: * · · ·
* * * *
----º : · ·， ，-
$ $*** ± − × × × × s * * · * * *: :
::：::::：:::：::：::# ¿.* * * · · * * * *
، ، ، ، ، ، ، ، ، ، ، ، ، ،* # * & * & * & * & * & * &
·$ $ $ $*
* * *
** * * * · · · · · ·----- ** ** * · * *
, ， ， ， ，
*…*****
*:）*?:）:
• * : * *, *.
** 3: ; , "º
::ffiſſº，
3.
****** · *
¿¿.*
ſ', ， ， ， ， ，
--* * * *
*.*.*.*:: * :
------------
** wº
*... " : …
:::::
*:::::
3 -
*:::::
sº. -.
… ;-ºs.º. 3. …

!!!!!!!
tºl
Hºll!!
ſiſſae（TITUTITETTIINȚI:¿TUTTURI
{！！！！！--~~~~ssess sºsººº，，， ， ， ，''，''，''，''，''，
ſae
№
º, J. J.
ºf
№.
！ 1
ſ， ſiiſ ſū
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiìiÎÏÏĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪífffffffffffffĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒ
[ſi]
*** * * * * * * * * • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ►
fiſſiſſimiſti. sº
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ºr sº º ºr sº w w w w = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
ºrrºrinºlinºiſilluminutrillinºilinulrºnitrºtullilultitutºrillºlilºtill
f
º

yT
ºl O
, \-? G
\ 3 2. ‘I

...wº sº.
.* &
& 3:- - ...? ;
..., x, * * * ~ *
*, * * . . **** :
º, * A 2." ~ * • *...' ...
Sº tº ºf , , , ,
*... .","... } , , ..f
* , 3 -º
; fº
sº
º
UN DER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOIt
THE DIFF tySION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
4:
THE
~ , ,
A.
LIBRARY
. . . Jºs
ENTERTAIN+N& Krów LEDGE.
THE
MODERN EGYPTIANS.
WOL. I.


COMMITTEE.
chairman.—The Right Hom. LORD BROUGHAM, F.R.S., Member of the National
1nstitute of France.
Vice-Chairman.—JOHN WOOD, Esq.
Treasurer.—WILLIAM TOOKE, Esq., M.P., F.R.S.
W. Allen, Esq., F.R. and R.A.S.
Cº. F. Beaufort, R.N., F.R. and R.A.S.,
ydrographer to the Admiralty.
G. Burrows, M.D.
Peter Stafford Carey, Esq., A.M.
William Coulson, Esq.
R. D. Craig, Esq.
J. Frederick Daniell, Esq., F.R.S.
J. F. Davis, Esq., F.R.S.
H. T. Delabeche, Esq., F.R.S.
The Rt. Hon. Lord Denman.
Samuel Duckworth, Esq.
The Right Rev. the Bishop of Durham, D.D.
The Rt. Hon. Vise. Ebrington, M.P.
Sir Henry Ellis, F.R.S.,Prin. Lib. Brit. Mus.
T. F. Ellis, Esq., A.M., F.R.A.S.
John Elliotson, M.D., F.R.S.
Thomas Falconer, Esq.
J. L. Goldsmid, Esq. $.R., and R.A.
B. Gompertz, Esq. #.R. and R.A.S.
G. B. Greenough, Esq., F.R., and L.
M. D. Hill, Esq.
Rowland Hill, Esq., F.R.A.S.
The Rt. Hon. Sir J. C. Hobhouse, Bart., M.P.
David Jardine, Esq., A.M.
Henry B. Ker, Esq.
Thos. Hewitt Rey, Esq., M.A.
J. T. Jeader, Esq., M.P.
S.
S.
George C. Lewis, Esq., M.A.
Thomas Henry Lister, Esq.
James Loch, Esq., M.P., F.G.S.
George Long, Esq., M.A.
J. W. Lubbock, Esq., M.A., F.R., R.A.,
and L.S.S.
H. Maldem, Esq., M.A.
A. T. Malkin, Esq., M.A.
James Manning, Esq.
J. Herman Merivale, Esq., M.A., F.A.S.
Sir William Molesworth, Bart., M.P.
The Right Hon. Lord Nugent.
W. H. Ord, Esq., M.P.
The Right Hon. Sir H. Parnell, Bt., M.P.
I}r. Roget, Sec, R.S., F.R.A.S.
Edw. Romilly, Esq., M.A.
Right Hon. Lord J. Russell, M.P.
Sir M. A. Shee, P.R.A., F.R.S.
John Abel Smith, Esq., M.P.
The Right Hon. Earl Spencer.
John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S.
Dr. A. T. Thompson, F.L.S.
Thomas Wardon, Esq.
H. Waymouth, Esq.
J. Whishaw, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
John Wrottesley, Esq., M.A., F.R.A.S
Thomas-Wyse, Esq., M.P.
J. A. Yates, Esq.
THOMAS COATES, Esq., Secretary, No. 59, Lincoln's inn Fields.
# ;
- c3 * ...? §.
- -º-º-º-e--- *:::::: *****
-----------" ~~~~~
THE LIBRARY OF ENTERTAINING KNOWLEDGE.
*** ---

A C C O U NT
OF THIE ‘. . . . . .
MANNERS AND CUSTOMs ºf
() }' 'I' H. E.
MODE R N EGYPTIANS,
W R1TTEN IN EGYPT DURING THE YEARS
1833, 34, AND 35,
PARTI,Y FROM NOTES MADE DURING A FORMER VISIT TO
THAT COUNTRY IN THE YEARS 1825, 26, 27, AND 28.
By EDWARD WILLIAM LANE
IN TWO VOLUMES. . . . .
VOL. I. 4.
I,ONDON : -
CHARLES KNIGHT AND CO., 22, LUDGATE-STREET.
*-**
MII) C C C, XXXVII.
LONI).ON :
Printed by W. Clowes and Sons,
Stamford-Street.
P. R. E. F. A. C. E.
Cairo, 1835.
DURING a former visit to this country, undertaken
chiefly for the purpose of studying the Arabic language
in its most famous school, I devoted much of my at-
tention to the manners and customs of the Arab
inhabitants; and, in an intercourse of two years and
a half with this people, soon found that all the infor-
mation which I had previously been able to obtain
respecting them was insufficient to be of much use to
the student of Arabic literature, or to satisfy the
curiosity of the general reader. Hence I was in-
duced to cover some quires of paper with notes on
the most remarkable of their usages, partly for my
own benefit, and partly in the hope that I might have
it in my power to make some of my countrymen better
acquainted with the domiciliated classes of one of the
most interesting nations of the world, by drawing a
detailed picture of the inhabitants of the largest
Arab city. The period of my first visit to this country
did not, however, suffice for the accomplishment of
this object, and for the prosecution of my other
studies; and I relinquished the idea of publishing
the notes which I had made on the modern in-
habitants: but, five years after my return to England,
those notes were. shown to some members of the
Committee of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge, at whose suggestion, the Committee, in-
terested with the subjects of them, and with the
1W PREFACE.
novelty of some of their contents, engaged me to
complete and print them. Encouraged by their
approbation, and relying upon their judgment, I
immediately determined to follow their advice, and,
by the earliest opportunity, again departed to Egypt.
After another residence of more than a year in the
metropolis of this country, and half a year in Upper
Egypt, I have now accomplished, as well as I am
able, the task proposed to me”.
It may be said, that the English reader already
possesses an excellent and ample description of Arab
manners and customs in Dr. Russell’s account of
the people of Aleppo. I will not forfeit my own
claim to the reputation of an honest writer, by at-
tempting to detract from the just merits of that valuable
and interesting work; but must assert, that it is,
upon the whole, rather an account of Turkish than
of Arab manners; and that neither the original Au-
thor, nor his brother, to whom we are indebted for the
enlarged and much improved edition, was sufficiently
acquainted with the Arabic language to scrutinize
some of the most interesting subjects of inquiry which
the plan of the work required them to treat: nor
would their well-known station in Aleppo, or perhaps
their national feelings, allow them to assume those dis-
guises which were necessary to enable them to become
familiar with many of the most remarkable religious
ceremonies, opinions, and superstitions, of the people
whom they have described. Deficiencies in their
* It gives me much pleasure to find, that, while I have been
attempting to preserve memorials of the manners and customs
of the most F. modern Arab people, one of my learned
friends (M. ulgence Fresnel) has been occupied, with eminent
success, in rescuing from oblivion many interesting notices of
the history of the early Arabs, and that another (Mr. Wilkinson)
** been preparing to impart to us an account of the privaté
life, manners, &c., of the Ancient Egyptians.

PREFACE. W.
remarks on these subjects are the only faults of any
importance that I can discover in their excellent and
learned work”.
I have been differently circumstanced. Previously
to my first visit to this country, I acquired some know-
ledge of the language and literature of the Arabs; and
* Among the memoirs in “the great French work” on
Egypt is one entitled “Essai sur les moeurs des habitans
modernes de l'Egypte;” but its author appears to me to have
fallen into an error of considerable magnitude, in applying, to
the Egyptians in general, observations which are, in truth, for
the most part descriptive of the manners and customs of their
naturalized rulers, the Memlooks. It is probable that the
Egyptians in some degree imitated, when they were able to do
so, the habits and customs of this class: I may, however, ven-
ture to affirm, that the essay here alluded to does not convey
a true notion of their present moral and social state. Its
author, moreover, shows himself to have been often extremely
careless both in his observations and inquiries: this is parti-
cularly evident in his singular misstatement of the corres-
pondence of French and Mohhammadan hours, and in the
first two pages (in the 8vo. edition) of the section on public
fêtes. He has given many just philosophical observations;
but these º large a proportion of a memoir scarcely
exceeding one third of the extent of the present work. To
show that these remarks are not made in an invidious spirit, I
most willingly express my high admiration of other parts of
“the great work” (especially the contributions of M, Jomard),
relating to subjects which have alike employed my mind and
pen, and upon which I shall probably publish my observations.
-Burckhardt’s “Arabic Proverbs” and their illustrations con-
vey many notions of remarkable customs and traits of cha-
racter of the modern Egyptians ; , but are very far from
composing a complete exposition, or, in every case, a true one;
for national proverbs are bad tests of the morality of a people.
-There is one work, however, which presents most admira-
ble pictures of the manners and customs of the Arabs, and
particularly of those of the Egyptians: it is “ the Thousand
and One R. or Arabian Nights' Entertainments: if the
English reader possessed a close translation of it with suffi-
Sient illustrative notes, I might almost have spared myself the
labour of the present undertaking.


vi PREFACE.
in a year after my arrival here, I was able to con-
verse, with the people among whom I was residing,
with tolerable ease. I have associated, almost ex-
lusively, with Moos'lims, of various ranks in society:
I have lived as they live, conforming with their
general habits; and, in order to make them familiar
and unreserved towards me on every subject, have
always avowed my agreement with them in opinion
whenever my conscience would allow me, and in
most other cases, refrained from the expression of
my dissent, as well as from every action which
might give them disgust; abstaining from eating
food forbidden by their religion, and drinking wine,
&c.; and even from habits merely disagreeable to
them; such as the use of knives and forks at meals.
Having made myself acquainted with all their com-
mon religious ceremonies, I have been able to escape
exciting, in strangers, any suspicion of my being a
person who had no right to intrude among them,
whenever it was necessary for me to witness any
Mohhammadan rite or festival. While, from the
dress which I have found most convenient to wear, I
am generally mistaken, in public, for a Turk, my
acquaintances, of course, know me to be an English-
man; but I constrain them to treat me as a Moos'-
lim, by my freely acknowledging the hand of Provi-
dence in the introduction and diffusion of the Moh-
hammadan religion, and, when interrogated, avowing
my belief in the Messiah, in accordance with the
words of the Ckoor-a'n, as the Word of God, infused
into the womb of the Virgin Mary, and a spirit pro-
ceeding from Him. Thus, I believe, I have acquired
their good opinion, and much of their confidence;
though not to such an extent as to prevent m
having to contend with many difficulties. The M.
lims are very averse from giving information on sub-
jects connected with their religion or superstitions to
PREFACE. vii
persons whom they suspect of differing from them
in centiments; but very ready to talk on such subjects
with those whom they think acquainted with them:
hence, I have generally obtained some slight know-
ledge, of matters difficult for me thoroughly to learn,
from one of the most lax, and of the least instructed,
of my friends; so as to be able to draw into conver-
sation, upon the desired topics, persons of better
information; and by this mode, I have invariably
succeeded in overcoming their scruples. I have had
two professors of Arabic and of Mohhammadan reli-
gion and law as my regular, salaried tutors; and, by
submitting to them questions on any matters respect-
ing which I was in doubt, have authenticated or
corrected, and added to, the information derived from
conversation with my other friends. Occasionally,
also, I have applied to higher authorities; having
the happiness to number among my friends in this
city some persons of the highest attainments in
Eastern learning. -
Perhaps the reader may not be displeased if I here
attempt to acquaint him more particularly with one
of my Moos'lim friends, the first of those above
alluded to ; and to show, at the same time, the light
in which he, like others of his country, regards me in
my present situation.—The sheykh Ahh'mad (or seyd
Ahh'mad; for he is one of the numerous class of
sheree'fs, or descendants of the Prophet) is somewhat
more than forty years of age, by his own confession;
but appears more near to fifty. He is as remarkable
in physiognomy as in character. His stature is under
the middle size: his beard, reddish, and now becom-
ing grey. For many years he has been nearly blind:
One of his eyes is almost entirely closed; and both
are ornamented, on particular occasions (at least on
the two grand annual festivals), with a border of
viii PREFACE.
the black pigment called kohhl, which is seldom
used but by women. He boasts his descent not only
from the Prophet, but also, from a very celebrated
saint, Esh-Shaara'wee *; and his complexion, which
is very fair, supports his assertion, that his ancestors,
for several generations, lived in the north-western
parts of Africa. He obtains his subsistence from
a slender patrimony, and by exercising the trade of
a bookseller. Partly to profit in this occupation,
and partly for the sake of society, or at least to enjoy
some tobacco and coffee, he is a visitor in my house
almost every evening.
For several years before he adopted the trade of a
bookseller, which was that of his father, he pursued
no other occupation than that of performing in the
reli gious ceremonies called zikrs ; which consist in
the repetition of the name and attributes, &c., of
God, by a number of persons, in chorus; and in
such performances he is still often employed. He
was then a member of the order of the Saadee'yeh
durwee'shes, who are particularly famous for de-
vouring live serpents; and he is said to have been
one of the serpent-eaters : but he did not con-
fine himself to food so easily digested. One night,
during a meeting of a party of durwee'shes of
his order, at which their sheykh was present, my
friend became affected with religious frenzy, seized
a tall glass shade which surrounded a candle
placed on the floor, and ate a large portion of it.
The sheykh and the other durwee'shes, looking at
him with astonishment, upbraided him with having
broken the institutes of his order; since the eating
of glass was not among the miracles which they
were allowed to perform; and they immediately
* Thus commonly pronounced, for Esh-Shaara'nee.
PREFACE, ix
expelled him. He then entered the order of the
Ahhmedee'yeh; and as they, likewise, never ate
glass, he determined not to do so again. However,
soon after, at a meeting of some brethren of this
order, when several Saadee'yeh also were present,
he again was seized with frenzy, and, jumping up
to a chandelier, caught hold of one of the small glass
lamps attached to it, and devoured about half of it,
swallowing also the oil and water which it contained.
He was conducted before his Sheykh, to be tried for
this offence; but, on his taking an oath never to eat
glass again, he was neither punished nor expelled the
order. Notwithstanding this oath, he soon again gra-
tified his propensity to eat a glass lamp; and a bro-
ther durwee'sh, who was present, attempted to do
the same; but a large fragment stuck between the
tongue and palate of this rash person; and my
friend had great trouble to extract it. He was again
tried by his Sheykh; and, being reproached for hav-
ing broken his oath and vow of repentance, he
coolly answered, “I repent again: repentance is
good : for He whose name be exalted hath said, in
the Excellent Book, ‘Verily, God loveth the re-
pentant.’” The Sheykh, in anger, exclaimed, “Dost
thou dare to act in this manner, and then come and
cite the Ckoor-a'n before me?”—and with this re-
proof, he ordered that he should be imprisoned ten
days; after which, he made him again swear to
abstain from eating glass; and on this condition he
was allowed to remain a member of the Ahhmedee'-
yeh. This second oath, he professes not to have
broken.—The person whose office it was to prosecute
him related to me these facts; and my friend re-
luctantly confessed them to be true. -
When I was first acquainted with the sheykh
Ahh"mad, he had long been content with one wife;
A 5
Y: PREFACE,
but now he has indulged himself with a second *,
who continues to live in her parents' house: yet he
has taken care to assure me, that he is not rich
enough to refuse my yearly present of a dress. On
my visiting him for the second time during my pre-
sent residence in this place, his mother came to the
door of the room in which I was sitting with him,
to complain to me of his conduct in taking this new
wife. Putting her hand within the door, to give
greater effect to her words by proper action (or
perhaps to show how beautifully the palm, and the
tips of the fingers, glowed with the fresh red dye of
the hken'na), but concealing the rest of her person,
she commenced a most emergetic appeal to my sym-
pathy.—“O Efen'dee!” she exclaimed, “I throw
myself upon thy mercy! I kiss thy feet! I have
no hope but in God and thee!” “What words are
these, my mistress?” said I: “what misfortune has
befallen thee? and what can I do for thee? Tell
me.” “This son of mine,” she continued, “this
my son Ahh"mad, is a worthless fellow: he has a
wife here, a good creature, with whom he has lived
happily, with God's blessing, for sixteen years; and
now he has neglected her and me, and given him-
self up to a second wife, a young, impudent wench :
he lavishes his money upon this monkey, and others
like her, and upon her father and mother and uncles
and brother and brother's children, and I know not
whom besides, and abridges us, that is, myself and
his first wife, of the comforts to which we were be-
fore accustomed. By the Prophet ! and by thy dear
head ' I speak truth. I kiss thy feet, and beg thee
to insist upon his divorcing his new wife.”—The
* He professes to have had more than thirty wives in the
course of his life; but, in saying so, I believe he greatly ex-
aggerates.
PREFACE. XI
{.
poor man looked a little foolish while his mother was
thus addressing me from behind the door; and as
soon as she was gone, promised to do what she
desired. “But,” said he, “it is a difficult case. I
was in the habit of sleeping occasionally in the
house of the brother of the girl whom I have lately
taken as my wife: he is a clerk in the employ of
'Abba's Ba'sha; and rather more than a year ago,
'Abba's Ba'sha sent for me, and said, ‘I hear that
you are often sleeping in the house of my clerk
Mohham'mad. Why do you act so? Do you not
know that it is very improper, when there are women
in the house?' I said, ‘I am going to marry his
sister.” “Then why have you not married her
already?’ asked the Ba'sha. “She is only nine
years of age.’ ‘Is the marriage contract made?’
‘No.” “Why not?’ ‘I cannot afford, at present,
to give the dowry.’ ‘What is the dowry to be?”
“Ninety piasters.’ ‘Here, then,’ said the Ba'sha,
“take the money, and let the contract be concluded
immediately.’ So you see I was obliged to marry
the girl; and I am afraid that the Ba'sha will be
angry if I divorce her: but I will act in such a
manner that her brother shall insist upon the divorce;
and then, please God, I shall live in peace again.”—
This is a good example of the comfort of having two
WIWes.
A short time since, upon his offering me a copy
of the Ckoor-a'n, for sale, he thought it necessary to
make some excuse for his doing so. He remarked,
that, by my conforming with many of the ceremonies
of the Moos'lims, I tacitly professed myself to be one
of them ; and that it was incumbent upon him to
regard me in the most favourable light, which he
was the more willing to do because he knew that I
should incur the displeasure of my King by making
an open profession of the Mohhammadan faith, and

kii PREFACE.
therefore could not do it”. “You give me,” said
he, “the salutation of “Peace be on you!' and it
would be impious in me, being directly forbidden by
my religion, to pronounce you an unbeliever; for
God, whose name be exalted, hath said, “Say not
unto him who greeteth thee with peace, Thou art
not a believer f ': therefore,” he added, “it is no sin
in me to put into your hands the noble Ckoor-a'n:
but there are some of your countrymen who will take
it in unclean hands, and even sit upon it! I beg
God's forgiveness for talking of such a thing: far
be it from you to do so: you, praise be to God,
know and observe the command, “None shall touch
it but those who are clean I’”.—He once sold a
copy of the Ckoor-a'n, on my application, to a coun-
tryman of mine, who, being disturbed, just as the
bargain was concluded, by some person entering the
room, hastily put the sacred book upon the seat, and
under a part of his dress, to conceal it. The book-
seller was much scandalized by this action; think-
ing that my friend was sitting upon the book, and
that he was doing so to show his contempt of it:
he declares his belief that he has been heavily
punished by God for this unlawful sale.—There was
only one thing that I had much difficulty in per-
suading him to do during my former visit to this
country; which was, to go with me, at a particular
period, into the mosque of the Hhasaney'n, the re-
puted burial-place of the head of El-Hhosey'n, and
* It is a common belief among the Egyptians, that every
European traveller who visits their country is an emissary from
his King ; and it is difficult to convince them that this is
not the case: so strange to them is the idea of a man's in-
curring great trouble and expense for the purpose of acquiring
the knºwledge of foreign countries and nations.
Ckoor-a'n, chap. iv., ver. 96.
Ckoor-a'n, chap. lvi., ver, 78.
PREFACE, xiii
the most sacred of the mosques in the Egyptian
metropolis. On my passing with him before one of
the entrances of this building, one afternoon during
the fast of Rum'ada'n, when it was crowded with
Turks, and many of the principal people of the city
were among the congregation, I thought it a good
opportunity to see it to the greatest advantage, and
asked my companion to go in with me. He positively
refused, in the fear of my being discovered to be
an Englishman, which might so rouse the fanatic
anger of some of the Turks there as to expose me to
some act of violence. I therefore entered alone.
He remained at the door, following me with his eye
only (or his only eye), and wondering at my auda-
city; but as soon as he saw me acquit myself in the
usual manner, by walking round the bronze screen
which surrounds the monument over the spot where
the head of the martyr is said to be buried, and
then putting myself into the regular postures of
prayer, he came in, and said his prayers by my side.
After relating these anecdotes, I should mention,
that the characters of my other acquaintances here
are not marked by similar eccentricities. My atten-
tions to my visitors have been generally confined to
the common usages of Eastern hospitality; supplying
them with pipes and coffee, and welcoming them to
a share of my dinner or supper. Many of their
communications I have written in Arabic, at their
dictation, and since translated, and inserted in the
following pages. What I have principally aimed at,
in this work, is correctness; and I do not scruple to
assert, that I am not conscious of having endea-
Youred to render interesting any matter that I have
related by the slightest sacrifice of truth.
. Since writing the above, it has occurred to me,
that Ishould offer some apology for the unusual mode
xiv PREFACE.
in which I have written Arabic words in the follow-
ing pages. Had I found it necessary only to insert
a few of such words, already found in the works of
many of my countrymen, I might have expressed
them in the same manner as most of those authors
have done; writing “Mahomet” or “Mohammed "
for “Mohham'mad,” “Koran’’ for “Choor-a'm,”
“Caliph" for “Khaleefh,” “Sultan" for “Sool-
ta'n,” “Dervise” for “ Durwee'sh,” “Bedouin" for
“Bed'awee,” “Divan" for “Deewan,” “Harem "
for “HHareem,” &c.; but since I have been obliged
to employ a great number of Arabic words, and many
which I have never seen in European characters in
any former work, I have thought it better to write all
of them according to a particular system that ap-
pears to me best calculated to enable an English
reader to pronounce them with tolerable correct-
mess *. According to this system,
a is pronounced as in our word bad:
a', generally as in father; but sometimes its sound
approaches to that of a in ball:
ck represents a guttural k : most of the people of
the metropolis of Egypt, and those of some pro-
vinces, cannot pronounce it, and substitute for it a
hiatus; while in Upper Egypt, the sound of g in
give is used in its stead:
e is pronounced as in bed :
e', as in there:
ee, as in bee:
ei, as our word eye :
ey, as in they : ---
g, generally as in give; but in some parts of Egypt,
as in gem, or nearly so :
* I should remark also, that I have written “Basha” in-
stead of “Pash'a’’’ in conformity with the pronunciation of the
Egyptians.
PREFACE. XV’
gh represents a very guttural g; the sound produced
in gargling:
hh represents a strong aspirate, very different from
our h :
i is pronounced as in bid :
kh represents a guttural sound like that produced in
expelling saliva from the throat: it approaches
nearer to the sound which I express by hb, than to
that of k :
0 is pronounced as in obey (short):
0', as in bone :
00, as in book :
co', as in boot :
ow, as in down :
w, as in but.
An apostrophe denotes a guttural sound to which no
letter of our alphabet approximates: it is like that
which is heard in the bleating of sheep.
The usual sign of a diabresis is employed to show
that a final e is not mute, but pronounced as that
letter when unaccented in the beginning or middle
of a word.
With regard to the engravings which accompany
this work, I should mention, that they are from draw-
ings which I have made, not to embellish the pages,
merely to explain the text.
C O N T E N T S.
Preface
INTRODUCTION.
The Country and Climate — Metropolis — Houses —
Population sº 4 g º
CHAPTER I.
Personal Characteristics and Dress of the Moos'lim
Egyptians º * * & e
CHAPTER II.
Infancy and early education .
CHAPTER III,
Religion and Laws
CHAPTER IV.
Government & & tº º *
CHAPTFR V.
Domestic Life. (The Higher and Middle Orders) tº
CHAPTER VI.
Domestic Life—continued. (The Hhareem). º
CHAPTER VII.
Domestic Life—continued. (The Lower Orders) º
WOL. I. -
M.
Page
36
78
92
150
180
213
266
xviii CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VIII.
Common Usages of Society . .
CHAPTER IX.
Language, Literature, and Science
CHAPTER X.
Superstitions. (Genii, Saints, and Durwee'shes)
CHAPTER XI,
Superstitions—continued. (Charms and Auguration) .
CHAPTER XII.
Magic, Astrology, and Alchymy
CHAPTER XIII.
Character . º
*** ** : *---.”… - …~~~~..... º. -----------...º.
WOH. I.
1’age
273
305
338
360
377
|
º
II, LUSTRATIONS.
. Private Houses in Cairo
, Door of a Private House
. Specimens of Lattice-work
. Court of a Private House in Cairo
. Fountain º e
. Sooſ'feh ſº & º & º
. Pavement of a Doorcka”ah . tº
. Specimens of Panel-work
Ceiling of a Doorcka’ah º g
Page
. 13
. 15
. 17
. 18
. 19
• 21
. 23
ibid.
. 25
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
2].
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
. Ceiling of a projecting Window
. A Cka”ah . º *
Wooden Lock wº & º
Men of the Middle and Higher Classes
Men of the Lower Classes †.
The Moock/leh tº gº
An Eye ornamented with Kohh
Mook'hhool’ahs and Mirºweds * º
Ancient Vessel and Probe for Kohhl . º
An Eye and Eyebrow ornamented with Kohhl after an
ancient mode g º tº
Hands and Feet stained with Hhen'na *
A Tattooed Girl º - º º
Specimens of Tattooing on the Chin
Tattooed Hands and Foot
A Lady in the Dress worn in private º
A Lady adorned with the Ckoor's and Suf'a, &c.
Ladies attired for Riding or Walking
Women and Children of the Lower Classes
A Woman clad in the Mila'yeh, &c.
W (? L., I, -
. 49
. 51
ibid.
. 54
• 57
ibid.
ibid.
. 60
. 63
. 66
, 69
72
XX ILLUSTRATIONS.
No. Page
29. Ornamented black Veils tº º & . 73
30. The ’As’beh © e º * . 74
31. A Woman of the Southern Province of Upper Egypt .. 76
32. Parade previous to Circumcision e tº . 83
33. A School-boy learning the Alphabet . & . 87
34. Vessels for Ablution º tº * . 99
35. Postures of Prayer. (Part I.). & & ... 109
36. Postures of Prayer. (Part II.) & tº . 110
37. Interior of a Mosque º e e . 115
38. Pipes & º º º e . 185
39. Coffee-service º © * w , 188
40. 'A'z'ckee and Mun'ckuds . e e . 190
41. An Ass equipped in the usual manner for riding . 191
42. Tisht and Ibree'ck . º o º . 194
43. Washing before or after a Meal e º . 195
44. Koor'see and Seenee'yeh . º do . 196
45. A Party at Dinner or Supper º & . 197
46. Water-bottles (Do'rucks) . • º . 202
47. Water-bottles (Ckool'lehs) . o sº ... ibid.
48. Earthen Mib'khar'ah and China Do'ruck e . 204
49. Brass Drinking-cups & º sº . 205
50. Sherbet-cups, or Ckool'lehs . º e . 207
51. Lantern and Lamp . & & e . 208
52. Lantern, &c. suspended on the occasion of a Wedding . 222
53. Bridal Procession. (Part I.) . * º . 228
54. Bridal Procession. (Part II.) e g . 229
55. Mesh'als . & º º º . 234
56. The Men'seg s º º º . 260
57. Ladies Riding º e tº * . 263
58. Ckoom'ckoom and Mib'khar'ah . º . 280
59. Books and Apparatus for Writing . * , 288
60. Magic Invocation and Charm e * . 368
6l. Magic Diagram and Mirror of Ink . o . 370
W 01.. I
THE
MO DERN EGY PTIANS.
INTRODUCTION.
THE COUNTRY AND CLIMATE-METROPOLIS--HOUSES
-POPULATION.
It is generally observed, that many of the most re-
markable peculiarities in the manners, customs, and
character of a nation, are attributable to the physical
peculiarities of the country. Such causes, in an espe-
cial manner, affect the moral and social state of the
modern Egyptians, and therefore here require some
preliminary notice: but it will not as yet be neces-
sary to explain their particular influences: these will
be evinced in many subsequent parts of the present
work.
The Nile, in its course through the narrow and
winding valley of Upper Egypt, which is confined
on each side by mountainous and sandy deserts, as
Well as through the plain of Lower Egypt, is every-
where bordered, excepting in a very few places, by
cultivated fields of its own formation. These culti-
Wated tracts are not perfectly level, being somewhat
lower towards the deserts than in the neighbourhood
of the river. They are interspersed with palm-groves
and villages, and intersected by numerous canals.
The copious summer rains which prevail in Abyssinia
and the neighbouring countries begin to show their
effects in Egypt, by the rising of the Nile, about the
WOL. I. - R
2 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
period of the summer solstice. By the autumnal
equinox the river attains its greatest height, which
is always sufficient to fill the canals by which the
fields are irrigated, and, generally, to inundate large
portions of the cultivable land: it them gradually falls
until the period when it again begins to rise. Being
impregnated, particularly during its rise, with rich soil
washed down from the mountainous countries whence
it flows, a copious deposit is annually spread, either
by the matural inundation or by artificial irrigation,
over the fields which border it; while its bed, from
the same cause, rises in an equal degree. The Egyp-
tians depend entirely upon their river for the fertili-
zation of the soil; rain being a very rare phenomenon
in their country, excepting in the neighbourhood of
the Mediterranean; and as the seasons are perfectly
regular, the peasant may make his arrangements with
the utmost precision respecting the labour he will
have to perform. Sometimes his labour is light; but
when it consists in raising water for irrigation, it is
excessively severe.
The climate of Egypt, during the greater part of
the year, is remarkably salubrious. The exhalations
from the soil after the period of the inundation render
the latter part of the autumn less healthy than the
summer and winter; and cause ophthalmia and dy-
sentery, and some other diseases, to be more prevalent
then than at other seasons; and during a period of
somewhat more or less than fifty days (called el-thu-
m'a'see'n), commencing in April, and lasting through-
out May, hot southerly winds occasionally prevail for
about three days together. These winds, though they
seldom cause the thermometer of Fahrenheit to rise
above 95°in Lower Egypt, or, in Upper Egypt, 105°,
* This is the temperature in the shade. At Thebes, I have
observed the thermometer to rise above 110° during a khu.
m'a' seen wind, in the shade.
COUNTRY AND CLIMATE. 3
are dreadfully oppressive, even to the natives. When
the plague visits Egypt, it is generally in the spring ;
and this disease is most severe in the period of the
khum'a'see'n. Egypt is also subject, particularly
during the spring and summer, to the hot wind called
the semoo'm, which is still more oppressive than the
khum'a'see'n winds, but of much shorter duration;
seldom lasting longer than a quarter of an hour, or
twenty minutes. It generally proceeds from the south-
east, or south-south-east, and carries with it clouds
of dust and sand. The general height of the ther-
mometer in the depth of winter in Lower Egypt, in
the afternoon and in the shade, is from 50° to 60°:
in the hottest season it is from 90° to 100°; and
about ten degrees higher in the southern parts of
Upper Egypt. But, though the summer heat is so
great, it is seldom very oppressive; being generally
accompanied by a refreshing northerly breeze, and
the air being extremely dry. There is, however, one
great source of discomfort arising from this dryness,
namely, an excessive quantity of dust; and there are
other plagues which very much detract from the com-
fort which the natives of Egypt, and visiters to their
country, otherwise derive from its genial climate. In
Spring, summer, and autumn, flies are so abundant as
to be extremely annoying during the daytime, and mus-
quitoes are troublesome at night (unless a curtain be
made use of to keep them away), and sometimes even
in the day; and every house that contains much wood-
work (as most of the better houses do) swarms with
bugs during the warm weather. Lice are not always
to be avoided in any season, but they are easily
got rid of; and in the cooler weather fleas are
excessively numerous.
The climate of Upper Egypt is more healthy,
though hotter, than that of Lower Egypt. The
Plague seldom ascends far above Cairo, the metropolis.
B 2
4 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
It is most common in the marshy parts of the country,
near the Mediterranean. During the last ten years,
the country having been better drained, and quaran
time regulations adopted to prevent or guard against
the introduction of this disease from other countries,
very few plague-cases have occurred, excepting in the
parts above-mentioned, and in those parts the pesti-
lence has not been severe *. Ophthalmia is also
more common in Lower Egypt than in the southern
parts. It generally arises from checked perspiration;
but is aggravated by the dust and many other causes.
When remedies are promptly employed, this disease
is seldom alarming in its progress; but vast numbers
of the natives of Egypt, not knowing how to treat
it, or obstinately resigning themselves to fate, are
deprived of the sight of one or both of their eyes.
When questioned respecting the salubrity of Egypt,
I have often been asked whether many aged persons
are seen among the inhabitants : few, certainly, attain
a great age in this country; but how few do, in our
own land, without more than once suffering from an
illness that would prove fatal without medical aid,
which is obtained by a very small number in Egypt'
The heat of the summer months is sufficiently op-
pressive to occasion considerable lassitude, while, at
the same time, it excites the Egyptian to intemper-
ance in sensual enjoyments; and the exuberant fertility
of the soil engenders indolence ; little nourishment
sufficing for the natives, and the sufficiency being
procurable without much exertion.
* This remark was written before the terrible plague of the
Present year (1835), which was certainly introduced from
Turkey, and extended throughout the whole of Egypt, though
its ravages were not great in the southern parts. It has de-
stroyed not less than eighty thousand persons in Cairo; that
is, one-third of the population ; and far more, I believe, than
two hundred thousand in all Egypt.
PRIVATE HOUSES. 5
/
ºx.
º
&*
º&%.
# *~...~ *- _º
º --~ ~~~~ *
º ºr---. ..., &
! % :
g l **~
* “…,
%
:::::: ; --~~
::::::::: *%
:::::::: fº
: º::::::: º ºš
&º % º
§ #
§
i. * ! i § | |
§ # §
| |'' iſ
ſt |
% , ,
in ſº ) t 3.
'… f* { } ×& 3.
U. | º ºf
|^ g
#
§§ |
y
x º Sºº------ § **. º -
º wº Sºº-ºº: ~~~~. Tº z
s:% N. . =c, º: º *::::
Private Houses in Cairo.—The street in this view is wider than usual.
he projecting windows on opposite sides of a street often nearly meet
each other; almost entirely excluding the sun, and thus producing an
agreeable coolness in the summer months.





