1298
Coal
.2800
.1138
Coke
•2017
.1175
Ice
.504
Clinker
Petroleum
Firebrick
Platinum
.1674
•
.4340
· 2000
•
.0324
•
.1165
Mercury
.0333
.0314
Water
1.0000
Zinc
Silver
·0955
·0570
· 1937
Olive Oil
.3096
Tin
·0562
•
Nitrogen
Hydrogen
Carbonic oxide, CO
Carbon dioxide, CO2
Marsh gas, CH4
Olefiant gas, C2 H4
TABLE VIII. Specific Heats of Gases.
•
Steam, H₂O
Blast furnace gas
Steam boiler furnace gas
•
Const. Vol.
Const. Pressure.
.168
.1548
•2375
.217
173
•244
2.4146
3.410
.173
.245
.171
.216
.468
.593
·332
.404
-370
.479
.163
.228
.171
.240
362
APPENDIX
1 Cal.
1 B.Th. U..
1°C.
1°F.
1°C.
1°R.
TABLE X. Equivalents.
3.968 B.Th. U.
0.252 Cal.
g°F.
°C.
4°R.
C.
2.204
1 kilog.
1 pound
1 B.Th. U.
1 calorie
99
•
•
772 ft. p. per 1°F.
778
""
423.55 k.m.
426.84 k.m.
1 B.Th.U.
1 k.m.
•
""
1 k. per linear m.
1 B.Th. U. per foot3
ge
50 50
I B.Th. U. per ft.2
1
""
1 kilo. per cm²
lb.
1 lb. per sq. inch
1 metre-kilo.
1 ft. pound
•
0.453 k.
772 ft. pounds (old).
778
(new).
423.55 k.m. (old).
426.84
(new).
1389.6 ft. p. per 1°C.
1400.4
3063.54 ft. lbs.
3087-3 ft. lb.
107.78 k.m.
7.231 ft. lbs.
2 lb. per yard nearly.
9 Cal. per m³
32.2 ft. per sec.2
9.8117 m. per sec.2
2.713 cal. per m.2
0.556 cal. per kilo.
14.2lb. per sq. inch.
0.0703 kilo. per cm.2
7.231 ft. pounds.
•
0.138 metre-kilo.
TABLE XI. Properties of Carbon Calorifically.
Calories per
British Thermal
Units
Temperature of Combustion
Molecule. Litre.
Gram.
Per
Per
Cubic Ft. Pound.
In Oxygen.
In Air.
Cº.
F°.
C°.
F°.
Diamond to CO
26.10
2.175
3915
3804°
6880° 1317° 2402°
CO2
94.31
7.859
14146
9879°
17812°
2659° 4814°
Graphite to Co
26.60
2.2166
3999
3877°
7010°
1345° 2453°
""
CO₂
94.81
7.901
Amorphous to CO
""
29.44
2.453
4292°
CO2
97.65
Vapour to CO
68.20 6.096
CO2
""
CO=21lb. to CO2
CO=1lb. to CO2 ·
Hydrogen to H₂0 gas
""
""
H2O water
8.1375
5.864
136-41 12.193 11.3675
68.20 3.046
5.684
29.23 3.048 2.436
58.30 2.612 29.15
69.00 3.091 34.50
347.00 62100
14222 9931°
4416
14647 10226°
685.25 10231 9943°
1370.50 20461 14290°
342.50 10232 7144° 12892°
342.50 4384 7144° 12892°
293.00 52290 6762° 12202° 2513° 4554°
8002° 14438° 2974° 5385°
17907°
2673°
2673° 4844°
7757°
1485° | 2705°
18440°
2753° 4988°
17897°
3540° 6373°
25752°
2846° 6955°
1923° 3494°
1923° 3494°
The important figures for practice are in black type.
TABLE XII.
TENSION F. OF AQUEOUS VAPOUR IN MM. OF MERCURY PER DEGREE CENTIGRADE T° AND GRAMS PER CUBIC METRE
OF SATURATED AIR.
T.
g.
f.
T°.
g.
f.
T°.
g.
f.
012
4.5
11
10.0
9.7
22
19.3
19.6
4.9
12
10.6
10.4
23
20.4
20.9
5.2
13
11.3
11.1
24
21.5
22.2
3
5.6
14
12.0
11.9
25
22.9
23.5
4
6.0
15
12.8
12.7
26
24.2
25.0
5
6.8
6.5
16
13.6
13.5
27
25.6
26.5
6
7.3
6.9
17
14.5
14.4
28
27.0
28.1
7.7
7.4
18
15.1
15.3
29
28.6
29.8
8
8.1
8.0
9
8.8
8.5
20
10
9.4
9.1
21
222
19
16.2
16.3
30
29.2
31.6
17.2
17.4
18.2
18.5
363
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
TABLE XIII.
VOLS. OF GAS BEFORE AND AFTER COMBUSTION AND ABSORPTION.
Combustion
Requires.
Yields.
Vol. of Gas
Before After
Contraction
Mole-
cular
Aque-
Gas.
For-
mula.
ous
Com-
bustible
Gas.
Oxygen
0.
Vapour.
CO 2*
Combustion.
After
Com-
bustion
land Ab-
sorption
Ratio
After Ratio of
After
Com-
Com- Com- Com-
bustible bustion bustible
to and Ab- to
bustion.
Con-
densers.
of CO,
contrac-sorptior contrac-
tion.
of CO 2
tion.
Acetylene
·
C2H2
Benzine
C6H6
Butylene
C4H8
Carbonic Oxide
CO
Ethane
C₂H6
Ethylene
C2H4
Hydrogen
Methane
Propylene
H₂
•
CH4
C3H6
NNNNNNNNN
2
2
15
2
2
122-
2
6
12
8
2
6
2
6
4
428244
7
4
0
3
2/3
7
2/7
17
12
14
3
9
2
1
2
2
4
4
2
6
2
9
6
6
11
282440NO
2/5
17
2/17
6
1/3
14
1/7
1
2
3
2/3
5
2/5
9
2/9
4
1/2
8
1/4
3
2/3
4
1/2
6
1/3
6
5
2/5
11
2/11
Acetylene
Air
Benzine
Carbonic acid
Carbon dioxide
Cyanogen
Ethane
Ethylene
Hydrogen
Methane
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Sulphur dioxide
Water
TABLE XIV.
CALCULATED GAS DENSITIES AND WEIGHTS PER LITRE.
D.
W.
C₂H₂
12.97
1.1621
-2
14.422
1.2922
C6H6
38.91
3.4863
CO
13.965
1.2512
•
CO2
21.945
1.9663
(CN)2
25.99
2.3287
C₂H6
14.97
1.2413
C2H4
13.97
1.2517
H2
1.00
0.0896
CH4
7.983
0.7154
•
•
N₂
14.029
1.2562
O₂
15.96
1.43
SO₂
31.95
2.0627
H₂O
8.98
0.8046
TABLE XV.
RELATIVE VALUE OF COAL AND OIL, FUEL ACCOUNT
ALONE CONSIDERED.
RELATIVE VALUE OF COAL AND OIL, ALL ASCER-
TAINED ECONOMIES CONSIDERED.
Coal per Ton at
Oil per Barrel at
Coal per Ton at
$0.20
$0.74
$0.65
0.30
1.12
0.98
0.40
1.49
1.30
0.50
1.86
1.63
0.60
2.24
1.96
0.70
2.61
2.28
0.80
2.98
2.61
0.90
3.35
2.93
1.00
3.73
3.26
1.10
4.10
3.59
1.20
4.47
3.91
1.30
4.85
4.24
1.40
5.22
4.56
1.50
5.59
4 89
1.60
5.97
5.22
1.70
6.34
5.54
1.80
6.71
5.87
1.90
7.08
6.19
2.00
7.45
6.52
1 dollar-48 pence approximately.
364
APPENDIX
TABLE XVI. Russian and Pennsylvanian Oils.
Pennsylvanian.
Russian.
Crude Petroleum.
Light.
Heavy.
Refuse.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Carbon
Hydrogen
84.9
86.3
86.6
87.1
13.7
13.6
12.3
11.7
Oxygen
1·4
0.1
1.1
1.2
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Sp. Gr. at 32°F.
0.886
0.884
0.938
0.928
B.Th. Units
19210
Evaporation at 8 atmospheres
16.2
22628
17.4
19440
16.4
19260
16.2
TABLE XVII.
Petroleum Refuse. Comparative Trials, with Petroleum, Anthracite, Bituminous Coal and Wood,
between Archeda and Tsaritzin on Grazi and Tsaritzin Railway in Winter time.
Train 'alone.
En-
Date 1883. gine
No.
Train Number
Number. of Gross
Loaded load.
Cars.
Dis-
tance
run.
Consumption, including
lighting up.
Car
Miles.
Fuel.
Cost of Fuel
per Train
Mile.
Atmospheric
Temperature and
Weather.
Total.
Per Train
Mile.
No.
Tons. Miles.
Pence.
со
32-28
32-23
25
400
388 9700 Anthracite 31,779 lb.
81.90 lb. 11.957
Feb. 18
14
24-21
24-21 25
400 388 9700
7 26-29 25
24 32-23 25
400
400
194 4850
194 4850
March 6 21
24-21 25
23 26-27 25
400
194 4850
400 194 4850
Bituminous
coal
Petroleum
refuse.
Anthracite
Wood in
billets
Petroleum
refuse
37,557.5 lb. 96.53 lb. 14.093
17° to -18° Rean.
equivalent to 6°
to 8° Fahr.
9,462 lb.
12,639.5 lb.
48.77 lb.
65.15 lb.
5.487
9.512
Strong side wind.
-5° to -9° Reau.
equivalent to 21°
1,071-8 c.ft. 5.52 c.ft.
8.5
to 12°Fahr
7,223 lb.
37.23 lb.
4.188
Light side wind.
Prices of Fuel.-Petroleum refuse, 21s. per ton; anthracite and bituminous coal, 27s. 3d. per ton; wood, in billets, 42s. per
cubic sajene 343 cubic ft.; equivalent to 1.47d. per cubic foot.
Dimensions of Locomotives.-Cylinders, 18 in. diameter and 24 in. stroke; wheels, 4 ft. 3 in. diameter; total heating surface, 1,248
sq. ft.; total adhesion weight, 36 tons; boiler pressure; 8 to 9 atm.
365
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Date.
1883.
Section of Line.
TABLE XVIII. Petroleum Refuse.
Continuous Trials in Seventeen Trips on different sections of Grazi and Tsaritzin Railway,
to ascertain Mean Consumption in Winter Time.
Locomotives.
Train alone.
Petroleum
Refuse
Distance
Train.
run.
Car
Miles.
consumed,
Number of
loaded Cars.
Gross
Load.
including
lighting up.
Atmospheric
Temperature.
Weather.
No.
Tons.
Versts. Miles.
Ton.
Jan. 18
Borisoglebsk to
Burnack, and back
19
Ditto, ditto
21
Borisoglebsk to Filonoff
22
Filonoff to Archeda
23-4
Archeda to Tsaritzin,
* *** *
23
24-23
24
384
144
95
2280
1.739
Reaum.
-15°
Fahr.
-2°
23
28-25
24.33
389.3
144
95
2303
1.854
-8 to -10
14 to 91
23
29
26
416
104
69
1794
1.116
-5
21
23
21
23.4
374.4
118
78
1825
1.4401
-7
16
Side wind.
Strong side wind.
Calm.
Light side wind.
23
27-32
24
384
292
193
4632
31581
-17 to -18
-6 to -81
and back
Strong side wind.
Feb. 13
Archeda to Tsaritzin
8
27
14
15
Borisoglebsk to
7
27-31
22
Tsaritzin
23
Ditto
35
27-31
22
March 8
Archeda to Tsaritzin
8
21
14
12 21
224
146
97
1358
1.326
-4
23
352
368
254
5588
4.653
-6
181
352
368
254
5588
4.657
-10 to -15
91 to -2
224
146
97
1358
1.394
+2
361/
Light wind.
Light side wind.
Strong side wind.
Calm.
11
and back
Tsaritsin to Archeda,} 14
26-31
24.43
390.9
292
193
4698
3.2205
-7
16
Side wind.
14
Archeda to Ilovla
40
30
21
346
58
38
798
0.5901
-11
7
Calm.
Means and Totals
21.74
357.8
2180 1463
32223 25.5707
Mean consumption of petroleum refuse-39.15 lbs. per train mile, including lighting up.
Mean cost of petroleum refuse, at 21s. per ton, = 4.4 pence per train mile.
366
APPENDIX
Date.
1883.
Locomotive.
TABLE XIX. Petroleum Refuse.
Comparative Trials with Petroleum, Anthracite, Bituminous Coal, and Wood, between
Archeda and Tsaritzin, on Grazi and Tsaritzin Railway, in Winter time.
Train alone.
Train.
Num-
Distance
run.
Car
Miles.
FUEL.
ber of
loaded
Gross
Load.
Cars.
CONSUMPTION, including lighting up.
Cost
of
Atmospheric
Fuel
Temperature,
Total.
Per Train
Mile.
per
Train
and
Weather.
Mile.
Pence.
No.
Tons.
Miles.
32-23
8
25
400
388
9700
Anthracite
31779 lbs.
81.90 lb.
11.957
-17° to 18° Réau.
32-23
equivalent to
24-21
Feb. 8 14
25
400
388
9700
Bituminous coal
37557.5 lbs.
96.53 lb.
14.093
6° to - 81° Fahr.
24-21
7 26-29
25
400
194
4850
Petroleum Refuse
9462 lbs.
48.77 lb.
5.487
Strong side wind.
24
32-23
25
400
194
4850
Anthracite
12639.5 lbs.
65.15 lb.
9.512
-
-5° to 9° Réau.
Mar. 6
21
24-21
25
400
194
4850
Wood, in billets
1071.8 cub. ft.
5.52 c. ft.
8.5
equivalent to
21° to 12° Fahr.
23
26-27
25
400
194
4850
Petroleum Refuse
7223 lbs.
37.23 lb.
4.188
Light side wind.
Prices of Fuel.-Petroleum refuse, 21s. per ton; anthracite, and bituminous coal, 27s. 3d. per ton; wood, in billets, 42s.
per cubic sajene = 343 cubic feet; equivalent to 1.47 penny per cubic foot.
Dimensions of Locomotives.-Cylinders 18 in. diam. and 24 in. stroke. Wheels 4 ft. 3 in. diam. Total heating surface
Total adhesion weight 36 tons.
1248 sq. ft.
Boiler pressure 8 to 9 atm.
367
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Date.
1883.
July.
Date
1883.
June.
Locomotive.
•
TABLE XX. Petroleum Refuse.
Continuous Trials in Nineteen Trips between Archeda and Tsaritzin, on Grazi and Tsaritzin
Railway, to ascertain Mean Consumption in Summer time.
Number of loaded Cars.
Petroleum
Refuse
Train.
From From From
Tsaritzin Gorodisha Archeda
to
to
to
Gorodisha, Archeda, Tsaritzin,
14 miles. 83 miles. 97 miles.
Mean
for
Distance
run.
total
consumed
including
lighting up.
distance.
No.
No.
00
8
15
25
30
38
29
25
30
いる
​No.
No.
Miles.
Ton.
29
97
1.715
29
97
1.847
28
9 15
30
30
97
1.219
25
29
30
į
30
97
1.128
27
57
30
25
30
29
97
1.704
23
32
25
30
30
97
1 456
10
15
25
30
30
29
199
2.957
38-25
11
29 !
31
31
97
1.256
31
23
30
30
97
1.149
21
10
29
30
25
30
29
97
1.453
11 23
12-21
25
30
29/
12 29
26-27
25
30
30
29
17 57
12
30
34
27/1/2
191212
194
2.701
194
2.828
97
1.419
21 14
36
10
30
27
97
1.399
22
14
30
30
97
1.138
11
30
30
97
1.102
57
21
Means and Totals
Locomotive.
29.3
1848 26.471
Mean Results,
including lighting up.
Mean Consumption
of Petroleum Refuse,
32-08 lb. per train mile.
Mean Cost
of Petroleum Refuse,
at 21s. per ton,
3.61 pence per train mile.
Mean Evaporation,
11.35 lb. of Water
per lb. of Petroleum Refuse.
TABLE XXI. Petroleum Refuse.
Comparative Trials with Petroleum, Anthracite, and Bituminous Coal, between Archeda
and Tsaritzin, on Grazi and Tsaritzin Railway, in Summer time.
Train alone.
CONSUMPTION,
including lighting up.
Train.
Num-
Train
Miles.
FUEL.
ber of
loaded
Gross
Load.
Total.
Per
Train Mile.
Cars.
Cost
of Fuel
per
Train
Mile.
No.
Tons.
37
30
480
194
Bituminous Coal
Lbs.
14804.07
Lbs.
72.598
Pence.
10.599
13
14
30
480
194
Petroleum Refuse
6175.325
31.831
3.581
32 31-34 30
480
194
Anthracite
12784.002
65.897
9.621
25
57 27-12 30
480
194
Petroleum Refuse
6103.097
31.459
3.539
•
Prices of Fuel.-Petroleum Refuse, 21s. per ton. Anthracite, and Bituminous Coal, 27s. 3d.
per ton.
368
APPENDIX
Date.
1884.
May.
Date.
1884.
May.
Locomotive.
TABLE XXII. Petroleum Refuse.
Comparative Trials with Petroleum and Anthracite, between Grazi and Borisoglebsk on
Grazi and Tsaritzin Railway.
Train alone. Distance run.
CONSUMPTION.
including lighting up.
Train. Mean
FUEL.
Weather.
Num-
Car-
Mean
ber of
Car-
riages.
Gross Train
Load. Miles.
riage
Total.
Miles.
Per
Train
Mile.
Per
Carriage
Mile.
per
Carriage
Mile.
No. Tons.
6-7
109
4-3
15
240 264 3960
Anthracite
Lb.
11560.5
Lb.
43.79
Lb.
2.92
Lb.
3.118
Good.
8-9 109 4-3
13
208
264 3432 Anthracite
11379
43.101 3.316
•
7-8 116 4-3
13
208
264
3432 Petroleum Refuse 6720
25.45 1.957
1.983 Good.
9-15 116 4-3
12/1/
200
264
3300 Petroleum Refuse 6632-5
25.124 2.01
Dimensions of Passenger Locomotives (Borsig's).—Cylinders, 17} ins. diam. and 22 ins. stroke.
Driving wheels, four coupled, 5 ft. 3 ins. diam Total weight, 32 tons. Adhesion weight, 25 tons. Boiler pressure, 8 atm.
Carriages, six-wheeled, each 16 tons mean gross weight. Speed, 24 to 26 miles per hour. Maximum gradient, 1 in 125.
Locomotive.
J
TABLE XXIII. Petroleum Refuse.
Comparative Trials with Petroleum, Anthracite, and Bituminous Coal, between Borisoglebsk
and Filonoff on Grazi and Tsaritzin Railway.
Train.
Train alone.
Distance run.
Mean Number
of Trucks.
Gross Train Truck
Load. Miles. Miles.
CONSUMPTION.
including lighting up.
Weather.
FUEL.
Per
Per
Total. Train Truck
Mile. Mile.
Mean
per
Truck
Mile.
20-21
No. Tons.
14731-28 43 688
I
26
1361 5870 Anthracite
21-22 14721-30 35 560
1361 4778 Anthracite
23-24 14731-30 38 608 136/1/ 5187 Bituminous Coal
20-21 14126-27 45 720 136 6143 Petroleum Refuse 6274
22-23 139 27-28 41 656 136/1/ 5597 Petroleum Refuse 5524
23-24 138 21-30 42 672 1361/ 5733 Petroleum Refuse 6151
137 25-34 45 720 1361 6143 Petroleum Refuse
Lb. I.b. Ib.
9063 | 66.40 1.544
Lb.
Wind favour-
1.907
10841.5 79.43 2.27
able to train.
Strong side
12638 92.60 2.436
2.436
wind.
Calm.
Strong side
45.90 1.02
wind.
40.46 0.9868
Calm.
1.046
45.06 1.0728]
678749.72 1.105
Calm.
Strong side
wind.
Boiler pressure.
Dimensions of Goods Locomotives.-Cylinders, 19 ins. diam. and 25§ ins. stroke. Wheels, eight coupled, 3 ft. 11 ins, diam.
Total heating surface, 1938 sq. ft. Total adhesion weight, 46 tons. Tractive force, 18045 lb. =8.056 tons.
Trucks each 16 tons gross weight. Speed, 14 miles per hour. Maximum gradient, 1 in 125.
9 atm.
369
BB
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
IBUSTION
TABLE XXIV.
Cost of Alterations for Petroleum Firing in Six-wheel and Eight-wheel Coupled Goods Loco-
motives on the Grazi and Tsaritzin Railway of 5 feet gauge.
SPRAY INJECTOR AND CONNECTIONS.
Spray injector
Indicator to injector
Gas pipe, 2 inches diameter
Copper pipe, 2 inches diameter
Gas pipe & inch diameter, 23 lb.
Worm and other copper pipes, 61 lb.
Wire netting for strainers
Iron fittings, various, 45 lb.
Brass cocks, various
•
Elastic hose with brass end-sockets
Brass mouthpiece on injector, 7 lb.
Steam valve, 3 inch
•
Two triple connections for steam pipes, 7 lb.
Workmanship
Total cost of Engine fittings
•
BRICKWORK IN FIRE-BOX.
Fire-bricks from Glenboig Works, 350 and 400, at 20s. per 100.
Fire-clay, two barrels 400 lb.
Bricklayer's wages
=
Total cost of Brickwork
•
•
Six-wheel and Eight-wheel Engines.
£ s. d.
2 5 5 0
11 0
6 0
8 0
7 11
400
3 2
>
1
7 6
1
0 0
8 0
6 3
4 0
6
2
3 14 0
15 7 0
Six-wheel Engine.
Eight-wheel Engine.
£ s. d.
3 10 0
2 5 0
60
610
£ s. d.
400
2 5 0
60
6 11 0
TENDER.
!
Iron plate, 3-16ths inch thick with angle-irons.
13 2 0
55 0 0
Workmanship
Total cost of Tender alterations
5 0 0
18 2 0
55 0 0
Total cost of Engine and Tender alterations
39 10 0
76 18 0
* The eight-wheel engine has a separate tank added on the top of the tender, thereby increasing the cost so much above
that in the six-wheel engine.
370
APPENDIX
TABLE XXV.
Cost of Fuel, and of Engine and Tender Repairs,
per 1000 Axle-miles of trucks, wagons or carriages (not locomotives) on the Grazi and Tsaritzin Railway,
during thirteen years, 1876 to 1888.
Per 1000
Axle miles of
trucks, wagons
or carriages (not
locomotives).
COAL
alone.
Petro- Petro-
leum leum
Refuse, Refuse,
PETROLEUM
15%. 62%.
REFUSE
Coal, Coal
alone.
85%.
38%.
Repairs of
Year
Cost of Fuel,
Shillings
1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888.
18.7 16.5 15.9 17.2 18.9 18.4 17.1
16.5 13.1 9.9 9.0 8.033 8.087
t
Engines &
Tenders
6.5
1.5 3.3
Shillings
eas
5.3 7.5
§
5.3 4.7
4.8 4.5
4.1
2.7
*
2.265 2.446
།
§ During 1879 and 1880 the expenses of Repairs were somewhat increased by the amalgamation of the Volga-Don line with
the main line, the rolling stock of the former being in bad condition.
* The considerable cost of Repairs in 1885 was due to change of fire-boxes damaged or worn by coal firing. For 1887 the
cost of Repairs is even less than for 1886, as no fire-boxes are now being renewed.
†The mean cost of Petroleum Refuse per ton on the railway was 27s. 3d. for 1886, and for 1887 was 26s. 61d., which mainly
accounts for the reduction in 1887 in cost per 1000 axle miles. The mean cost on the railway includes all expenses of pumping,
storage, and transport; and depreciation of pumps, tanks, and pipes; and also administration.
¶ The cost of Repairs in 1888 included that of altering four engines to the compound system.
371
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
TABLE XXVI. (continued on opposite page).
Working Cost of Locomotive Department,
per 1000 Axle miles of trucks, wagons or carriages (not locomotives), on the
Grazi and Tsaritzin Railway, during thirteen years, 1876 to 1888.
Items of Cost.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880
A
{ Salaries of loco. supt, and ast
Shillings.
0.516
0.503
Shillings. Shillings.
0.441
Shillings.
0.366
Shillings.
0.431
sistants and office management
B
Wages and premiums to engine-
men, including shed foremen
and men.
7.248
5.826
5.654
6.151
6.277
Fuel for engines, engine-sheds,
C
and drivers' rooms, including
management
19.081
16.901
16.341
17.509
19.137
D
{Lubrication of Engines and all)
1.886
1.291
1.245
1.417
1.380
Rolling Stock and machinery
E
Water and pumping
1.844
1.590
1.377
1.440
1.630
Repairing shops, management}
1.981
1.622
1-739
2.119
2.386
and wages
Cleaning of rolling stock
0.575
0.431
0.434
0.519
0.491
Renewals and repairs of en-
H
6.493
4.526
3.298
5.312
7.538
gines and tenders
Renewals and repairs of car-
J
riage and wagon stock
car-}
8.236
6.698
7.318
9.956
9.446
K
in shillings
Total cost per 1000 axle miles }
47.860
39.388
37.847
44.789
48.716
Total axle - miles of trucks, wagons or
carriages
Total working cost in pounds
48,406,497 563,20,237 71,889,982 71,958,659 | 74,413,099
£115,621 £111,255 £135,941 £160,969
£181,020
372
APPENDIX
(continued from preceding page) TABLE XXVI.
Working Cost of Locomotive Department,
per 1000 Axle miles of trucks, wagons or carriages (not locomotives), on the
Grazi and Tsaritzin Railway, during thirteen years, 1876 to 1888.
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
+
t
§
§
§
cas
Shillings. Shillings.
Shillings.
Shillings.
Shillings.
Shillings.
Shillings. Shillings.
A
0.465
0.422
0 409
0.386
0.403
0.525
0.483
0.453
B
5.493
5.433
5.232
5.068
4.627
4.790
4.499
4.318
C
18.570
17.125
16.626
13.174
10.067
9.084
8.335
8.486
D
1.217
1.191
1.167
1.083
0.845
0.702
0.664
0.634
E
1.209
1.244
1.184
1.292
1.063
1.040
0.875
0.755
F
1.629
1.644
1.792
1.507
1.639
1.736
1.479
1.479
G
0.405
0.392
0.265
0.368
0.234
0.369
0.302
0.332
H
5.291
4.727
4.838
4.544
4.081
2.682
2.265
2.446
J
8.188
6.955
6.664
5.197
4.383
3.941
3.443
3.231
K
42.467
39.133
38.177
32.619
27.342
24.869
22.345
22.134
Axle miles. 88,151,537 97,927,740 113,579,960 124,461,939 126,569,995 118,900,533 136,420,000 136,909,500
Cost
£186,981
£191,442 £216,473
£202,774 £173,118 £147,732 £152,278 £151,029
* In 1876-82 Coal alone was used in the locomotives.
§ In 1885-88 Petroleum Refuse alone.
† In 1883 Petroleum Refuse 15 per cent. and Coal 85 per cent.
† In 1884
62
38
""
""
+ In 1885-88 Petroleum Refuse alone was used in the locomotives
373
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
}
TABLE XXVII.
Consumption of Fuel per 1000 Axle miles of trucks, wagons or carriages (not
locomotives) on the Grazi and Tsaritzin Railway
and on two neighbouring railways burning coal alone,
during six years, 1882 to 1887.
Per 1000 Axle miles.
Grazi and Tsaritzin Railway.
Kosloff Voronetz and Rostoff Railway.
Orel and Grazi Railway.
Year
•
1882
1887 1882 1883 1884
Consumption of Fuel
Ton
Anthracite
Bituminous Coal
Per cent.
Per cent.
Petroleum Refuse. Per cent.
63.20 41.89 14.10
84.84 38-38
36.76 42.95 24.28
1883 1884 1885 1886
| | |
0.401 0.386 0.285 0-214 0-212 0-200 0-491 0.466 0.420 0.387 0.356 0.367 0.416 0-410 0-382 0.362 0.349 0.346
| |
66.86 77.03 82-82 | 85.33 91-77 93-21 70.04 70.94 76-56 80.60 87.67 92.93
33.14 22.97 17-18 14.67 8.23 6-79 29.96 29.06 23.44 19.40 12.33
1885 1886
1887
1882
1883 1884 1885 1886
1887
|
7.07
0.04 15-16 61-62 100.0 100.0 100.0
Engine miles unre-
munerative
}
Per cent.
30-21 25.53 25-76 27.86 32.62 26.09 29-04 28.10 27.06 26.41 20.64 20-45 28-14 28-01 28-24 23.04 21.18 18-32
|
|
374
APPENDIX
TABLE XXVIII. Petroleum Refuse.
Specific Gravity and Weight per cubic foot, at various temperatures.
Water=1-0000 specific gravity, at 17° Cent. = 63° Fahr.
Temperature.
Specific
Gravity.
Weight in lb. per
cubic foot.
Centigrade.
Réaumur.
Fahrenheit.
0123 →
0.0
32.0
0.9110
56.61
0.8
33.8
0.9103
56.55
1.6
35.6
0.9097
2.4
37.4
0.9091
}
56.50
4
3.2
39.2
0.9085
56.42
5
4.0
41.0
0.9078
56.36
6
4.8
42.8
0.9072
7
5.6
44.6
0.9066
56.30
8
6.4
46.4
0.9060
7.2
48.2
0.9053
56.20
10
8.0
50.0
0.9047
11
8.8
51.8
0.9041
Ma
56.14
12
9.6
53.6
0.9034
56.11
13
10.4
55.4
0.9028
56.05
14
11.2
57.2
0.9022
15
12.0
59.0
0.9016
: 55.99
16
12.8
60-8
0-9009
55.92
17
13.6
62.6
0.9003
18
14.4
64.4
0.8997
55.84
19
15.2
66.2
0.8991
20
16.0
68.0
0.8984
55.81
21
16.8
69.8
0.8978
55.74
22
17.6
71.6
0.8972
23
18.4
73.4
0.8965
55.68
24
19.2
75.2
0.8959
55.62
25
20.0
77.0
0.8953
26
20.8
78.8
0.8947
55.55
27
21.6
80.6
0.8940
28
22.4
82.4
0.8934
55-48
29
23.2
84.2
0.8928
55.43
30
24.0
86.0
0.8922
31
24.8
87.8
0.8915
55-37
32
25.6
89.6
0.8909
55.30
33
26.4
91.4
0.8903
34:
27.2
93.2
0.8896
55.24
35
28.0
95.0
0.8890
TABLE XXIX.
Cost of Evaporating 1000 lb. Water.
Fuel-Coal.
National Supply Co.'s Table No. 1.
$
$
Coal per Ton of 2,000 lb.
$.75
$
$
$
1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
$
$
CA
$
$
2.00 2.50 3.00
3.50 4.0
Pounds of Water Evaporated Per
Pound of Coal.
5.
5.5
6.
6.5
7.
7.5
8.
8.5
9.
9.5
10.
10.5
11.
Cost of Coal Consumed in Evapor-
ating 1.000 Pounds of Water.
·0375 ·0500
·0750 •1000 .1250 .1500 .1750 .2000 .2500 .3000 3500 ·4000
·0681 ·0909 .1136 .1363 .1591 ·1818 .2272 •2727 -3182 .3636
.0625 ·0833 •1041 .1250 .1458
•2083 •2500 -2916 3333
.0576 .0769 .0961 .1154 .1346
· 1923 ·2307 •2692 -3077
·0535 .0714 ·0892 .1071 .1250 .1428 .1785 2143 ·2500 -2857
·0500 .0666 -0833 -1000 .1166 ·1333 .1666. •2000 2333 ·2666
.0468 .0625 .0781 ·0937 .1093 .1250 .1562 .1875 .2187 •2500
.0441 .0588 0735 .0882 .1029 .1176 •1470 1764 .2059 ·2353
.0416 ·0555 .0694 ·0833 ·0972 .1111 .1389 .1666 .1944 ·2222
·0394 ·0526 .0657 -0789 0921 .1052 1316 .1578 -1842 2105
.0625 ·0750 ·0875 .1000 1250 •1500 .1750
·0357 .0476 ·0595 .0714 ·0833 ·0952 1190 .1428 .1666
·0340 0454 .0568 -0681 0795 909 .1136 .1360 -1591
.1666
.1538
·2000
.1904
1818
1 dollar
=
4s. 1d.
Cost of evaporating 1000 lb. of water=
To reduce dollars per ton (2000 lb.) to shillings per ton (2240 lb.), multiply by 4.5.
Price of coal per ton.
(2) × Evaporation.
375
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
TABLE XXX.
Cost of Evaporating 1000 lb. Water.
Fuel-Oil.
National Supply Co.'s Table No. 2.
$
×
CA
$
$
S
Cost per Barrel of
42 Gals.
Cost per 100 Gallons
of Oil.
·20
•25
.30
.35
·40
$
.45
$
.50
$
.55
$
·60
$
.65
$
.70
$
$
$
$
$
$
.75
.80
.85
.90
.95
·1.00
.4762
Cost per Gallon of
.5952 .7142 ·8333
.0047 00595 0071
.0083
.9524 1.0714
-0095 .0107
|
1-1904 1.3094 1.4275 1-5475 1.6666 1.7856 1.9047 2.0237 2.1427 2.2618 2.3809
.01190 -01309 01427 01547
.0166 -0178
.0190
·0202 ·0214
·0226 ·0238
Oil.