METROPOLIS. 7
The modern Egyptian metropolis, to the inhabitants
of which most of the contents of the following pages
relate, is now called Musr; but was formerly named
El-Cha!hireh; whence Europeans have formed the
name of Cairo. It is situated at the entrance of the
valley of Upper Egypt, midway between the Nile and
the eastern mountain range of Moockut'tum. Between
it and the river there intervenes a tract of land, for
the most part cultivated, which, in the northern parts
(where the port of Boo'la'ck is situated), is more
than a mile in width, and, at the southern part, less
than half a mile wide. The metropolis occupies a
space equal to about three square miles; and its po-
pulation is about two hundred and forty thousand.
It is surrounded by a wall, the gates of which are shut
at night, and is commanded by a large citadel, situated
at an angle of the town, near a point of the mountain.
The streets are unpaved ; and most of them are nar-
row and irregular: they might more properly be called
lanes.
By a stranger who merely passed through the
streets, Cairo would be regarded as a very close and
crowded city; but that this is not the case, is evideºt
to a person who overlooks the town from the top of
alofty house, or from the minaret of a mosque. The
great thoroughfare-streets have generally a row of
shops along each side *. Above the shops are apart-
ments which do not communicate with them, and
which are seldom occupied by the persons who rent
the shops. To the right and left of the great thorough-
fares are by-streets and quarters. Most of the by-
streets are thoroughfares, and have a large wooden
gate at each end, closed at night, and kept by a porter
within, who opens to any persons requiring to be
admitted. The quarters mostly consist of several
W ** view of shops in a street of Cairo will be found in this
Oſk,
8 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
narrow lanes, having but one general entrance, with a
gate, which is also closed at night; but several have
a by-street passing through them.
Of the private houses of the metropolis, it is par-
ticularly necessary that I should give a description.
The accompanying engraving will serve to give a
general notion of their exterior. The foundation-walls,
to the height of the first floor, are cased, externally
and often internally, with the soft calcareous stone of
the neighbouring mountain. The surface of the
stone, when newly cut, is of a light yellowish hue ; but
its colour soon darkens. The alternate courses of the
front are sometimes coloured red and white, par-
ticularly in large houses; as is the case with most
mosques". The superstructure, the front of which
generally projects about two feet, and is supported by
corbels or piers, is of brick; and often plastered. The
bricks are burnt, and of a dull red colour. The
mortar is generally composed of mud, in the propor-
tion of one-half, with a fourth part of lime, and the
remaining part of the ashes of straw and rubbish.
Hence the unplastered walls of brick are of a dirty
colour; as if the bricks were unburnt. The roof is
flat, and covered with a coat of plaster.
The most usual architectural style of the entrance
of a private house in Cairo, is shown by the sketch
here inserted. The door is often ornamented in the
manner here represented: the compartment in which
is the inscription, and the other similarly-shaped com-
partments, are painted red, bordered with white; the
rest of the surface of the door is painted green. The
inscription, “He (i. e. God) is the Creator, the
Everlasting” (the object of which will be explained
* This mode of decorating the houses has lately become
more general, in consequence of an order of the government,
whereby the inhabitants were required thus to honour the
arrival of Ibrahee'm Ba'sha from Syria.
PRIVATE HOUSES,
I\oor of a Private House,

B 5
PRIVATE HOUSES. 11
when I treat of the superstitions of the Egyptians),
is seen on many doors; but is far from being gene-
ral: it is usually painted in black or white characters.
Few doors but those of large houses are painted.
They generally have an iron knocker, and a wooden
lock ; and there is usually a mounting-stone by the
side.
The ground-floor apartments next the street have
small wooden grated windows, placed sufficiently high
to render it impossible for a person passing by in
the street, even on horseback, to see through them.
The windows of the upper apartments generally project
a foot and a half, or more, and are mostly formed
of turned wooden lattice-work, which is so close that
it shuts out much of the light and sun, and screens
the inmates of the house from the view of persons
without, while at the same time it admits the air.
They are generally of unpainted wood ; but some
few are partially painted red and green, and some are
entirely painted. A window of this kind is called a
ro'shan, or, more commonly, a meshrebee'yeh, which
latter word has another application that will be men-
tioned below. Several windows of different descrip-
tions are represented in some of the illustrations of
this work; and sketches of the most common patterns
of the lattice-work, on a larger scale, are here in-
serted *. Sometimes a window of the kind above
described has a little meshrebee'yeh, which somewhat
resembles a ro'shan in miniature, projecting from the
* No. 1 is a view and section of a portion of the most simple
kind. This and the other four kinds are here represented on a
scale of about one-seventh of the real size. No. 6 shows the
general proportions of the side of a projecting window. The
portion A is, in most instances, of lattice-work similar to No.
l, and comprises about twelve rows of beads in the width: the
portion B is commonly either of the same kind, or like No. 2
or No. 3; and the small lattice C, which is attached by hinges,
is generally similar to No. 4.
12 MODERN EGY PTIANS.
front, or from each side. In this, in order to be ex-
posed to a current of air, are placed porous earthen
bottles, which are used for cooling water by evapora-
tion. Hence the name of “meshrebee'yeh,” which
signifies “a place for drink,” or “–for drinking.”
The projecting window has a flat one of lattice-work,
or of grating of wood, or of coloured glass, immedi-
ately above it. Some projecting windows are wholly
constructed of boards; and a few have frames of glass
in the sides. In the better houses, also, the windows
of lattice-work are now generally furnished with
frames of glass in the inside, which in the winter are
wholly closed; for a penetrating cold is felt in Egypt
when the thermometer of Fahrenheit is below 60°.
The windows of inferior houses are mostly of a
different kind; being even with the exterior surface
of the wall: the upper part is of wooden lattice-work”,
or grating; and the lower, closed by hanging shut-
ters; but many of these have a little meshrebee'yeh
for the water-bottles projecting from the lower part.
The houses in general are two or three stories
high ; and almost every house that is sufficiently large
encloses an open, unpaved court, called a hko'sh, which
is entered by a passage that is constructed with one or
two turnings, for the purpose of preventing passen-
gers in the street from seeing into it. In this pas-
sage, just within the door, there is a long stone seat,
called mus'tub'ah, built against the back or side wall,
for the porter and other servants. In the court is
a well of slightly brackish water, which filters through
the soil from the Nile; and on its most shaded side
are, commonly, two water-jars, which are daily re-
plenished with water of the Nile, brought from the
river in skins t. The principal apartments look into
* Commonly similar to No. 1, or No. 5
# Some large houses have two courts; the inner for the ha.
ree'm ; and in the latter, or both of these, there is usually a little
PRIVATE HOUSES. 13
Specimens of Lattice-work.--From the centre of one row of beads to that
of the next (in these specimens) is between an inch and a quarter and
an inch and three quarters.

PRIVATE HOUSES.
$$$$
ſae
sae:
###
::::
it:::
șšșšș ș#șș șiș ș$ș șșžș
*ae
::：::：::：:：::
！！！！！！！！！！！！！
：
ſae
ſaeaeraee：DE！！！ğ
：:：：：：：：：：：：：№rſ-œ.
LLIFELLE
§
№
§ğ
Court of a Private House in Cairo.

PRIVATE HOUSES. 17
the court; and their exterior walls (those which are
of brick) are plastered and whitewashed. There
are several doors which are entered from the court.
One of these is called ba'b el-hharee'm (the door of
the hbaree'm): it is the entrance of the stairs which
lead to the apartments appropriated exclusively to the
women and their master and his children".
In general, there is, on the ground-floor, an apart-
ment called a mun'dar'ah, in which male visiters
are received. This has a wide, wooden, grated window,
or two windows of this kind, next the court. A small
part of the floor, extending from the door to the
opposite side of the room, is six or seven inches
lower than the rest: this part is called the doorcka”aht.
Fountain.
enclosure of arched wood-work, in which trees and flowers are
raised.
* In the accompanying view of the court of a house, the door
of the haree'm is that which faces the spectator. -
# The view of a charah, opposite page 24, will serve to illus-
trate the description of the mundarſah. ~- --- -

18 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
In a handsome house, the doorcka"ah of the mun'-
dar'ah is paved with white and black marble, and little
ieces of red tile, inlaid in complicated and tasteful
patterns, and has in the centre a fountain (called
fisckee'yeh), which plays into a small, shallow pool,
lined with coloured marbles, &c., like the surrounding
pavement. I give, as a specimen, the pattern of the
pavement of a doorcka’ah, such as I have above de-
scribed, and a sketch of the fountain. The water
which falls from the fountain is drained off from the
pool by a pipe. There is generally, fronting the door,
at the end of the doorcka'ah, a shelf of marble or
common stone, about four feet high, called a sooffeh,
supported by two or more arches, under which are
placed utensils in ordinary use—such as perfuming
vessels, and the basin and ewer which are used for
washing before and after meals, and for the ablution
preparatory to prayer: water-bottles, coffee-cups, &c.,
are placed upon the soof'feh. In handsome houses,
the arches of the soof'feh are faced with marble and
tile, like the pool of the fountain, as represented in the
sketch; and sometimes the wall over it, to the
height of about four feet or more, is also cased with
similar materials; partly with large upright slabs, and
small pieces, like the doorcka’ah. The
partly with … ... … --
raised part of the floor of the room is called leewa'n


PRIVATE HOUSES. 19
t
tºxxxxxxxxYXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX:
O
8
8
º
C
C
º
C
º
sº
º
º
C
Pavement of a Doorcka’ah, The width of this is about eight feet.



20 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
(a corruption of “el-eewa'n,” which signifies “any
raised place to sit upon,” and also “a palace”).
Every person slips off his shoes on the doorcka”ah
before he steps upon the leewa'n". The leewa'n is
generally paved with common stone, and covered with
a mat in summer, and a carpet over the mat in winter;
and has a mattress and cushions placed against each
of its three walls, composing what is called a deewa'm,
or divan. The mattress, which is generally about three
feet wide, and three or four inches thick, is placed
either on the ground or on a raised frame; and the
cushions, which are usually of a length equal to the
width of the mattress, and of a height equal to half
that measure, lean against the wall. Both mattresses
and cushions are stuffed with cotton, and are covered
with printed calico, cloth, or some more expensive stuff.
The walls are plastered and whitewashed. There
are generally, in the walls, two or three shallow cup-
boards, the doors of which are composed of very small
panels, on account of the heat and dryness of the
climate, which cause wood to warp and shrink as if it
were placed in an oven; for which reason the doors
of the apartments also are constructed in the same
manner. We observe great variety and much inge-
nuity displayed in the different modes in which these
small panels are formed and disposed. A few speci-
mens are here introduced. The ceiling over the leewa'n
is of wood, with carved beams, generally about a foot
apart, partially painted, and sometimes gilt. But that
part of the ceiling which is over the doorcka’ah, in a
handsome house, is usually more richly decorated:
here, instead of beams, numerous thin strips of wood
are nailed upon the planks, forming patterns curiously
* One of the chief reasons of the custom here mentioned is,
to avoid defiling a mat or carpet upon which prayer is usually
made. This, as many authors have observed, illustrates paş.
sages of the Scriptures,--Exodus, iii. 5, and Joshua, v. 15.
PRIVATE HOUSES. 21
&
Specimens of Panelwork—These are represented on a scale of one inch
7.
[7ANTZAN]
KXC)
A
[\Z^i\Z.
EE)
&
|EEE|| || ******
HTETELETE
º
sº
sº
$º
to twenty-four or thirty.


























22 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
complicated, yet perfectly regular, and having a highly
ornamental effect. I give a sketch of the half of a
ceiling thus decorated, but not in the most complicated
style. The strips are painted yellow, or gilt ; and the
spaces within, painted green, red, and blue *. In the
example which I have inserted, the colours are as
indicated in a sketch of a portion of the same on a
larger scale, which is prefixed, excepting in the square
in the centre of the ceiling, where the strips are black,
upon a yellow ground. From the centre of this square
a chandelier is often suspended. There are many
patterns of a similar kind; and the colours generally
occupy similar places with regard to each other; but
in some houses these ceilings are not painted. The
ceiling of a projecting window is often ornamented
in the same manner. A sketch of one is here added.
Good taste is evinced by only decorating in this man-
ner parts which are not always before the eyes; for
to look long at so many lines intersecting each other in
various directions would be painful.
In some houses (as in that which is the subject of
the engraving in page 15) there is another room,
called a Muck"ad, for the same use as the mun'dar'ah,
having an open front, with two or more arches, and a
low railing; and also, on the ground-floor, a square
recess, called a Tukhtabo'sh, with an open front, and
generally a pillar to support the wall above: its floor is
a paved leewan; and there is a long wooden sofa
placed along one, or two, or each, of its three walls.
The court, during the summer, is frequently sprinkled
with water, which renders the surrounding apartments
agreeably cool—or at least those on the ground-floor.
All the rooms are furnished in the same manner as that
first described.
Among the upper apartments, or those of the Hha-
ree'm, there is generally one called a Cka'ah, which is
. . * * -
* See Jeremiah, xxii. 14.
PRIVATE HOUSES. 23
'º
ºś
§º sº
3y
Ceiling of a projecting window-tº * of this are about eight feet
y three.


24 MODERN EGYPTIANs.
particularly lofty. It has two leewa'ns—one on each
hand of a person entering : one of these is generally
larger than the other, and is the more honourable part.
A portion of the roof of this saloon, the part which is
over the doorcka”ah that divides the two leewa'ns, is
a little elevated above the rest; and has, in the centre,
a small lantern, called mem'ruck, the sides of which
. are composed of lattice-work, like the windows before
described, and support a cupola. The doorcka’ah is
commonly without a fountain ; but is often paved
in a similar manner to that of the mun'dar'ah ; which
the cka’ah also resembles in having a handsome
soof'feh, and cupboards of curious panel-work. There
is besides, in this and some other apartments, a narrow
shelf of wood, extending along two or each of the
three walls which bound the leewa'n, about seven feet
or more from the floor, just above the cupboards ;
but interrupted in some parts—at least in those parts
where the windows are placed : upon this are ar-
ranged several vessels of china, not so much for ge-
neral use as for ornament”. All the apartments are
lofty, generally fourteen feet or more in height; but
the cka’ah is the largest and most lofty room, and in
a large house it is a moble saloon.
In several of the upper rooms, in the houses of the
wealthy, there are, besides the windows of lattice-
work, others of coloured glass, representing bunches
of flowers, peacocks, and other gay and gaudy objects,
or merely fanciful patterns, which have a pleasing
effect. These coloured glass windows, which are
termed ckum'aree'yehs, are mostly from a foot and
a half to two feet and a half in height, and from one
to two feet in width; and are generally placed along
. .”. In the larger houses, and some others, there is also, ad-
joining the principal saloon, an elevated closet, designed as an
orchestra, for female singers. A description of this will be
found in the chapter on Music.
PRIVATE HOUSES.
25.
}§ě*****șšș*¿æ
§§ģae， &
¿¿ae*
sae！
§§！！！！！！*******
！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！
saeaeaeae
**********æææ************
ae*****
***************
***************
WOL # I.

PRIVATE HOUSES. 27
the upper part of the projecting lattice-window, in
a row; or above that kind of window, disposed in a
group, so as to form a large square; or elsewhere
in the upper parts of the walls, usually singly, or in
pairs, side by side. They are composed of small
pieces of glass, of various colours, set in rims of fine
plaster, and enclosed in a frame of wood. On the
plastered walls of some apartments are rude paint-
ings of the temple of Mek'keh, or of the tomb of
the Prophet, or of flowers and other objects, executed
by native Moos'lim artists, who have not the least
notion of the rules of perspective, and who conse-
quently deface what they thus attempt to decorate.
Sometimes, also, the walls are ornamented with Ara-
bic inscriptions, of maxims, &c., which are more
usually written on paper, in an embellished style, and
enclosed in glazed frames. No chambers are furnished
as bed-rooms. The bed, in the day-time, is rolled
up, and placed on one side, or in an adjoining closet,
called khuz'neh, which, in the winter, is a sleeping-
place: in summer, many people sleep upon the house-
top. A mat, or carpet, spread upon the raised part
of the stone floor, and a deewa'n, constitute the com-
plete furniture of a room. For meals, a round tray
is brought in, and placed upon a low stool, and the
company sit round it on the ground. There is no
fire-place*: the room is warmed, when necessary,
by burning charcoal in a chafingdish. Many houses
have, at the top, a sloping shed of boards, called a
nul'ckuff, directed towards the north or north-west,
to convey to a fes’hhah (or open apartment) below,
the cool breezes which generally blow from those
Quarters.
Every door is furnished with a wooden lock, called
* Excepting in the kitchen, in which are several small re-
ceptacles for fire, constructed on a kind of bench of brick.
t See again the engraving in page 16.
C 2
28 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
a dub'beh; the mechanism of which is shown by a
sketch here inserted. No. 1 in this sketch is a front
view of the lock, with the bolt drawn back ; Nos. 2,
3, and 4, are back views of the separate parts, and
the key. A number of small iron pins (four, five,
ſ 2 |
© Gº
- (3) yº-EY_N
- G) wn unu
(3) N \ iſ (3) G) (3) G) (3) (9)
G) -
G)
Q ©
3
A. f:º NY
|
2.
H T T }
l --
Wooden Luck.
or more) drop into corresponding holes in the sliding
bolt, as soon as the latter is pushed into the hole or
staple of the door-post. The key, also, has small pins,
made to correspond with the holes, into which they
are introduced to open the lock: the former pins being
thus pushed up, the bolt may be drawn back. The
wooden lock of a street-door is commonly about four-
teen inches long *: those of the doors of apartments,
cupboards, &c., are about seven, or eight, or nine
inches. The locks of the gates of quarters, public
buildings, &c., are of the same kind, and mostly two
feet, or even more, in length. It is not difficult to
pick this kind of lock. -
" This is the measure of the sliding bolt.