Pounds of Water Evaporated per Pound of Oil.
10.
10.5
11.
11.5
12.
12.50
13.
13.25
13.5
13.75
14.
14.25
14.5
14.75
15.
15.25
15.50
15.75
16.
16.5
17.
17.50
18.
18.50
19.
Cost of Oil Consumed in Evaporating 1,000 Pounds of Water.
.0566
-0541
·0519
-0498
.0461
.0395
.0389
·0356
.0346
·0623 .0778 ·0934 .1090 .1246 •1401 •1557 .1713 .1869 •2024 •2180 -2336 .2492
·0593 ·0740 .0888 .1036 .1184 .1332 .1480 •1628 .1776 .1924 •2072 .2220 .2368
-0707 ·0850 .0992 .1135 .1275 .1418 •1560 .1702 .1843 1986 •2130 •2270
.0677 .0812 .0948 .1082 .1220 .1357 .1491 .1625 .1762 .1900 .2035 •2170
.0648 .0778 -0908 .1038 .1168 .1298 .1425 .1558 .1686 .1818 .1948
.0623 ·0748 -0872 .0998 .1121 .1246 .1372 .1497 .1620 .1743 .1871
.0479 ·0598 -0718 ·0838 ·0958 .1079 .1197 .1318 .1438 .1558 .1678 -1798
·0470 .0588 .0706 ·0825 .0942 .1060 .1178 .1295 .1414 .1533 .1650 .1766
.0577 .0692 ·0807 .0922 .1037 .1152 .1268 .1381 .1498 .1615 .1730 .1842 .1960 .2075 .2190 .2307
.0453 .0565 .0678 ·0792 ·0905 .1019 .1132 .1245 .1358 .1471 .1585 .1695 ∙1810 .1922 -2035 .2150 .2265
·0445 ·0557 .0667 -0778 ·0890 .1002 .1115 .1225 .1336 .1447 .1558 .1670 .1781 .1892 .2003 -2123 •2225
.0437 .0547 .0657 .0767 .0875 .0984 .1094 .1206 .1314 .1422 .1532 1641 1751 .1860 .1970
·0429 ·0536 .0644 ·0752 .0858 .0966 .1073 .1181 .1267 .1396 .1505 .1615 •1718 .1825
.0422 ·0527 .0633 .0739 .0845 .0951 .1057 .1162 .1268 .1375 .1480 .1585 .1691 .1796
.0415 ·0519 .0623 .0728 .0832 .0937 .1040 ·1142 .1248 .1352 .1458 •1560 .1665
.0408 .0511 .0613 .0715 .0817 .0920 .1022 .1123 .1226 .1326 .1431
.0402 ·0502 .0602 .0703 .0805 .0906 .1006 .1107 .1208 .1307 .1407 .1510
.0493 .0592 -0692 .0790 ·0889 ·0988 .1086 .1186 .1283 .1382 .1482 .1580
.0487 .0585 ·0683 -0779
.0877
.0976 .1073 .1170 .1267 .1365 .1462 .1559
.0377 .0472 .0567 .0662 .0755 ·0850 .0945 .1040 .1135 .1230 ·1325 .1418 •1514
.0366 .0458 ·0550 .0641 .0732 .0825 .0918 .1008 .1100 .1190 .1282 .1375 .1466 .1558 .1650 .1740 .1832
.0445 .0533 -0623 -0712 .0801 .0890 ·0980 .1068 .1158 .1247 .1336 .1425 .1515 .1602 .1692 .1780
.0432 ·0519 ·0605 -0692 .0778 -0865 ·0952 .1038 .1125 .1210 .1300 .1385 .1472 .1558 .1645 .1730
.0336 .0422 ·0506 ·0590 -0675 .0758 .0843 ·0927 .1012 .1095 .1182 .1265 .1350 .1435 .1520 .1602 .1684
.0327 .0409 .0492 ·0573 .0655 ·0737 -0819 ·0901 ·0983 .1065 ·1147 .1230 .1312 .1393 .1475 .1558 .1639
-2647
•2516
.2803 •2959
.3115
.2664
-2812
.2966
•2412
.2555
-2698
.2832
.2308
•2440
•2577 •2708
•2077
•2210
2336 •2470
.2596
.1995
· 1918
.2123 •2241 •2370 -2492
.2040 ·2136
.2276 -2396
.1883 .2002 2122 .2240 -2351
.2082 2186
.1935
.2040
.2148
.1905
.2008
•2112
.1770
.1875
.1975
-2076
.1535 .1635
.1740
.1840
· 1942
•2042
.1610 -1711
∙1813
.1915 .2010
.1680
.1780
.1878 .1978
.1658
.1756
.1850
.1947
.1606
.1700 .1795
.1888
42 × 7.65 lb. =321 pounds of oil per barrel at 221° Baumé Scale.
Let x cost per barrel. Cost of evaporating 1000 lb. water
1 gallon=231 cubic inches.
1000
42 gallons=35 Imp. gallons.
X
=
Evaporation^321
Cost per American gallon in dollars × 5=cost per English gallon in shillings.
376
APPENDIX
TABLE XXXI. Conversion Table for Degrees Baumé.
Degrees Baumé.
Degrees Sp. Gr.
Lb. in 1 gal.
(American).
Degrees Baumé.
Degrees Sp. Gr.
Lb. in 1 Gal.
(American).
10
1.0000
8.33
43
.8092
6.74
11
.9929
8.27
44
.8045
6.70
12
·9859
8.21
45
.8000
6.66
13
.9790
8.16
46
.7954
6.63
14
.8722
8.10
47
·7909
6.59
15
.9655
8.04
48
.7865
6.55
16
.9589
7.99
49
.7821
6.52
17
.9523
7.93
50
-7777
6.48
18
.9459
7.88
51
.7734
6.44
19
.9395
7.83
52
.7692
6.41
20
.9333
7.78
53
·7650
6.37
21
.9271
7.72
54
•
7608
6.34
22
.9210
7.67
55
.7567
6.30
23
.9150
7.62
56
.7526
6.27
24
·9090
7.57
57
-7486
6.24
25
.9032
7.53
58
.7446
6.20
26
.8974
7.48
59
.7407
6.17
27
-8917
7.43
60
·
7368
6.14
28
.8860
7.38
61
7329
6.11
29
.8805
7.34
62
.7290
6.07
30
.8750
7.29
63
.7253
6.04
31
·8695
7.24
64
7216
6.01
32
.8641
7.20
65
•
7179
5.98
33
.8588
7.15
66
·
7142
5.95
34
.8536
7.11
67
7106
5.92
35
.8484
7.07
68
.7070
5.89
36
.8433
7.03
69
.7035
5.86
37
.8383
6.98
70
7000
5.83
38
·8333
6.94
75
·6829
5.69
39
.8284
6.90
80
·6666
5.55
40
·8235
6.86
85
.6511
5.42
41
.8187
6.82
90
-6363
5.30
42
·8139
6.78
95
•6222
5.18
The Sp. Gr. × 10 = weight in pounds per Imperial gallon.
TABLE XXXII. Quantity of Air required for perfect combustion of Fuels.
Composition.
Air per
Fuel.
Carbon.
Hydrogen.
Oxygen.
Nitrogen.
Kilogram.
Pound.
Coke
Coal anthracite
bituminous
""
"
coking
cannel
•
""
smithy
Charcoal
Lignite
Peat, dry
Wood, dry
Petroleum
Natural gas
Coal gas
Water gas
Producer gas
Cubic metres.
Cubic feet.
98.0
0.5
10.09
162.06
95.4
2.2
1.8
0.5
9.01
144.60
87.0
5.0
4.0
8.93
143-40
85.0
5.0
6.0
8.68
139.41
84.0
6.0
8.0
8.79
141.07
77.0
5.0
15.0
7.67
123.15
•
90.0
2.0
8.53
133.90
71.0
5.0
19.0
7.02
112.43
58.0
6.0
30.0
5.75
92.36
50.0
6.0
42.0
1.0
4.57
73.46
•
·
85.0
14.0
1.0
10.76
172.86
68.7
22.5
1.0
6.2
14.20
227.93
58.0
23.7
1.4
3.8
14.51
233.06
34.0
5.9
43.0
3.4
3.16
50.70
1.0
5.0
21.0
69.0
.72
11.56
377
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
TABLE NO. XXXIII. Of the heat of combustion and air consumed by various Fuels.
Fuel.
Evaporation from
and at 212°F.
Hydrogen
Carbon to CO2
Average Coal
Coke
Petroleum
Oxygen per
pound of fuel.
Air per pound of fuel.
Total heat per
lb. of fuel.
Ib.
lb.
Cubic feet.
B.Th.U.
lb.
8.0
34.8
457
62100
62.4
2.66
11.6
152
14647
15.0
2.45
10.7
140
14700
15.22
•
2.49
10.81
142
13548
14.02
3.29
14.33
188
20411
21.13
TABLE XXXIV. Theoretical Flame Temperatures.
In Oxygen.
In Air.
Centigrade.
Fahrenheit.
Centigrade.
Fahrenheit.
C to CO
C to CO2
4292°
7757°
1485°
2705°
10226
18440
2753
4988
CO to CO2
7144
12892
1923
3494
Hydrogen
6762
12202
2513
4554
Marsh gas CH4
7971
14348
2245
4036
Olefiant gas C2H4
9381
16886
3000
5400
Acetylene C₂H₂
11300
30340
3400
6120
Benzine C6H6
9350
16830
2790
5022
Producer gas
2500
4.500
1200
2160
Coal gas
Petroleum
Naphthalene
Wood
Lignite (dry)
Coal (bituminous)
Sulphur to H2 SO4
TABLE XXXV. Weight and Volume of Gases.
5400
9720
2700
4860
7558
13604
2400
4320
9444
17000
2730
4914
5800
10440
2280
4104
3000
5400
1200
2160
3800
6840
1500
2700
2300
4140
1060
1908
•
Air
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Hydrogen
·
Carbonic acid CO2
Carbonic oxide CO
Carbon vapour C
Aqueous vapour H₂O
Sulphurous acid SO2
Ethylene C2H4
•
Methane CH4
Aceteylne C₂H₂
•
Benzine C6H6
Ethane C2H6
•
Weight.
Volume.
Per cubic metre
in kilograms.
Per cubic foot
in pounds.
Per kilogram in
cubic metres.
Per pound in
cubic feet.
1.29318
0.08073
0.773
12.385
1.25616
0.07845
0.796
12.763
1.4298
0.08926
0.699
11.203
0.08961
0.00559
11.160
178.83
1.9666
0.12344
0.508
8.147
1.2515
0.07817
0.800
12.800
1.0727
0.06696
0.932
14.930
•
0.8047
0.05022
1.242
19.912
2.8605
0.1787
0.349
5.596
1.2519
0.07814
0.799
12.797
0.7155
0.04466
1.397
22.391
1.1900
0.07428
0.840
13.456
3.3333
0.208
0.303
4.808
1.3415
0.08565
0.746
11.950
TABLE XXXVI. Average Composition of Fuel Gases by Weight and Volume.
Natural Gas.
Coal Gas.
Water Gas.
Produce Gas.
Weight. Volume.
Hydrogen
Marsh gas CH4
0.268
90.383
Weight. Volume.
2.18 8.21 46.00
92.60 57.20 40.00
Weight. Volume. Weight. Volume.
Carbonic oxide CO
0.857
0.50 15.02
6.00
16.041
5.431 45.00
1.931 2.00
45.00
0.458 6.00
1.831 3.00
25.095
23.50
Olefiant gas C2H4
0.531
0.31 10.01
4.00
0.000
0.00
0.000 0.00
Carbonic acid CO2
•
0.700
0.26
1.97
0.50
10.622 4.00
2.517 1.50
Nitrogen
6.178 3.61
3.75
1.50
3.380 2.00
69.413 65.00
Oxygen
0.666 0.34
1.43
0.50
0.965 0.50
0.000
0.00
Water vapour H₂O
0.000 0.00
2.41
1.50
1.630 1.50
0.686
1.00
Relative values
1000
1000
949
666
292
292
76.5
130
burned
Total product of 1000 cub. ft.
Weight of water evaporated
ft. }
879.16
565-526
257.816
169.945
893.25
I
591.00
262.00
115.000
378
APPENDIX
Molecular Weights.
Combustible.
Combustibles.
Oxygen.
By Air.
Oxygen. Products.
Air.
Products.
TABLE XXXVII. Weight and Volume of Oxygen and Air necessary for Combustion.
Products.
Weight per Kilogram of Combustible
Combustion.
By Oxygen.
Composition by Volume.
Combustible.
Oxygen.
Products.
Volume in cubic metres at 0° per Kilogram of
Combustibles.
Gaseous
Combustibles.
Combustion.
By Oxygen.
By Air.
Oxygen. Produ cts.
Air.
Products.
Kilo.
Carbon
12
Carbon
CO
Hydrogen
2282
32
CO2-44 | 2.667
12 16
CO=28 1.333
16
CO₂=44|| 0.571
16
Methane CH4
16
8 0=128
H20=18| 8:000
CO2=44
H20=36
Kilo.
Kilo.
3.667 11.594 12.594 10
2.333 5.797 6.797 1C
1.571 2.484 3.484
9.000 34.784 35.784
4.000 5.000 17.392 18.392
Kilo.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
20 2C02
10 200
200
10
2C02
2H
10
2H20
11-1700 5.5850
0.9325 1.8650 1.8650
0.9325 0.9325 1.8650
0.7986 0.3993 0.7986 1.9188 2.3181
11-1700 26-8500 32.4350
8.9669 8.9669
4.4834 5.4159
1C+4H 40
2C02
1.3990 2-7980
4.1970 13-4520 14.8510
4H₂O
Ethylene C2H4
28
12 0=192
2C02=88
2H20=36
3.428 4.428 14.903 15.903
1C+2H 30
2CO2
0.7986 2.3958
3.1940 11.5190 12.3176
2H₂O
TABLE
XXXVIII.
Weight and Volume of Oxygen and Air necessary for Combustion (Sér.)
At 0 and 760 mm. (32°F. and 29-922 in.) Berthelot.
Molecular Weight.
Weight per pound of Combustible.
Composition by Volume.
Volume in cubic feet at 32° per pound of
Combustible.
Combustibles.
Combustible.
Combustion.
Oxygen.
Products.
By Oxygen.
By Air.
Oxygen. Products..
Air.
Products.
Combustible.
Oxygen.
Product.
Gaseous
Combustibles.
Combustion.
By Oxygen.
By Air.
Oxygen.
Product.
Air.
Product.
Ib.
Carbon
12
Carbon
12
Carb. ox. CO
28
223
32
CO2 44
2.667
lb.
3.667
lb..
lb.
vol.
vol.
vol.
Cubic feet. Cubic feet.
Cub. ft.
Cub. ft.
Cub. ft.
11.594
12.594 1C
2 2CO2
14.93
29.86
29.86
139.45
139.45
16
CO 28 1.333
2.333
5.797
6.797 1C
1
2002
14.93
14.93
29.86
69.72
84.65
16
CO₂ 44
0.571
1.571
2.484 3.484 2CO
1
2CO2
12.79
6.395 12.79
30.74
37.14
Hydrogen
2
16
H₂O 18
Methane CH4
116
8 0=128
CO₂ 44)
H₂O 36 S
Ethylene C2H4
28
12 0=12
(2002 881
2H₂036
8.000 9.000
4.000 5.000
3.428
34.784
17.392
35.784 2H
1
2H₂O
178.94
89.47 178.94 430.14 519-61
18-392 IC, 4H
2CO2
4
22.41
44.82 67.33
215.50
237.91
4H₂OJ
4.428
14.903 15.903 1C, 2H
3
2CO 2 )
12.79
38.37
51.16 184.53 197-32
2H₂OJ
379
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Name of Gas.
TABLE XXXIX.
Heat of Combustion of Gases by Weight and Volume.
At 0 and 760 mm. (32°F. and 29.922 in.) Berthelot.
Formula
H=1.
C=12.
Heat of Combustion.
Composition by
Volume.
Water Liquid.
Water Vapour.
Per
kilo-
gram.
Per
cubic
metre.
Per
pound.
Per Per Per
cubic kilo- cubic
foot. gram.
metre.
Per
Per
pound.
cubic
foot.
Hydrogen
H
H₂
Marsh gas
CH4
1 vol. C+4 vol. H
Acetylene
C2H2
vol. C+1 vol. H
Ethylene
C2H2
1 vol. C+2 vol. H
Ethane
C2H4
I vol. C+3 vol. H
Benzene vapour
C2H6
1 vol. C+1 vol. H
Carbonic oxide
CO
Carb. vap. (diamond)
C
1 vol. C+1 vol. O
C4 (?)