PRIVATE HOUSES. 29
In the plan of almost every house there is an utter
want of regularity. The apartments are generally of
different heights—so that a person has to ascend or
descend one, two, or more steps, to pass from one
chamber to another adjoining it. The principal aim
of the architect is to render the house as private as
possible, particularly that part of it which is inha-
bited by the women; and not to make any window
in such a situation as to overlook the apartments of
another house. Another object of the architect, in
building a house for a person of wealth or rank, is
to make a secret door (ba'b sirr), from which the
tenant may make his escape in case of danger from
an arrest, or an attempt at assassination—or by which
to give access and egress to a paramour; and it is
also common to make a hiding-place for treasure
(called mukh'ba) in some part of the house. In the
hharee’m of a large house, there is generally a bath,
which is heated in the same manner as the public
baths.
Another style of building has lately been very gene-
rally adopted for houses of the more wealthy. These
do not differ much from those already described, ex-
cepting in the windows, which are of glass, and placed
almost close together. Each window of the hbaree'm
has, outside, a sliding frame of close wooden trellis-
work, to cover the lower half. The numerous glass
windows are ill adapted to a hot climate.
When shops occupy the lower part of the buildings
in a street (as is generally the case in the great tho-
roughfares of the metropolis, and in some of the by-
Streets), the superstructure is usually divided into
distinct lodgings, and is termed rub'é. These lodg-
ings are separate from each other, as well as from
the shops below, and let to families who cannot afford
the rent of a whole house. Each lodging in a rub'ā
C 3
30 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
comprises one or two sitting and sleeping-rooms, and
generally a kitchen and latrina. It seldom has a
separate entrance from the street; one entrance and
one staircase usually admitting to a range of several
lodgings. The apartments are similar to those of
the private houses first described. They are never
let ready-furnished; and it is very seldom that a
person who has not a wife or female slave is allowed
to reside in them, or in any private house: such a
person (unless he have parents or other near relations
to dwell with) is usually obliged to take up his abode
in a Weka'leh, which is a building chiefly designed
for the reception of merchants and their goods.
Franks, however, are now exempted from this re-
striction.
Very few large or handsome houses are to be seen
in Egypt, excepting in the metropolis and some other
towns. The dwellings of the lower orders, particu-
larly those of the peasants, are of a very mean de-
scription: they are mostly built of unbaked bricks,
cemented together with mud. Some of them are
mere hovels. The greater number, however, comprise
two or more apartments; though very few are two
stories high. In one of these apartments, in the
houses of the peasants in Lower Egypt, there is
generally an oven (foorn), at the end farthest from
the entrance, and occupying the whole width of the
chamber. It resembles a wide bench or seat, and
is about breast-high : it is constructed of brick and
mud; the roof arched within, and flat on the top.
The inhabitants of the house, who seldom have any
night-covering during the winter, sleep upon the top
of the oven, having previously lighted a fire within
it ; or the husband and wife only enjoy this luxury,
and the children sleep upon the floor. The chambers
have small apertures high up in the walls, for the
POPULATION. 31
admission of light and air—sometimes furnished with
a grating of wood. The roofs are formed of palm
branches and palm leaves, or of millet stalks, &c., laid
upon rafters of the trunk of the palm, and covered
with a plaster of mud and chopped straw. The fur-
niture consists of a mat or two to sleep upon, a few
earthen vessels, and a hand-mill to grind the corn.
In many villages, large pigeon-houses, of a square
form, but with the walls slightly inclining inwards
(like many of the ancient Egyptian buildings), or of
the form of a sugar-loaf, are constructed upon the
roofs of the huts, with crude brick, pottery, and mud”.
Most of the villages of Egypt are situated upon emi-
nences of rubbish, which rise a few feet above the
reach of the inundation, and are surrounded by palm
trees, or have a few of these trees in their vicinity.
The rubbish which they occupy chiefly consists of the
materials of former huts, and seems to increase in
about the same degree as the level of the alluvial
plains and the bed of the river.
In a country where neither births nor deaths are
registered, it is next to impossible to ascertain, with
precision, the amount of the population. A few years
ago, a calculation was made, founded on the number
of houses in Egypt, and the supposition that the inha-
bitants of each house in the metropolis amount to
eight persons, and in the provinces to four. This
computation approximates, I believe, very nearly to
the truth; but personal observation and inquiry incline
me to think that the houses of such towns as Alex-
andria, Boo'la'ck, and Musr el-’Atee'ckah contain each,
on the average, at least five persons: Rashee'd (or
Rosetta) is half deserted; but as to the crowded town
* The earthen pots used in the construction of these pigeon-
houses are of an oval form, with a wide mouth, which is placed
outwards, and a small hole at the other end. Each pair of
pigeons occupies a separate pot.
32 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
of Dimya’t (or Damietta), we must reckon as many
as six persons to each house, or our estimate will fall
far short of what is generally believed to be the num
ber of its inhabitants. The addition of one or two
persons to each house in the above-mentioned towns
will, however, make little difference in the computa-
tion of the whole population of Egypt, which was
found, by this mode of reckoning, to amount to rather
more than two millions and a half; but it is now
much reduced. Of 2,500,000 souls, say 1,200,000
are males; and one-third of this number (400,000)
men fit for military service : from this latter number
the present Ba'sha of Egypt has taken, at the least,
200,000 (that is, one-half of the most serviceable por-
tion of the male population) to form and recruit his
armies of regular troops, and for the service of his
navy. The further loss caused by withdrawing so
many men from their wives, or preventing their mar-
rying, during ten years, must surely far exceed 300,000.
consequently, the present population may be calculated
as less than two millions. The numbers of the several
classes of which the population is mainly composed
are nearly as follow :- -
Moos'lim Egyptians (fella'hhee'n, or
peasants, and townspeople) . . 1,750,000
Christian Egyptians (Copts) . . . 150,000
'Osma'nlees, or Turks . . . . . 10,000
Syrians . . . . . . . . . 5,000
Greeks . . . . . . . . . 5,000
Armenians . . . . . . . . 2,000
Jews. . . . . . . . . . 5,000
Of the remainder (namely, Arabians, Western Arabs,
Nubians, Negro slaves, Memloo'ks [or white male
slaves], female white slaves, Franks, &c.), amounting
to about 70,000, the respective numbers are very un-
certain and variable The Arabs of the neighbouring
POPULATION. 33
deserts ought not to be included among the population
of Egypt*.
Cairo, I have said, contains about 240,000 inhabit-
antst. We should be greatly deceived if we judged
of the population of this city from the crowds that
we meet in the principal thoroughfare-streets and
markets: in most of the by-streets and quarters, very
few passengers are seen. Nor should we judge from
the extent of the city and suburbs; for there are
within the walls many vacant places, some of which,
during the season of the inundation, are lakes (as the
Birket el-Ezbekee'yeh, Bir'ket el-Feel, &c.) The
gardens, several burial-grounds, the courts of houses,
and the mosques, also occupy a considerable space.
Of the inhabitants of the metropolis, about 190,000
are Egyptian Moos'lims; about 10,000, Copts; 3,000
or 4,000, Jews; and the rest, strangers from various
countries i.
The population of Egypt in the times of the Pha-
roahs was probably about six or seven millions §.
The produce of the soil in the present age would suffice,
* The Moos'lim Egyptians, Copts, Syrians, and Jews of
Egypt, with few exceptions, speak no language but the Arabic,
. is also the language generally used by the foreigners
settled in this country. The Nubians, among themselves,
speak their own dialects.
# The population of Cairo has increased to this amount,
from about 200,000, within the last three or four years. Since
the computation here stated was made, the plague of this
year (1835) has destroyed not fewer than one-third of its in-
habitants, as before mentioned; but this deficiency will be
rapidly supplied from the villages.
# About one-third of the population of the metropolis con-
sists of adult males. Of this number (or 80,000) about 30,000
are merchants, petty shop-keepers, and artisans; 20,000, do-
mestic servants; 15,000, common labourers, porters, &c.: the
remainder chiefly consists of military and civil servants of the
government.
§ I place but little reliance on the accounts of ancient authors
on this subject.
34 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
if none were exported, for the maintenance of a popu-
lation amounting to 4,000,000; and if all the soil which
is capable of cultivation were sown, the produce would
be sufficient for the maintenance of 8,000,000. But
this would be the utmost number that Egypt could
maintain in years of plentiful inundation: I therefore
compute the ancient population, at the time when
agriculture was in a very flourishing state, to have
amounted to what I first stated; and must suppose
it to have been scarcely more than half as numerous
in the times of the Ptolemies, and at later periods,
when a great quantity of corn was annually exported *.
This calculation agrees with what Diodorus Siculus
says (in lib. i., cap. 31); namely, that Egypt contained,
in the times of the ancient kings, 7,000,000 inha-
bitants, and in his own time not less than 3,000,000.
How different, now, is the state of Egypt from
what it might be; possessing a population of scarcely
more than one quarter of the number that it might
be rendered capable of supporting ! How great a
change might be effected in it by a truly enlightened
government; by a prince who (instead of oppressing
the peasantry by depriving them of their lands, and
by his monopolies of the most valuable productions
of the soil; by employing the best portion of the
population to prosecute his ambitious schemes of
foreign conquest, and another large portion in the
vain attempt to rival European manufactures) would
give his people a greater interest in the cultivation of
the fields, and make Egypt what nature designed it
to be—almost exclusively an agricultural country!
* It has been suggested to me, that, if corn was exported,
something of equal value was imported; and that the exporta-
tion of corn, or anything else, would give a stimulus to industry
and to population: but I do not know what could be imported
that would fill up the measure of the food necessary to sustain
a population much greater than that which would consume the
corn retained.
POPULATION. 35
Its produce of cotton alone would more than suffice
to procure all the articles of foreign manufacture, and
all the natural productions of foreign countries, that
the wants of its inhabitants demand *.
* During the present year, 1835, more than 100,000 bales of
cotton (each bale weighing a hundred-weight and three quar-
ters) have been shipped at Alexandria. The price paid for this
quantity by the merchants exceeded 700,000/. The quantity
exported last year was 34,000 bales, which is considerably less
than usual.—The policy above recommended is strongly ad-
vocated by Ibrahee'm Ba'sha.
36
CHAPTER I.
PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS AND DRESS OF THE
Moos'LIM EGYPTIANs.
Moos'LIMs of Arabian origin have for many centuries
mainly composed the population of Egypt; they have
changed its language, laws, and general manners; and
its metropolis they have made the principal seat of
Arabian learning and arts. To the description of
this people, and especially of the middle and higher
classes in the Egyptian capital, will be devoted the
chief portion of the present work. In every point of
view, Musr (or Cairo) must be regarded as the first
Arab city of our age; and the manners and customs
of its inhabitants are particularly interesting, as they
are a combination of those which prevail most gene-
rally in the towns of Arabia, Syria, and the whole
of Northern Africa, and in a great degree in Turkey.
There is no other place in which we can obtain so
complete a knowledge of the most civilized classes
of the Arabs. From statements made in the intro-
duction to this work, it appears that Moos'lim Egyp-
tians (or Arab-Egyptians) compose nearly four-fifths
of the population of the metropolis (which is com-
puted to amount to about 240,000), and just seven-
eighths of that of all Egypt.
The Moos'lim Egyptians are descended from va-
rious Arab tribes and families which have settled in
Egypt at different epriods; mostly soon after the
conquest of this country by 'Amr, its first Arab go.
vernor; but by intermarriages with the Copts an
others who have become proselytes to the faith of
PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS. 37
El-Isla'm, as well as by the change from a life of
wandering to that of citizens or of agrict.lturists, their
personal characteristics have, by degrees, become so
much altered, that there is a strongly-marked differ-
ence between them and the natives of Arabia. Yet
they are to be regarded as not less genuine Arabs than
the townspeople of Arabia itself; among whom has
..ong and very generally prevailed a custom of keeping
Abyssinian female slaves, either instead of marrying
their own countrywomen, or (as is commonly the
case with the opulent) in addition to their Arab
wives; so that they bear almost as strong a resem-
blance to the Abyssinians as to the Bed'awees, or
Arabs of the Desert. The term 'Ar'ab, it should
here be remarked, is used, wherever the Arabic lan-
guage is spoken, only to designate the Bed'awees,
collectively: in speaking of a tribe, or of a small
number of those people, the word 'Orba'n is also
used; and a single individual is called Bed'awee *.
In the metropolis and other towns of Egypt, the
distinction of tribes is almost wholly lost; but it is
preserved among the peasants, who have retained
many Bed'awee customs, of which I shall have to
Speak. The native Moos'lim inhabitants of Cairo
Commonly call themselves El-Musreeyee'n, Owla'd
Musr (or Ah!! Musr), and Owla'd el-Belled, which
signify people of Musr, children of Musr, and children
of the town: the singular forms of these appellations
are Mus'ree, Ib'n Musr, and Ibn el-Belled f. Of these
three terms, the last is most common in the town
itself. The country people are called El-Fella'hhee'n
(or the Agriculturists), in the singular Fella'hht.
The Turks often apply this term to the Egyptians in
§eneral in an abusive sense, as meaning “the boors,”
* Feminine, Bedawee'yeh.
+ In the feminine, Musreelyeh, Bin't Musr, and Bintel-Belled.
$ Feminine, Fellahhah.
VOL. II. D
38 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
or “the clowns;” and improperly stigmatize them
with the appellation of Ah!! Far’oo'n”, or “the
People of Pharoah.”
In general, the Moos'lim Egyptians attain the
height of about five feet eight, or five feet nine
inches. Most of the children under nine or ten
years of age have spare limbs and a distended ab-
domen; but, as they grow up, their forms rapidly
improve: in mature age, most of them are remark-
ably well-proportioned; the men, muscular and
robust; the women, very beautifully formed and
plump ; and neither sex is too fat. I have never seen
corpulent persons among them, excepting a few in
the metropolis and other towns, rendered so by a
life of inactivity. In Cairo, and throughout the
northern provinces, those who have not been much
exposed to the sun have a yellowish, but very clear
complexion, and soft skin; the rest are of a consider-
ably darker and coarser complexion. The people of
Middle Egypt are of a more tawny colour, and those
of the more southern provinces are of a deep bronze
or brown complexion—darkest towards Nubia, where
the climate is hottest. In general, the countenance
of the Moos'lim Egyptian (I here speak of the men)
is of a fine oval form : the forehead, of moderate size,
seldom high, but generally prominent: the eyes are
deep sunk, black, and brilliant: the nose is straight,
but rather thick: the mouth, well formed : the lips
are rather full than otherwise: the teeth, particu-
larly beautifulf: the beard is commonly black and
curly, but scanty. I have seen very few individuals
* Thus, commonly pronounced for Fir'aw'n.
# Tooth-ache is, however, a very common disorder in Egypt,
as it was in ancient times: this, at least, was probably the case,
as Herodotus (lib. ii., cap. 84) mentions dentists among the
classes of Egyptian physicians. It is, of course, most preva.
lent among the higher orders,
PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS. 39
of this race with grey eyes; or rather, few persons
supposed to be of this race; for I am inclined to
think them the offspring of Arab women by Turks or
other foreigners. The Fella'hhee'n, from constant
exposure to the sun, have a habit of half-shutting
their eyes: this is also characteristic of the Bed'a-
wees. Great numbers of the Egyptians are blind in
one or both eyes. They generally shave that part
of the cheek which is above the lower jaw, and
likewise a small space under the lower lip, leaving,
however, the hairs which grow in the middle under
the mouth ; or, instead of shaving these parts, they
pluck out the hair. They also shave a part of the
beard under the chin. Very few shave the rest of
their beards”, and none their mustaches. The former
they suffer to grow to the length of about a hand’s
breadth below the chin (such, at least, is the general
rule, and such was the custom of the Prophet); and
their mustaches they do not allow to become so
long as to incommode them in eating and drinking.
The practice of dyeing the beard is not common ;
for a grey beard is much respected. The Egyptians
shave all the rest of the hair, or leave only a small
tuft (called shoo'sheh) upon the crown of ºne head.
This last custom (which is almost universal among
them), I have been told, originated in the fear that
if the Moos'lim should fall into the hands of an
infidel, and be slain, the latter might cut off the
head of his victim, and, finding no hair by which
to hold it, put his impure hand into the mouth, in
* A few of the servants, and some others, shave their beards.
The respect which Orientals in general pay to the beard has
often been remarked. They swear by it, and say that a man
disgraces it by an evil action. The punishment recorded in
Samuel, ch. x., v.4, has frequently been practised in modern
. but not so often as the shaving of the whole of the
Card,
D 2
40 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
order to carry it; for the beard might not be suffi-
ciently long". With the like view of avoiding im-
purity the Egyptians observe other customs, which
need not here be describedt. Many men of the
lower orders, and some others, make blue marks upon
their arms, and sometimes upon the hands and chest,
as the women, in speaking of whom this operation
will be described. -
The dress of the men of the middle and higher
classes consists of the following articlesi. First, a
pair of full drawers (in Arabic, liba's) of linen or
cotton, tied round the body by a running string or
band (called dik'keh or tik'keh), the ends of which
are embroidered with coloured silks, though con-
cealed by the outer dress. The drawers descend a
little below the knees, or to the ankles; but many of
the Arabs will not wear long drawers, because pro-
hibited by the Prophet. Next is worn a shirt (cka-
mee's), with very full sleeves, reaching to the wrist:
it is made of linen, of a loose, open texture, or of
cotton stuff, or of muslin, or silk, or of a mixture of
silk and linen or cotton, in stripes, but all white.S
Over this, in winter, or in cool weather, most per-
sons wear a soodey'ree, which is a short vest of cloth,
or of striped coloured silk and cotton, without sleeves.
Over the shirt and the soodey'ree, or the former
alone, is worn a long vest of striped silk and cotton ||
* Persons of literary and religious professions generally dis-
approve of the shoo'sheh. - - -
# They are mentioned in the “Mishcat-ul-Masabih,” vol. ii.,
p. 359, and are observed by both sexes. -
# The fashion of their dress remains almost the same during
the lapse of centuries.
§ The Prophet forbade men to wear silk clothing, but
allowed women to do so. The prohibition is, however, attende
to by very few modern Moos'lims, excepting the Wah'ha'bees.
|The stripes are seldom plain: they are generally figured on
flowered.
DRESS.
41
Men of the Middle and Higher Classes,

DRESS. 43
(called ckufta'n, or more commonly choofta'm), de-
scending to the ankles, with long sleeves extending
a few inches beyond the fingers’ ends, but divided
from a point a little above the wrist, or about the
middle of the fore-arm ; so that the hand is gene-
rally exposed, though it may be concealed by the
sleeve when necessary; for it is customary to cover
the hands in the presence of a person of high rank.
Round this vest is wound the girdle (hheza'm), which
is a coloured shawl, or a long piece of white figured
muslin. The ordinary outer robe is a long cloth
coat, of any colour (called by the Turks joob"beh,
but by the Egyptians gib'beh), the sleeves of which
reach not quite to the wrist”. Some persons also
wear a benee'sh, or bem'ish ; which is a robe of cloth,
with long sleeves, like those of the ckoofta'n, but
more ample f : it is, properly, a robe of ceremony,
and should be worn over the other cloth coat; but
many persons wear it instead of the gib'behi. The
head-dress consists, first, of a small, close-fitting
cotton cap (called ta'chee'yeh, or 'arackee'yeh), which
is often changed; next, a turboo'sh, which is a red
cloth cap, also fitting closely to the head, with a tassel
of dark blue silk at the crown ; lastly, a long piece
of white muslin, generally figured, or a Kashmee'r
shawl, which is wound round the turboo'sh. Thus
is formed the turban, or ’ema'meh. The Kashmee'r
shawl is seldom worn excepting in cool weather.
Some persons wear two or three turboo'shes, one over
* See the foremost figure in the accompanying engraving.
f See the figure to the left in the same engraving.
# In cold or cool weather a kind of black woollen cloak,
called 'abba'yeh, is commonly worn (a). Sometimes this is
drawn over the head. In winter also many persons wrap a
muslin or other shawl (such as they use for a turban) about
the head and shoulders.
(*) See the next engraving, in which is represented astriped'abba'yeh,
44 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
another. A sheree'ſ (or descendant of the Prophet)
wears a green turban, or is privileged to do so; but
no other person; and it is not common for any but a
sheree'f to wear a bright green dress. Stockings are
not in use; but some few persons, in cold weather,
wear woollen or cotton socks. The shoes (murkoo'b)
are of thick red morocco, pointed and turning up
at the toes. Some persons also wear inner shoes
(called mezz, or more properly, mezd "), of soft,
yellow morocco, and with soles of the same: the
murkoo'b are taken off on stepping upon a carpet or
mat; but not the mezz: for this reason, the former
are often worn turned down at the heel.
On the little finger of the right hand is worn a seal-
ring (kha'tim), which is generally of silver, with a
cornelian, or other stone, upon which is engraved the
wearer's name: the name is accompanied by the
words “his servant” (signifying “the servant, or
worshipper of God”), and often by other words ex-
pressive of the person's trust in God, &c.f. The
Prophet disapproved of gold; therefore few Moos'lims
wear gold rings; but the women have various or-
naments (rings, bracelets, &c.) of that precious metal.
The seal-ring is used for signing letters and other
writings; and its impression is considered more valid
than the sign-manual #. A little ink is dabbed upon
it with one of the fingers, and it is pressed upon the
paper—the person who uses it having first touched
his tongue with another finger, and moistened the
place in the paper which is to be stamped. Almost
every person who can afford it has a seal-ring, even
though he be a servant. The regular scribes, literary
men, and many others, wear a silver, brass, or copper
* From the Turkish, mest.
t See St. John's Gospel,iii. 33; and Exodus, xxxix. 30.
# Therefore, giving the ring to another person is the utmost
mark of confidence.—See Genesis, xli. 42.
46 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
Meu of the Lower Classes.

I}RESS. 47
dawa'yeh, which is a case with receptacles for ink
and pens, stuck in the girdle *. Some have, in the
place of this, or in addition to it, a case-knife, or a
dagger.
The Egyptian generally takes his pipe with him
wherever he goes (unless it be to the mosque), or has
a servant to carry it, though it is not a common
custom to smoke while riding or walking. The
tobacco-purse he crams into his bosom, the ckoofta'n
being large, and lapping over in front. A handker-
chief, embroidered with coloured silks and gold, and
neatly folded, is also placed in the bosom. Many
persons of the middle orders, who wish to avoid
being thought rich, conceal such a dress as I have
described by a long black gown of cotton, similar to
the gown worn by most persons of the lower classes.
The costume of the men of the lower orders is
very simple. These, if not of the very poorest class,
wear a pair of drawers, and a long and full shirt or
gown of blue linen or cotton, or of brown woollen
stuff (the former called 'er'ee, and the latter zaaboo't),
open from the neck nearly to the waist, and having
wide sleeves f. Over this, some wear a white or red
woollen girdle. Their turban is generally composed
of a white, red, or yellow woollen shawl, or of a piece
of coarse cotton or muslin, wound round a turboo'sh,
under which is a white or brown felt cap (called
lib'deh); but many are so poor as to have no other
cap than the lib'deh–no turban, nor even drawers,
nor shoes, but only the blue or brown shirt, or
merely a few rags; while many, on the other hand,
wear a soodey'ree under the blue shirt; and some,
particularly servants in the houses of great men,
wear a white shirt, a soodey'ree, and a ekoofta'n
or gib'beh, or both, and the blue shirt over all. The
* This is a very ancient custom.—See Ezekiel, ix. 2, 3, 11.
t The zaaboo't is mostly worn in the winter.
48 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
full sleeves of this shirt are sometimes drawn up,
by means of cords, which pass round each shoulder
and cross behind, where they are tied in a knot.
This custom is adopted by servants (particularly
grooms), who have cords of crimson or dark-blue
silk for this purpose. In cold weather, many persons
of the lower classes wear an 'abba'yeh, like that
before described, but coarser; and sometimes, in-
stead of being black, having broad stripes, brown
and white, or blue and white, but the latter rarely.
Another kind of cloak, more full than the 'abba'yeh,
of black or deep-blue woollen stuff, is also very
commonly worn: it is called diffee'yeh". The shoes
are of red or yellow morocco, or of sheep-skin.
Several different forms of turbans are represented
in some of the engravings which illustrate this work.
The Moos'lims are distinguished by the colours of
their turbans from the Copts and the Jews, who (as
well as other subjects of the Turkish Soolta'n who
are not Moos'lims) wear black, blue, grey, or light-
brown turbans, and generally dull-coloured dresses.
The distinction of sects, families, dynasties, &c., among
the Moos'lim Arabs, by the colour of the turban and
other articles of dress, is of very early origin. When
the Ima'm Ibrahee'm Ib'n Mohham'mad, asserting
his pretensions to the dignity of Khalee'fehf, was
put to death by the Oom'awee Khalee'feh Murwan,
many persons of the family of El-'Abba's assumed
black clothing, in testimony of their sorrow for his
fate ; and hence the black dress and turban (which
latter is now characteristic, almost solely, of Christian
and Jewish tributaries to the 'Osmanlee, or Turkish,
* A kind of blue and white plaid (called mila'yeh) is also
worn by some men, but more commonly by women, in the
account of whose dress it will be further described: the men
throw it over the shoulders, or wrap it about the body
f Commonly written by English authors “Caliph.”
DRESS. 49
Soolta/n) became the distinguishing costume of the
'Abba'see Khalee'fehs, and of their officers. When
an officer under this dynasty was disgraced, he was
made to wear a white dress. White was adopted
by the false prophet Moockan'na', to distinguish his
party from the 'Abba'sees; and the Fawa'tim of
Egypt (or Khalee'ſehs of the race of Fa'timeh), as
rivals of the 'Abba'sees, wore a white costume. El-
Mel'ik El-Ash'raf Shaaba'n, a Soolta'n of Egypt
(who reigned from the year of the Flight 764 to
778, or A. D. 1362 to 1376), was the first who ordered
the sheree'fs to distinguish themselves by the green
turban and dress. Some durwee'shes of the sect of
the Rifa'ees, and a few, but very few, other Moos'-
lims, wear a turban of black woollen stuff, or of a
very deep olive-coloured (almost black) muslim ; but
that of the Copts, Jews, &c., is generally of black or
blue muslin, or linen. There are not many different
forms of turbans now worn in Egypt: that worn by
most of the servants is very formal. The kind com-
mon among the middle and higher classes of the
tradesmen and other citizens of the metropolis and
large towns is also very formal, but less so than that
just before alluded to. The Turkish turban worn in
Egypt is of a more elegant mode. The Syrian is
distinguished by its width. The ’ool'ama, and men
ſ\|| ||
The Moock'leh.

50 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
of religion and letters in general, used to wear, as
some do still, one particularly wide and formal, called
a moock'leh. The turban is much respected. In the
houses of the more wealthy classes, there is usually
a chair (called koor'see el-'ema'meh) on which it is
placed at night. This is often sent with the furni-
ture of a bride. It is common for a lady to have one
upon which to place her head-dress. This kind of
chair is never used for any other purpose. As an
instance of the respect paid to the turban, one of Iny
friends mentioned to me that an 'a'lim” being thrown
off his donkey in a street of this city; his moock'leh
fell off, and rolled along for several yards; where-
upon the passengers ran after it, erying, “Lift up the
crown of El-Islam " while the poor 'a'lin, whom
no one came to assist, called out in anger, “Lift up
the sheykht of El-Isla'm ”
The general form and features of the women must
now be described. From the age of about fourteen
to that of eighteen or twenty they are generally
models of beauty in body and limbs; , and in coun-
tenanee most of them are pleasing, and many ex-
ceedingly lovely: but, soon after they have attained
their perfect growth, they rapidly decline ; the bosom
early loses all its beauty, acquiring, from the relaxing
nature of the climate, an excessive length and flatness
in its forms, even while the face retains its full charms;
and though, in most other respects, time does not
commonly so soon nor so much deform them, at the
age of forty it renders many who in earlier years
possessed considerable attractions absolutely ugly.
In the Egyptian females the forms of womanhood
begin to develop themselves about the ninth or tenth
year : at the age of fifteen or sixteen they generally
* This appellation (of which 'ool'ama is the plural) signifies
a man of science or learning.
# “Sheykh” here signifies master, or doctor.
WOMEN. 51
attain their highest degree of perfection. With
regard to their complexions, the same remarks apply
to them as to the men, with only this difference,
that their faces, being generally veiled when they
go abroad, are not quite so much tanned as those of
the men. They are characterized, like the men, by
a fine oval countenance; though, in some instances,
it is rather broad. The eyes, with very few excep-
tions, are black, large, and of a long almond-form,
with long and beautiful lashes and an exquisitely
soft, bewitching expression : eyes more beautiful can
hardly be conceived: their charming effect is much
heightened by the concealment of the other features
(however pleasing the latter may be), and is ren-
dered still more striking by a practice universal among
the females of the higher and middle classes, and
very common among those of the lower orders, which
is that of blackening the edge of the eye-lids, both
above and below the eye, with a black powder called
kohhl. This is a collyrium commonly composed
of the smoke-black which is produced by burning a
kind of liba'n—an aromatic resin—a species of frank-
incense, used, I am told, in preference to the better
kind of frankincense, as being cheaper, and equally
good for this purpose. Kohhl is also prepared of
the smoke black produced by burning the shells of
almonds. These two kinds, though i. to be
beneficial to the eyes, are used merely for ornament;
An Eye ornamented with Kohhl.
but there are several kinds used for their real or
supposed medical properties; particularly the powder


52 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
of several kinds of lead ore *; to which are often
added sarcocollat, long pepper j, sugar-candy, fine
dust of a Venetian sequin, and sometimes powdered
pearls. Antimony, it is said, was formerly used for
painting the edges of the eye-lids. The kohhl is
applied with a small probe, of wood, ivory, or silver,
tapering towards the end, but blunt: this is moistened,
sometimes with rose-water, then dipped in the powder,
and drawn along the edges of the eyelids: it is called
mir'wed'; and the glass vessel in which the kohhl is
kept, mook'hhool'ah. The custom of thus ornament-
ing the eyes prevailed among both sexes in Egypt in
very ancient times: this is shown by the sculptures
and paintings in the temples and tombs of this
country; and kohhl-vessels, with the probes, and
Mook'hhool'alls and Mir'weds.
These are represented on scales of one-third, and a quarter, of the re 1
Słże,
even with remains of the black powder, have often
been found in the ancient tombs. I have two in my
possession. But in many cases, the ancient mode
of ornamenting with the kohhl was a little different
* Kohhlel-hhagar. . . ; Anzaroot,
'Ercked-dah'ab,





USE OF KOHHL. 53
from the modern, as shown by the subjoined sketch
I have, however, seen this ancient mode practised in
Ancient Vessel and Probe for Kohhl.
the present day in the neighbourhood of Cairo;
though I only remember to have noticed it in two
An Eye and Eyebrow ornamented with Kohhl, as represented in ancient
- Paintings.
instances. The same custom existed among the an-
cient Greek ladies and among the Jewish women in
early times *. The eyes of the Egyptian women are
generally the most beautiful of their features. Coun-
tenances altogether handsome are far less common
among this race than handsome figures; but I have
seen among them faces distinguished by a style of
beauty possessing such sweetness of expression, that
they have struck me as exhibiting the perfection of
female loveliness, and impressed me with the idea
(perhaps not false) that their equals could not be
found in any other country: with such eyes as many
of them have, the face must be handsome, if its
*See 2d Kings, ix. 30 (where, in our common version, we
find the words, painted her face” for “painted her eyes”),
and Ezekiel, xxiii. 40. 3. >


54 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
other features be but moderately well formed *.
The nose is generally straight: the lips are mostly
rather fuller than those of the men, but not in the
least degree partaking of the negro character. The
hair is of that deep, glossy black, which best suits
all but fair complexions: in some instances it is
rather coarse and crisp, but never woolly.
The females of the higher and middle classes, and
many of the poorer women, stain certain parts of
their hands and feet (which are, with very few ex-
ceptions, beautifully formed) with the leaves of the
hhen'na-treet, which impart a yellowish red, or deep
Hands and Feet stained with HHenna.
* Seissºrs are often used to reduce the width of th -
... ... º. . . " º ***** * ** e eye-
rows, and to give them a more arched form. ~ r
ºf Lawsonia inermis; also called “Egyptian privet.”




USE OF HHEN NA, 55
orange colour. Many thus dye only the nails of the
fingers and toes; others extend the dye as high as
the first joint of each finger and toe ; some also
make a stripe along the next row of joints; and
there are several other fanciful modes of applying
the hben'na ; but the most common practice is to
dye the tips of the fingers and toes as high as the
first joint, and the whole of the inside of the hand
and the sole of the foot *; adding, though not always,
the stripe above-mentioned along the middle joints
of the fingers, and a similar stripe a little above the
toes. The hben'na is prepared for this use merely
by being powdered and mixed with a little water, so
as to form a paste. Some of this paste being spread
in the palm of the hand, and on other parts of it
which are to be dyed, and the fingers being doubled,
and their extremities inserted into the paste in the
palm, the whole hand is tightly bound with linen,
and remains thus during a whole night. In a similar
manner it is applied to the feet. The colour does
not disappear until after many days : it is generally
renewed after about a fortnight or three weeks.
This custom prevails not only in Egypt, but in several
other countries of the East, which are supplied with
hhen'na from the banks of the Nile. To the nails,
the hen'na imparts a more bright, clear, and per-
manent colour than to the skin. When this dye
alone is applied to the nails, or to a larger portion
of the fingers and toes, it may, with some reason,
be regarded as an embellishment; for it makes the
general complexion of the hand and foot appear more
delicate; but many ladies stain their hands in a
manner much less agreeable to our taste: by ap-
plying, immediately after the removal of the paste
* The application of this dye to the palms of the hands and
the soles of the feet is said to have an agreeable effect upon
. skin; particularly to prevent its being too tender and sen-
Sltlve.
56 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
of hnen'na, another paste composed of quicklime,
common smoke-black, and linseed-oil, they convert
the tint of the hben'na to a black, or to a blackish
olive hue. Ladies in Egypt are often seen with their
nails stained with this colour, or with their fingers of
the same dark hue from the extremity to the first
joint, red from the first to the second joint, and of
the former colour from the second to the third joint;
with the palm also stained in a similar manner, hav-
ing a broad, dark stripe across the middle, and the
rest leſt red ; the thumb dark from the extremity
to the first joint, and red from the first to the second
joint. Some, after a more simple fashion, blacken
the ends of the fingers and the whole of the inside
of the hand.
Among the females of the lower orders, in the
country-towns and villages of Egypt, and among
the same classes in the metropolis, but in a less
degree, prevails a custom somewhat similar to that
above described : it consists in making indelible
marks of a blue or greenish hue upon the face and
other parts, or, at least, upon the front of the chin,
and upon the back of the right hand, and often also
upon the left hand, the right arm, or both arms, the
feet, the middle of the bosom, and the forehead:
the most common of these marks made upon the
chin and hands are here represented. The opera-
tion is performed with several needles (generally
seven) tied together: with these the skin is pricked
in the desired pattern : some smoke-black (of wood
or oil), mixed with milk from the breast of a woman,
is then rubbed in ; and about a week after, before the
skin has healed, a paste of the pounded fresh leaves
of white beet or clover is applied, and gives a blue
or greenish colour to the marks. It is generally
performed at the age of about five or six years, and
by gipsy-women. The term applied to it is duck'ck.
TATTOOING.
57
tattooed Girl.
d 3|||}
Specimens of tattooing on the Chin.
Tattooed Hands and Foot.





58 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
Most of the females of the higher parts of Upper
Egypt, who are of a very dark complexion, tattoo
their lips instead of the parts above-mentioned; thus
converting their natural colour to a dull, bluish hue,
which, to the eye of a stranger, is extremely dis-
pleasing”.
Another characteristic of the Egyptian women that
should be here mentioned, is their upright carriage
and gait. This is most remarkable in the female
peasantry, owing, doubtless, in a great measure, to
their habit of bearing a heavy earthen water-vessel,
and other burthens, upon the head.
The dress of the women of the middle and higher
orders is handsome and elegant. Their shirt is very
full, like that of the men, but rather shorter; reach-
ing not quite to the knees: it is also, generally, of
the same kind of material as the men's shirt, or of
coloured crape; sometimes black. A pair of very
wide trousers (called shintiya'n), of a coloured, striped
stuff of silk and cotton, or of printed, or worked,
or plain white muslin, is tied round the hips, under
the shirt, with a dik'keh; its lower extremities are
drawn up and tied just below the knee with running
strings; but it is sufficiently long to hang down to
the feet, or almost to the ground, when attached
in this manner. Over the shirt and shintiya'n is
worn a long vest (called yel'ek), of the same material
as the latter: it nearly resembles the ckooftan of
the men ; but is more tight to the body and arms:
* The depilatory most commonly used by the Egyptian
women is a kind of resin, called liba'n sha'mee, applied in
a melted state : but this, they pretend, is not always necessary :
by applying the blood of a bat to the skin of a newly-born
female infant, on the parts where they wish no hair to grow,
they assert that they accomplish this desire. A female upon
whom this application has been made is termed moowut-
wut'ah ; from wutwa't, a bat.
te.
ż•
<#
*•
£.E
|×5
§！
#
Ź,£
∞ſº
º2
º：
O3
>••
?
~
<


DRESS. 61
the sleeves also are longer; and it is made to button
down the front, from the bosom to a little below
the girdle, instead of lapping over: it is open, like-
wise, on each side, from the height of the hip,
downwards. In general, the yel'ek is cut in such a
manner as to leave half of the bosom uncovered, ex-
cept by the shirt; but many ladies have it made
more ample at that part; and, according to the most
approved fashion, it should be of a sufficient length
to reach to the ground, or should exceed that length
by two or three inches, or more. A short vest (called
'an'ter'ee), reaching only a little below the waist, and
exactly resembling a yel'ek of which the lower part
has been cut off, is sometimes worn instead of the
latter. A square shawl, or an embroidered kerchief,
doubled diagonally, is put loosely round the waist as
a girdle; the two corners that are folded together
hanging down behind. Over the yel'ek is worn a
gib'beh of cloth, or velvet, or silk, usually embroidered
with gold or with coloured silk: it differs in form
from the gibbeh of the men chiefly in being not
so wide; particularly in the fore part”. Instead of
this, a jacket (called sal'tah), generally of cloth or
Velvet, and embroidered in the same manner as the
gib'beh, is often worn. The head-dress consists of
a ta'ckee'yeh and turboo'sh, with a square kerchief
(called far'oo'dee'yeh) of printed or painted muslin,
or one of crape, wound tightly round, composing
what is called a rub'tah. Two or more such ker-
chiefs were commonly used, a short time since, and
are still sometimes, to form the ladies’ turban, but
always wound in a high, flat shape, very different from
that of the turban of the men. A kind of crown,
called ckoor's, and other ornaments, are attached to
the ladies’ head-dress: descriptions and engravings
* It is of the same length as the yel'ek.
VOL. I. E
62 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
of these and other ornaments of the women of Egypt
will be found in the Appendix to this work. A long
piece of white muslim embroidered at each end with
coloured silks and gold, or of coloured crape orna-
mented with gold thread, lama, and spangles, rests
upon the head, and hangs down behind, nearly or
quite to the ground: this is called tar'hhah—it is the
head-veil: the face-veil I shall presently describe.
The hair, excepting over the forehead and temples,
is divided into numerous braids or plaits, generally
from eleven to twenty-five in number, but always of
an uneven number: these hang down the back. To
each braid of hair are usually added three black
silk cords, with little ornaments of gold, &c., at-
tached to them. For a description of these, which
are called suf'a, I refer to the Appendix. Over the
forehead, the hair is cut rather short ; but two full
locks (called muck'a'see's) hang down on each side of
the face: these are often curled in ringlets, and some-
times plaited”. Few of the ladies of Egypt wear
stockings or socks, but many of them wear mezz
(or inner shoes), of yellow or red morocco, some-
times embroidered with gold: over these, whenever
they step off the matted or carpeted part of the floor,
they put on ba'boo'g (or slippers) of yellow morocco,
with high, pointed toes; or use high wooden clogs
or pattens (called ckubcka'b, or, more commonly,
ckoobcka'b), generally from four to nine inches in
height, and usually ornamented with mother-of-pearl,
or silver, &c. These are always used in the bath by
men and women; but not by many ladies at home :
some ladies wear them merely to keep their skirts
from trailing on the ground: others to make them-
* Egyptian women swear by the side-lock (as men do by
the beard), generally holding it when they utter the oath
wa-hhayu't mucksoo'see
DRESS.
63
r’s and Suf'a, &c.—(The Hand is
ith Hhen'na.)
y stained w
iall
§
ith the Ckoo
w
part
A Lady adorned


E 2
DRESS, 67
selves appear tall. Such is the dress which is worn
by the Egyptian ladies in the house.
The riding or walking attire is called tez'yeereh,
Whenever a lady leaves the house, she wears, in addi-
tion to what has been above described, first a large,
loose gown (called to'b, or seb'leh), the sleeves of
which are nearly equal in width to the whole length
of the gown “: it is of silk; generally of a pink, or
rose, or violet colour. Next is put on the boor'cko’,
or face-veil, which is a long strip of white muslin,
concealing the whole of the face except the eyes, and
reaching nearly to the feet. It is suspended at
the top by a narrow band, which passes up the fore-
head, and which is sewed, as are also the two
upper corners of the veil, to a band that is tied round
the head. The lady then covers herself with a
hhab'arah, which, for a married lady, is composed
of two breadths of glossy, black silk, each ell-wide,
and three yards long these are sewed together at
or near the selvages (according to the height of
the person); the seam running horizontally, with
respect to the manner in which it is worn : a piece
of narrow, black riband is sewed inside the upper
part, about six inches from the edge, to tie round
the head. This covering is always worn in the
manner shown by the accompanying sketch. The
unmarried ladies wear a hab'arah of white silk, or
a shawl. Some females of the middle classes, who
cannot afford to purchase a hbab'arah, wear instead
of it an eeza'r ; which is a piece of white calico,
of the same form and size as the former, and is
worn in the same manner. On the feet are worn
short boots or socks (called khoof'), of yellow mo-
rocco, and over these, the ba'boo'g. -
This dress, though chiefly designed for females of
* This is similar in form to the to'b of women of the lower
orders, represented in the next engraving.
68 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
the higher classes, who are seldom seen in public on
foot, is worn by many women who cannot often
afford so far to imitate their superiors as to hire an
ass to carry them. It is extremely inconvenient as
a walking attire. Viewing it as a disguise for what-
ever is attractive or graceful in the person and adorn-
ments of the wearer, we should not find fault with
it for being itself deficient in grace: we must remark,
however, that, in one respect, it fails in accomplish-
ing its main purpose; displaying the eyes, which are
almost always beautiful ; making them to appear still
more so by concealing the other features, which are
seldom of equal beauty; and often causing the stranger
to imagine a defective face perfectly charming. The
veil is of very remote antiquity”; but, from the
sculptures and paintings of the ancient Egyptians, it
seems not to have been worn by the females of that
nation.
The dress of a large proportion of those women
of the lower orders who are not of the poorest class
consists of a pair of trousers or drawers (similar in
form to the shintiya'n of the ladies, but generally of
plain white cotton or linen), a blue linen or cotton
shirt (not quite so full as that of the men), a boor'cko,
of a kind of coarse black crape, and a dark blue
tar'hhah of muslin or linen. Some wear, over the
shirt, or instead of the latter, a linen to/b, of the
same form as that of the ladiest. The sleeves of
this are often turned up over the head ; either to
prevent their being incommodious, or to supply the
place of a tar'hhah!. In addition to these articles
of dress, many women who are not of the very poor
.*. See Genesis, xxiv. 65; and Isaiah, iii. 23. See also 1 Co-
rinthians, xi. 10, and a marginal note on that verse.
# See the figure to the left in the engraving opposite this
8. fe.
i See the figure to the right in the same engraving.
66
MODERN EGYPTIANS.
№sae
§§§ğģ
！
Ladies attired for Riding or Walking.