Carb. vap. (charcoal)
C
Air
Nitrogen N
Carbonic acid CO₂
Carbonic oxide CO
34500 3091 62100 347 29150 2663 52290 293
13343 10038 24017 1073 11993
|
8585 22587 | 1024
12142 14460 21856 1624 11727 13961 21109 1569
12182 152350 21927 1744 11411 14281 20509 1503
1428120509 |
12410 16641 22338 1912 | 11330 | 15120 20304 1746
10052 33496 18094 4208 9637 31800 17347 4033
2435
3043
4383 341
11134 11935* 20041 1342
12143 20390 | 1366
11328
TABLE XL. Specific Heat of Gases, referred to Water.
Molecular
specific Heat
in
grammes.
Molecular
Weight.
Specific
Heat
by
Weight.
C
C
M
M
Weight per
cubic metre at
0° and
760 mm.
Specific Heat
by Volume per
cubic metre.
с
С.Р
M
P
Kilo.
Kilo.
Kilo.
At 100°
0.327
1.293
0.300
100° 6.83
N₂=28
0.244
1.256
0.306
100°
9.54
CO2=44
0.217
1.966
· 0.426
100°-
==
6.86
CO =28
•
0.245
1.251
0.306
100° 11.72
C2H4=28
0.418
1.252
0.253
-
100° 9.49
CH₁=16
0.593
0.715
0.424
=
100° 6.82
H₂= 2
3.410
0.0896
0.304
-
100° 6.95
02=32
0.217
1.430
0.310
100° 9.86
SO₂=48
0.154
2.860
0.440
100° 8.65
H₂0=18
0.479
0.804
0.385
Olefiant gas C2H4
Marsh gas CH4
Hydrogen H.
Oxygen O
Sulphurous acid SO3
Aqueous vapour H₂O
TABLE XLI. Table of Specific Heat of Gaseous products of Combustion referred to the proportion of Carbonic
Acid.
Proportion of Carbonic Acid.
Specific Heat.
Proportion of Carbonic Acid.
Specific Heat.
5 per cent.
0.312
11 per cent.
0.319
6
0.314
12
""
་
""
0.320
99
""
788
0.315
13
""
0.321
""
""
0.316
""
14
0.322
""
""
9
""
0.317
15
""
0.323
""
""
10
0.318
""
""
Temperature.
Specific Heat.
TABLE XLII. Specific Heat of Water. (Regnault.)
Temperature.
Specific Heat.
0°C
32°F.
1.0000
110° 230°F.
1.0153
10°
50
1.0005
120°=248
1.01.77
20°
68
1.0012
130° 266
1.0204
30°
86
1.0020
140° 284
=
1.0232
40° =104
1.0030
150°-302
1.0262
50° =122
1.0042
160°=320
1.0294
60° =140
1.0056
170° 338
=
1.0328
70° =158
1.0072
180°-356
80° =176
1.0098
190°-374
1 0364
1.0401
90° =194
1.0109
200°-392
1.0440
100° =212
1.0130
380
APPENDIX
TABLE XLIII.
Theoretical Evaporative Value of Petroleum Fuel and of Coal.
Chemical Composition.
Specific gravity
at 32° Fahr.
HEATING
POWER.
THEORETICAL EVAPORATION.
Lb. of water per lb. of fuel.
FUEL.
Water=1.000.
Carbon.
Hydrogen.
Oxygen.
Sulphur.
British
thermal
units.
From and at At 8 atm. effec-
212° Fahr.
tive pressure.
S.G.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Units.
Lb.
Lb.
Pennsylvanian heavy crude oil
0.886
84.9
13.7
1·4
20,736
21.48
17.8
Caucasian light crude oil.
0.884
86.3
13.6
0.1
22,027
22.79
18.9
Caucasian heavy crude oil
0.938
86.6
12.3
1.1
20,138
20.85
17.3
Petroleum refuse
0.928
87.1
11.7
1.2
19,832
20.53
17.1
Good English coal mean of 98 samples
1.380
80.0
5.0
8.0
1.25
14,112
14.61
12.16
381
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
TABLE XLIV. Ignition Point of Gases (Mayer and Munch).
Marsh gas CH4
Ethane C2H4
Propane C₂Hg
Acetylene C₂H₂
Propylene C3H6
667°C.
616
547
580
504
TABLE XLV.
World's Production of Petroleum.
Barrels of 42 U.S.
=
35 Imp. gallons.
Country.
1901.
Per cent. of total.
1900.
Per cent. of total.
United States
Canada
Peru
Russia
·
•
63,620,529
42.95
69,389,194
41.97
692,650
0.47
704,872
0.43
102,976
0.07
72,261
0.04
75,779,417
51.16
85,168,556
51.49
Galicia
•
2,346,505
1.58
3,251,544
1.97
Sumatra, Java, Borneo
1,967,700
1.33
3,038,700
1.83
Roumania
1,628,535
1.10
1,406,160
0.85
India
•
1,078,264
0.73
1,430,716
0.87
Japan
Germany
Italy
•
528,000
0.36
600,000
0.36
358,297
0.24
313,630
0.18
12,102
0.01
10,100
0.01
Total
148,114,975
100.00
165,385,733
100.00
TABLE XLVI.
Kilos per square metre × 2048-pounds per square foot.
Pounds per square foot x 4.884
Kilos. per square cm. × 14-223
Pounds per square inch × 0703
=
=
=
kilos. per square metre.
pounds per square inch.
- kilos. per square cm.
Evaporation from 16°C. at 12 kilos. × 0.8222 evaporation from and at 100°C.
Evaporation from and at 100°C.
Metres × 3.281 =feet.
Square metres × 10-764
Feet x 0.3048
= metres.
Square feet × 0.9308 :
=
Gallons × 4.546 litres.
212°F. × 1∙216 = evaporation from 16°C.
square feet.
square metres.
Litres × 0.21998 = gallons.
Cubic metres × 16-386: cubic cm.
cm. x 0.061027
=
cubic inches.
=
American gallon.
Gallons (Imp.) × 1·2012
American gallons × 0.83226 = English Imp. gallons.
American gallons x 3.784 = litres.
Litres × 0.2642 American gallons.
Inches water gauge × 25·4 = millimetres water gauge.
Imp. gallons × 0.1606 = cubic feet.
Cubic feet × 6.288
=
gallons.
=
=
Feet of water head × 0.43 pounds per square inch.
Pounds per square inch × 2.326 feet head of water.
× 27.907 = inches head of water.
pounds per square inch.
=
Inches water gauge × 0.0358
Inches water gauge × 0.572 = ounces per square inch.
pounds per yard.
=
—
Ounces per square inch x 1.744 inches head of water.
Kilos per metre × 2.015
Pounds per yard × 0.4962
Calories per M3 × 0.1121
B.Th. U. per ft.3 x 8.92
Calories per M² × 0.3686
B.Th. U. per ft.2 × 2.713
=
kilos. per metre.
B.Th. U. per ft.3
cal. per M.3
B.Th. U. per ft.2
=cal. per Metre²
=
212°F.
= 61°F. at 12 kilos.
382
APPENDIX
TABLE XLVII. Specific Gravity of various Materials.
Weight per Cubic foot
in Pounds.
Cast iron.
Wrought iron
Copper
Lead cast
•
Mercury at 23°F.
Steel
•
Tin
Zinc
Bricks
Firebrick
Chalk
Clay
Coal
Coke
•
Petroleum
Tar
Briquettes
•
•
•
Sp. Gr.
7.207
450
7.778
481
8.8
547
11.352
709
13.598
848
•
7.806
488
7.291
455
7.191
429
1.36 to 1.9
85 to 118
137
2.2
1.5 to 2.8
1.93
1.3 to 1.6
95 to 174
121
80 to 102
1.0
0.878
1.015
1.5
62.5
54.8
63.44
93.7
The copyright tables No. XLVIII to LIX which follow are reprinted by permission of Messrs. T. & T.
Vicars from their stoker catalogue.
TABLE XLVIII. Height of Water Column due to Unbalanced Pressures in Chimney 100 feet high.
Temp.
Chimney.
TEMPERATURE OF ATMOSPHERE.
in
0°
10°
20°
30°
40°
50°
60°
70°
80°
90°
100°
200
.4.53
.419
·384
.353
.321
292
·263
234
.209
.182
.157
220
.488
.453
•419
-388
.355
.326
·298 .269 .244
.217
· 192
240
•520
.488
.451
.421
·388
·359
·330 ·301
276
.250
.225
260
.555
·528
.484
.453
.420
-392
.363
·334
309
.282
257
280
.584
549
·515
.482
.451
.422
394
365
·340
·313
.288
300
.611
-576
·541
.511
.478
.4.49
·420
-392
367
·340
315
320
.637 .603
568
.538
505
476
.447
·419
.39.1
-367
.342
340
.662
·638
·593
.563
530
·501
•472
·443
.419
.392
.367
360
.687
·653
.618
.588
.555
·526
·497
·468 ·444
.417
·392
380
710
.676
.641
-611
-578
.549
-520
.492
.467
·440
.415
400
.732
.697
·662
.632
·598
.570
.541
•513
.488
.461
·436
420
.753
718
.684
.653
.620
·591
-563
·534
·509
.482
.457
440
.774
.739
.705 .674
.641
.612
.584
555
.530
·503
.478
460
.793 •758
.724
.694
·660
.632
·603
.574
.549
.522
.497
480
.810
776
•
741
710
.678
·649
.620 .591
.566
.540
515
500
.829
.791
760
.730
.697 .669
-639 .610
.586 .559 .534
For any other chimney height than the 100 feet, water column is directly proportional to height of chimney: velocity
created by draught, and volume of air moved, however, vary as the square root of the height.
TABLE XLIX.
To determine Temperature by Fusion of Metals.
Substance.
Temp. Fahr.
Substance.
Temp. Fahr. ||
Substance.
Temp. Fahr.
Spermaceti
Wax-white
Sulphur
120
Lead
619
Silver, pure
·
1,851
154
Zinc
754
Gold coin
2,128
239
•
Antimony
815
Iron, cast
2,074
Tin
•
Bismuth
Copper
448
Aluminium
1,180
Steel
•
2,550
512
Brass
•
•
·
1,742
Wrought iron
•
2,911
2,003
Where different temperatures are given by different authorities, mean taken.
383
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Charcoal, from wood
from peat
Coke, good
•
Coal-anthracite
""
dry bituminous
coking
cannel
lignite
Peat, dry
·
Wood, dry
Mineral oil
FUEL.
TABLE L. Air Required for Combustion of Fuels.
WEIGHT OF GIVEN CONSTITUENTS IN 1LB.
OF FUEL.
Hydrogen.
Oxygen.
AIR REQUIRED PER
LB. OF FUEL.
Carbon.
Pounds.
•
0.93
11.16
0.80
9.6
0.94
11.28
0.915
0.035
0.026
12.13
0.87
0.05
0.04
12.06
0.75
•
•
0.05
0.05
10.58
0.84
0.06
0.08
11.88
0.70
0.05
0.20
9.30
0.58
0.06
0.31
7.68
0.50
6.00
0.85
15.65
For calculating the above from analysis of the fuels the following formula is used-
Weight of air required 12 C + 36 (
=
H
४
In the above equation the weights of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen are represented respectively by their symbols C, H,
and O.
1
Weight of a Cubic
Foot in lb.
TABLE LI. Volume and Weight of Dry Air at Different Temperatures under a Constant Atmospheric Pressure
of 29.92 in. of Mercury, the Volume at 32 Deg. Fahr being 1.
Temperature.
Degrees
Fahrenheit.
Volume.
Volume.
Temperature.
Degrees
Weight of a Cubic
Foot in lb.
Fahrenheit.
0
.935
·0864
212
1.367
·0591
12
.960
·0842
230
1.404
·0575
22
.980
·0824
250
1.444
·0559
32
1.000
·0807
275
1.495
·0540
42
1.020
·0791
300
1.546
·0522
52
1.041
.0776
325
1.597
·0506
62
1.061
.0761
350
1.648
.0490
72
1.082
.0747
375
1.689
-0477
82
1.102
.0733
400
1.750
·0461
92
1.122
·0720
450
1.852
·0436
102
1.143
·0707
500
1.954
·0413
112
1.163
.0694
552
2.056
·0385
122
1.184
·0682
600
2.150
.0376
132
1.204
.0671
650
2.260
·0357
142
1.224
.0660
700
2.362
·0338
152
1.245
.0649
750
2.465
.0328
162
1.265
.0638
800
2.566
0315
172
1.285
.0628
850
2.668
·0303
182
1.306
.0618
900
2.770
·0292
192
1.326
.0609
950
2.871
·0281
202
1.347
.0600
1000
2.974
.0268
384
APPENDIX
TABLE LII.
Table showing Number of British Thermal Units contained in one pound of pure Water at varying
temperatures and densities, and pounds per gallon.
Temperature.
Degrees
Fahr.
Density or
Weight of
Number of
1 Cubic Foot.
Pounds.
in 1 pound of
Water.
Thermal Units Pounds Weight
per Gallon.
Temperature.
Degrees
Fahr.
Density or
Weight of
1 Cubic Foot.
Pounds.
Number of
Thermal Units
in 1 pound of
Water.
Pounds Weight
per Gallon.
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
*32
62.418
32.000
10.0101
135
61.472
135-217
9.859
35
62.422
35.000
10.0102
140
61.381
140.245
9.844
†39.1
62 425
39.001
10 0112
145
61.291
145.275
9.829
40
62.425
40.001
10.0112
150
61.201
150-305
9.815
45
62.422
45.002
10.0103
155
61.096
155-339
9.799
50
62.409
50.003
10.0087
160
60.991
160.374
9.781
55
62.394
55.006
10.0063
165
60.843
165.413
9.757
60
62.372
60.009
10.0053
170
60-783
170.453
9.748
65
62.344
65.014
9.9982
175
60.665
175.497
9.728
70
62.313
70-020
9.9933
180
60.548
180.542
9.711
75
62.275
75.027
9.9871-
185
60.430
185-591
9.691
80
62.232
80.036
9.980
190
60.314
190.643
9.672
85
62.182
85.045
9.972
195
60.198
195.697
9.654
90
62-133
90.055
9.964
200
60.081
200-753
9.635
95
62.074
95.067
9.955
205
59.93
205.813
9.611
100
62.022
100·080
9.947
210
59.82
210-874
9.594
105
61.960
105.095
9.937
$212
59.76
212.882
9.565
110
61.868
110.110
9.922
230
59.36
231.153
9.520
115
61.807
115.129
9.913
250
58.75
251-487
9.422
120
61.715
120.149
9.897
270
58.18
271.878
125
61.654
125 169
9.887
290
57.59
292-329
130
61.563
130.192
9.873
* 32°F.
Freezing point of water.
=
Boiling point of water.
† 39.1°F. The temperature at which water is at its greatest density.
=
§ 212°F.
A British Thermal Unit (B.Th. U.)
Fahr. at or near 39.1°F.
=
that quantity of heat that is required to raise one pound of water through one degree
TABLE LIII. Saturated Steam.
Saturated Steam is dry steam at the maximum pressure and density, due to its temperature-not super-
heated. It is attained when all latent heat required for the steam has been taken up-this is called “ Satura-
tion Point." A vapour not near the saturation point behaves like a gas under changes of temperature and
pressure; if it is compressed or cooled it reaches a point where it begins to condense; it then no longer obeys
the same laws as a gas.
Heat and Work required to Generate 1 lb. of Saturated Steam at 212°F. from Water at 32°F.
DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT.
Units of Heat.
Mechanical Equivalent in
foot pounds.
THE SENSIBLE HEAT-
1. To raise the temperature of the water from
32°-212°.
180.9
140,740
THE LATENT HEAT-
2. In the formation of Steam
894.0
695,532
3. In expansion against the atmospheric pressure
71.7
55,783
TOTAL OF WORK
1,146.6
892,055
385
CC
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
Total
Pressure
in
Pounds
per sq. inch
measured
from a
Vacuum.
TABLE LIII. Properties of Saturated Steam (continued).
Temp. in degrees
Fahr. of Steam
and of the water
from which it is
evaporated.
Number of British Thermal Units
contained in one Pound, reckoned
from Zero Fahr.
Number required
for evaporation,
known as Latent
Heat, or heat of
vaporization.
Total
Number
contained in
Steam.
Weight of
One Cubic Foot
of Steam
in decimals
of a Pound.
Volume
of
One Pound
of Steam
in Cubic Feet.
Relative Volume
of Cubic Feet
of Steam from
One Cubic Foot
of Water.
1
2
3
4
10
5
6
7
1234567
102.
1,042.96
1,145.05
·0030
330-36
20,620.