69
n of the Lower Classes.
rº
men and Child
&
Wo

ź.
GY PTIANS,
%
&
I.
MODERN
72
A Woman clad in the Mila'yeh, &c.


DRESS. 73
classes, wear, as a covering, a kind ºf Plaid, similar
in form to the hab'arah, composed of two pieces
of cotton, woven in small chequers of blue and white,
or cross stripes, with a mixture of red at each end.
It is called mila'yeh; in general it is worn in the
same manner as the hab'arah; but sometimes like
the larſhhah”. The upper part of the blackboor'ckº.
is often ornamented with false pearls, small gold
coins, and other little flat ornaments of the same
Ornamented black veils—only one of these (that to the right) is repre:
z sented in its whole length. .
.* There is a superior kind of mila'yeh, of silk, and of va.
rious colours; but this is now seldom worn. The two pieces
which compose the mila'yeh are sewed together. --

74 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
metal (called burck); sometimes with a coral bead,
and a gold coin beneath; also with small coins of
base silver; and more commonly with a pair of chain
tassels, of brass or silver (called 'oyoo'n), attached to
the corners. A square black silk kerchief (called
'as'beh), with a border of red and yellow, is bound
round the head, doubled diagonally, and tied with a
single knot behind; or, instead of this, the turboo'sh
and far'oo'dee'yeh are worn, though by very few
women of the lower classes. The best kind of shoes
worn by the females of the lower orders are of red
morocco, turned up, but round, at the toes. The
and shoes are most common in Cairo, and
ºš by many of the women throughout
ut in Upper Egypt the boor'c
Lower
ſeen, and shoes are scarcely less uncomm .
Pply the place of the former, when necessary,
* Portion of the tar'hhah is drawn before the face,
** to conceal nearly all the countenance excepting
one eye. , Many of the women of the lower orders,
*** **, the metropolis, never conceal their faces.
Throughout the greater part of Egypt the most ºn.







MODERN EGYPTIANs,
A woman of the Southern Province of Upper Egypt.
(Sketched at Thebes.)


DRESS. 77
mon dress of the women merely consists of the blue
shirt or to'b and tar'hhah. In the southern parts
of Upper Egypt, chiefly above Akhmee'm, most of
the women envelop themselves in a large piece of
dark brown woollen stuff (called a hkoolalee'yeh);
wrapping it round the body, and attaching the upper
parts together over each shoulder; and a piece of
the same they use as a tar'hhah. This dull dress,
though picturesque, is almost as disguising as the
blue tinge which, as I have before mentioned, the
women in these parts of Egypt impart to their lips.
Most of the women of the lower orders wear a variety
of trumpery ornaments, such as ear-rings, necklaces,
bracelets, &c., and sometimes a nose-ring. Descrip-
tions and engravings of some of these ornaments will
be given in the Appendix.
The women of Egypt deem it more incumbent upon
them to cover the upper and back part of the head
than the face; and more requisite to conceal the face
than most other parts of the person. I have often
seen in this country women but half covered with
miserable rags; and, several times, females in the
prime of womanhood, and others in more advanced
age, with only a narrow strip of rag bound round
the hips.
Y8 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
*.
CHAPTER II.
INFANCY AND EARLY EDUCATION
It was a custom very common in Egypt, as in other
Moos'lim countries, to consult an astrologer pre-
viously to giving a name to a child, and to be guided
by his choice; but very few persons now conform
with this old usage: the father makes choice of a
name, and confers it without any ceremony. Boys
are often named after the Prophet (Mohham'mad,
Ahh"mad, or Moos'tufa), or some of the members
of his family ('Al'ee, Hhas'an, Hhosey'n, &c.), or
his eminent companions ('Om'ar, Ab'oo Bekr,
*Osma'n, 'Amr, &c.), or some of the prophets and
patriarchs of early times (as Ibraheem, Is-hha'ck,
Isma'ee'ſ, Yaackoo'b, Moos'a, Da'-oo'd, Sooleyma'n,
&c.), or receive a name signifying “Servant of God,”
“Servant of the Compassionate,” “Servant of the
Powerful,” &c. ('Abd Allah, 'Abd Er-Rahhma'n,
'Abd El-Cka'dir). Girls are mostly named after
the wives or daughter of the Arabian Prophet, or
after others of his family (as Khadee'gel), 'A'isheh,
A'm’neh, Faſt'meh, Zey'neb), or are distinguished by
a name implying that they are “beloved,” “blessed,”
“precious,” &c. (Mahhboo'beh, Mebrookeh, Nefee'-
seh, &c.), or the name of a flower, or of some other
pleasing object”.
The dress of the children of the middle and higher
* In Cairo, it is the fashion to change the first five female
names here mentioned, and the last, into Khuddoo"geh,’Eiyoo'-
sheh, Ammoo'neh, Futoot'meh, Zennoo"beh, and Neffoo'seh;
and some other names are changed to the same measure as
these ; which measure implies, in these cases, a superior degree
of dignity.
INFANCY, 79
orders is similar to that of the parents, but generally
slovenly. The children of the poor are either clad in
a shirt and a cotton skull-cap or a turboo'sh, or (as
is mostly the case in the villages) are left quite naked
until the age of six or seven years or more, unless
a bit of rag can be easily obtained to serve them as
a partial covering. Those little girls who have only
a piece of ragged stuffnot large enough to cover both
the head and body, generally prefer wearing it upon
the head, and sometimes have the coquetry to draw a
part of it before the face, as a veil, while the whole
body is exposed. Little ladies, four or five years of
age, mostly wear the white face-veil, like their mothers.
When a boy is two or three years old, or often earlier,
his head is shaved; a tuft of hair only being left on
the crown, and another over the forehead”: the heads
of female infants are seldom shaven. The young
children, of both sexes, are usually carried by their
mothers and nurses, not in the arms, but on the
shoulder, seated astridef, and sometimes, for a short
distance, on the hip.
In the treatment of their children, the women of the
wealthier classes are remarkable for their excessive
indulgence; and the poor, for the little attention they
bestow, beyond supplying the absolute wants of na-
ture. The mother is prohibited, by the Mohham-
madan law, from weaning her child before the expira-
* It is customary among the peasants throughout a great
part of Egypt, on the first occasion of shaving a child's head,
to slay a victim, generally a goat, at the tomb of some saint in
or near their village, and to make a feast with the meat, of
which their friends, and any other persons who please, par-
take. This is most common in Upper Egypt, and among the
tribes not very long established on the banks of the Nile.
Their Pagan ancestors in Arabia observed this custom, and
usually gave, as alms to the poor, the weight of the hair in
silver. The victim was called 'ackee'ckah.
# See Isaiah, xlix. 22.
80 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
tion of two years from the period of its birth, unless
with the consent of her husband, which, I am told,
is generally given after the first year or eighteen
months. In the houses of the wealthy, the child,
whether boy or girl, remains almost constantly confined
in the hbaree'm (or the women’s apartments), or,
at least, in the house: sometimes the boy continues
thus an effeminate prisoner until a master, hired to
instruct him daily, has taught him to read and write.
When the ladies go out to pay a visit, or to take an
airing, mounted on asses, the children generally go
with them, each carried by a female slave or servant,
or seated between her knees upon the fore part of
the saddle; the female attendants, as well as the
ladies, being usually borne by asses, and it being the
custom of all the women to sit astride. But it is sel-
dom that the children of the rich enjoy this slight
diversion; their health suffers from confinement and
pampering, and they are often rendered capricious,
proud, and selfish. The women of the middle classes
are scarcely less indulgent mothers. The estimation
in which the wife is held by her husband, and even
by her acquaintance, depends, in a great degree,
upon her fruitfulness, and upon the preservation of
her children; for by men and women, rich and poor,
barrenness is still considered, in the East, a curse and
a reproach; and it is regarded as disgraceful in a
man to divorce, without some cogent reason, a wife
who has borne him a child, especially while her child
is living. If, therefore, a woman desire her husband's
love, or the respect of others, her giving birth to a
child is a source of great joy to herself and him, and
her own interest alone is a sufficient motive for mater-
nal tenderness. Very little expense is required, in
Egypt, for the maintenance of a numerous offspring".
* It is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus (lib, i, cap.20), that
CHILDREN. 81
With the exception of those of the wealthier classes,
the children in Egypt, though objects of so much
solicitude, are generally very dirty, and shabbily clad.
The stranger here is disgusted by the sight of them,
and at once condemns the modern Egyptians as a
very filthy people, without requiring any other reason
for forming such an opinion of them; but it is often
the case that those children who are most petted and
beloved are the dirtiest and worst clad. It is not
uncommon to see, in the city in which I am writing,
a lady shuffling along in her ample to'b and hab'arah
of new and rich and glistening silks, and one who
scents the whole street with the odour of musk or
civet as she passes along, with all that appears of
her person scrupulously clean and delicate, her eyes
neatly bordered with kohhl applied in the most careful
manner, and the tip of a finger or two showing the
fresh dye of the hben'na, and by her side a little boy
or girl, her own child, with a face besmeared with dirt,
and with clothes appearing as though they had been
worn for months without being washed. Few things
surprised me so much as sights of this kind on my
first arrival in this country. I naturally inquired the
cause of what struck me as so strange and inconsis-
tent, and was informed that the affectionate mothers
thus neglected the appearance of their children, and
purposely left them unwashed, and clothed them so
shabbily, particularly when they had to take them out
in public, from fear of the evil eye, which is exces-
sively dreaded, and especially in the case of children,
since they are generally esteemed the greatest of
blessings, and therefore most likely to be coveted.
The children of the poor have a yet more neglected
appearance: besides being very scantily clad, or quite
the ancient Egyptians clothed and reared their children at
a very trifling expense.
F 5
82 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
naked, they are, in general, excessively dirty ; their
eyes are frequently extremely filthy ; it is common to
see half-a-dozen or more flies in each eye unheeded
and unmolested. The parents consider it extremely
injurious to wash, or even touch, the eyes, when they
discharge that acrid humour which attracts the flies :
they even affirm that the loss of sight would result
from frequently touching or washing them when thus
affected; though washing is really one of the best
means of alleviating the complaint.
At the age of about five or six years, or sometimes
later, the boy is circumcised”. Previously to the per-
formance of this rite in the metropolis and other
towns of Egypt, the parents of the youth, if not in
indigent circumstances, generally cause him to be
paraded through several streets in the neighbourhood
of their dwelling. They mostly avail themselves of
the occurrence of a bridal procession to lessen the
expenses of the parade: and, in this case, the boy
and his attendants lead the procession. He generally
wears a red Kashmeer turban; but, in other respects,
is dressed as a girl, with a yel'ek and sal'tah, and
with a cloors, suf'a, and other female ornaments:f.
These articles of dress are of the richest description
that can be procured: they are usually borrowed from
some lady, and much too large to fit the boy. A
horse, handsomely caparisoned, is also borrowed to
convey him ; and in his hand is placed a folded em-
broidered handkerchief, which he constantly holds
before his mouth in his right hand. He is preceded
by a servant of the barber, who is the operator, and
by three or more musicians, whose instruments are
*Among the peasants, not unfrequently at the age of twelve,
thirteen, or fourteen years.
f For a description of the ornaments here mentioned see the
Appendix: the ckoors and suf'a are also represented in a pre-
ceding engraving, on page 63.
83
ż
O
！
ae
ſae
©
±
B
pº
*
CD
Parade previous to Circumcision.




EARLY EDUCATION. 85
commonly a hautboy and drums. The foremost
person in the procession is generally the barber’s
servant, bearing his heml, which is a case of wood,
of a semi-cylindrical form, with four short legs; its
front (the flat surface) covered with pieces of look-
ing-glass and embossed brass; and its back, with
a curtain. This is merely the barber's sign: the
servant carries it in the manner represented in the
engraving hereinserted. The musicians follow next
(or some of them precede the hbeml), and then
follows the boy; his horse led by a groom. Behind
him walk several of his female relations and friends.
Two boys are often paraded together, and sometimes
borne by one horse. Of the bridal processions, with
which that above described is so often united, an ac-
count will be found in its proper place. A description,
also, of some further customs observed on the occasion
of a circumcision, and particularly of a more genteel
but less general mode of celebrating that event,
will be given in another chapter, relating to various
private festivities*.
The parents seldom devote much of their time or
attention to the education of their children; generally
contenting themselves with instilling into their young
minds a few principles of religion, and then submit-
ting them, if they can afford to do so, to the in-
struction of a schoolmaster. As early as possible, the
child is taught to say, “I testify that there is no deity
but God; and I testify that Mohham'mad is God's
Apostle.” He receives also lessons of religious pride
* A custom mentioned by Strabo (p. 824) as prevailing
among the Egyptians in his time, is still universally practised
in every part of Egypt, both by the Moos'lims and Copts,
excepting in Alexandria and perhaps a few other places on
the shore of the Mediterranean : it is also common, if not
equally prevalent, in Arabia. Reland, who imperfectly de-
scribes this custom (De Religione Mohammedica, p. 75, edit.
1717), remarks its being mentioned likewise by Galen.
86 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
and learns to hate the Christians, and all other sects
but his own, as thoroughly as does the Moos'lim in
advanced age. Most of the children of the higher
and middle classes, and some of those of the lower
orders, are taught by the schoolmaster to read, and
to recite the whole or certain portions of the Ckoor-a'n
by memory. They afterwards learn the most com-
mon rules of arithmetic.
Schools are very numerous, not only in the metro-
polis, but in every large town; and there is one, at
least, in every considerable village. Almost every
mosque, sebee'l (or public fountain), and hko'd (or
drinking-place for cattle) in the metropolis has a
kootta'b (or school) attached to it, in which children
are instructed for a very trifling expense; the sheykh
or fick'ee (the master of the school) receiving from
the parent of each pupil half a piaster (about five
farthings of our money), or something more or less,
every Thursday”. The master of a school attached
to a mosque or other public building in Cairo also
generally receives yearly a turboo'sh, a piece of white
muslin for a turban, a piece of linen, and a pair of
shoes; and each boy receives, at the same time, a
linen skull-cap, four or five cubits f of cotton cloth,
and perhaps half a piece (ten or twelve cubits) of
linen, and a pair of shoes, and, in some cases, half
a piaster or a piaster. These presents are supplied
by funds bequeathed to the school, and are given in
the month of Rum'ada'n. The boys attend only
during the hours of instruction, and them return to
their homes. The lessons are generally written upon
tablets of wood, painted white; and, when one lesson
is learnt, the tablet is washed and another is written
* Friday, being the sabbath of the Moos'lims, is a holiday
to the school boys and fick’ee.
f The cubit employed in measuring Egyptian cloths is
equal to twenty-two inches and two-thirds,
EARLY EDUCATION, 87
A School-boy learning the Alphabet
They also practise writing upon the same tablet.
The schoolmaster and his pupils sit upon the ground,
and each boy has his tablet in his hands, or a copy
of the Ckoor-a'n, or of one of its thirty sections, on a
little kind of desk of palm-sticks. All who are
learning to read recite their lessons aloud, at the
same time, rocking their heads and bodies incessantly
backwards and forwards; which practice is observed
by almost all persons in reading the Ckoor-a'n;
being thought to assist the memory. The noise
may be imagined *. -
The boys first learn the letters of the alphabet;
next, the vowel points and other orthographical
marks; and then, the numerical value of each letter
of the alphabett. Previously to this third stage of
the pupil's progress, it is customary for the master
to ornament the tablet with black and red ink, and
green paint, and to write upon it the letters of the
alphabet in the order of their respective numerical
> --> * is beating on the soles of the feet
Chº, -
palm-stick, . . . . .
Arabic letters are often used as numerals.


88 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
values, and convey it to the father, who returns it
with a piaster or two placed upon it. The like is
also done at several subsequent stages of the boy's
progress, as when he begins to learn the Ckoor-a/n,
and six or seven times as he proceeds in learning
the sacred book; each time the next lesson being
written on the tablet. When he has become ac-
quainted with the numerical values of the letters, the
master writes for him some simple words, as the
names of men; then the ninety-nine names or
epithets of God: next the Fa't'hhah, or opening
chapter of the Ckoor-a'n, is written upon his tablet,
and he reads it repeatedly until he has perfectly
committed it to memory. He then proceeds to learn
the other chapters of the Ckoor-a'n: after the first
chapter he learns the last; then the last but one;
next the last but two, and so on, in inverted order,
ending with the second; as the chapters in general
successively decrease in length from the second to
the last inclusively. It is seldom that the master
of a school teaches writing; and few boys learn to
write unless destined for some employment which
absolutely requires that they should do so; in which
latter case they are generally taught the art of writing,
and likewise arithmetic, by a chabba'nee, who is a
person employed to weigh goods in a market or
ba'za/r, with the steelyard. Those who are to devote
themselves to religion, or to any of the learned profes-
sions, mostly pursue a regular course of study in the
great mosque El-Az'har.
The schoolmasters in Egypt are mostly persons
of very little learning : few of them are acquainted
with any writings except the Ckoor-a'n, and certain
prayers, which, as well as the contents of the sacred
volume, they are hired to recite on particular occa-
sions. I was lately told of a man who could neither
read nor write succeeding to the office of a school-
EARLY EDUCATION. 89
master in my neighbourhood. Being able to recite
the whole of the Ckoor-a'n, he could hear the boys
repeat their lessons: to write them, he employed the
'areef (or head boy in the school), pretending that
his eyes were weak. A few days after he had taken
upon himself this office, a poor woman brought a
letter for him to read to her from her son, who had
gone on pilgrimage. The fick'ee pretended to read
it, but said nothing; and the woman, inferring from
his silence that the letter contained bad news, said
to him, “Shall I shriek P” He answered “Yes.”
“Shall I tear my clothes?” she asked ; he replied
“Yes.” So the poor woman returned to her house,
and with her assembled friends performed the la-
mentation and other ceremonies usual on the occasion
of a death. Not many days after this her son arrived,
and she asked him what he could mean by causing
a letter to be written stating that he was dead. He
explained the contents of the letter, and she went to
the schoolmaster and begged him to inform her why
he had told her to shriek and to tear her clothes,
since the letter was to inform her that her son was
well, and he was now arrived at home. Not at all
abashed, he said, “God knows futurity . How could
I know that your son would arrive in safety It
was better that you should think him dead than be
led to expect to see him and perhaps be disappointed.”
Some persons who were sitting with him praised his
wisdom, exclaiming, “Truly, our new fick'ee is a
man of unusual judgment l” and, for a little while,
he found that he had raised his reputation by this
blunder.
Some parents employ a sheykh or fick'ee to teach
their boys at home. The father usually teaches his
son to perform the woodoo' and other ablutions, and
to say his prayers, and instructs him in other religious
and moral duties to the best of his ability. The
90 MODERN EGYPTRANS.
Prophet directed his followers to order their children
to say their prayers when seven years of age, and to
beat them if they did not do so when ten years old;
and at the latter age to make them sleep in separate
beds: in Egypt, however, very few persons pray
before they have attained to manhood.
The female children are very seldom taught to read
or write; and not many of them, even among the
higher orders, learn to say their prayers. Some
of the rich engage a shey'khah (or learned woman)
to visit the haree’m daily, to teach their daughters
and female slaves to say their prayers, and to recite a
few chapters of the Ckoor-a'n, and sometimes to
instruct them in reading and writing ; but these are
very rare accomplishments for females even of the
highest class in Egypt*. There are many schools
in which girls are taught plain needle-work, em-
broidery, &c. In families in easy circumstances a
m’al'lim'eht, or female teacher of such kinds of
work, is often engaged to attend the girls at their
own home.
However much the son is caressed and fondled, in
general he feels and manifests a most profound and
praiseworthy respect for his parents. Disobedience
to parents is considered by the Moos'lims as one of
the greatest of sins, and classed, in point of heinous-
ness, with six other sins, which are idolatry, murder,
falsely accusing modest women of adultery, wasting
the property of orphans, taking usury, and desertion
in an expedition against infidels. An undutiful child
is very seldom heard of among the Egyptians or the
* The young daughters of persons of the middle classes are
sometimes instructed with the boys in a public school; but they
are ustally veiled, and hold no intercourse with the boys. I
have often seen a well-dressed girl reading the Ckoor-a’n in
a boys' school -
+ Thus pronounced for mo'at'limſeh.
EARLY EDUCATION. 91
Arabs in general. Sons scarcely ever sit, or eat, or
smoke, in the presence of the father, unless bidden
to do so; and they often even wait upon him and
upon his guests at meals and on other occasions:
they do not cease to act thus when they have become
men. I once breakfasted with an Egyptian merchant,
before the door of his house, in the month of Rum'a-
da'n (and therefore a little after sunset); and, though
every person who passed by, however poor, was invited
to partake of the meal, we were waited upon by two
of my host's sons; the elder about forty years of
age. As they had been fasting during the whole
of the day, and had as yet only taken a draught of
water, I begged the father to allow them to sit down
and eat with us: he immediately told them that they
might do so; but they declined. The mothers ge-
nerally enjoy, in a greater degree than the fathers,
the affection of their children; but do not receive
from them the same outward marks of respect. I
have often known servants to hoard their wages for
their mothers, though seldom for their fathers.
92
CHAPTER III.
RELIGION AND LAWS.,
As the most important branch of their education,
and the main foundation of their manners and cus-
toms, the religion and laws of the people who are
the subject of these pages must be well understood
—not only in their general principles, but in many
minor points—before we can proceed to consider
their social condition and habits in the state of
manhood.
A difference of opinion among Moos'lims, respect-
ing some points of religion and law, has given rise
to four sects, which consider each other orthodox
as to fundamental matters. These sects are the
Hhan'afees,Shafe'ees, Ma'likees", and Hham'bel'ees,
—so called from the names of the respective doctors
whose tenets they have adopted. The Turks are of
the first sect, which is the most reasonable : the
inhabitants of Cairo, a small proportion excepted
(who are Hhan'afees), are either Sha'fe’ees or Ma'-
likees; and it is generally said they are mostly of
the former of these sects, as are also the people of
Arabia: those of the Shurckee'yeh, on the east of the
Delta, Sha'fe'ees: those of the Ghurbee'yeh, or
Delta, Sha'fe’ees, with a few Ma'likees: those of the
Bohhey'reh, on the west of the Delta, Ma'likees: the
inhabitants of the Sa’ee'd, or the valley of Upper
Egypt, are likewise, with few exceptions, Ma'likees:
so also are the Nubians, and the Western Arabs.
* Commonly pronounced Ma'l'kee.
RELIGION. 93
To the fourth sect very few persons in the present
day belong.
The Mohhammadan religion is generally called by
the Arabs, el-Isla'm. Eema'n and Deen are the par-
ticular terms applied, respectively, to faith and
practical religion.
The grand principles of the faith are expressed
in two articles; the first of which is this—
“There is no deity but God.”
God, who created all things in heaven and in
earth, who preserveth all things, and decreeth all
things, who is without heginning, and without end,
omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent, is one.
His unity is thus declared in a short chapter of the
Ckoor-a'n”: “Say, He is one God; God the Eter-
mal: He neither begets, nor is He begotten ; and
there is none equal unto Him.” He hath no partner,
nor any offspring, in the creed of the Moos'lim.
Though Jesus Christ (whose name should not be
mentioned without adding—“ on whom be peace”)
is believed to have been born of a pure virgin, by
the miraculous operation of God t, without any
natural father, to be the Messiah, and “the Word
of God, which He imparted unto Mary, and a Spirit
proceeding from Him” —yet he is not called the Son
of God; and no higher titles are given to him than
those of a Prophet and Apostle : he is even consi-
dered as of inferior dignity to Mohham'mad, inas-
* Ch. 112–In quoting passages in the Ckoor-a'n, I have
sometimes followed Sale's translation; to the fidelity of which
I need scarcely add my testimony. When necessary, I have
distinguished the verses by numbers. In doing this I had
originally adopted the divisions made by Marracci, but have
since made the numbers to agree with those in the late edition
of the Arabic text by Fluegel, which, from its superior accu-
racy, is likely to supersede the former editions.
+ Ckoor-an, ch. iii., vv. 40–42.
# Ckoor-an, ch. iv., v. 169.
94 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
much as the Gospel is held to be superseded by the
Ckoor-a'n. The Moos'lim believes that Seyyid'na
'Ee'sa” (or “our Lord Jesus”), after he had ful-
filled the object of his mission, was taken up unto
God from the Jews, who sought to slay him ; and
that another person, on whom God had stamped the
likeness of Christ, was crucified in his stead f. He
also believes that Christ is to come again upon the
earth, to establish the Mohhammadan religion, and
perfect peace and security, after having killed Anti-
christ, and to be a sign of the approach of the last
day.
The other grand article of the faith, which cannot
be believed without the former, is this—
“Mohham'mad is God’s Apostle.”
Mohham'mad is believed, by his followers, to have
been the last and greatest of Prophets and Apostlesł.
Six of these—namely, Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses,
Jesus, and Mohham'mad—are believed each to have
received a revealed law, or system of religion and
morality. That, however, which was revealed to
Adam was abrogated by the next; and each suc-
ceeding law, or code of laws, abrogated the preced-
ing: therefore, those who professed the Jewish re-
ligion from the time of Moses to that of Jesus were
true believers; and those who professed the Christian
religion (uncorrupted, as the Moos'lims say, by the
tenet that Christ was the son of God) until the
time of Mohham'mad are held, in like manner, to
have been true believers. But the copies of the
Pentateuch, the Psalms of David (which the Moos'-
.* The title of Seyyid'na (our Lord) is given by the Moos'-
s to prophets and other venerated persons.
f Ckoor-aºn, ch. iv., v. 156.
.# The Moos'lim seldom mentions the name of the Prophet
without adding, “ sailla-lilahoo'aley'hi we-serlem,” i.e., “God
favour and preserve him l’”
RELIGION, 95
lims also hold to be of divine origin), and the Gos-
pels now existing, the Mohhammadans believe to
have been so much altered as to contain very little
of the true word of God. The Ckoor-a'n they
believe to have suffered no alteration whatever.
It is further necessary that the Moos'lim should
believe in the existence of angels, and of the devil,
and likewise genii (an intermediate race of beings
between angels and men): also, in the immortality
of the soul, the general resurrection and judgment,
in future rewards and punishments in Paradise *
and Hell f, in the balance in which good and evil
works shall be weighed, and in the bridge Es-Sira't
(which extends over the midst of Hell, finer than
a hair, and sharper than the edge of a sword),
over which all must pass, and from which the wicked
shall fall into Hell. He believes, also, that they
who have acknowledged the faith of Mohham 'mad
and yet acted wickedly will not remain in Hell for
ever; but that all of other religions must: that
there are, however, degrees of punishments, as well as
of rewards,-the former consisting in severe torture
by excessive heat and cold, and the latter, in the
indulgence of the appetites by most delicious meats
and drinks, and, above all, by the company of the
girls of Paradise, whose eyes will be very large and
entirely blacki, and whose stature will be propor-
tioned to that of the men, which will be the height
of a tall palm-tree, or about sixty feet. Such, the
Oos'lims generally believe, was the height of our
first parents. It is said that the souls of martyrs
reside, until the judgment, in the crops of green
birds, which eat of the fruits of Paradise. Women
are not to be excluded from Paradise according
* El-Gen'neh or the garden. # Gehen'nem.
† Like those of the gazelle: this, however, is disputed.
96 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
to the Mohhammadan faith; though it has been
asserted, by many Christians, that the Moos'lims
believe women to have no souls. In several places
in the Ckoor-a'n, Paradise is promised to all true
believers, whether males or females. It is the doc-
trine of the Ckoor-a'n that no person will be ad-
mitted into Paradise by his own merits; but that
admission will be granted to the believers merely by
the mercy of God; yet that the felicity of each per-
son will be proportioned to his merits. The very
meanest in Paradise is promised “eighty thousand
servants” (beautiful youths, called welee'ds, or
wilda'n), “seventy-two wives of the girls of Para-
dise” (hhoo'ree'yehs, or hkoo'r el-'oyoo'n), “besides
the wives he had in this world,” if he desire to have
the latter (and the good will doubtless desire the
good), “and a tent erected for him of pearls, ja-
cinths, and emeralds, of a very large extent;” “and
will be waited on by three hundred attendants while
he eats, and served in dishes of gold, whereof three
hundred shall be set before him at once, each con-
taining a different kind of food, the last morsel of
which will be as grateful as the first :” wine also,
“ though forbidden in this life, will yet be freely
allowed to be drunk in the next, and without danger,
since the wine of Paradise will not inebriate”.” We
are further told, that all superfluities from the bodies
of the inhabitants of Paradise will be carried off by
perspiration, which will diffuse an odour like that of
musk; and that they will be clothed in the richest
silks, chiefly of green. They are also promised
perpetual youth, and children as many as they may
desire. These pleasures, together with the songs
of the angel Isra'fee'l, and many other gratifications
* See Sale's Preliminary Discourse to his Translation of
the Ckoor-a/n, sect. iv.
RELIGION. 97
of the senses, will charm even the meanest inhabit-
ant of Paradise. But all these enjoyments will be
lightly esteemed by those more blessed persons who
are to be admitted to the highest of all honours
—that spiritual pleasure of beholding, morning and
evening, the face of God”. The Moos'lim must
also believe in the examination of the dead in the
sepulchre, by two angels, called Moon'kir and Ne-
kee'rt, of terrible aspect, who will cause the body
(to which the soul shall, for the time, be re-united)
to sit upright in the gravej, and will question the
deceased respecting his faith. The wicked they will
severely torture; but the good they will not hurt.
Lastly, he should believe in God's absolute decree
of every event, both good and evil. This doctrine
has given rise to as much controversy among the
Moos'lims as among Christians; but the former,
generally, believe in predestination as, in some re-
Spects, conditional.
In religious practice, the most important duties
are prayer, alms-giving, fasting, and pilgrimage.
The religious purifications, which are of two kinds,
first, the ordinary ablution preparatory to prayer,
and secondly, the washing of the whole body, toge-
ther with the performance of the former ablution,
are of primary importance: for prayer, which is a
duty so important that it is called “the Key of
Paradise,” will not be accepted from a person in a
state of uncleanness. It is therefore also necessary
* A Moos/lim of some learning professed to me that he con-
sidered the descriptions of Paradise given in the Ckoor-a'n
to be, in a great measure, figurative; “like those,” said he,
“in the book of the Revelation of St. John ;” and he assured
me that many learned Moos'lims were of the same opinion.
# Vulgarly called Naºkir and Nekee'r.
# The corpse is always deposited in a vault, and not placed
in a coffin, but merely wrapped in winding-sheets or clothes.
VOL. I Cº.
98 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
to avoid impurity by clipping the nails, shaving the
head, and other similar practices”.
There are partial washings, or purifications, which
all Moos'lims perform on certain occasions, even if
they neglect their prayers, and which are considered
as religious acts+. The ablution called el-woodoo",
which is preparatory to prayer, I shall now describe.
The purifications just before alluded to are a part
of the woodoo': the other washings are not, of ne-
cessity, to be performed immediately after, but only
when the person is about to say his prayers; and
these are performed in the mosque or in the house,
in public or in private. There is in every mosque
a tank (called mey'da-ah), or a hanafee'yeh, which
is a raised reservoir, with spouts round it, from
which the water falls. In some mosques there are
both these. The Moos'lims of the Hhan'afee sect
(of which are the Turks) perform the ablution at
the latter (which has received its name from that
cause); for they must do it with running water, or
from a tank or pool at least ten cubits in breadth,
and the same in depth; and I believe that there
is only one mey'da-ah in Cairo of that depth,
which is in the great mosque El-Az'har. A small
hhanafee'yeh of tinned copper, placed on a low
shelf, and a large basin, or a small ewer and basin
of the same metal, are generally used in the house
for the performance of the woodoo’.
The person, having tucked up his sleeves a little
higher than his elbows, says, in a low voice, or in-
audibly, “I purpose performing the woodoo", for
prayer f.” He then washes his hands three times;
* Alluded to in the first chapter.
# For an account of these private ablutions, and the occa-
sions which require their performance, the reader may consult
Reland, De Rel. Moh. pp. 80–83, ed. 1717. s
f All persons do not use exactly the same words on this
RELIGION. 99
vessels for Ablution.-The upper vessel (or bhanaſee'yeh) is generally
. about a foot and a half in height.
saying, in the same manner as before, “In the name
of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful | Praise
be to God, who hath given water for purification,
and made el-Isla'm to be a light and a direction,
and a guide to thy gardens, the gardens of delight,
and to thy mansion, the mansion of peace.” Then
he rinses his mouth three times, throwing the water
into it with his right hand *; and in doing this he
says, “O God, assist me in the reading of thy book,
and in commemorating Thee, and in thanking Thee,
occasion, nor during the performance of the woodoo"; and most
persons use no words during the performance.
+ He should also use a footh-stick (miswa'k) to clean his
teeth; but few do so. . 2 º
G






100 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
and in the beauty of thy worship.” Next, with his
right hand, he throws water up his nostrils (snuffing
it up at the same time), and then blows it out,
compressing his nostrils with the thumb and finger
of the left hand; and this also is done three times.
While doing it, he says, “O God, make me to smell
the odours of Paradise, and bless me with its de-
lights; and make me not to smell the smell of the
fires [of Hell].” He then washes his face three
times, throwing up the water with both hands,
and saying, “O God, whiten my face with thy light,
on the day when Thou shalt whiten the faces of thy
favourites; and do not blacken my face, on the
day when Thou shalt blacken the faces of thine ene-
mies.” His right hand and arm, as high as the
elbow, he next washes three times, and as many
times causes some water to run along his arm, from
the palm of the hand to the elbow, saying, as he
does this, “O God, give me my book in my right
hand”; and reckon with me with a slight reckon-
ing.” In the same manner he washes the left hand
and arm, saying, “O God, do not give me my book
in my left hand, nor behind my back; and do not
reckon with me with a difficult reckoning; nor make
me to be one of the people of the fire.” He next
draws his wetted right hand over the upper part of
his head, raising his turban or cap with his left:
this he does but once ; and accompanies the action
with this supplication, “O God, cover me with
thy mercy, and pour down thy blessing upon me;
and shade me under the shadow of thy canopy, on
the day when there shall be no shade but its shade.”
* To every man is appropriated a book, in which all the
actions of his life are written. The just man, it is said, will
receive his book in his right hand; but the wicked, in his left,
which will be tied behind his back; his right hand being tied
up to his neck. -
RELIGION. 101
If he have a beard, he then combs it with the wetted
fingers of his right hand; holding his hand with
the palm forwards, and passing the fingers through
his beard from the throat upwards. He then puts
the tips of his fore-fingers into his ears, and twists
them round, passing his thumbs at the same time
round the back of the ears, from the bottom up-
wards; and saying, “O God, make me to be of
those who hear what is said, and obey what is best ;”
or, “O God, make me to hear good.” Next he wipes
his neck with the back of the fingers of both hands,
making the ends of his fingers meet behind his neck,
and then drawing them forward; and in doing so
he says, “O God, free my neck from the fire; and
keep me from the chains, and the collars, and the
fetters.” Lastly, he washes his feet, as high as
the ankles, and passes his fingers between the toes:
he washes the right foot first, saying, at the same
time, “O God, make firm my foot upon the Sira't,
on the day when feet shall slip upon it:” on washing
the left foot, he says, “O God, make my walking
to be approved, and my sin forgiven, and my works
accepted, merchandise that shall not perish, by thy
pardon, O Mighty! O Forgiver! by thy mercy,
O most Merciful of those who show mercy " After
having thus completed the ablution, he says, look-
ing towards heaven, “Thine absolute glory, O God!
[I assert] with thy praise: I testify that there is no
deity but Thee alone : Thou hast no companion :
I implore thy forgiveness, and turn to Thee with
repentance.” Then, looking towards the earth, he
adds, “I testify that there is no deity but God:
and I testify that Mohham'mad is his servant and
his apostle.” Having uttered these words, he should
recite, once, twice, or three times, the Soo'rat el-
Ckudr, or 97th chapter of the Ckoor-a'm.
The woodoo' is generally performed in less than two
G 3
102 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
minutes; most persons hurrying through the act,
as well as omitting almost all the prayers, &c.,
which should accompany and follow the actions.
It is not required before each of the five daily
prayers, when the person is conscious of having
avoided every kind of impurity since the last per-
formance of this ablution. When water cannot be
easily procured, or would be injurious to the health
of the individual, he may perform the ablution with
dust or sand. This ceremony is called teyem'moom.
The person, in this case, strikes the palms of his
hands upon any dry dust or sand (it will suffice to
do so upon his cloth robe, as it must contain some
dust), and, with both hands, wipes his face: then,
having struck his hands again upon the dust, he
wipes his right hand and arm as high as the elbow;
and then, the left hand and arm, in the same
manner. This completes the ceremony. The wash-
ing of the whole body is often performed merely
for the sake of cleanliness; but not as a religious
act, excepting on particular occasions—as on the
morning of Friday, and on the two grand festivals,
&c.", when it is called ghoos'l.
Cleanliness is required not only in the worshipper,
but also in the ground, mat, carpet, robe, or whatever
else it be, upon which he prays. Persons of the
lower orders often pray upon the bare ground, which
is considered clean if it be dry; and they seldom
wipe off immediately the dust which adheres to the
nose and forehead in prostration, for it is regarded
as ornamental to the believer's face; but when a
person has a cloak or any other garment that he
can take off without exposing his person in an un-
* Here, again, I must beg to refer the reader (if he desire
such information) to Reland’s account of the ghoos’l, and
the occasions which require its performance—De Rel. Moh.
pp. 66–77, ed. 1717.
RELIGION. 103
becoming manner, he spreads it upon the ground
to serve as a prayer-carpet. The rich use a prayer-
carpet (called segga'deh) about the size of our
hearth-rugs, having a niche represented upon it, the
point of which is turned towards Mek'keh”. It is
reckoned sinful to pass near before a person en-
gaged in prayer.
Prayer is called sal'ah. Five times in the course
of every day is its performance required of the
Moos'lim ; but there are comparatively few persons
in Egypt who do not sometimes, or often, neglect
this duty; and many who scarcely ever pray. Cer-
tain portions of the ordinary prayers are called furd,
which are appointed by the Ckoor-a'n ; and others,
soon'neh, which are appointed by the Prophet, with-
out allegation of a divine order,
The first time of prayer is the mugh'rib, or sun-
set f, or, rather, about four minutes later; the
second, the 'esh'é, or when the evening has closed,
and it is quite dark #; the third, is the soobhh, or
fegr; i. e., day-break Š; the fourth, the doohr, or
noon, or, rather, a little later, when the sun has
begun to decline; the fifth, the 'asr, or afternoon;
i. e., about mid-time between noon and nightfall ||.
* Segga'dehs, of the kind here described, are now sold
in London, under the name of Persian carpets or Persian rugs.
# The Mohhammadan day commencing from sunset.
† The 'esh's of the Sha‘fe'ees, Ma'likees, and Hham'bel'ees
is when the red gleam (esh-shufuck el-ahh'mar) after sunset
has disappeared; and that of the Hºhan'afees, when both the
red and the white gleam have disappeared.
§ Generally on the first faint appearance of light in the
East. The Hhan'afees mostly perform the morning-prayer a
little later, when the yellow gleam (el-isfira'r) appears: this
they deem the most proper time, but they may pray earlier.
| The 'asr, according to the Sha'fe'ees, Ma'likees, and
Hham'bel'ees, is when the shade of an object, cast by the sun,
is equal to the length of that object, added to the length of
the shade which the same object casts at noon; and, according
104 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
The Prophet would not have his followers pray at
sunrise, nor exactly at noon or sunset, because, he
said, infidels worshipped the sun at such times.
Should the time of prayer arrive when they are
eating, or about to eat, they are not to rise to prayer
till they have finished their meal. The prayers
should be said as nearly as possible at the times
above mentioned : they may be said after, but not
before. The several times of prayer are announced
by the moo-ed'din of each mosque. Having ascended
to the gallery of the ma'd’neh, or men'a'ret', he
chants the ada'n, or call to prayer, which is as fol-
lows: “God is most Great l” (this is said four
times.) “I testify that there is no deity but God . "
(twice.) “I testify that Mohham'mad is God’s
Apostle !” (twice.) “Come to prayer?" (twice.)
“Come to security 1 ° (twice.) * “God is most
Great l” (twice.) “There is no deity but God . "
— Most of the moo-ed'dins of Cairo have harmo-
nious and sonorous voices, which they strain to the
utmost pitch ; yet there is a simple and solemn
melody in their chants which is very striking, par-
ticularly in the stillness of nightt.
Two other calls to prayer are made during the
night, to rouse those persons who desire to perform
supererogatory acts of devotion f. A little after
midnight, the moo-ed'dins of the great royal mosques
in Cairo (i.e., of each of the great mosques founded
by a Soolta'n, which is called Ga'mé’ Soolta'nee),
and of some other large mosques, ascend the ma'd’-
to the Hhanafees, when the shadow is equal to twice the length
of the object added to the length of its mid-day shadow.
* Here is added, in the morning call, “Prayer is better
than sleep !” (twice.)
t A common air, to which the ada'n is chanted in Cairo,
will be given in the chapter on Egyptian Music.
# They are few who do so.
RELIGION, 105
nehs, and chant the following call; which, being
one of the two night-calls not at the regular periods
of obligatory prayers, is called the Oo'la, a term
signifying merely “the First.” . Having commenced
by chanting the common ada'n, with those words
which are introduced in the call to morning-prayer
(“Prayer is better than sleep”), he adds, “There
is no deity but God” (three times) “alone: He
hath no companion: to Him belongeth the do-
minion; and to Him belongeth praise. He giveth
life, and causeth death; and He is living, and shall
never die. In His hand is blessing [or good]; and
He is Almighty.—There is no deity but God!”
(three times) “and we will mot worship any beside
Him, ‘serving Him with sincerity of religion*,
‘though the infidels be averset' [thereto]. There
is no deity but God! Mohham'mad is the most
noble of the creation in the sight of God. Moh-
ham'mad is the best prophet and apostle and lord
by whom his companions have been governed ;
comely; liberal of gifts; perfect; pleasant to the
taste ; sweet; soft to the throat [or to be drunk].
Pardon, O Lord, thy servant and thy poor depend-
ant, the endower of this place, and him who watches
it with goodness and beneficence, and its neigh-
bours, and those who frequent it at the times of
prayers and good acts, O thou Bountiful 1 — O
Lord f” (three times.) “Thou art He who ceaseth
not to be distinguished by mercy: Thou art liberal
of thy clemency towards the rebellious ; and pro-
tectest him ; and coverest the base; and art the
author of everything that is good; and thou bestowest
thy beneficence upon the servant, and relievest him,
* Ckoor-an, ch. xcviii. v. 4.
Same, ch. ix. v. 32, and ch. lxi. v. 8.
† This exclamation (Ya'rubb () is made in a very loud tone.
106 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
O thou Bountiful!—O Lord "" (three times.) “My
sins, when I think upon them, [I see to be] many;
but the mercy of my Lord is more abundant : I
am not solicitous on account of good that I have
done; but for the mercy of God I am most solicitous.
Extolled be the Everlasting ! He hath no com-
panion in his great dominion. His absolute glory
[I assert] : exalted be his name : [I assert] the
absolute glory of God.”
About an hour before daybreak, the moo-ed'dins
of most mosques chant the second call, named the
Eb'ed (which signifies “the Eternal”), and so called
from that word occurring near the commencement.
This call is as follows: “[I assert] the absolute
glory of God, the Eternal One, the Eternal” (three
times): “the absolute glory of God, the Desired,
the Existing, the Single, the Supreme : the abso-
lute glory of God, the One, the Sole: the absolute
glory of Him who taketh to himself, in his great
dominion, neither female companion, nor male
partner, nor any like unto Him, nor any that is
disobedient, nor any deputy, nor any equal, nor any
offspring. His absolute glory [I assert]: exalted be
his name ! He is a Deity who knew what hath been
before it was, and called into existence what hath
been ; and He is now existing as He was [at the
first]. His absolute glory [I assert] : exalted be
his name ! He is a Deity unto whom there is none
like existing. There is none like unto God, the
Bountiful, existing. There is none like unto God,
the Clement, existing. There is none like unto God,
the Great, existing. There is no deity but Thee, O
our Lord, to be worshipped and to be praised and
to be desired and to be glorified. [I assert] the
absolute glory of Him who created all creatures,
and numbered them, and distributed their suster
nance, and decreed the affairs of his servants; and
RELIGION. 107
our Lord, the Bountiful, the Clement, the Great,
forgetteth not one of them. [I assert] the absolute
glory of Him who, of his power and greatness, caused
the pure water to flow from the solid stone, the mass
of rock: the absolute glory of Him who spake with
our lord Moo'sa [or Moses] upon the mountain”;
whereupon the mountain was reduced to dustt,
through dread of God, whose name be exalted, the
One, the Sole. There is no deity but God. He is
a just Judge. [I assert] the absolute glory of the
First. Blessing and peace be on thee, O comely
of countenance O Apostle of God! Blessing and
peace be on thee, O first of the creatures of God'
and seal of the apostles of God | Blessing and peace
be on thee, O thou Prophet ! on thee and on thy
Family, and all thy Companions. God is most
Great God is most Great l” &c., to the end of the
call to morning-prayer. “O God, favour and
preserve and bless the blessed Prophet, our lord
Mohham'mad May God, whose name be blessed
and exalted, be well pleased with thee, O our lord
El-Hbas'an, and with thee, O our lord El-Hhosey'n,
and with thee, O Ab'oo Farra'gi, O Sheykh of the
Arabs, and with all the favourites [the wellees] of God.
Amen.”
The prayers which are performed daily at the five
periods before mentioned are said to be of so many
rek"ahs, or inclinations of the head}.
* These words, “The absolute glory of Him who spake,”
&c. (soobhha'na men kel'lema, &c.), are pronounced in a very
high and loud tone.
† See Ckoor-a’n, ch. vii. v. 139.
† “Abſoo Farra'g” is a surname of a famous saint, the
sey'yid Ahh'mad El-Bed’awee, buried at Tunta, in the Delta:
it implies that he obtains relief to those who visit his tomb,
and implore his intercession.
§ The morning-prayers, two rek"ahs soon'neh and two furd:
the noon, four soon’neh and four furd; the afternoon, the same;
108 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
The worshipper, standing with his face towards
the Chib'leh (that is, towards Mek'keh), and his feet
not quite close together, says, inaudibly, that he has
purposed to recite the prayers of so many rek"ahs
(soon'neh or furd), the morning-prayers (or the noon,
&c.) of the present day (or night); and then, raising
his open hands on each side of his face, and touch-
ing the lobes of his ears with the ends of his thumbs,
he says, “God is most Great!” (Alla'hoo Akbar)
This ejaculation is called the tekbee'r. He then
proceeds to recite the prayers of the prescribed num-
ber of rek”ahs”.
Still standing, and placing his hands before him, a
little below his girdle, the left within the right, he
recites (with eyes directed towards the spot where
his head will touch the ground in prostration) the
Fa't'hhah, or opening chapter of the Ckoor-a'nt, and
after it three or more other verses, or one of the
short chapters, of the Ckoor-a'n; very commonly the
112th chapter; but without repeating the bismil'lah
the evening, three furd and two soon'neh; and the night-
prayers (or 'eshte), four soon'neh and four furd, and two soon-
neh again. After these are yet to be performed three rek”.ahs
witn; i.e. single or separate prayers: these may be performed
immediately after the 'esh'é prayers, or at any time in the
night; but are more meritorious if late in the might.
* There are some little differences in the attitudes of the
four great sects during prayer. I describe those of the Hhan'-
afees.
+ Some persons previously utter certain supererogatory eja-
culations, expressive of the praise and glory of God; and add,
“I seek refuge with God from Satan the accursed;” which
petition is often offered up before reciting any part of the
Ckoor-a'n on other occasions, as commanded by the Ckoor-
a'n itself (ch. xvi. v. 100). The Ckoor-a'n is usually recited,
in the furd prayers, in a voice slightly audible, excepting at
noon and the 'asr, when it is recited inaudibly. By Ima'ms,
when praying at the head of others, and sometimes by persons
praying alone, it is chanted. In the soon'neh prayers it is
recited inaudibly.
RELIGION. 109
9 40 4?
Postures of Prayer. (Part I.)
(in the name of God, &c.) before the second recita-
tion. He then says, “God is most Great l” and
makes, at the same time, an inclination of his head
and body, placing his hands upon his knees, and
separating his fingers a little. In this posture he
says, “[I assert] the absolute glory of my Lord,
the Great l” (three times); adding, “ May God
hear him who praiseth Him. Our Lord, praise be
unto Thee!” Then, raising his head and body, he
repeats, “God is most Great l” He next drops
WOL. I. - H

110 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
gently upon his knees, and, saying again, “God is
most Great l” places his hands upon the ground,
a little before his knees, and puts his nose and
forehead also to the ground (the former first), be-
6
8
ſ2 ſ3
£4.
Postures of Prayer. (Part II.)
ween his two hands. During this prostration he
says, “[I assert] the absolute glory of my Lord, the
Most High 1” (three times). He raises his head
and body (but his knees remain upon the ground),
sinks backwards upon his heels, and places his hands

RELIGION. 11 |
upon his thighs, saying, at the same time, “God is
most Great!” and this he repeats as he bends his
head a second time to the ground. During this
second prostration he repeats the same words as in
the first, and in raising his head again, he utters the
tekbee'r as before. Thus are completed the prayers
of one rek’’ah. In all the changes of posture, the
toes of the right foot must not be moved from the
spot where they were first placed, and the left foot
should be moved as little as possible.
Having finished the prayers of one rek’’ah, the
worshipper rises upon his feet (but without moving
his toes from the spot where they were, particularly
those of the right foot), and repeats the same; only
he should recite some other chapter, or portion, after
the Fa't'hhah, than that which he repeated before,
as, for instance, the 108th chapter *.
After every second rek’’ah (and after the last,
though there be an odd number, as in the evening
furd), he does not immediately raise his knees from
the ground, but bends his left foot under him, and
sits upon it, and places his hands upon his thighs,
with the fingers a little apart. In this posture, he
says, “Praises are to God, and prayers, and good
works. Peace be on thee, O Prophet, and the mercy
of God, and his blessings Peace be on us, and on
[all] the right worshippers of God (?? Then raising
the first finger of the right hand f (but not the hand
* In the third and fourth furd rek”ahs, the recitation of a
second portion of the Ckoor-a/n after the Faſt'hhah should be
omitted; and before furd prayers of four rek"ahs, the icka'meh
(which consists of the works of the ada'n, with the addition of
“the time of prayer is come,” pronounced twice after “ come to
security)” should be repeated; but most persons neglect doing
this, and many do not observe the former rule.
# The doctors of El-Islam differ respecting the proper posi-
tion of the fingers of the right hand on this occasion: some
hold that all the fingers but the first are to be doubled, as
vepresented in Part II. of the sketch of the postures of prayer.
H 2
l 12 MODE IRN EGYPTIANS.
itself), he adºls, “I testify that there is no deity but
God; and I testify that Mohham'mad is his servant
and his apostle.”
After the last rek"ah of each of the prayers (that
is, after the soon/neh prayers and the furd alike),
after saying, “Praises are to God,” &c., the worship-
per, looking upon his right shoulder, says, “Peace
be on you, and the mercy of God!” then, looking
upon the left, he repeats the same. These saluta-
tions are considered by some as addressed only to
the guardian angels who watch over the believer,
and note all his actions;* but others say that they
are addressed both to angels and men (i.e. believers
only), who may be present; no person, however,
returns them. Before the salutations in the last
prayer, the worshipper may offer up any short peti-
tion (in Scriptural language rather than his own);
while he does so looking at the palms of his two
hands, which he holds like an open book before him,
and then draws over his face, from the forehead
downwards.
Having finished both the soon'neh and furd prayers,
the worshipper, if he would acquit himself com-
pletely, or rather, perform supererogatory acts, re-
mains sitting (but may then sit more at his ease),
and recites the A'yet el-Koor'see, or Throne-Verse,
which is the 256th of the 2d chapter of the Ckoor-a'nt;
and adds, “O High O Great! Thine absolute glory
[I assert.] He then repeats, “The absolute glory of
God l’’ (thirty-three times.) “The absolute glory
of God, the Great, with his praise for ever!” (once.)
“Praise be to God (?” (thirty-three times.) “Extolled
be his dignity' There is no deity but Him,” (once.)



* Some say that every believer is attended by two angels;
others say, five; others, sixty, or a hundred and sixty. . .
f Beginning with the words “God! there is no deity but
Him;” and ending with, “He is the High, the Great.”
REI,IGION. 113
“God is most Great l” (thirty-three times.) “God
is most Great in greatness, and praise be to God in
abundance!” (once.) He counts these repetitions
with a string of beads called seb'hhah (more properly
soob'hhah). The beads are ninety-nine, and have a
mark between each thirty-three. They are of aloes,
or other odoriferous or precious wood, or of coral, or
of certain fruit-stones, or seeds, &c.
Any wandering of the eyes, or of the mind, a
coughing, or the like, answering a question, or any
action not prescribed to be performed, must be
strictly avoided (unless it be between the soon'neh
prayers and the furd, or be difficult to avoid, for it is
held allowable to make three slight irregular motions
or deviations from correct deportment); otherwise
the worshipper must begin again, ard repeat his
prayers with due reverence. It is considered ex-
tremely sinful to interrupt a man when engaged in
his devotions. The time usually occupied in re-
peating the prayers of four rek”ahs, without the
supererogatory additions, is less than four, or even
three minutes. The Moos'lim says the five daily
prayers in his house or shop or in the mosque, ac-
cording as may be most convenient to him: it is
seldom that a person goes from his house to the
mosque to pray, excepting to join the congregation
on Friday. Men of the lower orders oftener pray
in the mosques than those who have a comfortable
home, and a mat or carpet upon which to pray.
The same prayers are said by the congregation
in the mosque on the noon of Friday, but there are
additional rites performed by the Ima'm and other
ministers on this occasion. The chief reasons for
fixing upon Friday, as the Mohhammadan Sabbath,
were, it is said, because Adam was created on that
day, and died qm the same day of the week, and
because the general resurrection was prophesied to
114 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
happen on that day; whence, particularly, Friday was
named the day of El-Goom”ah (or the assembly).
The Moos']im does not abstain from worldly business
on Friday excepting during the time of prayer, ac-
cording to the precept of the Ckpor-a'n, ch. lxii., vv.
9 and 10.
To form a proper conception of the ceremonials
of the Friday-prayers, it is necessary to have some
idea of the interior of a mosque. A mosque in
which a congregation assembles to perform the Friday
prayers is called ga'mé'. The mosques of Cairo are
so numerous, that none of them is inconveniently
crowded on the Friday; and some of them are so
large as to occupy spaces three or four hundred feet
square. They are mostly built of stone, the alter-
nate courses of which are generally coloured exter-
nally red and white. Most commonly a large mosque
consists of porticoes surrounding a square open
court, in the centre of which is a tank or a fountain
for ablution. One side of the building faces the
direction of Mek'keh, and the portico on this side,
being the principal place of prayer, is more spacious
than those on the three other sides of the court :
it generally has two or more rows of columns, form-
ing so many aisles, parallel with the exterior wall.
In some cases, this portico, like the other three, is
open to the court; in other cases, it is separated
from the court by partitions of wood, connecting the
front row of columns. In the centre of its exterior
wall is the mehhra'b (or niche) which marks the
direction of Mek'keh; and to the right of this is the
mim'bar (or pulpit). Opposite the mehhra'b, in the
fore part of the portico, or in its central part, there
is generally a platform (called dik'keh), surrounded
by a parapet, and supported by small columns; and
by it, or before it, are one or two seats, having a
kind of desk to bear a volume of the Ckoor-a/n,
RELIGION.
115
、
Zą(Y，Z，TİĞİ
ğ
×*****
«…aeW-
•、、 ·。∞№ăraeaeș
！*ſae‷ ğ
& 。a
|\
Interior of a Mosque.