126-27
1,026.01
1,152.45
.0058
172.08
10,720.
141.62
1,015.25
1,157.13
·0085
117.52
7,326.
153.07
1,007-23
1,160.62
.0112
89.62
5,600.
162.33
1,000-73
1,163.45
0137
72 66
4,535.
170.12
995.25
1,165.83
0163
61.21
3,814.
176.91
990.47
1,167.90
0189
52.94
3,300.
8
182.91
986.25
1,169.73
·0214
46-69
2,910.
9
188-32
982.43
1,171.37
·0239
41-79
2,607.
10
193.24
978-96
1,172.88
.0264
37.84
2,360.
12
201.96
972.80
1,175.54
·0313
31.95
1,988.
14
209.56
967.43
1,177.85
·0262
27.63
1,722.
14.7
212.
965.7
1,178.60
·0380
26.36
1,644.
16
216.30
962.66
1,179.91
.0413
24.21
1,514.
18
222.38
958.34
1,181.76
.0462
21.64
1,350.6
20
227.92
954.41
1,183.45
0511
19.57
1,220.3
22
233.02
950.79
1,185.01
·0561
17.83
1,113.5
24
237.75
947.42
1,186.45
.0610
16.39
1,024.1
26
242.17
944.28
1,187.80
.0658
15.19
948.4
28
246.33
941.32
1,189.07
.0707
14.14
883.2
30
250.24
938.92
1,190.26
.0755
13.25
826.8
32
253.95
935.88
1,191,39
·0803
12.45
777.2
34
257.48
933.37
1,192.47
·0851
11.75
733.5
36
260.83
930-97
1,193.49
.0899
11.11
694.5
38
264.05
928.67
1,194.47
.0946
10.56
659.7
40
267.12
926.47
1,195.41
·0994
10.06
628.2
42
270-07
924.36
1,196-31
.1041
9.59
599.3
44
272.91
922.32
1,197.18
.1088
9.18
573-7
46
275.65
920.36
1,198.01
•1134
8.82
550.4
48
278.30
918.47
1,198.82
.1181
8.47
529-0
50
280.85
916-63
1,199.60
•1227
8.15
508.5
52
283.33
914.86
1,200.35
.1274
7.85
490.1
54
285.72
913.13
1,201.09
.1320
7.58
472.9
56
288.05
911.46
1,201.80
.1366
7.32
457.0
58
290.32
909.83
1,202.49
•1411
7.08
442.4
60
292.52
908.25
1,203.16
.1457
6.86
428.5
62
294.66
906.70
1,203.81
•1502
6.66
415.6
64
296.75
905.20
1,204.45
.1547
6.46
403.5
66
298.79
903.73
1,205.07
.1592
6.28
392.1
68
300-78
902.30
1,205.68
.1637
6.10
381.3
70
302.72
900.90
1,206.27
.1682
5.95
371.2
72
304.62
899.53
1,206.85
.1726
5.80
361.7
74
306.47
898.19
1,207.41
.1770
5.65
352.6
76
308.29
896.88
1,207.97
.1814
5.51
344.1
78
310.07
895.59
1,208.51
.1858
5.34.
336.0
80
311.81
894.33
1,209.04
.1901
5.26
328.3
82
313-52
893.09
1,209.56
•1945
5.14
320.9
84
315.19
891.88
1,210.07
•1989
5.03
313.9
86
316.84
890.69
1,210.58
•2032
4.92
307.2
88
318.45
889.52
1,211.07
•2075
4.82
300.8
386
APPENDIX
from a
Vacuum.
Total
Number
contained
in Steam.
Total
Pressure
in
Pounds
per sq. inch
measured
TABLE LIII. Properties of Saturated Steam (continued).
Temp. in degrees
Fahr. of Steam
and of the water
from which it is
evaporated.
Number of British Thermal Units
contained in one Pound, reckoned
from Zero Fahr.
Number required
for evaporation,
known as Latent
Heat, or heat of
vaporization.
Weight of
One Cubic Foot
of Steam
in decimals of a
Pound.
Volume
of
One Pound
of Steam
in Cubic Feet.
Relative Volume
of Cubic Feet
of Steam from
One Cubic Foot
of Water.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
90
320.04
888.38
1,211.55
·2118
4 72
294.7
92
321.60
887.25
1,212.03
2161
4.63
288.9
94
323.13
886.14
1,212.49
2204
4.54
283-3
96
324.63
885.04
1,212.95
.2245
4.44
278.0
98
326.11
883.97
1,213.40
·2288
4.37
272.8
100
327.57
882.91
1,213.85
-2330
4.29
267.9
105
331.11
880-34
1,214.93
·2434
4.11
256.5
110
334.52
877.86
1,215.97
•2538
3.94
246.0
115
337.81
875.47
1,216.97
-2640
3.79
236-3
120
340.99
873.15
1,217.94
•2743
3.65
227.6
125
344.07
870.91
1,218-88
•2843
3.52
219.7
130
347.06
868.73
1,219.79
.2942
3.40
212.3
135
349.95
866.62
1,220.68
·3040
3.29
205.4
140
352.77
864.57
1,221.53
-3139
3.19
199.0
145
355.50
862.57
1,222.37
-3239
3.09
193.0
150
358.16
860.62
1,223.18
-3340
2.99
187.5
160
363.28
856-87
1,224.74
3521
2.84
177.3
170
368-16
853-29
1,226.23
-3709
2.69
168.4
180
372.82
849-87
1,227.65
-3889
2.57
160.4
190
377.29
846.58
1,229-01
•4072
2.45
153.4
200
381.57
843.43
1,230.32
.4250
2.35
147.1
250
401.07
831.22
1,235.73
.5464
1.83
114.
300
418.22
819.61
1,240.74
·6486
1.54
96.
350
431.96
810-69
1,244.58
.7498
1.33
83.
400
444.92
800.20
1,249.09
·8502
1.18
73.
387
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
TABLE LIV. Factors of Evaporation.
Gauge Pressure of Steam in pounds per Square Inch.
0
20
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Temp. of
Feed Water .
1.187
1.201
1.211
1.214
1.217
1.219
1.222
1.224
1.227
32
1.184
1.198
1.208
1.211
1.214
1.216
1.219
1.221
1.224
35
1.179
1.193
1.203
1.206
1.209
1.211
1.214
1.216
1.219
40
1.173
1.187
1.197
1.200
1.203
1.205
1.208
1.210
1.213
45
1.168
1.182
1.192
1.195
1.198
1.200
1.203
1.205
1.208
50
1.163
1.177
1.187
1.190
1.193
1.195
1.198
1.200
1.203
55
1.158
1.172
1.182
1.185
1.188
1.190
1.193
1.195
1.198
60
1.153
1.167
1.177
1.180
1.183
1.185
1.188
1.190
1.193
65
1.148
1.162
1.172
1.175
1.178
1.180
1.183
1.185
1.188
70
1.143
1.157
1.167
1.170
1.173
1.175
1.178
1.180
1 183
75
1.137
1.151
1.161
1.164
1.167
1.169
1.172
1.174
·
1.177
80
1.132
1.146
1.156
1.159
1.162
1.164
1.167
1.169
1.172
85
1.127
1.141
1.151
1.154
1.157
1.159
1.162
1.164
1.167
90
1.122
1.136
1.146
1.149
1.152
1.154
1.157
1.159
1.162
95
1.117
1.131
1.141
1.144
1.147
1.149
1.152
1.154
1.157
100
1.111
1.125
1.135
1.139
1.141
1.143
1.146
1.148
1.151
105
1.106
1.120
1.130
1.133
1.136
1.138
1.141
1.143
1.146
110
1.101
1.115
1.125
1.128
1.131
1.133
1.136
1.138
1.141
115
1.096
1.110
1.120
1.123
1.126
1.128
1.131
1.133
1.136
120
1.091
1.105
1.115
1.118
1.121
1.123
1.126
1.128
1.131.
125
1.085
1.099
1.109
1.112
1.115
1.117
1.120
1.122
1.125
130
1.080
1.094
1.104
1.107
1.110
1.112
1.115
1.117
1.120
135
1.075
1.089
1.099
1.102
1.105
1.107
1.110
1.112
1.115
140
1.070
1.084
1.094
1.097
1.100
1.102
1.105
1.107
1.110
145
1.065
1.079
1.089
1.092
1.095
1.097
1.100
1.102
1.105
1.50
1.059
1.073
1.083
1.086
1.089
1.091
1.094
1.096
1.099
155
1.054
1.068
1.078
1.081
1.084
1.086
1.089
1.091
1.094
160
1.049
1.063
1.073
1.076
1.079
1.081
1.084
1.086
1.089
165
1.044
1.058
1.068
1.071
1.074
1.076
1.079
1.081
1.084
170
1.039
1.053
1.063
1 066
1.069
1.071
1.074
1.076
1.079
175
1.033
1.047
1.057
1.060
1.063
1.065
1.068
1.070
1.073
180
1.028
1.042
1.052
1.055
1.058
1.060
1.063
1.065
1.068
185
1.023
1.037
1.047
1.050
1.053
1.055
1.058
1.060
1.063
190
1.018
1.032
1.042
1.045
1.048
1.050
1.053
1.055
1.058
195
1.013
1.027
1.037
1.040
1.043
1.045
1.048
1.050
1.053
200
1.008
1.022
1.032
1.035
1.038
1.040
1.043
1.045
1.048
205
1.004
1.017
1.027
1.030
1.033
1.035
1.038
1.040
1.043
210
1.002
1.000
212
Formula from which the above figures are calculated—
H=TS-TW.
H
F=
LS
TS=Total amount of heat contained in one pound of steam at absolute steam pressure column 4
Table LIII.
TW=Total heat of water at feed water temperature-column 3, Table LII.
H-Heat imparted to water (TW to convert into steam TS).
LS=Latent heat of steam at atmospheric pressure 965.7.
F=Factor of evaporation.
388
APPENDIX
TABLE LIV. Factors of Evaporation (continued).
Gauge Pressure of Steam in pounds per Square Inch.
110
1.20
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
1.229
1.231
1.232
1.234
1.236
1.237
1.239
1.240
1.241
1.243
1.226
1.228
1.230
1.231
1.232
1.234
1.235
1.236
1.237
1.238
1.220
1.222
1.224
1 226
1.227
1.229
1.230
1.232
1.233
1.234
1.215
1.217
1.219
1.220
1.221
1.223
1.224
1.225
1.226
1.227
1.210
1.212
1.214
1.215
1.217
1.218
1.220
1.221
1.223
1.224
1.205
1.207
1.209
1.211
1.212
1.213
1.214
1.215
1.216
1.217
1.200
1.202
1.203
1.205
1.207
1.208
1.210
1.211
1.212
1.214
1.195
1.197
1.199
1.201
1.202
1.203
1.204
1.205
1.206
1.207
1.189
1.191
1.193
1.194
1.196
1.197
1.199
1.200
1.202
1.203
1.185
1.187
1.189
1.191
1.192
1.193
1.194
1.195
1.196
1.197
1.179
1.181
1.183
1.184
1.186
1.187
1.189
1.190
1.192
1.193
1.174
1.176
1.178
1.180
1.181
1.182
1.183
1.184
1.185
1.186
1.169
1.170
1.172
1.174
1.176
1.177
1.1.79
1.180
1.181
1.183
1:164
1.166
1.168
1.170
1.171
1.172
1.173
1.174
1.175
1.176
1.158
1.160
1.162
1.164
1.165
1.167
1.168
1.170
1.171
1.172
1.153
1.155
1.157
1.159
1.160
1.161
1.162
1.163
1.164
1.165
1.148
1.150
1.152
1.153
1.155
1.156
1.158
1.159
1.160
1.162
1.143
1.145
1.147
1.149
1.150
1.151
1.152
1.153
1.154
1.155
1.138
1.140
1.141
1.143
1.145
1.146
1.147
1.149
1.150
1.151
1.133
1.135
1.137
1.139
1.140
1.141
1.142
1.143
1.144
1.145
1.127
1.129
1.130
1.132
1.134
1.136
1.137
1.138
1.140
1.141
1.122
1.124
1.125
1.127
1.129
1.130
1.131
1.132
1.133
1.134
1.117
1.119
1.120
1.122
1.124
1.125
1.127
1.128
1.129
1.131
1.112
1.114
1.116
1.118
1.119
1.120
1.121
1.122
1.123
1.124
1.106
1.109
1.110
1.112
1.113
1.115
1.116
1.117
1.119
1.120
1.101
1.103
1.105
1.107
1.108
1.109
1.110
1.111
1.112
1.113.
1.096
1.098
1.100
1.101
1.103
1.104
1.106
1.107
1.108
1.110
1.091
1.093
1.095
1.097
1.098
1.099
1.150
1-100
1.102
1.103
1.085
1.088
1.089
1.091
1.092
1.094
1.095
1.096
1.098
1.099
1.081
1.083
1.085
1.087
1.088
1.089
1.090
1.091
1.092
1.093
-1.075
1.077
1.079
1.080
1.028
1.083
1.085
1.086
1.088
1.089
1.070
1.072
1.074
1.076
1.077
1.078
1.079
1.080
1.081
1.082
1.065
1.066
1.068
1.070
1.071
1.073
1.074
1.076
1.077
1.078
1.060
1.062
1.064
1.066
1.067
1.068
1.069
1.070
1.071
1.072
1.054
1.056
1.058
1.059
1.061
1.063
1.064
1.065
1.067
1.068
1.050
1.052
1.054
1.056
1.057
1.058
1.059
1.060
1.061
1.062
1.044
1.046
1.047
1.049
1.051
1.052
1.053
1.055
1.056
1.057
Saving effected by heating feed water.
The saving in fuel effected by heating feed water can be calculated by formula as below—
Percentage of saving=
100 (T-t)
H-t
in which T-heat units in one pound of feed water above 0° after heating-column 3, Table LII.
t = heat units in one pound of feed water above 0° before heating—
H=heat units in one pound of steam of boiler pressure above 0°-column 4, Table ÏIII.
389
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
90 per cent.
British Thermal
Units in 1 Pound
of Fuel.
Water evaporated Water evaporated
from and at
from and at
of Fuel
(theoretical).
(actual).
of Fuel
(actual).
TABLE LV. Efficiency of Boiler.
80 per cent. 70 per cent. 60 per cent. 50 per cent.
Water evaporated Water evaporated Water evaporated Water evaporated
from and at from and at from and at from and at
212° Fahr. per Ib. 212° Fahr. per Ib. 212° Fahr. per lb. 212° Fahr. per lb. 212° Fahr. per lb. 212° Fahr. per lb.
of Fuel
of Fuel
(actual).
of Fuel
(actual).
of Fuel
(actual).
15,000
15.6
14.0
12.4
10.8
9.3
7.7
14,800
15.3
13.7
12.2
10.7
9.2
7.65
14,650
15.2
13.6
12.1
10.6
9.1
7.6
14,500
15.0
13.5
12.0
10.5
9.0
7.5
14,250
14.8
13.3
11.8
10.3
8.9
5.4
14,000
14.5
13.0
11.6
10.1
8.7
7.3
13,750
14.2
12.8
11.4
10.0
8.6
7.1
13,500
14.0
12.6
11.2
9.8
8.4
7.0
13,250
13.7
12.3
11.0
9.6
8.3
6.9
13,000
13.5
12.1
10.8
9.4
8.1
6.7
12,750
13.2
11.9
10.5
9.2
7.9
6.6
12,500
12.9
11.6
10.3
9.0
7.7
6.5
12,250
12.7
11.4
10.1
8.9
7.6
6.4
12,000
12.4
11.2
9.9
8.7
7.5
6.2
11,750
12.2
11.0
9.7
8.5
7.3
6.1
11,500
11.9
10.8
9.6
8.4
7.1
6.0
11,250
11.7
10.5
9.3
8.2
7.0
5.9
11,000
11.4
10.2
9.1
8.0
6.8
5.7
10,750
11.1
10.0
8.9
7.8
6.7
5.6
10,500
10.9
9.8
10,250
10.6
9.5
10,000
10.4
9.3
9,750
10.1
9.1
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
8.7
7.6
6.5
5.4
8.5
7.4
6.4
5.3
8.3
7.2
6.3
5.2
8.1
7.1
6.1
5.1
9,500
9.8
8.8
7.9
6.9
5.9
4.9
9,250
9.6
8.6
7.7
6.7
5.7
4.8
9,000
9.3
8.4
7.5
6.5
5.6
4.7
8,750
9.1
8.2
7.3
6.3
5.4
4.6
8,500
8.8
7.9
7.0
6.2
5.3
4.4
TABLE LVI. Loss of Combustible in burning 100 lb. of Fuel due to Unconsumed Combustible in Ash.
Percentage of
PER CENT. OF ASH IN COAL FIRED.
unconsumed
combustible
in ash.