RELIGION. 1 1 7
from which a chapter is read to the congregation.
The walls are generally quite plain, being simply
white-washed; but in some mosques the lower part
of the wall of the place of prayer is lined with
coloured marbles, and the other part ornamented with
various devices executed in stucco, but mostly with
texts of the Ckoor-a'n (which form long friezes,
having a pleasing effect), and never with the repre-
sentation of anything that has life. The pavement
is covered with matting, and the rich and poor pray
side by side ; the man of rank or wealth enjoying
no peculiar distinction or comfort, unless (which is
sometimes the case) he have a prayer-carpet brought
by his servant, and spread for him”.
The Prophet did not forbid women to attend public
prayers in a mosque, but pronounced it better for
them to pray in private; but in Cairo neither females
nor young boys are allowed to pray with the con-
gregation in the mosque, nor even to be present in
the mosque at any time of prayer: formerly women
were permitted (and perhaps are still in some coun-
tries), but were obliged to place themselves apart
from the men, and behind the latter; because, as
Sale has remarked, the Moos' lims are of opinion
that the presence of females inspires a different kind
of devotion from that which is requisite in a place
dedicated to the worship of God. Very few women
in Egypt even pray at home.
Over each of the mosques of Cairo presides a
Na'zir (or warden), who is the trustee of the funds
which arise from lands, houses, &c. bequeathed to
the mosque by the founder and others, and who ap-
points the religious ministers and the inferior ser-
vants. Two Ima'ms are employed to officiate in each
of the larger mosques: one of them, called the Kha-
* Adjoining each mosque are several latrinae, in each of
which is a receptacle with water, for ablution.
H 5
I l 8 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
te'eb, preaches and prays before the congregation on
the Friday: the other is an Ima'm Ra'tib, or ordinary
Ima'm, who recites the five prayers of every day in
the mosque, at the head of those persons who may be
there at the exact times of those prayers: but in most
of the smaller mosques both these offices are per-
formed by one Ima'm. There are also to each
mosque one or more moo-ed'dins (to chant the call
to prayer), and bowwa'bs (or door-keepers), accord-
ing as there are one or more ma'd'nehs (or menarets)
and entrances; and several other servants are em-
ployed to sweep the mosque, spread the mats, light
the lamps, and attend to the sa'ckiyeh (or water-
wheel), by which the tank or fountain, and other
receptacles for water, necessary to the performance of
ablutions, are supplied. The Imams, and those
persons who perform the lower offices, are all paid
from the funds of the mosque, and not by any con-
tributions exacted from the people.
The condition of the Imams is very different, in
most respects, from that of Christian priests. They
have no authority above other persons, and do not
enjoy any respect but what their reputed piety or
learning may obtain them ; nor are they a distinct
order of men set apart for religious offices, like our
clergy, and composing an indissoluble fraternity; for
a man who has acted as the Ima'm of a mosque may
be displaced by the warden of that mosque, and, with
his employment and salary, loses the title of Ima'm,
and has no better chance of being again chosen for
a religious minister than any other person competent
to perform the office. The Ima'ms obtain their
livelihood chiefly by other means than the service
of the mosque, as their salaries are very small ; that
of a Khateeb being generally about a piaster (2.Éd.
of our money) per month, and that of an ordinary
Ima'm about five piasters. Some of them engage
RELIGION. l 19
in trade; several of them are 'atta'rs (or druggists
and perfumers), and many of them are schoolmas-
ters: those who have no regular occupations of these
kinds often recite the Ckoor-an for hire in private
houses. They are mostly chosen from among the
poor students of the great mosque El-Az'har.
The large mosques are open from day-break till a
little after the 'esh'é, or till nearly two hours after
sunset. The others are closed between the hours of
morning and noon prayers; and most mosques are
also closed in rainy weather (excepting at the times
of prayer), lest persons who have no shoes should
enter and dirt the pavement and matting. Such per-
sons always enter by the door nearest the tank or
fountain, (if there be more than one door,) that they
may wash before they pass into the place of prayer;
and generally this door alone is left open in dirty wea-
ther. The great mosque El-Az'har remains open all
night, with the exception of the principal place of
prayer, which is called the mucksoo'rah, being par-
titioned off from the rest of the building. In many
of the larger mosques, particularly in the afternoon,
persons are seen lounging, chatting together, eating,
tleeping, and sometimes spinning or sewing, or en-
gaged in some other simple craft; but, notwithstand-
ing such practices, the Moos'lims very highly respect
their mosques. There are several mosques in Cairo
(as the Az'har, Hhasaney'n, &c.) before which no
Frank, nor any other Christian, nor a Jew, were
allowed to pass, till of late years, since the French
invasion.
On the Friday, half an hour before the doohr (or
noon), the moo-ed'dins of the mosques ascend to the
galleries of the ma'd'nehs, and chant the Sela'm,
which is a salutation to the Prophet, not always ex-
pressed in the same words, but generally in words to
the following effect:—“Blessing and peace be on thee,
120 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
Othou of great dignity! O Apostle of God! Bles-
sing and peace be on thee, to whom the Truth said, I
am God | Blessing and peace be on thee, thou first
of the creatures of God, and seal of the Apostles of
God . From me be peace on thee, and on thy
Family and all thy Companions !” Persons then begin
to assemble in the mosques.
The utmost solemnity and decorum are observed
in the public worship of the Moos'lims. Their looks
and behaviour in the mosque are not those of en-
thusiastic devotion, but of calm and modest piety.
Never are they guilty of a designedly irregular word
or action during their prayers. The pride and ſana-
ticism which they exhibit in common life, in inter-
course with persons of their own or of a different
faith, seem to be dropped on their entering the
mosque, and they appear wholly abſorbed in the
adoration of their Creator; humble and downcast,
yet without affected humility, or a forced expression
of countenance. The Moos'lim takes off his shoes at
the door of the mosque, carries them in his left hand,
sole to sole, and puts his right foot first over the
threshold. If he have not previously performed the
preparatory ablution, he repairs at once to the tank
or fountain to acquit himself of that duty. Before
he commences his prayers he places his shoes (and
his sword and pistols, if he have such arms,) upon
the matting, a little before the spot where his head
will touch the ground in prostration: his shoes are
put one upon the other, sole to sole.
The people who assemble to perform the noon-
prayers of Friday arrange themselves in rows parallel
to that side of the mosque in which is the niche, and
facing that side. Many do not go until the ada'n of
moon, or just before. When a person goes at, or a
little after, the Sela'm, as soon as he has taken his
place in one of the ranks, he performs two rek"ahs,
RELIGION. 121
and then remains sitting, on his knees or cross-
legged, while a reader, having seated himself on the
reading-chair immediately after the Selaſm, is occupied
in reciting (usually without book) the Soo'ratel-Kahf
(the 18th chapter of the Ckoor-a/n), or a part of it;
for, generally, he has not finished it before the ada'n
of noon, when he stops. All the congregation, as soon
as they hear the ada'n (which is the same as on other
days), sit on their knees and feet. When the ada/n
is finished, they stand up and perform, each se-
parately, two * rek’’ahs, soon'net el-goom”ah (or the
soon'neh ordinance for Friday), which they conclude,
like the ordinary prayers, with the two salutations. A
servant of the mosque, called a mooruck'ckee, then
opens the folding-doors at the foot of the pulpit-stairs,
takes from behind them a straight, wooden sword, and,
standing a little to the right of the door-way, with his
right side towards the ckib'leh, holds this sword in
his right hand, resting the point on the ground: in
this position he says, “Verily God favoureth, and his
angels bless, the Prophet. O ye who believe, bless
him, and greet him with a salutation '" Then, one or
more persons, called Moobal'lighs, stationed on the
dik'keh, chant the following, or similar words f. “O
God! favour and preserve and bless the most noble
of the Arabs and 'Ag'am [or foreigners], the Ima'm
of Mek'keh and El-Medee'neh and the Temple, to
whom the spider showed favour, and wove its web in
the cave; and whom the dubb f saluted, and before
whom the moon was cloven in twain, our lord Moh-
ham'mad, and his Family and Companions !” The
* If of the sect of the Shaffe'ees, to which most of the people
of Cairo belong; but if of that of the Hhan'afees, four rek'-
'ahs.
+ There are some trifling differences in the forms of saluta-
tions on the Prophet in the Friday-prayers in different mosques:
I describe what is most common.
: A kind of lizard, the lacerta Libyca.
122 MODER N EGYPTſ ANS.
Mooruck'ckee then recites the ada'n (which the Moo-
ed'dins have already chanted): after every few words
he pauses, and the Moobal'lighs, on the dik'keh, repeat
the same words in a sonorous chant *. Before the
ada'n is finished, the Khatee'b, or Imam, comes
to the foot of the pulpit, takes the wooden sword from
the Mooruck'ckee's hand, ascends the pulpit, and sits
on the top step or platform. The pulpit of a large
mosque, on this day, is decorated with two flags,
with the profession of the faith, or the names of God
and Mohham'mad, worked upon them : these are
fixed at the top of the stairs, slanting forward. 'I he
Mooruck'ckee and Moobal'lighs having finished the
ada'n, the former repeats a tradition of the Prophet,
saying, “ The Prophet, upon whom be blessing and
peace, hath said, “If thou hast said unto thy compa-
nion while the Imam is preaching on Friday, Be thou
silent, thou hast spoken rashly.’ Be ye silent: ye
shall be rewarded: God shall recompense you.” He
then sits down. The Khatee'b now rises, and,
holding the wooden sword i in the same manner as
the Mooruck'ckee did, delivers an exhortation, called
khool'bet el-waaz. As the reader may be curious to
see a translation of a Mohhammadan sermon, l insert
one. The following is a sermon preached on the
first Friday of the Arab yearf. The original, as
usual, is in rhyming prose.
* In the great mosque El-Azhar, there are several Moobal
lighs in different places, to make the ada'n heard to the whole
congregation.
+ To commemorate the acquisition of Egypt by the sword.
# During my first visit to Egypt, I went to the great mosque
El-Azhar, to witness the performance of the Friday-prayers
by the largest congregation in Cairo. I was pleased with the
preaching of the Khatee'b of the mosque, Ga'd El-Mow"la,
and afterwards procured his sermon-book (deewa'n khool'ab),
containing sermons for every Friday in the year, and for the
two 'eeds, or grand festivals. I translate the first sermon.
RELIGION. 123
“Praise be to God, the renewer of years, and the
multiplier of favours, and the creator of months and
days, according to the most perfect wisdom and most
admirable judgment; who hath dignified the months
of the Arabs above ail months, and pronounced that
among the more excellent of them is El-Mohhar'ram
the Sacred, and commenced with it the year, as he
hath closed it with Zoo-l-Hheg'geh. How pro-
pitious is the beginning, and how good is the end
[I assert] his absolute glory, exempting Him from
the association of any other deity with Him. He
hath well considered what He hath formed, and esta-
blished what He hath contrived, and He alone hath
the power to create and to annihilate. I praise Him,
asserting his absolute glory, and exalting his name,
for the knowledge and inspiration which He hath
graciously vouchsafed ; and I testify that there is no
deity but God alone; He hath no companion; He
is the most holy King; the [God of] peace: and I
testify that our lord and our Prophet and our friend
Mohham'mad is his servant, and his apostle, and his
elect, and his intimate, the guide of the way, and the
lamp of the dark. O God! favour and preserve and
bless this noble Prophet, and chief and excellent
apostle, the merciful-hearted, our lord Mohham'mad,
and his family, and his companions, and his wives,
and his posterity, and the people of his house, the
noble persons ! and preserve them amply O ser-
vants of God! your lives have been gradually cur-
tailed, and year after year has passed away, and ye
are sleeping on the bed of indolence and on the
pillow of stubbornness. Ye pass by the tombs of
your predecessors, and fear not the assault of des-
tiny and destruction, as if others departed from the
world and ye must of necessity remain in it. Ye re-
joice at the arrival of new years, as if they brought
an increase to the term of life, and Swim in the seas
124 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
of desires, and enlarge your hopes, and in every way
exceed other people [in presumption], and ye are
sluggish in doing good. O how great a calamity is
this ' God teacheth by an allegory. Know ye not
that in the curtailment of time by indolence and
sleep there is very great trouble * Know ye not that
in the cutting short of lives by the termination of
years is a very great warning? Know ye not that
the night and day divide the lives of numerous soulsº
Know ye not that health and capacity are two bless-
ings coveted by many men? But the truth hath be-
come manifest to those who have eyes. Ye are now
between two years: one year hath passed away, and
come to an end, with its evils; and ye have entered
upon another year, in which, if it please God, man-
kind shall be relieved. Is any of you determining
upon diligence [in doing good] in the year to come 2
or repenting of his failings in the times that are
passed ? The happy is he who makes amends for
the time passed in the time to come ; and the miser-
able is he whose days pass away and he is careless
of his time. This new year hath arrived, and the
sacred month of God hath come with blessings to
you, -the first of the months of the year, and of the
four sacred months, as hath been said, and the most
worthy of preference and honour and reverence: its
fast is the most excellent of fasts after that which is
incumbent *, and the doing of good in it is among
the most excellent of the objects of desire. Whoso-
ever desires to reap advantage from it, let him fast
the ninth and tenth days, looking for aid. Abstain
not from this fast through indolence, and esteeming
it a hardship; but comply with it in the best man-
ner, and honour it with the best of honours, and
improve your time by the worship of God, morning
and evening. Turn unto God with repentance, be
* That of the month of Rum'ada'n.
RELIGION. 125
fore the assault of death: He is the God who ac-
cepteth repentance of his servants, and pardoneth
sins.—The Tradition *.-The Apostle of God (God
favour and preserve him () hath said, “The most ex-
cellent prayer, after the prescribed f, is the prayer
that is said in the night; and the most excellent fast,
after Rum'ada'n, is that of the month of God, El-
Mohhar'ram.’”
The Khatee'b, having concluded his exhortation,
says to the congregation, “Supplicate God.” He
then sits down, and prays privately; and each mem-
ber of the congregation at the same time offers up
Sonne private petition, as after the ordinary prayers,
holding his hands before him (looking at the palms),
and then drawing them down his face. This done,
the Moobal'lighs say “A'mee'n' A/mee'n' [Amen
Amen J O Lord of all creatures "-The Khatee'b
now rises again, and recites another Khootſbeh,
called khoot'bet en-naat, of which the following is a
translation f :— -
“Praise be to God, abundant praise, as He hath
commanded ! I testify that there is no deity but God
alone: He hath no companion : affirming his su-
premacy, and condemning him who denieth and dis-
believeth; and I testify that our lord and our Prophet
Mohham'mad is his servant and his apostle, the lord
of mankind, the intercessor, the accepted intercessor,
on the day of assembling: God favour him and his
family as long as the eye seeth and the ear heareth !
O people ! reverence God by doing what He hath
commanded, and abstain from that which He hath
forbidden and prohibited. The happy is he who
obeyeth, and the miserable is he who opposeth and
* The Khatee'b always closes his exhortation with one of
two traditions of the Prophet.
# The five daily prayers ordained by the Ckoor-aſn.
# This is always the same, or nearly so.
126 M() DERN EGYPTIANS.
sinneth. Know that the present world is a transitory
abode, and that the world to come is a lasting abode.
Make provision, therefore, in your transitory state
for your lasting state, and prepare for your reckon-
ing and standing before your Lord: for know that ye
shall to-morrow be placed before God, and reckoned
with according to your deeds; and before the Lord
of Might ye shall be present, “ and those who have
acted unjustly shall know with what an overthrowal
they shall be overthrown "..' Know that God, whose
absolute glory I assert, and whose name be exalted,
hath said (and ceaseth not to say wisely, and to
command judiciously, warning you, and teaching,
and honouring the dignity of your Prophet, extolling
and magnifying him), ‘Verily, God favoureth, and
his angels bless, the Prophet: O ye who believe,
bless him, and greet him with a salutation f '' O
God' favour Mohham'mad and the family of Mo-
hham'mad, as Thou favouredst Ibrahee'm ; and the
family of Ibrahee'm ; and bless Mohham'mad and
the family of Mohham'mad, as Thou blessedst
Ibrahee'm and the family of Ibraheem, among all
creatures—for Thou art praiseworthy and glorious !
O God! do Thou also be well pleased with the four
Khalee'fehs, the orthodox lords, of high dignity and
illustrious honour, Ab'oo Bekr Es-Siddee'ck, and
*Om'ar, and 'Osma'n, and 'Al'ee ; aud be Thou well
pleased, O God! with the six who remained of the
ten noble and just persons who swore allegiance to
thy Prophet Mohham'mad (God favour and preserve
him!) under the tree; (for Thou art the Lord of
piety, and the Lord of pardon,) those persons of ex-
cellence and clemency, and rectitude and prosperity,
Tal'hhah, and Ez-Zoobey'r, and Saad, and Sa’ee'd,
and 'Abd Er-Rahhma'n Ib'n 'Owf, and Ab'oo
* Ckoor-a/n, chap. xxvi., last verse.
* Idem, chap. xxxiii., ver, 56. The patriarch Abraham.
RELIGION. 127
Obey'deh 'A'mir Ibn El-Garra'hh; and with all
the Companions of the Apostle of God! (God favour
and preserve him '); and be Thou well pleased,
O God! with the two martyred descendants, the two
bright moons, ‘the two lords of the youths of the
people of Paradise in Paradise, the two sweet-smell-
ing flowers of the Prophet of this nation, Ab'oo Mo-
hham'mad El-Hhas'an, and Ab'oo 'Abd Al'lah El-
Hhosey'n : and be Thou well pleased, O God! with
their mother, the daughter of the Apostle of God
(God favour and preserve him (), Fatimeh Ez-
Zah'ra, and with their grandmother Khadee'geh El-
Koob'ra, and with 'A'isheh, the mother of the faith-
ful, and with the rest of the pure wives, and with the
generation which succeeded the Companions, and the
generation which succeeded that with beneficence to
the day of judgment! O God! pardon the believing
men and the believing women, and the Moos'lim men
and the Moos']im women, those who are living, and
the dead; for Thou art a hearer near, an answerer of
prayers, O Lord of all creatures O God aid El-
Islam, and strengthen its pillars, and make infidelity
to tremble and destroy its power, by the preservation
of thy servant, and the son of thy servant, the sub-
missive to the might of thy majesty and glory, whom
God hath aided, by the care of the Adored King, our
master the Soolta'n, son of the Soolta'n, the Soolta'n
Mahhmood Khan : may God assist him, and pro-
long [his reign] I O God! assist him, and assist his
armies! 6) thou Lord of the religion, and of the
World present, and the world to come! O Lord of
all creatures' O God! assist the forces of the
Moos'lims and the armies of the Unitarians ! O
God' frustrate the infidels and polytheists, thine
enemies, the enemies of the religion 1 O God! in-
vert their banners, and ruin their habitations, and
give them and their wealth as booty to the Moos'-
128 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
lims” O God! unloose the captivity of the cap-
tives, and annul the debts of the debtors; and make
this town to be safe and secure, and blessed with
wealth and plenty, and all the towns of the Moos'-
lims, O Lord of all creatures' and decree safety and
health to us and to all travellers, and pilgrims, and
warriors, and wanderers, upon thy earth, and upon
thy sea, such as are Moos'lims, O Lord of all crea-
tures “O Lord! we have acted unjustly towards
our own souls, and if Thou forgive us not and be
merciful unto us, we shall surely be of those who
perish f.' I beg of God, the Great, that He may
forgive me and you, and all the people of Mohham'-
mad, the servants of God. ‘Verily God com-
mandeth justice, and the doing of good, and giving
[what is due] to kindred; and forbiddeth wicked-
mess, and iniquity, and oppression: he admonisheth
you that ye may remember.’: Remember God ;
He will remember you: and thank Him; He will
increase to you [your blessings]. Praise be to God,
the Lord of all creatures 1’’
During the rise of the Nile, a good inundation is
also prayed for in this Khoot'beh. The Khatee'b, or
Ima'm, having ended it, descends from the pulpit,
and the Moobal'lighs chant the icka'meh (described
in page 90): the Ima'm, stationed before the niche,
then recites the furd prayers of Friday, which con-
sist of two rek”ahs, and are similar to the ordinary
prayers. The people do the same, but silently, and
keeping time exactly with the Ima'm in the various
* This sentence, beginning “O God, frustrate,” was not
inserted in one copy of this prayer, which I obtained from
an Ima'm. Another Ima'm, at whose dictation I wrote the
copy here translated, told me that this sentence and some
others were often omitted.
# Ckoor-a'n, chap. vii., v. 22.
i lbid., chap. xvi., v. 92.
RELIGION. 129
postures. Those who are of the Ma'likee sect then
leave the mosque; and so also do many persons of
the other sects: but some of the Sha'fe’ees and
Hhan'afees (there are scarcely any Hham'bel'ees
in Cairo) remain, and recite the ordinary furd
prayers of noon; forming a number of separate
groups, in each of which one acts as Ima'm. The
rich, on going out of the mosque, often give alms
to the poor outside the door.
I have spoken thus fully of Mohhammadan wor-
ship, because my countrymen in general have very
imperfect and erroneous motions on this subject;
many of them even imagining that the Moos'lims
ordinarily pray to their Prophet as well as to God.
Invocations to the Prophet, for his intercession, are,
indeed, frequently made, particularly at his tomb,
where pious visiters generally say, “We ask thy in-
tercession, O Apostle of God!” The Moos'lims,
also, even implore the intercession of their numerous
Saints.
The duty next in importance to prayer is that of
giving alms. Certain alms are prescribed by law,
and are called zek'ah : others, called sud'ackah, are
Voluntary. The former, or obligatory alms, were,
in the earlier ages of El-Isla'm, collected by officers
appointed by the sovereign, for pious uses, such as
building mosques, &c.; but now it is left to the
Mooslim's conscience to give them, and to apply
them in what manner he thinks fit; that is, to be-
Stow them upon whatever needy persons he may
choose. They are to be given once in every year, of
cattle and sheep, generally in the proportion of one
in forty, two in a hundred and twenty; of camels,
for every five, a ewe; or for twenty-five, a pregnant
Camel; and likewise of money, and, among the
Hhan'afees, of merchandize, &c. He who has
money to the amount of two hundred dir'hems (or
130 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
drams) of silver, or twenty mitcka'ls (i. e. thirty drams)
of gold (or, among the Hhan'afees, the value of the
above in gold or silver ornaments, utensils, &c.),
must annually give the fortieth part (roobá el-'oshr),
or the value of that part.
Fasting is the next duty. The Moos'lim is com-
manded to fast during the whole month of Rum'-
ada'n” every day, from the first appearance of day-
break, or rather from the hour when there is suffi-
cient light for a person to distinguish plainly a white
thread from a black thread f (about two hours be-
fore sunrise in Egypt), until sunset. He must ab-
stain from eating, drinking, smoking, smelling per-
fumes, and every unnecessary indulgence or pleasure
of a worldly nature; even from intentionally swallow-
ing his spittle. When Rum'ada'n falls in summer f
the fast is very severe; the abstinence from drinking
being most painfully felt. Persons who are sick, or
on a journey, and soldiers in time of war, are not
obliged to observe the fast during Rum'ada'n ; but
if they do not keep it in this month they should fast
an equal number of days at a future time. Fasting
is also to be dispensed with in the cases of a nurse
and pregnant woman. The Prophet even disap-
proved of any person's keeping the fast of Rum'-
ada'n if not perfectly able; and desired no man to
fast so much as to injure his health, or disqualify
himself for necessary labour. The modern Moos'lims
seem to regard the fast of Rum'ada'm as of more
importance than any other religious act, for many
of them keep this fast who neglect their daily
prayers; and even those who break the fast, with
* Because the Prophet received the first revelation in that
month.
t Ckoor-an, chap. ii., v. 183.
f The year being lunar, each month retrogrades through
iºns seasons in the course of about thirty-three years and a
all,
RELIGION. 131
very few exceptions, pretend to keep it. Many
Moos'lims of the wealthy classes eat and drink in
secret during Rum'ada'n ; but the greater number
strictly keep the fast, which is fatal to numerous per-
sons in a weak state of health. There are some
other days on which it is considered meritorious to
fast, but not absolutely necessary. On the two grand
festivals, namely, that following Rum'ada'n, and that
which succeeds the pilgrimage, it is unlawful to fast,
being expressly forbidden by the Prophet.
The last of the four most important duties, that
of pilgrimage, remains to be noticed. It is incum-
bent on every Moos'lim to perform, once in his life,
the pilgrimage to Mek'keh and Mount 'Arafaſt, un-
less poverty or ill health prevent him ; or, if a. H han-
'afee, he may send a deputy, whose expenses he must
pay”. Many, however, neglect the duty of pil-
grimage who cannot plead a lawful excuse; nor are
they reproached for so doing. It is not by the visit
to Mek'keh, and the performance of the ceremonies
of circuiting the Ka'abeh seven times and kissing the
“black stone” in each round, and other rites in the
Holy City, that the Moos'lim acquires the title of
el-hha'gg f (or the pilgrim); the final object of the
pilgrimage is Mount 'Arafaſt, six hours' journey dis-
tant from Mek'keh. During his performance of the
required ceremonies in Mek'keh, and also during his
journey to Arafat, and until his completion of the
pilgrimage, the Moos'lim wears a peculiar dress,
called ehhra'm (vulgarly hbera'm), generally consist-
ing of two simple pieces of cotton, or linen, or woollen
cloth, without seam or ornament, one of which is
* A Ma'likee is held bound to perform the pilgrimage if
strong enough to bear the journey on foot, and able to earn
his food on the way.
t On the pronunciation of this word, see a note to the
Second paragraph of Chapter W.
132 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
wrapped round the loins, and the other thrown over
the shoulders: the instep and heel of each foot, and
the head, must be bare ; but umbrellas are now used
by many of the pilgrims. It is necessary that the
pilgrim be present on the occasion of a Khoot'beh
which is recited on Mount 'Arafa’t in the afternoon
of the 9th of the month of Zoo-l-Hheg'geh. In the
ensuing evening, after sunset, the pilgrims commence
their return to Mek'keh. Halting the following day
in the valley of Min'a (or, as it is more commonly
called, Moon'a), they complete the ceremonies of the
pilgrimage by a sacrifice (of one or more male sheep,
he-goats, cows, or she-camels, part of the flesh of
which they eat, and part give to the poor), and by
shaving the head and clipping the nails. Every one,
after this, resumes his usual dress, or puts on a new
one, if provided with such. The sacrifice is called
el-fid'a (or the ransom), as it is performed in com-
memoration of the ransom of Isma'ee'l (or Ishmael)
by the sacrifice of the ram, when he was himself
about to have been offered up by his father : for it is
the general opinion of the Moos'lims that it was this
son, not Isaac, who was to have been sacrificed by
his father.
There are other ordinances, more or less connected
with those which have been already explained.
The two festivals, called el-'Eed es-Sooghei'yir",
or the Lesser Festival, and el-’Eed el-Kebee'r, or the
Great Festival, the occasions of which have been
mentioned above, are observed with public prayer and
general rejoicing. Each of these lasts three days.
The festivities with which they are celebrated will be
described in a subsequent chapter. On the first day
of the latter festival (being that on which the pil-
grims perform their sacrifice), every other Moos'lim
: More properly, Saghee'r. This is what many travellers
have incorrectly called “ the Great Festival.”
RELIGION. 133
should slay a victim if he can afford to purchase one.
The wealthy slay several sheep, or a sheep or two
and a buffalo, and distribute the greater portion of
the meat to the poor. The slaughter may be per-
formed by a deputy.
The duty of waging war against infidels is strongly
and repeatedly urged in the Ckoor-a'n ; and he who
dies fighting for the defence or propagation of El-
Isla'm is promised the rewards of a martyr. As the
Jews were ordered to exterminate heathen nations,
so the Moos'lims are commanded to put to death
every idolater who refuses to embrace the Mohham-
madan faith, and to exact an annual tribute from
Jews and Christians who show the like resolution.
The Moos'lims are even forbidden to contract friend-
ship with any unbelievers.
There are certain prohibitory laws in the Ckoor-a'n
which must be mentioned here, as remarkably affect-
ing the moral and social condition of its disciples.
Wine and all inebriating liquors are forbidden, as
being the cause of “more evil than profit *.” Many
of the Mooslims, however, in the present day, drink
wine, brandy, &c., in secret; and some, thinking it
no sin to indulge thus in moderation, scruple not to
do so openly; but among the Egyptians there are few
who transgress in this flagrant manner. Boo'zeh,
which is an intoxicating liquor made with barley-
bread, crumbled, mixed with water, strained, and
left to ferment, is commonly drunk by the boatmen
of the Nile, and by other persons of the lower orderst.
Opium, and other drugs which produce a similar
effect, are considered unlawful, though not mentioned
* Ckoora'm, chap. ii., v. 216.
# A similar beverage, thus prepared from barley, was used
by the ancient Egyptians. (Herodotus, lib. ii., cap. 77.) The
modern inhabitants of Egypt also prepare boo'zeh from wheat
and from millet in the same manner, but less commonly.
WOL. I. I
134 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
in the Ckoor-a'n ; and persons who are addicted to
taking these drugs are regarded as immoral charac-
ters; but, in Egypt, such persons are not very nu-
merous. Scame sectarians have pronounced tobacco,
and even coffee, to be unlawful.
The eating of swine's flesh is strictly forbidden.
The unwholesome effects of that meat in a hot climate
would be a sufficient reason for the prohibition; but
the pig is held in abhorrence by the Moos'lim chiefly
on account of its extremely filthy habits”. Most ani-
mals prohibited for food by the Mosaic law are alike
forbidden to the Moos'lim ; the camel is an exception.
The Moos'lim is “forbidden [to eat] that which
dieth of itself, and blood, and swine's flesh, and that
on which the name of any beside God hath been in-
voked; and that which hath been strangled, or killed
by a blow, or by a fall, or by the horns [of another
beast]; and that which hath been eaten by a wild
beast, except what he shall [himself] kill; and that
which hath been sacrificed unto idolst.” An animal
that is killed for the food of man must be slaughtered
in a particular manner: the person who is about to
perform the operation must say, “In the name of
God God is most great!” and then cut its throat,
taking care to divide the windpipe, gullet, and carotid
arteries. It is forbidden to employ, in this case, the
phrase which is so often made use of on other occa-
sions, “In the name of God, the Compassionate, the
Merciful!” because the mention of the most bene-
volent epithets of the Deity on such an occasion
would seem like a mockery of the sufferings which
the animal is about to endure. Some persons in
Egypt, but mostly women, when about to kill an
animal for food, say, “In the name of God! God is
* The swine was universally deemed impure by the ancient
Egyptians. (Herodotus, lib. ii., cap. 47.)
+ CKoor-a'n, ch. v., v. 4.
LAWS. 135
most great! God give thee patience to endure the
affliction which he hath allotted thee *!” If the sen-
timent which first dictated this prayer were always
felt, it would present a beautiful trait in the cha-
racter of the people who use it. In cases of neces-
sity, when in danger of starving, the Moos'lim is
allowed to eat any food which is prohibited under
other circumstances. The mode of slaughter above
described is, of course, only required to be practised
in the cases of domestic animals. Most kinds of
fish are lawful food f ; so also are many birds, the
tame kinds of which must be killed in the same man-
ner as cattle; but the wild may be shot. The hare,
rabbit, gazelle, &c., are lawful, and may either be
shot or killed by a dog, provided the name of God
was uttered at the time of slipping the dog, and he
have not eaten any part of the prey. This animal,
however, is considered very unclean : the Sha'fe'ees
hold themselves to be polluted by the touch of its
nose if it be wet, and if any part of their clothes be
so touched, they must wash that part with seven
waters, and once with clean earth : some others are
only careful not to let the animal lick, or defile in a
worse manner, their persons or their dress, &c.
Gambling and usury are also prohibited, and all
games of chance; and likewise the making of images
or pictures of anything that has life?. The Pro-
phet declared that every representation of this kind
* The Arabic words of this prayer, “God give thee
patience,” &c., are A//ah yo0sub'birak 'al a ma’ bela'k.
# In some respects, the Moos'lim code does not appear to
be so strictly founded upon exigencies of a sanatory nature
as the Mosaic. See Leviticus, xi., 9–12. In Egypt, fish
which have not scales are generally found to be unwholesome
food.
f Many of the Moos'lims hold that only sculptures which
cast a shadow, representing living creatures, are unlawful;
but the Prophet certainly condemned pictures also.
I 2
136 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
would be placed before its author on the day of
judgment, and that he would be commanded to put
life into it; which not being able to do, he would be
cast, for a time, into Hell.
The principal civil laws of the Ckoor-a'n and the
Traditions, &c., remain to be stated. These laws
are partly founded upon the customs of the Pagan
Arabs, but mostly upon the Jewish Scriptures and
traditions.
The civil laws are chiefly derived from the Ckoor-
a'm”; but, in many important cases, this highest
authority affords no precept. In most of these cases
the Traditions of the Prophet direct the decisions of
the judget. There are, however, some important
cases, and many of an inferior kind, respecting which