5
6
7
8
9 | |
10
11
12
13
14
16
18
20
50
5.0
6.0 7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
45
4.0
4.8
5.7 6.6
7.3
8 1
40
3.3
4.0 4.6
5.3
6.0
6.6
9.0
7.3
12.0 13.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0
9.8 10.6 11.4 13.0 14.7 16.3
8.0 8.6 9.3 10.6
12.0
13.3
35
2.6 3.2
3.7
4.3 4.8
5.3 5.9 6.4
7.0
7.5 8.6
9.6
10.7
30
2.1
2.5
3.0
3.4
3.8
4.2 4.7 5.1
5.5
6.0 6.8
7.7 8.5
25
1.6
2.0
2.3
2.6
3.0
3.3
3.6 4.0
4.3
4.6
5.3
6.0 6.6
20
1.2
1.5
1.7
2.0 2.2
2.5 2.7
3.0
3.2
3.5 4.0
4.5 5.0
15
0.8
1.0
1.2
1·4 1.5 1.7 1.9
2.1
2.2
2.4
2.8
3.1 3.4
10
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8 1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3 1.4
1.5
1.7 2.0
2.2
8
0.4
0.5 0.6 0.7
0.8
0.8
0.9
6
0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5
0.6
0.7
0.7
1.0 1.1
0.8
1.2 1.3 1.5
0.8 1.02 1.1
1.7
1.2
42
0.2 0.25 0.29 0.3 0.38 0.42 0.45 0.5 0.54 0.60 0.66 0.75 0.83
0.11 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24
0.26 0.28 0.32
0.36 0.4
The actual heat value of unconsumed combustible in ash can only be determined by calorimetrical test, as it depends on
the percentage of volatile matter in same and the actual heat value of the fixed carbon.
to be equal in heat value to the coal used weight for weight.
For ordinary purposes it is often taken
390
APPENDIX
TABLE LVII. Moisture.
Showing heat units utilised in raising 1 lb. of moisture from temp. of boiler house to temp. of escaping gases.
Heat units utilised per lb. of moisture.
Temp. of Escaping Gases, Fahr.
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1,000
10
15
298
1,210 1,234 1,258
1,205 1,229 1,253
1,282
1,306
1,330 1,354 1,378
1,402
1,426
1,450
1,474
1,498
1,522
1,546
1,277
1,301 1,325
1,349 1,373
1,397
1,421
1,445
1,469
20
1,200 1,224
1,493
1,517
1,541
1,248 1,272 1,296
1,320
1,344
1,368
1,392
1,416
1,440
1,464
25
1,195 1,219 1,243
1,488
1,512
1,536
1,267 1,291
1,315
1,339
1,363
1,387
1,411
1,435
1,459
30
1,190 1,214
1,483
1,507
1,531
1,238
1,262
1,286
1,310
1,334
1,358
1,382
1,406
1,430
1,454
35
1,185 1,209
1,478
1,233 1,257
1,502 1,526
1,281
1,305
1,329
1,353
1,377
1,401
1,425
1,449
40
1,180 1,204 1,228
1,473
1,497
1,521
1,252 1,276
1,300
1,324
1,348
1,372
1,396
1,420
1,444
45
50
1,175 1,199 1,223 1,247
1,170 1,194 1,218 1,242
1,468
1,492
1,516
55
1,165 1,189 1,213
1,271
1,266
1,237 1,261 1,285 1,309 1,333
1,295
1,319 1,343
1,367 1,391
1,415
1,439
1,463
1,487 1,511
1,290 1,314 1,338 1,362
1,386
1,410
1,434
1,458
1,482
1,506
1,357
1,381
1,405
1,429
60
1,160 1,184 1,208
1,453
1,232
1,256 1,280 1,304 1,328
1,477 1,501
1,352
1,376
65
1,155 1,179 1,203
1,400
1,424
1,448
70
1,150
1,174 1,198
75
1,145
1,169
1,193
1,227 1,251 1,275 1,299 1,323
1,222 1,246 1,270 1,294 1,318
1,217 1,241
1,472
1,496
1,347
1,371
1,395
1,419
1,443 1,467
1,491
1,342 1,366
1,390
1,414
1,438
1,462
1,265 1,289 1,313
1,486
1,337
1,361 1,385
1,409
80
1,140 1,164
1,188
1,212 1,236
1,260 1,284 1,308
1,433 1,457
1,481
1,332
1,356
1,380
1,404
85
1,135 1,159
1,428
1,452
1,183
1,207 1,231
90
i,130 1,154 1,178
1,255 1,279 1,303
1,476
1,327
1,351
1,375 1,399
1,423
1,447
1,471
95
100
1,144 1,168
1,202 1,226
1,125 1,149 1,173 1,197 1,221
1,120
1,250
1,274
1,298
1,322
1,346
1,370 1,394
1.418
1,442 1,466
1,245
1,269
1,293 1,317 1,341
1,365 1,389
1,413
1,192 1,216 1,240
1,437 1,461
1,264
1,288
1,312 1,336
1,360 1,384
1,408
1,432 1,456
Temp. in
Boiler
House.
391
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
TABLE LVIII. Heat Balance or Distribution of the Heating Value of the Combustible.
TOTAL HEATING VALUE OF 1 LB. OF COMBUSTIBLE B.Th. U.
1. Heat absorbed by the boiler=evaporation from and at 212 degrees per lb. of combustible
x 965.7.
=
2. Loss due to moisture in coal per cent. of moisture referred to combustible ÷ 100 ×
[(212-t) × 966 × 0.48 (T-212)]. (t temperature of air in the boiler room, T=
that of the flue gases).
=
=
3. Loss due to moisture formed by the burning of hydrogen per cent. of hydrogen to com-
bustible by 100 × 9 × [(212 -t × 966 × 0.48) (T - 212)].
*4. Loss due to heat carried away in the dry chimney gases
bustible x 0.24 × (T− t).
†5. Loss due to incomplete combustion of carbon=-
CO
CO₂+CO
2
=
weight of gas per lb. of com-
per cent. C in combustible
100
X 10.150
6. Loss due to unconsumed hydrogen and hydrocarbons, to heating the moisture in the air,
to radiation, and unaccounted for.
(Some of these losses may be separately itemized if data are obtained from which
they may be calculated).
TOTALS
* The weight of gas per lb. of carbon burned may be calculated from the gas analysis as follows—
Dry gas per lb. carbon
2
11 CO₂+ 80 + 7 (CO N)
=
3 (CO₂ + CO)
B.Th.U.
per cent.
100.00
in which CO2, CO, O, and N are the percentages by volume of the several gases. The weight of dry gas per lb. of combustible
is found by multiplying the dry gas per lb. of carbon by the percentage of carbon in the combustible and dividing by 100.
Professor Jacobus recommends the use of the following formula for finding the weight of air per lb. of carbon :-
7 N
C
÷0.77
3 (CO₂ + CO)
2
† CO, and CO are respectively the percentage by volume of carbonic acid and carbonic oxide in the flue gases. The quantity
10.150 = number of heat units generated by burning to carbonic acid one lb. of carbon contained in carbonic oxide.
392
APPENDIX
TABLE LIX.
Showing Heat Loss in Chimney Gases according to Percentage of Carbon Dioxide and Temperature.
Efficiency.
40
~
50
60
70
80
90
100
8
9
10
11
12 13 14 15 16 17
1112
1076
1040
1004
968
6
Co
932
896
860
824
5
788
752
716
680
++
648
612
572
536
3
500
464
428
392
356
2
320
284
248
212
1
176
140
104
68
32
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
393
Appendix 9
STEAM SUPERHEATER WITH OIL FIRING
IN the direct firing of a steam superheater the difficulty has always been to control the
amount of superheat and to preserve the pipes from overheating. The difficulty has
been overcome in the Cruse Controllable Superheater by the use of solid - drawn steel
pipes containing U tubes of solid-drawn copper through which water is circulated, being
drawn from the boiler, preferably at the bottom, and delivered back to the boiler at the
water level. The steam which passes between the copper and steel pipes assumes a
temperature approximately the mean of that of the water in the inside pipe and the gases
outside the outer pipe. Control is secured by regulating the amount of water circulation
and the proportion of feed water sent through the superheater. Direct firing can thus
be safely applied, and in fig. 119 herewith is shown a suggested arrangement for the direct
firing of a superheater with liquid fuel. The fire-grate is removed and the bottom
of the furnace is perforated for a supply of air below the flames, or the furnace bottom
may be made in the form of a fire-grate and covered with fire-bricks set on edge loosely,
the admission of air being controlled by a damper or register to close the air entrance.
Provision is also made to admit air round the two atomisers. The direct action of the
flame is kept from the lower water drums by the flank walls of the furnace, which are
carried up sufficiently high for the purpose, and the flames make their first contact with
the upper water drums and thence pass on at a lower temperature to the superheating
pipes. Liquid fuel should be specially useful in a superheater because of the ease and
perfection of the control which is possible over it.
In the illustration the following parts are lettered—
a Air inlet under flames.
C=Inlet (from boiler) steam collector and distributor.
D=Steel superheater tubes.
D¹-Pressed steel covers.
E=Superheated steam collector.
F-Feed water inlet from economiser.
F¹-Combining box.
G=Down corner pipes to bottom drum.
G¹=Distributing pipe inside drums H.
H-Bottom drums.
J Intermediate drums.
K=Down corner pipes from intermediate drums to bottom water collector.
L=Bottom water collector and distributor.
N=Top water collecting drum.
N¹ Water pipes from N to top drums O.
0=Top drums.
O¹ Safety and water level valves.
394
O
T
A-B-
SECTIONAL ELEVATION on line A-
Z
V
H
Pf
0²
2
Y
H
fof Alergiser
a
C
E2F3
ווי
3
X
5
6
7
8
9
10 Ft
N'
N
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
น
D'
D
FIG. 119.
B
CRUSE CONTROLLABLE STEAM SUPERHEATER WITH OIL-FIRED FURNACE.
395
LIQUID FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION
O2-Drum and branch for drums O.
P=Water outlet bend and combining box.
P¹ Heated water outlet.
Q=By-pass and valve from top to bottom drums.
S¹ Carrying girder.
T-Baffle wall.
Y-Furnace.
X-Blow-off and mud taps.
Z =Bridge.
VFire arch.
396
APPENDIX
Aluminium
Antimony
Silver
Nitrogen
Barium
Bismuth.
•
Boron
Calcium
Carbon
Chlorine.
Copper
Tin.
Iron
TABLE OF ATOMIC WEIGHTS.
Names of Elements.
Atomic
Weight.
Symbol.
•
27.0
A1
•
120
Sb
107.9
Ag
14.04
N
137.1
Ba
•
208
Bi
11
B
•
•
40
Ca
•
12
C
•
•
•
35.5
Cl
63.3
Cu
•
•
118
Sn
56
Fe
1
H
24
Mg
200
Hg
50 50
15.88
O
•
•
106
Pd
31
P
197
Pt
207
Pb
39.14
K
•
28
Si
•
23
Na
•
•
•
32.07
S
•
184
W
65.0
Zn
Hydrogen
Magnesium
Mercury.
Oxygen
Palladium
Phosphorus
Platinum
Lead
Potassium
Silicon
Sodium
Sulphur .
Tungsten
Zinc
397
INDEX.
A
Abergele accident, 170
Accumulators, 356
Acetylene, 58
Acid water, 77
Adiabatic compression, 242
Admiralty flash tests, 349
Ados, CO, recorder, 234
Advantages of Liquid Fuel, 5, 30, 115, 116
Aërated fuel system, 196, 261
Index
Air, atomizing by, 4, 160, 182, 194, 216, 220
240, 265
calculation of, 159
compression, 249, 265
compressor, 240, 315
efflux, 249, 257
for atomizing, 4, 219, 240, 260, 321, 325
for combustion, 12, 14, 58, 87, 93, 99, 101,
139, 151, 159, 162, 207, 302
for combustion, Rankine, 101
for combustion, Longridge, 101
heater, 149, 316
heating, 149, 216, 309, 325, 337
heater, Ellis & Eaves, 216
low pressure, 197, 198
power to compress, 240, 248
pressure diagram, 243
properties of, 59
regulator, 187
tuyere, 180
Alabama coal, 30
Alcohol, 17
Allest atomizer, 267, 268
Allotropic forms of carbon, 54, 102
Alsace oil, 20, 29
American gallon, 36, 66
American locomotive practice, 166
fire underwriters' rules, 344
petroleum, 18, 20, 94
petroleum production, 8
stationary practice, 182, 194
Amorphous carbon, 54, 55, 99, 102
Analysis of Borneo oil, 199
chimney gas, 160, 217, 229
coal, 297
firebrick, 48
fireclay, 48, 49, 50
flame, 13, 104
flue gases, 216
fuel, 94, 300
Analysis, oil, 317, 328
petroleum, 20, 24, 27, 94
Texas oil, 24, 27
Angus Smith on water, 76
Animal oil, 15
Anthracite, 102, 171
Apparatus, Orsat's, 230
Archbutt-Deeley Process, 78
Arch, firebrick, 47, 52, 145, 146, 148, 156, 157,
158, 168, 174, 177, 178, 192
Area of chimney, 258
Arlberg tunnel, 11, 157
Arndt econometer, 237
Artemeff atomizer, 271
Assay crucible, 276
Assay furnace, 276
Astatki, 4, 6, 12, 19, 171, 270
Atmosphere, 59, 81
Atmospheric carbon, 54
Atomizers, various, 260
Atomizer, Aërated Fuel Co., 196, 261
Artemeff, 271
Baldwin, 166, 261
Bereznef, 11, 271
Billow, 183
Brandt, 269
Chaukoff, 272
Circular, 11
d'Allest, 267, 268
dimensions, 351
elementary, 263
flat jet type, 270
Fvardofski, 268
Grand Trunk Railway, 263
Grundell Tucker, 262, 315
Guyot, 266, 267
Hayes, 262, 331
Holden, 141, 145, 147, 149, 150, 151, 153,
155, 157, 158, 260
horse power of, 351
hydroleum, 262
Issaieff, 12
Kermode's, 202, 263
Kirkwood, 194
Körting, 131, 136, 263, 284
Lenz, 270
Nobel, 270
nozzles, 266
Oil City Boiler Co., 261, 327, 334
Orde, 124
401
D D
INDEX
Atomizer, power of, 351
proportions, 169, 351
F. M. Reed, 262, 335
Rivet furnace, 263
Rusden-Eeles, 113, 120, 261
Soliani, 270
Southern Pacific Railway, 272
Standart Russe, 270
Swensson, 262, 263
types of, 325
Urquhart, 172, 176, 179, 261, 282
Vetillard-Scherding, 270
Williams, 34, 270
Atomizing, 3, 16, 17, 182, 260, 309
M. Bertin on, 136
agent, 265
necessity of, 16, 17, 309
with air, 4, 160, 182, 194, 216, 220, 240,
260, 321
with steam, 4, 147, 160, 182, 194, 217, 219,
240, 260
Aude, l', 266, 268
Austrian oil, 32
Automobile starting device, 215
Aydon, on liquid fuel, 3
B
Baku petroleum, 20, 29
Baldwin atomizer, 166, 261
firebox, 168
oil fuel system, 166
Ballast tanks, 112
Barges, 357
Barometer, 59
Barrels of oil produced, 29, 32
and gallons, 22, 36
Beaumont oil, 13, 22, 35, 328
tests, 35, 195
Beaumont, Worby, test of motor cars, 205
Bereznef atomizer, 11, 271
Berthelot on carbon, 55
Berthelot-Mahler calorimeter, 81, 251
Berthelot on latent heat of carbon, 19
Bertin on air compressing, 248
Bertin on atomizing, 136, 248, 266
on liquid fuel, 12, 42
on mixed system, 162, 163
on ratio of oil and coal, 12, 163
Bickford Burner Co.'s furnace, 276
Billow atomizer, 183
system, 182
Bituminous fuel combustion, 102
Blacksmith's fire, 282
Blast furnace gas, 197
oil, 15, 21
Blast pipe, variable, Macallan's, 157, 259
Blocks, fireclay, 46
Board, National of Fire Underwriters, 353
Boiler, Belleville, 103, 272, 292
Babcock, 296
Boiler coil, 209
Cornish, 153
Du Temple type, 273
efficiency, 8, 192, 273
firefloat burner, 207
French torpedo boat, 12, 164, 267
Godard, 265
grease in, 79
Guyot, 164, 268, 273
Heine, 193
Hohenstein, 295, 325
hydroleum special, 203
Lancashire, 7, 151, 130, 152, 181
Lancashire, Orde's system, 127
locomotive, 146, 148, 157, 158, 168, 171,
174, 177, 178, 272
locomotive type, 154, 157, 158
marine, 118, 123, 129, 133, 216
marine type, 199
Niclausse, 272, 296
Solignac, 7
Thornycroft, 296
underfired tubular, 190
vertical, 154
water capacity of, 7
water tube, 7, 106, 155, 156, 191, 204
with grate, 14, 155, 191
without grate, 14, 156, 204
Weir, 14, 106
Boiling point of petroleum, 26
Borneo oil, 41, 146, 199
Brandt atomizer, 269
Brass furnace, 275, 276
Brick, see Firebrick
Brick arch, 47, 52, 145, 146, 148, 156, 157, 158,
168, 174, 177, 178, 191, 272
linings, 106, 128
Bridge walls, 128
British Thermal Unit, 86
Buffle, 266
Bulkheads, 222
Bunker pipes of oil supply system, 124
Bunker pump, Weir's, 226
fuel oil, 124
Burma oil, 41
Burner, Bickford burner furnace, 276
Clarkson-Capel, 208 et seq.
Burners, see Atomizers
installation of, 358
construction of, 358
Symon House, 264
Burning of firebrick, 48
Butane, 40
Calcium carbonate, 68
sulphate, 64, 73
C
Calculation of temperatures, 89
Californian petroleum, 18, 19, 29
Calorific formula, 88
Calorific power of Borneo oil, 41
Burma oil, 41
carbon, 88, 93
canoe, 207
choice of, 7
compounds, 78
water, capacity of, 7
Cherbourg, 272
gases, 197
Caucasus oil, 41
1
402
INDEX
Calorific power, glycerine, 17
hydrogen, 57, 58, 88
liquid fuel, 18, 28, 41, 80, 93, 94, 329
Clavenad on,
93
Colonner and Lordier on, 94
Goutal on, 94
Mahler on, 94
Texas oil, 28, 41, 329
Calorimetry, 251
Calorie, 86
Calorimeter, Berthelot-Mahler, 81, 251
Thompson, 251
Canada oil, 20
Canoe, boiler for, 208
Capacity of boilers, water, 7
tank, 361
Cap damper, chimney, 173
Car, test of, 205
tank, 225
Carbolic acid, 20
Carbon, allotropic forms, 54, 102
amorphous, 54, 55, 99, 102
as fuel, 54
atmospheric, 54
atomic weight, 54
bisulphide, 56
calorific power of, 88, 93
combustion of, 55, 57
diamond, 54, 55, 102
dioxide, 55, 216
gaseous, 55, 98, 102
graphitic, 54, 55, 102
heat of combustion, 102
heat of conversion, 102
in nature, 54
liquid, 56
monoxide, 55
properties of, 56
solid, 54,
source of, 54
vapour, 98
Carbonate of lime, 68
magnesia, 73
Carbonic acid, 55
oxide, 55
Carborundum, 45
Cargo steamer, ordinary with oil fuel, 112
Car hose, tank, 188
Carriage of oil, 23, 112, 285
Cast iron, 44
furnace for, 276
Cement for oil pipes, 113
Centigrade thermometer, 83
Chalk on fire, 138
Chamber, combustion, 14, 106
Charcoal, see Amorphous carbon
Charges, freight, on oil, 22
Chaukoff atomizer, 272
Chemical properties of air, 59
carbon, 54
hydrogen, 57
nitrogen, 60
oil, 24
oxygen, 60
petroleum, 24, 26, 40
Chemical Texas oil, 24
Chemistry, Thermo-, 57, 80
Cherbourg, test at, 42, 136, 161, 266
boiler, 272
Chicago Exhibition, 5
Chimney area, 258
Chimney damper cap, 173
draught, 256
gases, 160, 217, 229
Circular atomizers, 11, 260
Clark process of water softening, 77
Classification of fireclay goods, 53
Clarkson-Capel burner, 208
preliminary heater, 209, 215
open tank system, 208
system, 208
Clavenad on calorific capacity of fuel, 93
Clay, see Fireclay
CO₂ analysis, 229
2
in furnace gases, 160, 162, 217, 229
recorder, Ados, 234
recorder, Arndt, 237
Coating of tanks, 355
Coal, analysis of, 300
Alabama, 30
anthracite, 102
burning boiler, Hohenstein's, 295
combustion, of, 163, 164
long-flaming, 99
Newcastle, 99
Pocahontas, 159, 300
short-flaming, 99
Welsh, 103, 159
and oil furnace, 120
and oil, comparative cost, 37, 169, 170, 180,
195
production, 5
tar, 15
test, Melville's, 158, 295
Coefficient of expansion, oil, 43
water, 62
gases, 63
Cofferdams, 112, 310
Coil boiler, 201
Coils, heating, 176, 208
Combustion, air for, 12, 14, 58, 87, 93, 99, 101,
302
of anthracite, 102
of bituminous fuel, 102
calculations, 88
smokeless, 96
of carbon, 55, 57
of hydrogen, 57, 88
chamber, refractory, 106
chamber, 14, 106
imperfect, 90
heat of, 94
of liquid fuel, 13, 16, 336
of hydrocarbon, 96
of vaporized liquids, 208
principles of, 13, 180
temperature of, 12, 89, 92, 336
volume of gases, 90
Comparative costs, oil and coal, 37, 180, 195
Compounds, boiler, 78
403
INDEX
Compounds, hydrocarbon, 40, 41
Compression, adiabatic, 242
of air, 249
compound, 240
diagrams, 243
isothermal, 241
Compressor, air, 311
electrically driven, 240
duplex, 250
Reavell's, 240
Conversion, metamorphic, of carbon, 55, 102
Construction of furnace, 189
Controlling valves, 354
Cooking apparatus, 357
Copper firebox, 147
smelting, 284
Controllable superheater, Cruse system, 394
Conveyers, oil, 357
Cornish boiler, 153
Corsicana petroleum, 22, 27, 28, 29
Cost, comparison of coal and oil, 37, 169, 170,
171
of alterations, 180
of oil, 10
Cracking," 42
Cranes, oil, 223
Creosote, 15, 20
Cresylic acid, 20
Cromer express, 157
Crucible furnace, 275
Crude oil, 8, 13, 32, 169, 170
permit to use, 340
Cruse superheater, 394
Curves of compression of air, 241
Curves of performance, Grazi-Tsaritzin Rail-
way, 180
D
d'Allest's atomizer, 267, 268
Damper, chimney cap, 173
Danger of oil, 170, 352
Density of petroleum, 18, 27, 28, 29, 43
Denton, Prof., on Texas oil, 37
evaporative duty, 37
cost of oil, 3, 4, 5
Desulphurizing, 345
Deterioration by storage, 31
Diamond, 54, 55, 102
Dinas firebrick, 45
Disincrustants, 78
Dissociation of steam, etc., 3, 85, 194
gases, 89
Dioxide of carbon, 55
Direct fired superheater, Cruse controllable,
394
Distillation, fractional, 24, 27
Distribution of liquid fuel, 222, 225
Doncaster express, 140
Dowlais firebrick, 45
Draught, 256, 273
Down-draught furnace, 193
Draught gauge, 256
Dudley's formula for relative cost of oil and
coal, 170
Dutch Navy, 114
Dulong's formula, 81, 87, 329
Duplex compressor, 250
E
Earnshaw on Texas oil, 27
Econometer, Arndt, 237
Economics of liquid fuel, 10, 195, 204
soft water, 75
Efficiency of evaporation, 3, 8, 93, 336
boiler, 8, 191, 273
Texas oil, 34
thermal due to steam, 336
Efflux of air, 249
Electrically driven air compressor, 240
Elementary atomizer, 263
Ellis & Eave's air heater, 216
system, 216
Embankments, 354
Endothermism, 81
Endurance test, 331
English locomotive practice, 138 et seq.
stationary practice, 199
Essential oil, 15
Ethane, 40, 58
Equivalent, Joule's, 86
mechanical, of heat, 86
Evaporation, factors of, 388
per unit of various fuels, 94
Evaporative duty, 37, 91, 145, 171, 273
efficiency, 3, 8, 93, 336
Everhart on Texas oil, 25
Exothermism, 81
Expansion of oil, 43
water, 62
Explosions, 173
Express, Doncaster, 140
F
Factors of evaporation, 388
Factor, load, 7
Fahrenheit thermometer, 83
Feed, oil, 356
Filling pipe, 356
Firebox, American locomotive, 146
Baldwin, 168
Cherbourg boiler, 272
copper, 147
Cornish, 153
Fvardovski, 268
Holden, 148, 142
Lancashire, 152
locomotive, 146, 148, 142, 158, 168, 174,
176, 177, 178
Southern Pacific, 158
Urquhart, 174, 177, 178
Vanderbilt, 168
Firebricks, 45, 49
aluminous, 53
Firebrick, analysis, 48
arch, 46, 52, 145, 146, 148, 156, 157, 158,
168, 174, 178, 191
burning, 48
classification, 53
carborundum, 45
carboniferous, 53
404
INDEX
Firebrick, Dinas, 45
Dowlais, 45
French, 45, 47
general particulars, 49
Glenboig, 45
manufacture, 46
Newcastle, 49
Page on, 50
Pearson, 46
silica, 47, 49
Stourbridge, 45
Fireclay, analysis, 48, 49, 50
blocks, 46
Dinas, 45
Dowlais, 45
Gartcosh, 50
Glenboig, 45, 49
Kilmarnock, 45, 49
Newcastle, 49
Stourbridge, 45, 49
Firefloat, 208
Fire, forge, 282
large forge, 283
Fire insurance rules, 344, 353
Fire test, 194
Fire underwriters' rules, 344, 353
Fish oil, 15
Flame, 12, 104
testing, 13
length, 104
Flannery-Boyd system of oil fuel, 121
oil storage, 112
Forbin, test of, 165
Flash point, 11, 13, 43, 115, 171, 348, 352, 353,
357
Flue gas analysis, 160, 217, 228
Fluoride of soda, 78
Forced draught, 137
Forge furnace, 282
Fractional distillation, 24, 27
Freight charges on oil, 22
French firebrick, 45, 47
French Navy tests, 136, 266, 268, 272
Fuel, evaporative, power of, 91
gas, 197
oil, 15, 18, 42, 353
oil bunker, 124
oil distribution, 222
oil installation, 349
oil permits, 344
oil production, 33
pumping, 184, 194, 196, 197
pump, Weir's,
oil tanks, 187, 194
tank waggon, 187
Furieux, tests with, 164
Furnace, Ellis & Eaves', 217
assay, 276
brass, 275, 276
Bickford Burner Co., 276
brickwork, walls, etc., 128, 131, 136, 146,
152, 155, 156, 157, 158, 168, 174, 177,
178, 191, 199, 204
construction, 189, 191, 199
Cornish, 153
Furnace, crucible, 275
crucible assay,
Fvardofski, 268
forge, 282
Hawley down draught, 193
for iron, 276, 277
Lancashire, 130, 152, 181
firebricks, 45, 204
lining, 14
locomotive, 146, 148, 157, 158, 168, 174
loco type, 154
management, 172, 173
marine, 118, 137
oil and coal, 120
oil,
Schwartz, 277
Siemens-Martin, 283
temperatures, 99
tyre, 261
Rivet, 263, 275
smith's hearth, 282, 283
water tube, 155, 156
Fvardofski atomizer, 268
system, 268
G
Gallon, American, 36, 66, 353
English, 36, 66, 353
Gallons, per barrel, 22, 36, 353
Galician oil, 20, 29
Ganister, 45
Gartcosh fireclay, 50
Gas, analysis, 217, 229
blast furnace, 196
density, 364
dissociation of, 89
expansion of, 232
fuel, 197
hydrogen, 57
marsh, 5, 40, 58
solubility of, 62
sp. heat, 84, 103 362, 380
tar, water, 204
Gases, calorific capacity of, 196
of combustion, volume of, 90
chimney, 160, 217, 229
Gaseous carbon, 55, 98, 102
Gauge, draught, 256
-glasses, 356
Gear, marine furnace, 118
General arrangement, coal test, 299
oil test, 325
Körting system, 131
General considerations, 5
German oil, 32
Glass, violet, 105
Glasses, gauge, 356
Glenboig clay, 45, 48, 49
Glycerine as fuel, 17
Godard boiler test, 164, 265
Gold Coast oil, 26
Grand Trunk Railway atomizer, 263
Grand Trunk Railway, rivet furnace, 263
Graphite, 55, 102
Grate, boilers with, 14, 155
405
INDEX
Grate, boilers without, 14, 156
small lighting up, 157
Gravity, 87
specific, 18, 19, 20, 21
Grazi-Tsaritzin Railway, 4, 170, 171, 223, 281
curves of performance, 180
fuel tank, 225
locomotive, 174
oil distribution, 224
tender, 175
tyre heating furnace, 281
Grease in boilers, 79
Great Eastern Railway, 146, 149, 176
locomotives, 142, 149, 157
storage system, 223
tender, 142, 148
Grundell-Tucker atomizer, 262, 315
Guyot atomizer, 266, 267
boiler, 164, 268
Hanover oil, 29
Hard water, 63, 65
H
Hawley down draught furnace, 193
Hayes' atomizer, 262, 331
Howden's system, 119
Heat, 82
of combustion of carbon, 55, 102
of combustion of petroleum, etc., 94
latent, of carbon, 55
of dissociation, 85
latent, 19, 82, 84, 85
mechanical equivalents of, 86
of metaphoric conversions, 55, 102
quantity of, 82
specific, 83, 84, 85, 103
thermometric, 82
units, 85, 197
Heater for automobile, 215
Heater, Clarkson-Capel preliminary, 208, 209,
215
Ellis & Eaves air, 216
Heating air, 149, 216, 309, 316, 325, 337
coils, 6, 176, 208, 210
oil, 6, 131, 136, 176, 270, 280, 309, 325, 337
Heine boiler, 193
Holden atomizer, 141, 145, 147, 149, 150, 151,
153, 155, 157, 158, 260
system, 5, 145–59
Hohenstein boiler for coal, 292
oil, 325
Hose, 188, 356
Hose, tank car, 188
Howden's system, 136
Hydrocarbon compounds, 40, 41
combustion of, 96
Hydrogen, calorific power of, 57, 58, 88
combustion of, 57, 88
gas, 57
properties of, 57
temperature of ignition, 58
Hydroleum special boiler, 202
atomizer, 262
system, 203
car, 205
I
Ignition temperature, 58, 105
Imperfect combustion, 90
Incrustation, 63, 67
Independently fired superheater, 392
Indicator, 355
Indian oil, 32
Individual equipments, 354
Indret, tests at, 162, 266
Injector, see Atomizer
Installation of oil fuel, report by Schoen, 350
Interchange of coal and oil, 120
Iron, cast, 44
Iron furnace, 276, 277
in water, 76
Issaieff atomizer, 12
Isothermal compression, 241
Italian oil, 32
J
Javan oil, 32
Japan oil, 32
Japanese railways, 146
Jeanne d'Arc, the, 163
Joule, Dr. 86
Keller, tests by, 11
Kelvin law, 8
K
Kermode's atomizer, 203, 263
system, 199, 202
Kern River oil, 317
Kershaw, J. B. C., on calorific formulae, 95
Khodoung, s.s., 127
Kilmarnock fireclay, 45, 49
Kilns, oil fired, 50, 283
Kirkwood atomizer, 194
system, 194
Körting atomizer, 131, 136, 263, 284
system, 127, 131, 132
Koudako oil, 25
Laeisz, F. C., s.s., 127
L
Lamp oil, 15, 16, 208, 210, 214
Lancashire boiler, 7, 127, 130, 151
Latent heat, 19, 82, 84, 85
Latitude and barometer, 59
Length of flame, 104
Lenz atomizer, 270
Levees, see Moat
Lighting up, 173
Lima oil, 170
Lime process of softening water, 69
sulphate, 64, 73
Lining furnace, 14
Liquid carbon, 56
combustion, 13, 16
Liquid fuel, 15, 40
advantages of, 30
at sea, 114, 308, 324
containing oxygen, 17
distribution, 222
economics of, 10, 195
price of, 10
production, 32
406
INDEX
Liquid Fuel, properties of, 16
system, Wallsend Shipway Co., 129
varieties of, 15, 17
Lloyd's rules for ships, 111, 343
Load factor, 7
Location of tank, 355
Locomotive, American, 145
boiler, 146, 148, 157, 158, 177, 178, 272
Cherbourg, 272
firebox, 142, 146, 148, 158, 168, 174, 176
Fvardofski, 269
Great Eastern Railway, 142, 146, 149, 138
practice, American, 166
practice, English, 138, et seq.