both the Ckoor-a'n and the Traditions are silent.
These are decided on the authority of one of the four
great Ima'ms, or founders of the four orthodox sects
of El-Isla'm; on the authority of the Ima'm of that
sect to which the ruling power belongs, which sect,
in Egypt, and throughout the Turkish empire, is
that of the Hhan'afees; or, if none of the decisions
of the Ima'm relate to a case in dispute (which not
unfrequently happens), judgment is given, in that
case, on the authority of some other eminent doctor.
In general, only the principal laws, as laid down in
the Ckoor-a'n, will be here stated.
It seems to be well ascertained that polygamy is
as unfavourable to population as it is injurious to
domestic happiness, to morality, and to the exercise
and improvement of the nobler powers of the mind;
and, in justice to the legislator of the Moos'lims,
we should remark, that, instead of introducing or
encouraging, he limited this licence: it is true that
he assumed to himself the privilege of having a
* A law given in the Ckoor-a’n is called furd.
f A law derived from the Traditions is called soon/neh,
LAWS. 137
greater number of wives than he allowed to others,
but, in doing so, he may have been actuated by the
want of male offspring rather than impelled by volup-
tuousness. The law respecting marriage and con-
cubinage, though express as to the number of wives
whom the Moos'lim may have at the same time,
namely four, is not considered by the less strict as
perfectly explicit with regard to the number of con-
cubines he may keep. It is written, “Take in mar-
riage, of the women who please you, two, three, or
four ; but if ye fear that ye cannot act equitably [to
So many, take] one ; or [take] those whom your right
hands have acquired”,” that is, slaves. Many of the
wealthy Moos' lims, interpreting this text according
to their desires, marry two, three, or four wives, and
keep, besides, several concubine slaves. When a
female slave becomes a mother by her master, the
child which she bears to him is free; and she herself
cannot afterwards be sold by her master (though she
must continue to serve him and be his concubine),
and is entitled to emancipation at his death. Her
bearing a child to him is called the cause of her
emancipation or liberty, but does not oblige him to
emancipate her as long as he lives, though it is com-
mendable if he do so, and make her his wife, pro-
vided he have not already four wives, or if he marry
her to another man, should it be her wish. It is held
lawful for a Moos'lim to marry a Christian, or a
Jewish woman, if induced to do so by excessive love
of her, or if he cannot obtain a wife of his own faith.
In this case the offspring must follow the father's
faith, and the wife does not inherit when the hus-
band dies. A Mohhammadan woman cannot, how-
ever, under any circumstances but by force, marry a
man of another faith. The degrees of relationship
* Ckoor-a'n, chap. iv., v. 3.
I 3
138 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
in which marriage is prohibited are stated in the
26th and 27th verses of the 4th chapter of the
Ckoor-a'n, where it is said, “Marry not women
whom your fathers have had to wife.” “Ye are for.
bidden to marry your mothers, and your daughters,
and your sisters, and your aunts both on the father's
and on the mother's side, and your brother's daugh-
ters, and your sister's daughters, and your foster-
mothers, and your foster-sisters, and your wives'
mothers, and your step-daughters which are under
your tuition, born of your wives,” “and the wives of
your sons;” “ and ye are forbidden to take to you
two sisters, as your wives.” It is lawful for the
Moos'lim to see the faces of these women whom he
is forbidden to marry, but of no others, excepting
his own wives and female slaves. The marriage of a
man and woman, or of a man and a girl who has
arrived at puberty, is lawfully effected by their de-
claring (which the latter generally does by a wekee'l,
or deputy) their consent to marry each other, in the
presence of two witnesses (if witnesses can be pro-
cured), and by the payment, or part-payment, of a
dowry. But the consent of a girl under age is not
required; her father, or maternal grandfather, or her
mother, uncle, or any other person appointed by will,
or by the Cka'dee, acting for her as he pleases”.
The giving a dowry is indispensable, and the least
sum that is allowed by law is ten dir'hems (or drams
of silver), which is equal to about five shillings of our
money. A man may legally marry a woman with-
out mentioning a dowry; but after the consumma-
tion of the marriage, she can, in this case, compel
him to pay the sum of ten dir'hemsf.
* A boy may be thus married, but he may divorce his wife.
+ Whatever property the wife receives from her husband,
parents, or any other person, is entirely at her own disposal,
and not subject to any claim of her husband or his creditors.
LAWS. 139
A man may divorce his wife twice, and each time
take her back, without any ceremony, excepting in a
case to be mentioned below ; but if he divorce her
the third time, or put her away by a triple divorce
conveyed in one sentence, he cannot receive her
again until she has been married and divorced by
another husband, who must have consummated his
marriage with her". When a man divorces his wife
(which he does by merely saying, “Thou art
divorced,” or “I divorce thee”), he pays her a por-
tion of her dowry (generally one-third), which he
had kept back from the first, to be paid on this occa-
sion, or at his death; and she takes away with her
the furniture, &c., which she brought at her mar-
riage. He may thus put her away from mere dis-
like t, and without assigning any reason, but a
woman cannot separate herself from her husband
against his will, unless it be for some considerable
fault on his part, as cruel treatment, or neglect; and
even then, application to the Cka'dee's court is gene-
rally necessary to compel the man to divorce her, and
she forfeits the above-mentioned remnant of the
dowry.
The first and second divorce, if made without any
mutual agreement for a compensation from the
woman, or a pecuniary sacrifice on her part, is
termed tala'ck reg”ee (a divorce which admits of re-
turn); because the husband may take back his wife,
without her consent, during the period of her 'ed'deh
(which will be presently explained), but not after,
unless with her consent, and by a new contract. If
he divorce her the first or second time for a compen-
sation, she perhaps requesting, “ Divorce me for
what thou owest me,” or “– hast of mine,” (that
* Ckoor-a’n, ch. ii., ver. 229, 230.
# As the Mosaic law also allows. See Deut. xxiv. 1.
140 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
is, of the dowry, furniture, &c.), or for an addi-
tional sum, he cannot take her again but by her own
consent, and by a new contract. This is a tala'ck
ba'in (or separating divorce), and is termed “the
lesser separation,” to distinguish it from the third
divorce, which is called “the greater separation.”
The 'ed'deh is the period during which a divorced
woman, or a widow, must wait before marrying again
—in either case, if pregnant, until delivery : other-
wise, the former must wait three lunar periods, or
three months; and the latter, four months and ten
days. A woman who is divorced when in a state of
pregnancy, though she may make a new contract of
marriage immediately after her delivery, must wait
forty days longer before she can complete her mar-
riage by receiving her husband. The man who di-
vorces his wife must maintain her in his own house,
or in that of her parents, or elsewhere, during the
period of her 'ed'deh; but must cease to live with
her as her husband from the commencement of that
period. A divorced woman who has a son under two
years of age may retain him until he has attained that
age, and may be compelled to do so by the law of
the Sha'fe'ees; and, by the law of the Ma'likees, until
he has arrived at puberty; but the Hhan'afee law
limits the period during which the boy should remain
under her care to seven years: her daughter she
should retain until nine years of age, or the period of
puberty. If a man divorce his wife before the con-
summation of marriage, he must pay her half the sum
which he has promised to give her as a dowry; or,
if he have promised no dowry, he must pay her the
half of the smallest dowry allowed by law, which has
been above mentioned; and she may marry again
in. mediately.
When a wife refuses to obey the lawful commands
of her husband, he may, and generally does, take her,
LAWS. 141
or two witnesses" against her, to the Cka'dee's court,
to prefer a complaint against her; and, if the case
be proved, a certificate is written declaring the woman
ma'shizeh, or rebellious against her husband. This
process is termed “writing a woman na'shizeh.” It
exempts her husband from the obligation to lodge,
clothe, and maintain her. He is not obliged to
divorce her; and, by refusing to do this, he may
prevent her marrying another man as long as he lives;
but, if she promise to be obedient afterwards, he must
take her back, and maintain her, or divorce her. It
is more common, however, for a wife whose husband
refuses to divorce her, if she have parents or other
relations able and willing to support her comfortably,
to make a complaint at the Cka'dee's court, stating
her husband's conduct to be of such a nature towards
her that she will not live with him, and thus cause
herself to be registered “na'shizeh,” and separated
from him. In this case, the husband generally per-
sists, from mere spite, in refusing to divorce her.
To establish a charge of infidelity against a wife,
four eye-witnesses of her crime are necessary f. If
convicted thus, she is to be put to death by stoningf.
It need scarcely be said that eases of this kind have
very seldom occurred, from the difficulty of obtaining
such testimony Š. Further laws on this subject, and
still more favourable to the women, are given in the
* The witnesses must always be Moos'lims in accusations
against a person of the same faith.
† Ckoor-a'n, chap. iv., v. 19.
# This is a soon'neh law, or founded on tradition. The law
is the same in the case of the adulterer, if married; but it is
never enforced. See Leviticus, xx., 10, and John, viii., 4, 5.
§ It is worthy of remark, that the circumstance which occa-
sioned the promulgation of this extraordinary law was an accu-
sation of adultery preferred against the Prophet's favourite
wife, 'A'isheh; she was thus absolved from punishment, and
her reputation was cleared by additional “revelations.”
142 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
Ckoor-an”, in the following words:—“But [as to]
those who accuse women of reputation [of fornication
or adultery], and produce not four witnesses [of the
fact], scourge them with eighty stripes, and receive
not their testimony for ever; for such are infamous
prevaricators; excepting those who shall afterwards
repent ; for God is gracious and merciful. They
who shall accuse their wives [of adultery], and shall
have no witnesses [thereof] besides themselves, the
testimony [which shall be required] of one of them
[shall be], that he swear four times by God that he
speaketh the truth, and the fifth [time that he im-
precate] the curse of God on him if he be a liar;
and it shall avert the punishment [of the wife] if she
swear four times by God that he is a liar, and if the
fifth [time she imprecate] the wrath of God on her if
he speak the truth.” The commentators and lawyers
have agreed that, under these circumstances, the mar-
riage must be dissolved. In the chapter from which
the above quotation is made (v. 2), it is ordained that
unmarried persons convicted of fornication shall be
punished by scourging, with a hundred stripes; and
a Soon'neh law renders them obnoxious to the further
punishment of banishment for a whole yearf. Of
the punishment of women convicted of incontinence
in Cairo, I shall speak in the next chapter, as it is an
arbitrary act of the government, not founded on the
laws of the Ckoor-a'n or Traditions f. No distinction
* Chap. xxiv., vv. 4.—9.
# An unmarried person, convicted of adultery, is also ob-
noxious only to this punishment. The two laws mentioned in
Leviticus, xx., 13 and 15, have been introduced into the
Mohhammadan code; but, in the present day, they are never
executed.
# In the villages of Egypt, a woman found, or suspected,
to have been guilty of this crime, if she be not a common
prostitute, often experiences a different fate, which will be de-
scribed in the account of the domestic life and customs of the
lower orders.
LAWS. 143
is made between the children of wives and those of
concubine slaves: they inherit equally.
The most remarkable general principles of the
laws of inheritance are the denial of any privileges
to primogeniture", and awarding to a female a share
equal to half that of a male of the same degree of
relationship to the deceased. A man may bequeath
to any persons, or for any purpose, one-third of his
property, but not a larger portion. The children of
a man deceased inherit his whole property, or all of it
that he has not otherwise lawfully disposed of, or
what remains after paying his lawful legacies and
debts, if neither of his parents be living, nor any
wife; and the portion of a male is double that of
a female. If they be females only, and two or more
in number, they receive, by the law of the Ckoor-a'n,
two-thirds ; or if there be but one child, and that a
female, she receives, by the same law, half the pro-
perty; but the remaining third or half is also given
up to the said daughters or daughter, by a law of the
Soon'neh, if there be no other relations to whom it
may be awarded. If the parents of the deceased be
living f, they have each one-sixth of the property if
he leave children f; and, if there be no children $,
his father receives two-thirds, and his mother the re-
maining third; or, if there be brothers of the de-
ceased, the mother has only one-sixth, and the said
brothers have one-sixth. If there be brothers and
sisters of the deceased, but no parents, nor children,
nor wives, the property is divided among them; the
share of a male being double that of a female. If
* In this the Moos'lim law differs from the Mosaic, which
appropriates a double portion to the first-born. See Deut.
xxi., 17.
+ Or the grandfather or grandmother.
# Or grandchildren.
§ Idem,
144 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
only one sister of the deceased be living, and there
be neither parents, nor brothers, nor children, nor
wives, she enjoys the same right as the female only
child of a man who leaves neither parent nor wife;
or, if there be two or more sisters, in such case their
right is the same as that of two or more daughters of
a man who leaves neither son, nor parent, nor wife.
One-eighth only is the share of the wife, or wives, if
there be issue; and one-fourth if there be no issue *.
A man inherits half his wife's property if she have
left no issue, and one-fourth if she have left issue.
In all cases, the debts and legacies (if there be any)
of the deceased must be first paid t. The laws re-
specting cases in which no near relations of the
deceased exist are found in the Traditions of the
Prophet, and the decisions of the Ima'ms f. In
Egypt, the property of the deceased is nominally
divided into cheera'ts, or twenty-fourth parts; and
the share of each son or other heir is said to be so
many ckeera'ts.
The law is remarkably lenient towards debtors.
“If there be any [debtor]”, says the Ckoor-a'n $,
“under a difficulty [of paying his debt], let [his
creditor] wait till it be easy [for him to do it]; but if
ye remit it as alms, it will be better for you, if ye
knew it.” The Moos'lim is commanded (in the
chapter from which the above extract is taken), when
he contracts a debt, to cause a statement of it to be
written, and attested by two men, or a man and two
women, of his own faith. The debtor is imprisoned
* This is exclusive of what may remain due to her of her
dowry; of which one-third is usually held in reserve by the
husband, to be paid to her if he divorce her, or when he dies.
t Ckoor-a'n, chap. iv., vv. 12–14, and 175.
# A bastard inherits from his mother, but not from his
father.
§ Chap. ii., v. 280.
LAWS. 145
for non-payment of his debt; but, if he establish his
insolvency, he is liberated. He may be compelled
to work for the discharge of his debt, if able.
It is ordained that murder shall be punished with
death, or that the perpetrator shall pay, to the heirs
of the person whom he has killed, a fine, which is to
be divided according to the laws of inheritance ; and
it is optional with the said heirs to decree whether
the murderer shall be put to death or the fine ac-
cepted t. By the Hhan'afee code, the free may be
put to death for the murder of a slave; but not the
parent for the offspring. In the present day, how-
ever, murder is generally punished with death; the
government seldom allowing a composition in money
to be made. The Bed'awees have made the law of
the avenging of blood terribly severe and unjust,
transgressing the limits assigned by the Ckoor-a'n :
for, with them, any single person descended from the
homicide, or from the homicide's father, grandfather,
great-grandfather, or great-grandfather's father, may
be killed by any of such relations of the person mur-
dered or killed in fight; but, among most tribes, the
fine is generally accepted instead of the blood. Cases
of blood-revenge are very common among the pea-
Santry of Egypt, who, as I have before remarked,
retain many customs of their Bed'awee ancestors. The
relations of a person who has been killed, in an
Egyptian village, generally retaliate with their own
hands rather than apply to the government, and often
do so with disgusting cruelty, and even mangle and
insult the corpse of their victim. The relations of
a homicide usually fly from their own to another
village, for protection. Even when retaliation has
been made, animosity frequently continues between
the two parties for many years; and often a case
* Ckoor-alm, chap. ii., v. 173.
VOL. I. K
146 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
of blood-revenge involves the inhabitants of two or
more villages in hostilities, which are renewed, at
intervals, during the period of several generations.
A woman, convicted of a capital crime, is generally
put to death by drowning in the Nile.
Theft, according to the Ckoor-a'n", is to be
punished by cutting off the offender's right hand for
the first offence; but a Soon'neh law ordains that
this punishment shall not be inflicted if the value of
the stolen property be less than a quarter of a
deena'rf; and it is also held necessary, to render
the thief obnoxious to this punishment, that the pro-
perty stolen should have been deposited in a place to
which he had not ordinary or easy access: whence it
follows, that a man who steals in the house of a near
relation is not subject to this punishment; nor is a
slave who robs the house of his master. For the
second offence, the left foot is to be cut off; for the
third, the left hand; for the fourth, the right foot;
and, for further offences of the same kind, the culprit
is to be flogged or beaten. A man may steal a free-
born infant without offending against the law, be-
cause it is not property: but not a slave: and the
hand is not to be cut off for stealing any article of
food that is quickly perishable; because it may have
been taken to supply the immediate demands of
hunger. There are also some other cases in which
the thief is exempt from the punishments above men-
tioned. In Egypt, of late years, these punishments
have not been inflicted. Beating and hard labour
have been substituted for the first, second, or third
offence, and frequently death for the fourth. Most
* Chap. v., v. 42.
# The deena'r is a mitckall (or nearly 72 English grains)
of gold. Sale, copying a false translation by Marracci, and
neglecting to examine the Arabic text quoted by the latter,
has stated the sum in question to be four deemaſrs.
I, AWS. 147
petty offences are usually punished by beating with
the koorba'g (a thong or whip of hippopotamus' hide,
hammered into a round form), or with a stick, gene-
rally on the soles of the feet.*.
Drunkenness was punished, by the Prophet, by
flogging; and is still in Cairo, though not often : the
hhadd, or number of stripes, for this offence, is eighty.
Apostacy from the Mohhammadan faith is con-
sidered a most heinous sin, and must be punished
with death, unless the apostate will recant on being
thrice warned. I once saw a woman paraded through
the streets of Cairo, and afterwards taken down to
the Nile to be drowned, for having apostatized from
the faith of Mohham'mad, and having married a
Christian. Unfortunately, she had tattooed a blue
cross on her arm, which led to her detection by one
of her former friends in a bath. She was mounted
upon a high-saddled ass, such as ladies in Egypt
usually ride, and very respectably dressed, attended
by soldiers, and surrounded by a rabble, who, instead
of commiserating, uttered loud imprecations against
her. The Cka'dee, who passed sentence upon her,
exhorted her, in vain, to return to her former faith.
Her own father was her accuser | She was taken in
a boat into the midst of the river, stripped nearly
naked, strangled, and then thrown into the stream f.
The Europeans residing in Cairo regretted that the
Ba'sha was then at Alexandria, as they might have
prevailed upon him to pardon her. Once before they
interceded with him for a woman who had been con-
* The feet are confined by a chain or rope attached at
each end to a staff, which is turned round to tighten it. This
is called a fellekeh. Two persons (one on each side) strike
alternately.
# The conduct of the lower orders in Cairo on this occa-
sion speaks sadly against their character. A song was com-
posed on the victim of this terrible law, and became very
popular in the metropolis.
K 2
148 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
demned for apostacy. The Ba'sha ordered that she
should be brought before him: he exhorted her to
recant ; but, finding her resolute, reproved her for her
folly, and sent her home, commanding that no injury
should be done to her.
A few words may here be added respecting the
sect of the Wah'ha'bees, which was founded, less than
a century ago, by Mohham'mad Ibn 'Abd El-Wah'-
ha’b, a pious and learned sheykh of the province of
Nejd, in central Arabia. About the middle of the
last century, he had the good fortune to convert to
his creed a powerful chief of Ed-Dir'ee'yeh, the capital
of the Nejd. This chief, Mohham'mad Ib'm So'oo'd,
became the sovereign of the new sect—their religious
and political head—and under him and his successors
the Wah'ha'bee doctrines were spread throughout the
greater part of Arabia. He was first succeeded by
his son, 'Abd El-'Azee'z ; next, by So'oo'd, the son
of the latter, and the greatest of the Wah'ha'bee
leaders; and, lastly, by 'Abd Al'lah, the son of this
So'oo'd, who, after an arduous warfare with the armies
of Mohham'mad 'Al'ee, surrendered himself to his
victorious enemies, was sent to Fgypt, thence to
Constantinople, and there beheaded. The wars which
Mohham'mad 'Al'ee carried on against the Wah'-
ha'bees had for their chief object the destruction of
the political power of the new sect: their religious
tenets are still professed by many of the Arabs, and
allowed to be orthodox by the most learned of the
'Ool'ama of Egypt. The Wah'ha'bees are merely re-
formers, who believe all the fundamental points of
El-Isla'm, and all the accessory doctrines of the
Ckoor-a'n and the Traditions of the Prophet: in
short, their tenets are those of the primitive Moos'-
lims. They disapprove of gorgeous sepulchres, and
domes erected over tombs: such they invariably de-
stroy when in their power. They also condemn, as
LAWS. |49
idolaters, those who pay peculiar veneration to de-
ceased saints; and even declare all other Moos'-
lims to be heretics, for the extravagant respect which
they pay to the Prophet. They forbid the wearing of
silk, and gold ornaments, and all costly apparel; and
also the practice of smoking tobacco. For the want
of this last luxury, they console themselves in some
degree by an immoderate use of coffee". There
are many learned men among them, and they have
collected many valuable books (chiefly historical) from
various parts of Arabia, and from Egypt.
* Among many other erroneous statements respecting the
Wah'ha'bees it has been asserted that they prohibit the drink-
ing of coffee.
150 MODERN ÉGYPTIANS.
CHAPTER IV.
Gover NMENT.
Egypt has, of late years, experienced great political
changes, and mearly ceased to be a province of the
Turkish Empire. Its present Ba'sha (Mohham'mad
'Allee), having exterminated the Ghoozz, or Mem-
loo'ks, who shared the government with his prede-
cessors, has rendered himself an almost independent
prince. He, however, professes allegiance to the
Soolta'n, and remits the tribute, according to former
custom, to Constantinople : he is, moreover, under
an obligation to respect the fundamental laws of the
Ckoor-a'n and the Traditions; but he exercises a
dominion otherwise unlimited. He may cause any
one of his subjects to be put to death without the for-
mality of a trial, or without assigning any cause: a
simple horizontal motion of his hand is sufficient to
imply the sentence of decapitation. But I must not
be understood to insinuate that he is prome to shed
blood without any reason : Severity is a characteristic
of this prince, rather than wanton cruelty; and
boundless ambition has prompted him to almost
every action by which he has attracted either praise
or censure *.
* The government of Egypt, from the period of the con-
quest of this country by the Arabs, has been nearly the same
as at present, in its influence upon the manners and customs
and character of the inhabitants; and I therefore do not deem
an historical retrospect necessary to the illustration of this
work. It should, however, be mentioned, that the people of
GOVERNMENT. 151
In the Citadel of the Metropolis is a court of judi-
cature, called Deewa'm el-Khidee'wee, where, in the
Ba'sha's absence, presides his Kikh'ya”, or deputy,
Hhabee'b Efen'dee. In cases which do not fall within
the province of the Cka'dee, or which are sufficiently
clear to be decided without referring them to the
court of that officer, or to another council, the presi-
dent of the Deewa'n el-Khidee'wee passes judg-
ment. Numerous guard-houses have been established
throughout the metropolis, at each of which is sta-
tioned a body of Niza'm, or regular troops. The
guard is called Chool'loock f, or, more commonly, at
present, Ckar'a-cko'lf. Persons accused of thefts,
assaults, &c., in Cairo, are given in charge to a soldier
of the guard, who takes them to the chief guard-
house, in the Moo'skee, a street in that part of the
town in which most of the Franks reside. The
charges being here stated, and committed to writing,
he conducts them to the Za'bit, or chief magistrate
of the police of the metropolis. The Za'bit, having
heard the case, sends the accused for trial to the
Deewa'n el-Khidee'wee S. When a person denies
the offence with which he is charged, and there is not
sufficient evidence to convict him, but some ground
Egypt are not now allowed to indulge in that excessive fana-
tical rudeness with which they formerly treated unbelievers.
Restraint may, at first, increase, but will probably, in the
course of time, materially diminish, the feeling of fanatical
intolerance.
* Thus pronounced in Egypt, but more properly Kya'hhya
or Ret'khood'a.
# From the Turkish Choo'l-loock.
# Vulgarly, Karako'n.
§ A very arbitrary power is often exercised in this and
similar courts, and the proceedings are conducted with little
decorum. Many Turkish officers, even of the highest rank,
make use of language far too disgusting for me to mention
towards persons brought before them for judgment, and towards
those who appeal to them for justice.
152 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
of suspicion, he is generally bastinadoed, in order to
induce him to confess, and then, if not before, when
the crime is not of a nature that renders him ob-
noxious to a very heavy punishment, he, if guilty,
admits it. A thief, after this discipline, generally
confesses, “The devil seduced me, and I took it.”
The punishment of the convicts is regulated by a
system of arbitrary, but lenient and wise, policy: it
usually consists in their being compelled to labour,
for a scanty sustenance, in some of the public works;
such as the removal of rubbish, digging canals, &c.;
and sometimes the army is recruited with able-bodied
young men convicted of petty offences. In employ-
ing malefactors in labours for the improvement of the
country, Mohham'mad 'Al'ee merits the praises be-
stowed upon Sabacon, the Ethiopian conqueror and
king of Egypt, who is said to have introduced this
policy. The Ba'sha is, however, very severe in
punishing thefts, &c., committed against himself:—
death is the usual penalty in such cases.
There are several inferior councils for conducting
the affairs of different departments of the adminis-
tration. The principal of these are the following:
1. The Meg'lis el-Mesh'war'ah (the Council of De-
liberation); also called Meg'lis el-Mesh'war'ah el-
Mel'ekee'yeh (the Council of Deliberation on the
affairs of the State), to distinguish it from other
councils. The members of this and of the other
similar councils are chosen by the Ba'sha, for their
talents or other qualifications; and consequently his
will and interest sway them in all their decisions.
They are his instruments, and compose a committee
for presiding over the general government of the
country, and the commercial and agricultural affairs
of the Ba'sha. Petitions, &c., addressed to the
Ba'sha, or to his Deewa'n, relating to private interests
or the affairs of the government, are generally sub-
GOVERNMENT. 153
mitted to their consideration and judgment, unless
they more properly come under the cognizance of
other councils hereafter to be mentioned. 2. The
Meg'lis el-Gih'a'dee'yeh (the Council of the Army);
also called Meg'lis el-Mesh'war'ah el-'Askaree'yeh
(the Council of Deliberation on Military Affairs).
The province of this court is sufficiently shown by
its name. 3. The Council of the Turskha'meh, or
Navy. 4. The Deewa'n el-Toogga'r (or Court of
the Merchants). This court, the members of which
are merchants of various countries and religions, pre-
sided over by the Sha'h-ben'dar (or chief of the mer-
chants of Cairo), was instituted in consequence of the
laws of the Ckoor-a'n and the Soon'neh being found
not sufficiently explicit in some cases arising out of
modern commercial transactions.
The Cka'dee (or chief judge) of Cairo presides in
Egypt only a year, at the expiration of which term,
a new Cka'dee having arrived from Constantinople,
the former returns. It was customary for this officer
to proceed from Cairo, with the great caravan of
pilgrims, to Mek'keh, perform the ceremonies of the
pilgrimage, and remain one year as Cka'dee of the
holy city, and one year at El-Medee'neh *. He pur-
chases his place privately of the government, which
pays no particular regard to his qualifications;
though he must be a man of some knowledge, an
'Osma'nlee (that is, a Turk), and of the sect of the
Hhan'afees. His tribunal is called the Mahh'kem'eh,
or Place of Judgment. Few Cka'dees are very well
acquainted with the Arabic language ; nor is it neces-
sary for them to have such knowledge. In Cairo,
the Cka'dee has little or nothing to do but to confirm
the sentence of his Na'ib (or deputy), who hears and
* He used to arrive in Cairo in the beginning of Rum'ada/n;
but the beginning of the first month, Mohhar'ram, has of
late been fixed upon instead of the former period.
K 5
154 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
decides the more ordinary cases, and whom he
chooses from among the 'Ool'ama of Istamboo'l, or
the decision of the Moof"tee (or chief doctor of the
law) of his own sect, who constantly resides in Cairo,
and gives judgment in all cases of difficulty; but in
general the Na'ib is, at the best, but little conversant
with the popular dialect of Egypt; therefore, in
Cairo, where the chief proportion of the litigants at
the Mahh'kem'eh are Arabs, the judge must place
the utmost confidence in the Ba'sh Toorgooma'n (or
Chief Interpreter), whose place is permanent, and
who is consequently well acquainted with all the cus.
toms of the court, particularly with the system of
bribery; and this knowledge he is generally very
ready to communicate to every new Cka'dee and
Na'ib. A man may be grossly ignorant of the law,
and yet hold the office of Cka'dee of Cairo; several
instances of this kind have occurred: but the Na'ib
must be a lawyer of learning and experience.
When a person has a suit to prefer at the Mahh'-
kem'eh against another individual or party, he goes
thither, and applies to the Ba'sh Roos'ool (or chief of
the sergeants who execute arrests) for a Rasoo'l to
arrest the accused. The Rasoo'l receives a piaster
or two”, and generally gives half of this fee privately
to his chief. The plaintiff and defendant then pre-
sent themselves in the great hall of the Mahh'kem'eh;
which is a large saloon, facing a spacious court, and
having an open front, formed by a row of columns
and arches. Here are seated several officers called
Sha'hids, whose business is to write the statements of
the cases to be submitted to judgment, and who are
under the authority of the Ba'sh Ka'til (or Chief
Secretary). The plaintiff, addressing any one of the
Shahids whom he finds unoccupied, states his case,
* The Egyptian piaster is now equivalent to the fifth part
of a shilling, or 23d. -
GOVERNMENT. I55
and the Sha'hid commits it to writing, and receives
a fee of a piaster or more ; after which, if the case
be of a trifling nature, and the defendant acknowledge
the justice of the suit, he (the Sha'hid) passes sen-
tence; but otherwise he conducts the two parties
before the Na'ib, who holds his court in an inner
apartment. The Na'ib, having heard the case, desires
the plaintiff to procure a fet'wa (or judicial decision)
from the Moof'tee of the sect of the Hhan'afees,
who receives a fee, seldom less than ten piasters, and
often more than a hundred, or two hundred. This
is the course pursued in all cases but those of a very
trifling nature, which are settled with less trouble,
and those of great importance or intricacy. A case
of the latter kind is tried in the private apartment of
the Cka'dee, before the Cka'dee himself, the Naſib,
and the Moof'tee of the Hhan'afees, who is sum-
moned to hear it, and to give his decision; and
sometimes, in cases of very great difficulty or moment,
several of the 'Ool'ama of Cairo are, in like manner,
summoned. The Moof'tee hears the case, and writes
his sentence ; and the Cka'dee confirms his judgment,
and stamps the paper with his seal, which is all that
he has to do in any case. The accused may clear
himself by his oath, when the plaintiff has not wit-
messes to produce: placing his right hand on a copy
of the Ckoor-a'n, which is held out to him, he says
“By God, the Great!” three times; adding “By
what is contained in this of the word of God '''
The witnesses must be men of good repute, or
asserted to be such, and not interested in the cause:
in every case, at least two witnesses are requisite *
(or one man and two women); and each of these
must be attested to be a person of probity by two
others. An infidel cannot bear witness against a
* This law is borrowed from the Jews. See Deut. xix., 15.
A man may refuse to give his testimony.
156 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
Moo'slim in a case involving capital or other heavy
punishment, and evidence in favour of a son or
grandson, or of a father or grandfather, is not re-
ceived; nor is the testimony of slaves; neither can
a master testify in favour of his slave.
The fees, until lately, used to be paid by the suc-
cessful party; but now they are paid by the other
party. The Cka'dee's fees for decisions in cases re-
specting the sale of property are two per cent. on the
amount of the property : in cases of legacies, four
per cent., excepting when the heir is an orphan not
of age, who pays only two per cent. : for decisions
respecting property in houses or land, when the cost
of the property in question is known, his fees are
two per cent. ; but, when the cost is not known, one