practice, Russian, 166
Southern Pacific, 158
type boiler, 154
Vanderbilt firebox, 168
Vladi Kavkaz Railway, 136
Urquhart, 171, 174, 176, 177, 178
Low pressure air, 197, 198
Los Angelos Railway, 171
Loss by excess of air, 238
M
Mabery on Texas oil, 26
Macallan variable blast pipe, 156, 139, 259
Magnesia salts, 76
Magnesium carbonate, 72, 76
Mahler on calorific capacity, 94
Management of furnace, 189
plant, 189
Manhead, 355
Manufacture of firebrick, 46
Marine boiler, 118, 123, 129, 132
type boiler, 200
furnace gear, 118
gear, 118
Mariposa, s.s., 262, 313
report on, 317
test of, 313
Marsh gas, see Methane
Materials, 44
Mazout or Mazut, see Astatki
Mechanical stoking, 7
equivalent of heat, 86
Melville's coal tests, 295
oil fuel tests, 324
Metallurgy, application of liquid fuel to, 274
Metal and refining furnace, 277
Metamorphic conversion of carbon, 55, 102,
Methane, 5, 40, 58, 81
Meyer system, 160
Milan, test on, 165
Mixed system of coal and oil combustion, 120
162
Moat, round oil stores, 194, 348
Monoxide of carbon, 55
Motor car, with hydroleum system, 206
Murex, s.s., 111, 118, 119, 127
N
Nacogdoches oil, 24, 27
Naphthalene, 20
National Board of Fire Underwriters, 353
National Fuel Oil Co.'s system, 182
Navy, British, 349
Dutch, 114
French, 265, 268
German, 349
Italian, 265
Russian, 43
U.S. coal trials, 158, 295
U.S. liquid fuel trials, 158, 295, 324
U.S. Navy tests, 158, 295
Newcastle fireclay, 49
coal, 99
Newyork, s.s., liquid fuel for, 121, 286
Nitrate of silver test of soft water, 78
Nitrogen, 60
in atmosphere, 60
properties of, 60
Nobel atomizer, 270
Nozzles of atomizers, 266
Oil, Alsace, 20, 29
American, 20, 26
animal, 15
Austrian, 32
Baku, 20, 29, 32
O
Beaumont, 13, 22, 35, 195, 328
blast furnace, 15, 21
Borneo, 41, 146, 199
Burma, 41
California, 18, 19, 29
Canada, 20
Corsicana, 22, 27, 28, 29
creosote, 15, 20
crude, 8, 13, 32, 169, 170
drying, 149
essential, 15
fish, 15
fuel, 15, 18, 42, 353
Galicia, 20, 29
German, 32
Gold Coast, 26
Great Britain, 32
Hanover, 29
Indian, 32
Italian, 32
Japan, 32
Java, 32
Kern River, 314
Koudako, 25
lamp, 15, 16, 208, 210, 214
Lima, 170
mineral, 15
Nacogdoches, 24, 27
Pennsylvania, 13, 20, 25, 29
reduced, 18
residuum, 18
Roumanian, 20, 32
Russian, 6, 19, 20, 28, 29, 41
shale, 20
Sour Lake, 27, 28
Sumatra, 32
Texas, 6, 13, 19, 22, 29, 34, 37, 41, 146, 151,
206
407
INDEX
Oil, vegetable, 15
Wyoming, 20
Zante, 25
#
analysis, 20, 26, 317, 328
and coal, comparative cost, 37
and coal furnace, 120
burner, see Atomizers
calorific power, 18
carriage of, 23, 112, 285
City atomizer, 261, 327, 334
conveyors, 357
cranes, 223 }
expansion, 43, 113
explosions, 147
distribution, 222
feed, 356
fired superheater, 394
fuel installation, 182
fuel problem, 324
fuel system, 129, 130
Oil furnaces, 275
furnace, Baldwin, 168
Cornish, 153
Holden, 148
Lancashire, 152
locomotive, 146, 148, 157, 158
water tube boiler, 155, 156
installation, report by Schoen,
Oil heating, 131, 149, 176, 280, 309, 325, 337
pressure, 222, 351
production, 32
pipes, 65, 222, 349
pump, 227, 314
pumping system, 184, 194, 196, 197, 351
ratio to coal, 6, 12, 195
regulation, 267
regulator, 139, 143, 144, 167
safety moat, 194, 348
service pumps, 315
steamers, recent, 113, 286
storage, 6, 31, 111, 114, 187, 194, 222, 226,
310, 348
storage report by Schoen, 348
tank steamer, 111, 285
tank waggon, 187. 194, 285
tank, 314
U.S. Navy tests of, 158, 298
Oliphant on petroleum production, 33
Orde atomizer, 124
boiler, Lancashire, 127
on liquid fuel, 40
system, 122, 130
trunnion, 125
water-tube boiler, 123
Orsat-Lunge apparatus, 231
Oxygen, 60
Packman, s.s., 119
Р
Page, Mr., on fireclay, etc., 50
Pakin, test on, 165
Pennsylvania oil, 13, 20, 25, 29
railway, 170
Permits to use fuel oil, 344
Performance curves, Grazi-Tsaritzin Railway,
180
Petrol, car test, 205
Petroleum, 5, 26, 94
American, 18, 20, 94
analysis of, 20, 24, 27, 94
Baku, 20, 29, 92
Borneo, 41
Burma, 41
boiling point, 26
California, 18, 19, 29
combustion of, 94
Corsicana, 22
fuel, 18, 42, 92, 94
production of, 8, 32, 33
properties of, 8, 25, 29, 40, 41
residuum, 6, 18, 94
Russian, 7, 94
storage precautions, 6
Texas, 7, 28, 41
Phenolpthalein, test of soft water, 78
Phillips on Texas oil, 25
Physical properties of oil, 42
Pipes, 222, 349, 354, 356, 358
bunker, 124
jointing, 113, 223
jointing cement, 113, 356
stand, 356
water, 65
Pocahontas coal, 159
Pood, its equivalent, 225
Porter Clark process of water softening, 69
Power to compress air, 248
Precautions in oil storage, 6
Precautions for oil storage, 353
Preliminary heating, 208, et seq.
Pressure of oil supply, 351
Price of oil, 5, 10, 18, 37
per barrel, 10
per gallon, 18
Principles of liquid fuel combustion, 13, 15, 16
Production of coal, 5
crude oil, 8, 32
liquid fuel, 32
tar, 15
Propane, 40, 58
Properties of air, 59
American oil, 8
Borneo oil, 41
carbon, 56
firebricks, 45
fireclay, 45
gases, 84, 103, 196
hydrogen, 57
liquid fuel, 16
nitrogen, 60
oxygen, 60
petroleum, 8, 25, 29, 40, 41
Russian oil, 29
Texas oil, 29
Paraffin, 24, 25
Paul, Dr., on liquid fuel, 40
Pearson firebricks, 46
Pelouze and Cahours on hydrocarbons, 41
Proportions of atomizers, 169
water, 62, 65
408
INDEX
Propylene, 58
Pulverisers, see Atomizers
Pump, Weir's bunker, 226
Weir's oil, 227
Pumping systems, 184, 194, 196, 197, 351
Pumps, oil, 314, 351, 354
Quantity of heat, 82
Ꭱ
Ragosine effect of steam on oil, 266
Railway tank wagon, 285
Ratio, oil to coal, 6, 12, 195
Réaumur's thermometer, 80
Receivers, 356
Reduced oils, 18
Reed Atomizer, 262, 335
Refining furnace, Schwartz, 277
Refractory combustion chamber, 106
linings, 14, 106
Regulating gear, 139, 149, 143
Regulation of oil, 267
Regulator, air, 186
oil, Baldwin, 167
oil, G.E. Rly, 139, 145, 143
Relative cost, oil and coal, 37, 169, 170, 171
Requirements of underwriters, 344, 353
Residuum, 18, 20, 94, 171
Ringelmann's smoke chart, 290
Rivet furnace, 263, 275
furnace atomizer, 263
Riveting, 113
Roumanian oil, 20, 32
Rules for liquid fuel ships, 111, 343
of American Board of Fire Underwriters,
353
Rusden-Eeles atomizer, 113, 120, 261
Russe-Standart atomizer, 270
Russian locomotives, 166, 174
Navy, 43
oil, 6, 19, 20, 28, 41, 171
S
Safety moat round tanks, 194, 348
St. Clair Deville, 89
Salts, solubility of, 64, 65
Scale, 67
Schoen on oil storage, 348
on individual installations, 350
Schwartz furnace, 277
Sea water, 65
Seaports with oil supply, 114
Serpollet on vaporizing, 270
Service, oil pumps, 315
Sextane, 4
Shale oil, 20
tar, 21
Shut-off valve, 356
Siemens-Martin furnace, 283
Silica, 47, 49
Siloxicon, 53
Silver nitrate test of soft water, 78
Sithonia, s.s., 127
Small tube boiler, 268
Smith, Dr. Angus, on Water, 76
Smoke, 96, 173, 176
chart, Ringelmann's, 290
prevention, 96
Soft water, 63, 67, 74, 75, 77
test for, 78
Soliani atomizer, 270
Solignac boiler, 7
Solubility in water of gases, 62
in water of salts, 64, 65
Soot, 58
Sour Lake oil, 27, 28
Southern Pacific atomizer, 272
Specific gravity, 18, 19, 20, 21
Specific heat, 83, 84, 85, 103
gases, 84, 103
ice, 83
solids, 84
water, 62, 84
Sprayer, see Atomizer
Springfield system, 198
Standart-Russe atomizer, 270
Stationary practice, American, 182, 194
English, 199
Stand pipes, 356
Starting device, automobile, 215
Steam, as fuel, 3, 63, 194, 336
atomizing, 4, 147, 160, 182, 194, 219
car with liquid fuel, 206
dissociation by heat, 3, 63, 85, 194
per pound of oil, 194
ships, F. C. Laeisz, 131
Mariposa, 262, 313
Murex, 111, 118, 119, 127
Newyork, 121, 286
Sithonia, 127
Strombus, 32
Syrian, 127
Tanglier, 119
Trocas, 113, 121
Steam superheated, 147, 194, 394
Steamer, cargo with oil fuel, 112
recent oil, 113
tank with oil fuel, 111, 286
Steel, 45
Steel tubes, 45
Storage of oil, 6, 31, 111, 114, 187, 194, 222,
310, 348
report by Schoen, 348
safety moat, 194, 348
system, G.E. Rly., 223
tank, oil, 187, 194, 222, 226, 357
vault, 355, 357
Stourbridge clay, 45, 49
firebricks, 45
Strombus, s.s., 32
Suez Canal, 114
Sulphate of lime, 64, 73
Sulphur in oil, 19, 37, 349
Sumatra oil, 32
Superheater, Cruse controllable, 394
oil fired, 394
Superheated steam, 147, 194, 394
Supply of water, 63
ports, oil, 114
409
INDEX
Supply of tank, oil, 187, 194, 357
system, bunker pipes, 124, 194
Surcouf, test of, 165
Swensson atomizer, 263
Syrian, s.s., 127
System, Aërated Fuel Co., 196
Baldwin Co., 166
Billow, 182
Clarkson-Capel, 208
distribution, 223, 225
Ellis & Eaves, 216
Flannery Boyd, 112, 121
Fvardofski,
Guyot, 265
268
Holden's, 5, 138–59
Howden's, 119, 136
hydroleum, 203
Kermode's, 199, 202
Kirkwood, 194
Körting, 127, 131, 133, 160
Meyer, 160
mixed, 120, 162
National Fuel Co., 182
Oil City Boiler Co.'s, 261
Orde's, 122, 127, 130
Pumping, 184, 194, 196, 197
Rusden-Eeles, 113, 120
Springfield, 198
Symon House, 264
Urquhart, 171, et seq., 225
Wallsend Slipway Co.'s, 129
Tanglier, s.s., 119
T
Tank, car hose, 188, 356
coating, 355
capacity, 354
location, 348, 355
material, 355
oil supply, 187, 194, 353
steamer, 111, 286
storage, 187, 194, 223, 226, 350, 353
underground, 223
wagon, 187, 194, 285
Tar, 15, 18, 21, 204
properties of, 21
water gas, test of, 204
shale, 21
Temperature, 82
calculation of, 89
flame, 100
furnace, 99
of combination, 12, 56, 89, 92
of ignition, 58
Tender, fuel,
G.E. Rly., 142, 148
Grazi-Tsaritsin Railway, 175
Test of air atomizing, 216, 266
air compressor, 244
Beaumont oil, 35, 195
Borneo oil, 199
car, 205
endurance, 331
Furieux, 164
marine boiler, 218, 221, 326
Test of metal furnace, 277
motor car, 205
on Pennsylvania Railway, 170
petrol, 205
Russian Railway, 11
soft water, 78
s.s. Mariposa, 313
Texas oil, 35, 195, 206, 218
U.S. Navy, 158, 295, 326
water gas tar, 204
Tests at Cherbourg, 43, 164, 266
at Indret, 162, 266
Godard boiler, 164, 265
Hohenstein boiler, 295, 326
Russian oil, 11, 203
Texas oil, 6, 13, 19, 22, 29, 34, 37, 41, 146, 151,
169, 218
analysis, 27
calorific power of, 19, 29, 30, 41, 218
carriage of, 22, 24
chemistry of, 24
costs, 22
density of, 25, 27
efficiency of, 37, 151
specific gravity of, 25, 27, 218
tests of, 35, 195, 206, 218
Thermal efficiency due to steam, 336
Thermal units, 86
Thermo-chemistry, 57, 80
Thermometer, 82, 83
Thompson's calorimeter, 251
Thiele on Texas oil, 27
Thwaite Storage tank, 226
Torpedo boat, 12, 164, 266
boiler, French, 267
Trocas, s.s., 113, 121
Tubular boiler, underfired, 190
Tunnels, Railway, 11, 157
Tuyere, air, 186
Tweddle on Texas oil, 30
Two-stage air compression, 240
Tyre heating furnace, 261, 281
U gauge, 257
U
Underfired tubular boiler, 190
Underground vaults, 355, 357
Underwriters, rules of American Board of Fire,
344, 353
United States Navy Tests, 258, 295 et esq.
Units of heat, 85
of length, 86
thermal, 86
weight, 86
work, 86
Urquhart atomizer, 172, 261, 282
locomotive, 174
system, 4, 171 et seq., 225
tender, 175
tyre furnace, 281
Useful figures, 49, 64, 66
V
Valves, shut-off, 354, 356
Vanderbilt fire box, 168
410
INDEX
Vaporization, heat of, 88, 100
Vaporized liquids, combustion of, 208
Vaporizing, 17, 270
carbon, 55
Variable blast pipe, Macallan's, 256, 139, 259
Varieties of liquid fuel, 15, 17
Vaults, storage, 355
Vegetable oil, 15
Velocity of efflux of air, 249
draught, 256, 259
water in pipes, 65
Ventilation, 157, 222, 355, 357
Vent pipe, 349, 355
Verein-Deutsche ingenieur, 81
Vertical boiler, 151
Vetillard-Scherding atomizer, 270
Violet rays in flame, 104
Volatile constituents of petroleum, 11, 13
Volume and weight of atmospheric gases, 59
chimney gases, 90
gases, 90
petroleum, 18, 169
of combustion gases, 90
W
Wagon, tank, 187, 194, 285
Wallsend Slipway Co., 113, 129, 130
furnace brickwork, 129
Warming oil fuel, 6
War vessels, Sir F. Flannery on, 115
Water, acid, 77
capacity of boilers, 7
compressibility, 61
data, 61, 64
expansion by heat, 62
flow of, 65
gas tar, 203
gauge, 257
grease in, 79
hardness, 63, 65
in oil, 40, 41, 43, 147
iron in, 76
latent heat of, 62
Water pipes, 65
properties of, 61
pure, 61
purification, 67
sewage in feed, 64
softening, 67, 74, 75, 77
solubility of salts in, 64, 65
solubility of gases in, 62
source of, 61, 62
specific heat, 62
supply, 63
tests for soft, 78
Water tube boiler, Guyot, 268
Heine's, 193
Hohenstein's, 298
Hydroleum, 203
Orde's system for liquid fuel, 122
Weir's 14, 106
with grate, 155, 191
without grate, 156
useful data, 66
weight, 61, 62
Weight of air, 59, 253
hydrogen, 58
firebrick, 49
oil, 18, 169
oil per barrel, 36
oil per gallon, 18, 36
oxygen, 60
nitrogen, 60
units, 86
water, 61, 62
Weir's boiler, 14, 106
oil pump, 226
Welsh coal, 103
Western Sugar Refinery, 194, 321
Williams atomizer, 34, 270
Winchell, Lieut. U.S. Navy, report on s.s
Mariposa, 313
Work units, 86
Wyoming oil, 20
Zante oil, 25
FEB 9 1922
Ꮓ
Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Fiome, and London.
•
Chem- to repl. missing copy
черв.
2444266
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
3 9015 07505 2475
CHEMICAL LIBRARY
TP
BOOK CARD
3155
AUTHOR
TITLE
Booth Wm H. 73.725
Liquid fuel zito
Combustion. 1903
SIGNATURE
Howard li
Nodinal Litraky
ISS'D
R