year's rent. These are the legitimate fees; but more
than the due amount is often exacted. In cases which
do not concern property, the Cka'dee's Na'ib fixes the
amount of the fees. There are also other fees than
those of the Cka'dee to be paid after the decision of
the case : for instance, if the Cka'dee’s fees be two
or three hundred piasters, a fee of about two piasters
must be paid to the Ba'sh Toorgooma'n; about the
same to the Ba'sh Roos'ool; and one piaster to the
Rasoo'l, or to each Rasoo'l employed.
The rank of a plaintiff or defendant, or a bribe
from either, often influences the decision of the
judge. In general the Na'ib and Moof'tee take
bribes, and the Cka'dee receives from his Na'ib.
On some occasions, particularly in long litigations,
bribes are given by each party, and the decision is
awarded in favour of him who pays highest. This
frequently happens in difficult lawsuits; and, even in
cases respecting which the law is perfectly clear,
strict justice is not always administered; bribes and
false testimony being employed by one of the parties.
The shocking extent to which the practices of bri-
GOVERNMENT. I57
bery and suborning false witnesses are carried in
Moos'lim courts of law, and among them in the tri-
bunal of the Cka'dee of Cairo, may be scarcely cre-
dited on the bare assertion of the fact: some strong
proof, resting on indubitable authority, may be de-
manded; and here I shall give such proof, in a sum-
mary of a case which was tried not long since, and
which was related to me by the Secretary and Ima'm
of the Sheykh El-Mah'dee, who was then supreme
Moof'tee of Cairo (being the chief Moof'tee of the
Hhan'afees), and to whom this case was referred
after judgment in the Cka'dee's court.
A Turkish merchant, residing in Cairo, died, leaving
property to the amount of six thousand purses *, and
no relation to inherit but one daughter. The Seyd
Mohham'mad El-Mahhroo'ckee, the Sha'h-ben'dar
(chief of the merchants of Cairo), hearing of this
event, suborned a common fel'la'hh, who was the
bow'wa'b (or door-keeper) of a respected sheykh, and
whose parents (both of them Arabs) were known to
many persons, to assert himself a son of a brother of
the deceased. The case was brought before the
Cka'dee, and, as it was one of considerable import-
ance, several of the principal 'Ool'ama of the city were
summoned to decide it. They were all bribed or in-
fluenced by El-Mahhroo'ckee, as will presently be
shown ; false witnesses were brought forward to swear
to the truth of the bow'wa'b's pretensions, and others
to give testimony to the good character of these
witnesses. Three thousand purses were adjudged to
the daughter of the deceased, and the other half of
the property to the bow'wa'b. El-Mahhroo'ckee
received the share of the latter, deducting only three
hundred piasters, which he presented to the bow'wa'b.
* A purse is the sum of five hundred piasters, and was then
equivalent to nearly seven pounds sterling; but is now equal
to only five pounds.
158 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
The chief Moof'tee, El-Mah'dee, was absent from
Cairo when the case was tried. On his return to
the metropolis, a few days after, the daughter of the
deceased merchant repaired to his house, stated her
case to him, and earnestly solicited redress. The
Moof'tee, though convinced of the injustice which she
had suffered, and not doubting the truth of what
she related respecting the part which El-Mahhroo'ckee
had taken in this affair, told her that he feared it
was impossible for him to annul the judgment unless
there were some irregularity in the proceedings of the
court, but that he would look at the record of the
case in the register of the Mahh'-kem'eh. Having
done this, he betook himself to the Ba'sha, with whom
he was in great favour for his knowledge and in-
flexible integrity, and complained to him that the
tribunal of the Cka'dee was disgraced by the ad-
ministration of the most flagrant injustice; that false
witness was admitted by the 'Ool'ama, however evi.
dent and glaring it might be ; and that a judgment
which they had given in a late case, during his ab-
sence, was the general talk and wonder of the town.
The Ba'sha summoned the Cka'dee, and all the
'Ool'ama who had tried this case, to meet the Moof'tee
in the Citadel; and, when they had assembled there,
addressed them, as from himself, with the Moof'tee’s
complaint. The Cka'dee, appearing, like the 'Ool'-
ama, highly indignant at this charge, demanded to
know upon what it was grounded. The Ba'sha re-
plied that it was a general charge, but particularly
grounded upon the case in which the court had ad-
mitted the claim of a bow'wa'b to a relationship and
inheritance which they could not believe to be his
right. The Cka'dee here urged that he had passed
Sentence in accordance with the unanimous decision
of the 'Ool'ama then present. “Let the record of
the case be read,” said the Ba'sha. The journal
GOVERNMENT. 159
being sent for, this was done; and when the secre-
tary had finished reading the minutes, the Cka'dee,
in a loud tone of proud authority, said, “And I judged
so.” The Moof'tee, in a louder and more authori-
tative tone, exclaimed, “And thy judgment is false!”
All eyes were fixed in astonishment, now at the
Moof'tee, now at the Ba'sha, now at the other
*Ool'ama. The Cka'dee and the 'Ool'ama rolled
their heads and stroked their beards. The former
exclaimed, tapping his breast, “I, the Cka'dee of
Musr, pass a false sentence'?” “And we,” said the
'Ool'ama, “we, Sheykh Mah'dee' we, 'Ool'ama el-
Isla'm, give a false decision 1’’ “O Sheykh Mah'dee,”
said El-Mahhroo'ckee (who, from his commercial
transactions with the Ba'sha, could generally obtain
a place in his councils), “respect the 'Ool'ama, as
they respect thee!” “O Mahhroo'ckee l’exclaimed
the Moof'tee, “art thou concerned in this affair?
Declare what part thou hast in it, or else hold thy
|. go, speak in the assemblies of the merchants,
ut presume not again to open thy mouth in the
council of the 'Ool'ama!” El-Mahhroo'ckee imme-
diately left the palace, for he saw how the affair
would terminate, and had to make his arrangements
accordingly. The Moof"tee was now desired, by the
other'Ool'ama, to adduce a proof of the invalidity of
their decision. Drawing from his bosom a small
book on the laws of inheritance, he read from it,
“To establish a claim to relationship and inherit-
ance, the names of the father and mother of the
claimant, and those of his father's father and mother,
and of his mother’s father and mother, must be
ascertained.” The names of the father and mother
of the pretended father of the bow'wa'b, the false
witnesses had not been prepared to give ; and this
deficiency in the testimony (which the 'Ool'ama, in
trying the case, purposely overlooked) now caused
160 MODERN. EGYPTIANS.
the sentence to be annulled. The bow'waſh was
brought before the council, and, denying the imposi-
tion of which he had been made the principal instru-
ment, was, by order of the Ba'sha, very severely bas-
tinaded; but the only confession that could be drawn
from him by the torture which he endured was, that
he had received nothing more of the three thousand
purses than three hundred piasters. Meanwhile, El-
Mahhroo'ckee had repaired to the bow'wa'b's mas-
ter: he told the latter what had happened at the
Citadel, and what he had foreseen would be the
result, put into his hand three thousand purses, and
begged him immediately to go to the council, give
this sum of money, and say that it had been placed
in his hands in trust by his servant. This was
done, and the money was paid to the daughter of the
deceased.
In another case, when the Cka'dee and the council
of the 'Ool'ama were influenced in their decision by a
Ba'sha (not Mohham'mad 'Al'ee), and passed a sen-
tence contrary to law, they were thwarted in the
same manner by El-Mah'dee. This Moof"tee was a
rare example of integrity. It is said that he never
took a fee for a fet'wa. He died shortly after my
first visit to this country. I could mention several
other glaring cases of bribery in the court of the
Cka'dee of Cairo; but the above is sufficient.
There are five minor Mahh'kem'ehs in Cairo;
and likewise one at its principal port, Boo'la'ck; and
one at its southern port, Musr El-'Atee'ckah. A
Shaſhid from the great Mahh'kem'eh presides at each
of them, as deputy of the chief Cka'dee, who con-
firms their acts. The matters submitted to these
minor tribunals are chiefly respecting the sales of
property, and legacies, marriages, and divorces; for
the Cka'dee marries female orphans under age who
have no relations of age to act as their guardians;
GOVERNMENT. I61
and wives often have recourse to law to compel their
husbands to divorce them. In every country-town
there is also a Cka'dee, generally a native of the
place, and never a Turk, who decides all cases,
sometimes from his own knowledge of the law, but
commonly on the authority of a Moof'tee. One
Cka'dee generally serves for two or three or more
villages.
Each of the four orthodox sects of Moos'lims (the
Hhan'afees, Sha'fe'ees, Ma'likees, and Hnam'-
bel'ees) has its Sheykh, or religious chief, who is
chosen from among the most learned of the body,
and resides in the metropolis. The Sheykh of the
great mosque El-Az'har (who is always of the sect of
the Sha'fe'ees, and sometimes Sheykh of that sect),
together with the other Sheykhs above mentioned,
and the Cka'dee, the Nackee'b el-Ashra'ſ (the chief
of the Sheree'fs, or descendants of the Prophet), and
several other persons, constitute the council of the
'Ool'ama" (or learned men), by whom the Turkish
Ba'shas and Memloo'k chiefs have often been kept
in awe, and by whom their tyranny has frequently
been restricted : but now this learned body has lost
almost all its influence over the government. Petty
disputes are often, by mutual consent of the parties
at variance, submitted to the judgment of one of the
four Sheykhs first mentioned, as they are the chief
Moof'tees of their respective sects; and the utmost
deference is always paid to them. Difficult and deli-
cate causes, which concern the laws of the Ckoor-a'n
or the Traditions, are also frequently referred by the
Ba'sha to these Sheykhs; but their opinion is not
always followed by him : for instance, after consult-
ing them respecting the legality of dissecting human
* In the singular, 'Allim. This title is more particularly
given to a professor of jurisprudence. European writers gene-
rally use the plural form of this appellation for the singular
162 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
bodies, for the sake of acquiring amatomical know-
ledge, and receiving their declaration that it was re-
pugnant to the laws of the religion, he, nevertheless,
has caused it to be practised by Moos'lim students of
anatomy.
The police of the metropolis is more under the
direction of the military than of the civil power. A
few years ago it was under the authority of the Waſlee
and the Za'bit; but since my first visit to this country
the office of the former has been abolished. He was
charged with the apprehension of thieves and other
criminals; and under his jurisdiction were the public
women, of whom he kept a list, and from each of
whom he exacted a tax. He also took cognizance of
the conduct of the women in general; and, when he
found a female to have been guilty of a single act of
incontinence, he added her name to the list of the
public women, and demanded from her the tax,
unless she preferred, or could afford, to escape that
ignominy, by giving to him, or to his officers, a con-
siderable bribe. This course was always pursued,
and is still, by a person who farms the tax of the
public women ", in the case of unmarried females,
and generally in the case of the married also; but
the latter are sometimes privately put to death, if they
cannot, by bribery or some other artifice, save them-
selves. Such proceedings are, however, in two
points, contrary to the law, which ordains that a per-
son who accuses a woman of adultery or fornication,
without producing four witnesses of the crime, shall
be scourged with eighty stripes, and decrees other
punishments than those of degradation and tribute
against women convicted of such offences. -
The office of the Zabit has before been mentioned.
He is now the chief of the police. His officers, who
* Since this was written, the public women throughout Egypt
have been compelled to relinquish their licentious profession.
GOVERNMENT, 163
have no distinguishing mark to render them known
as such, are interspersed through the metropolis :
they often visit the coffee-shops, and observe the con-
duct, and listen to the conversation, of the citizens.
Many of them are pardoned thieves. They accom-
pany the military guards in their nightly rounds
through the streets of the metropolis. Here, none
but the blind are allowed to go out at night later than
about an hour and a half after sunset, without a
lantern or a light of some kind. Few persons are
seen in the streets later than two cr three hours after
sunset. At the fifth or sixth hour, one might pass
through the whole length of the metropolis and
scarcely meet more than a dozen or twenty persons,
excepting the watchmen and guards, and the porters
at the gates of the by-streets and quarters. The
sentinel, or guard, calls out to the approaching pas-
senger, in Turkish, “Who is that * 2° and is an-
swered, in Arabic, “A citizent.” The private watch-
man, in the same case, exclaims, “Attest the unity
of God : " or merely, “Attest the unity $ '" The
answer given to this is, “There is no deity but
God||1" which Christians, as well as Moos'lims, ob-
ject not to say; the former understanding these words
in a different sense from the latter. It is supposed
that a thief, or a person bound on any unlawful un-
dertaking, would not dare to utter these words.
Some persons loudly exclaim, in reply to the sum-
mons of the watchman, “There is no deity but God:
Mohham'mad is God's Apostle.”
The Zabit, or A'gha of the police, used frequently
to go about the metropolis by night, often accom-
* Kee'men door' o', for kee'm door' o'.
t Ib'n belled. If blind, he answers A'ama.
† Wahh!hhid Alla'h.
§ PWahh!hhid; or, to more than one person, Wahh!hhidoo.
| La'ila'ha il'la-lla/h,
164 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
panied only by the executioner and the she'alegee, or
bearer of a kind of torch called she'aleh, which is
still in use. This torch burns, soon after it is lighted,
without a flame, excepting when it is waved through
the air, when it suddenly blazes forth : it therefore
answers the same purpose as our dark lantern. The
burning end is sometimes concealed in a small pot
or jar, or covered with something else, when not re-
quired to give light; but it is said that thieves often
smell it in time to escape meeting the bearer. When
a person without a light is met by the police at night,
he seldom attempts resistance or flight: the punish-
ment to which he is liable is beating. The chief of
the police had an arbitrary power to put any crimi-
mal or offender to death, without trial, and when not
obnoxious, by law, to capital punishment; and so
also had many inferior officers, as will be seen in sub-
sequent pages of this work: but within the last two
or three years, instances of the exercise of such power
have been very rare, and I believe they would not
now be permitted. The officers of the Za'bit per-
form their mightly rounds with the military guards
merely as being better acquainted than the latter
with the haunts and practices of thieves and other
bad characters; and the Za'bit himself scarcely ever
exercises any penal authority beyond that of beating
or flogging.
Very curious measures, such as we read of in some
of the “Tales of a Thousand and One Nights,” were
often adopted by the police magistrates of Cairo, to
discover an offender, before the late innovations. I
may mention an instance. The authenticity of the
following case, and of several others of a similar
nature, is well known. I shall relate it in the man-
ner in which I have heard it told. A poor man ap-
plied one day to the Aſgha of the police, and said,
“Sir, there came to me, to-day, a woman, and she
GOVERNMENT. 165
said to me, ‘Take this choors *, and let it remain in
your possession for a time, and lend me five hundred
piasters:' and I took it from her, Sir, and gave her
the five hundred piasters, and she went away; and
when she was gone away, I said to myself, ‘Let me
look at this cloors;’ and I looked at it, and behold,
it was yellow brass: and I slapped my face, and said,
‘I will go to the A'gha, and relate my story to him;
perhaps he will investigate the affair, and clear it
Up 'for there is none that can help me in this matter
but thee.” The A'gha said to him, “Hear what I
tell thee, man. Take whatever is in thy shop; leave
nothing; and lock it up; and to-morrow morning
go early ; and when thou hast opened the shop, cry
out, ‘Alas for my property l’ then take in thy hand
two clods, and beat thyself with them, and cry,
‘Alas for the property of others!' and whoever says
to thee, ‘What is the matter with thee ?' do thou
answer, “The property of others is lost: a pledge
that I had, belonging to a woman, is lost; if it were
my own, I should not thus lament it;’ and this will
clear up the affair.” The man promised to do as he
was desired. He removed everything from his shop,
and early the next morning he went and opened it,
and began to cry out, “Alas for the property of
others ''' and he took two clods, and beat himself
With them, and went about every district of the city,
crying, “ Alas for the property of others! a pledge
that I had, belonging to a woman, is lost; if it were
my own, I should not thus lament it.” The woman
who had given him the ckoors in pledge heard of
this, and discovered that it was the man whom she
had cheated; so she said to herself, “Go and bring
an action against him.” She went to his shop,
riding on an ass, to give herself consequence, and
* An ornament worn on the crown of the head-dress by
Women, described in the Appendix to this work.
166 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
said to him, “Man, give me my property that is in
thy possession.” He answered, “It is lost.” “Thy
tongue be cut out !” she cried: “dost thou lose my
property? By Allah! I will go to the Agha, and
inform him of it.” “Go,” said he ; and she went,
and told her case. The A'gha sent for the man;
and when he had come, said to his accuser, “What
is thy property in his possession?” She answered,
“A cloors of red Venetian gold.” “Woman,” said
the Agha, “I have a gold ckoors here: I should
like to show it thee.” She said, “Show it me, Sir,
for I shall know my cloors.” The A'gha then un-
tied a handkerchief, and, taking out of it the ckoors
which she had given in pledge, said “Look.” She
looked at it and knew it, and hung down her head.
The A'gha said, “Raise thy head, and say where
are the five hundred piasters of this man.” She
answered, “Sir, they are in my house.” The execu-
tioner was sent with her to her house, but without
his sword; and the woman, having gone into the
house, brought out a purse containing the money,
and went back with him. The money was given to
the man from whom it had been obtained, and the
executioner was then ordered to take the woman
to the Roomey'leh (a large open place below the
Citadel), and there to behead her, which he did.
The markets of Cairo, and the weights and mea-
sures, are under the inspection of an officer called
the Mohhºtes'ib. He occasionally rides about the
town, preceded by an officer who carries a large pair
of scales, and followed by the executioners and nu-
merous other servants. Passing by shops, or through
the markets, he orders each shopkeeper, one after
another, or sometimes only one here and there, to
produce his scales, weights, and measures, and tries
whether they be correct. He also inquires the prices
of provisions at the shops where such articles are
GOVERNMENT. 167
sold. Often, too, he stops a servant, or other pas
senger, in the street, whom he may chance to meet
carrying any article of food that he has just bought,
and asks him for what sum, or at what weight, he
purchased it. When he finds that a shopkeeper has
incorrect scales, weights, or measures, or that he has
sold a thing deficient in weight, or above the regular
market-price, he punishes him on the spot. The
general punishment is beating or flogging. Once I
saw a man tormented in a different way, for selling
bread deficient in weight. A hole was bored through
his nose, and a cake of bread, about a span wide
and a finger's breadth in thickness, was suspended
to it by a piece of string. He was stripped naked,
with the exception of having a piece of linen about
his loins, and tied, with his arms bound behind him,
to the bars of a window of a mosque called the
Ashrafee'yeh, in the principal street of the metro-
polis, his feet resting upon the sill. He remained
thus about three hours, exposed to the gaze of the
multitude which thronged the street, and to the
Scorching rays of the sun.
A person who was appointed Mohli'tes'ib shortly
after my former visit to this country (Moos'tuf'a
Ka'shif, a Koord) exercised his power in a most
brutal manner, clipping men's ears (that is, cutting
off the lobe, or ear-lap), not only for the most trifling
transgression, but often for no offence whatever.
He once met an old man driving along several asses
laden with water-melons, and, pointing to one of the
largest of these fruits, asked its price. The old man
put his finger and thumb to his ear-lap, and said,
“Cut it, Sir.” He was asked again and again, and
gave the same answer. The Mohh'tesſib, angry, but
unable to refrain from laughing, said, “ Fellow, are
you mad or deaf.” “No,” replied the old man, “I
am neither mad nor deaf; but I know that, if were
168 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
to say the price of the melon is ten fud'dahs, you
would say ‘Clip his ear;’ and if I said five fud'dahs,
or one fud'dah, you would say ‘Clip his ear:’ there-
fore clip it at once, and let me pass on.” His
humour saved him. Clipping ears was the usual
punishment inflicted by this Mohh'tes'ib ; but some-
times he tortured in a different manner. A butcher,
who had sold some meat wanting two ounces of its
due weight, he punished by cutting off two ounces of
flesh from his back. A seller of koona'feh (a kind
of paste resembling vermicelli) having made his
customers pay a trifle more than was just, he caused
him to be stripped, and seated upon the round cop-
per tray on which the kooma'feh was baked, and
kept so until he was dreadfully burnt. He gene-
rally punished dishonest butchers by putting a hook
through their nose, and hanging a piece of meat to
it. Meeting, one day, a man carrying a large crate
full of earthen water-bottles from Semennoo'd, which
he offered for sale as made at Ckin'é, he caused his
attendants to break each bottle separately against the
vender's head. Moos'tuf'a Ka'shif also exercised his
tyranny in other cases than those which properly fell
under his jurisdiction. He once took a fancy to send
one of his horses to a bath, and desired the keeper
of a bath in his neighbourhood to prepare for re-
ceiving it, and to wash it well, and make its coat
very smooth. The bath-keeper, annoyed at so ex-
traordinary a command, ventured to suggest that, as
the pavements of the bath were of marble, the horse
might slip, and fall; and also, that it might take cold
on going out; and that it would, therefore, be better
for him to convey to the stable the contents of the
cistern of the bath in buckets, and there to perform
the operation. Moos'tuf’a Ka'shif said, “I see how
it is ; you do not like that my horse should go into
your bath.” He desired some of his servants to
GoverNMENT. 169
throw him down, and beat him with staves until he
should tell them to stop. They did so ; and beat the
poor man till he died.
A few years ago there used to be carried before
the Mohh'tes'ib, when going his rounds to examine
the weights and measures, &c., a pair of scales
larger than that used at present. Its beam, it is
said, was a hollow tube, containing some quicksilver;
by means of which, the bearer, knowing those per-
sons who had bribed his master, and those who had
not, easily made either scale preponderate.
As the Mohh'tes'ib is the overseer of the public
markets, so there are officers who have a similar
charge in superintending each branch of the Ba'sha's
trade and manufactures ; and some of these persons
have been allowed to perpetrate most abominable
acts of tyranny and cruelty. One of this class, who
was named 'Al'ee Bey, Na'zir el-Chooma'sh (or
Overseer of the Linen), when he found a person in
possession of a private loom, or selling the produce
of such a loom, generally bound him up in a piece of
his linen, soaked in oil and tar; then suspended him,
thus enveloped, to a branch of a tree, and set light
to the wrapper. After having destroyed a number
of men in this horrible manner, he was himself,
among many others, burnt to death, by the explosion
of a powder-magazine on the northern slope of the
Citadel of Cairo, in 1824, the year before my first
arrival in Egypt. A friend of mine, who spoke to
me of the atrocities of this monster, added, “When
his corpse was taken to be buried, the Sheykh El-
'Aroo'see (who was Sheykh of the great mosque
El-Az'har) recited the funeral prayers over it, in the
mosque of the Hhas'aney'n; and I acted as moobal'-
ligh (to repeat the words of the Imam): when the
Sheykh uttered the words, ‘Give your testimony
respecting him, and when I had repeated them, no
WQL. I. L.
170 MODERN EGY PTIANS.
one of all the persons present, and they were many,
presumed to give the answer, “He was of the vir-
tuous:” all were silent: to make the circumstance
more glaring, I said again, ‘Give your testimony
respecting him :' but not an answer was heard; and
the Sheykh, in confusion, said, but in a very low
voice, ‘May God have mercy upon him.' Now we
may certainly say of this cursed man,” continued my
friend, “that he is gone to hell: yet his wife is con-
stantly having khut’mehs (recitals of the Ckoor-a'n)
performed in her house for him; and lights two wax
candles, for his sake, every evening, at the niche of
the mosque of the Hhas'aney'n.”
Every quarter in the metropolis has its sheykh,
called Sheykh el-Hha'rah, whose influence is exerted
to maintain order, to settle any trifling disputes
among the inhabitants, and to expel those who dis-
turb the peace of their neighbours. The whole of
the metropolis is also divided into eight districts,
over each of which is a sheykh, called Sheykh el-
Toomm.
The members of various trades and manufactures
in the metropolis and other large towns have also
their respective sheykhs, to whom all disputes re-
specting matters connected with those trades or crafts
are submitted for arbitration ; and whose samction is
required for the admission of new members.
The servants in the metropolis are likewise under
the authority of particular sheykhs. Any person in
want of a servant may procure one by applying to
one of these officers, who, for a small fee (two or
three piasters), becomes responsible for the conduct
of the man whom he recommends. Should a ser-
Vant so engaged rob his master, the latter gives in-
formation to the Sheykh, who, whether he can
recover the stolen property or not, must indemnify
the master.
GOVERNMENT. 171
Even the common thieves used, not many years
since, to respect a superior, who was called their
sheykh. He was often required to search for stolen
goods, and to bring offenders to justice; which he
generally accomplished. It is very remarkable that
the same strange system prevailed among the ancient
Egyptians".
The Coptic Patriarch, who is the head of his
church, judges petty causes among his people in the
metropolis; and the inferior clergy do the same in
other places; but an appeal may be made to the
Cka'dee. A Moos'lim aggrieved by a Copt may de-
mand justice from the Patriarch or the Cka'dee : a
Copt who seeks redress from a Moos'lim must apply
to the Cka'dee. The Jews are similarly circum-
stanced. The Franks, or Europeans in general, are
not answerable to any other authority than that of
their respective consuls, excepting when they are ag-
gressors against a Moos'lim : they are then surren-
dered to the Turkish authorities, who, on the other
hand, will render justice to the Frank who is ag-
grieved by a Moos'lim.
The inhabitants of the country-towns and villages
are under the government of Turkish officers and of
their own countrymen. The whole of Egypt is
divided into several large provinces, each of which is
governed by an 'Osma'nlee (or a Turk); and these
provinces are subdivided into districts, which are
governed by native officers, with the titles of Ma-
moo'r and Na'zir. Every village, as well as town,
has also its Sheykh, called Sheykh el-Bel'ed; who
is one of the native Moos'lim inhabitants. All the
officers above mentioned, excepting the last, were
formerly Turks; and there were other Turkish go-
vernors of small districts, who were called Ka'shifs,
and Cha'im-macha'ms the change was made very
* See Diodorus Siculus, lib, i., cap. 80.
L 2
172 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
shortly before my present visit to this country; and
the Fella'hhee'n complain that their condition is
worse than it was before ; but it is generally from
the tyranny of their great Turkish governors that
they suffer most severely.
The following case will convey some idea of the
condition of Egyptian peasants in some provinces.
A Turk*, infamous for many barbarous acts, pre-
siding at the town of Tun'ta, in the Delta, went one
night to the government granary of that town, and
finding two peasants sleeping there, asked them who
they were, and what was their business in that place.
One of them said that he had brought 130 ardeb'bs
of corn from a village of the district; and the other,
that he had brought 60 ardeb'bs from the land be-
longing to the town. “You rascal l’” said the go-
vernor to the latter; “this man brings 130 ardeb'bs
from the lands of a small village; and you, but 60
from the lands of the town.” “This man,” answered
the peasant of Tunſta, “brings corn but once a week;
and I am now bringing it every day.” “Be silent!”
said the governor; and, pointing to a neighbouring
tree, ordered one of the servants of the granary to
hang the peasant to one of its branches. The order
was obeyed, and the governor returned to his house.
The next morning he went again to the granary,
and saw a man bringing in a large quantity of corn.
He asked who he was, and what quantity he had
brought; and was answered, by the hangman of the
preceding night, “This is the man, Sir, whom I
hanged by your orders, last night; and he has
brought 160 ardeb'bs.” “What " exclaimed the
governor: “ has he risen from the dead?” He was
answered “No, Sir: I hanged him so that his toes
* Sooleyma'n Agha, the Silahhda'r he has died since this
Was written,
GOVERNMENT. | 73
touched the ground; and when you were gone, I
untied the rope: you did not order me to kill him.”
The Turk muttered, “Aha! hanging and killing are
different things: Arabic is copious: next time I will
say kill. Take care of Ab'oo Da'-oo'd”.” This is
his nick-name.
Another occurrence may here be aptly related, as
a further illustration of the nature of the government
to which the people of Egypt are subjected. A
fella'hh, who was appointed Na'zir (or governor) of
the district of El-Men'oo'fee'yeh (the southernmost
district of the Delta), a short time before my pre-
sent visit to Egypt, in collecting the taxes at a
village, demanded, of a poor peasant, the sum of
sixty riya'ls (ninety fud'dahs each, making a sum
total of a hundred and thirty-five piasters, which was
then equivalent to about thirty shillings). The poor
man urged that he possessed nothing but a cow,
which barely afforded sustenance to himself and his
family. Instead of pursuing the method usually fol-
lowed when a fella'hh declares himself unable to pay
the tax demanded of him, which is to give him a
severe bastinading, the Nazir, in this case, sent the
Sheykhel-Bel'ed to bring the poor peasant’s cow,
and desired some of the fella'hhee'n to buy it. They
saying that they had not sufficient money, he sent
for a butcher, and desired him to kill the cow; which
was done: he then told him to divide it into sixty
pieces. The butcher asked for his pay; and was
given the head of the cow. Sixty fella'hhee'n were
then called together; and each of them was com-
pelled to purchase, for a riya'l, a piece of the cow.
The owner of the cow went, weeping and complain-
* Ab/oo Da'-oo'd, Ab'oo 'Al'ee, &c., are patronymics, used
by the Egyptian peasants in general, not signifying “Father
of Da'-ood,” “Father of 'Al'ee,” &c., but “whose father is
(or was) Da'-oo'd,” “ —'Al'ee,” &c.
L 3
174 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
ing, to the Na'zir's superior, the late Mohham'-mad
Bey, Defturda'r. “My master,” said he, “I am
oppressed and in misery: I had no property but
one cow, a milch cow: I and my family lived upon
her milk; and she ploughed for me, and threshed
my corn; and my whole subsistence was derived
from her : the Nazir has taken her, and killed her,
and cut her up into sixty pieces, and sold the pieces
to my neighbours; to each a piece, for one riya');
so that he obtained but sixty riya'ls for the whole,
while the value of the cow was a hundred and
twenty riya'ls, or more. I am oppressed and in
misery, and a stranger in the place, for I came from
another village; but the Nazir had no pity on me.
I and my family are become beggars, and have
nothing left. Have mercy upon me, and give me
justice: I implore it by thy hbaree'm.” The Deſtur-
da’r, having caused the Na'zir to be brought before
him, asked him, “Where is the cow of this fella'hh?”
“I have sold it,” said the Na'zir. “For how
much P’’ “For sixty riya'ls.” “Why did you kill
it and sell it?” “He owed sixty riya'ls for land: so
I took his cow, and killed it, and sold it for the
amount.” “Where is the butcher that killed it P”
“In Menoo'f.” The butcher was sent for, and
brought. The Defturda'r said to him, “Why did
you kill this man’s cow?” “The Nazir desired
me,” he answered, “and I could not oppose him:
if I had attempted to do so, he would have beaten
me, and destroyed my house: I killed it; and the
Nazir gave me the head as my reward.” “Man,”
said the Defturda'r, “do you know the persons who
bought the meat?” The butcher replied that he
did. The Defturda'r then desired his secretary to
write the names of the sixty men, and an order to
the sheykh of their village, to bring them to Menoo'ſ,
where this complaint was made. The Nazir and
GOVERNMENT, 175
butcher were placed in confinement till the next
morning; when the sheykh of the village came, with
the sixty fella'hhee'n. The two prisoners were then
brought again before the Defturda'r, who said to
the sheykh and the sixty peasants, “Was the value
of this man's cow sixty riya'ls P’’ “O our master,”
they answered, “her value was greater.” The Def.
turda'r sent for the Cka'dee of Menoo'f, and said to
him, “O Cka'dee, here is a man oppressed by this
Na'zir, who has taken his cow, and killed it; and
sold its flesh for sixty riya'ls: what is thy judg-
ment?” The Cka'dee replied, “He is a cruel ty-
rant, who oppresses every one under his authority.
Is not a cow worth a hundred and twenty riya'ls, or
more ? and he has sold this one for sixty riya'ls:
this is tyranny towards the owner.” The Deſturda'r
then said to some of his soldiers, “Take the Nazir,
and strip him, and bind him.” This done, he said
to the butcher, “Butcher, dost thou not fear God?
Thou hast killed the cow unjustly.” The butcher
again urged that he was obliged to obey the Na'zir.
“Then,” said the Defturda'r, “if I order thee to do
a thing, wilt thou do it?” “I will do it,” answered
the butcher. “Kill the Na'zir,” said the Defturda'r.
Immediately, several of the soldiers present seized
the Na'zir, and threw him down; and the butcher
cut his throat, in the regular orthodox manner of
killing animals for food. “Now, cut him up,” said
the Deſturda'r, “ into sixty pieces.” This was
done : the people concerned in the affair, and many
others, looking on ; but none daring to speak. The
sixty peasants who had bought the meat of the cow
were then called forward, one after another, and
each was made to take a piece of the flesh of the
Na'zir, and to pay for it two riya'ls; so that a hun-
dred and twenty riya'ls were obtained from them:
they were then dismissed; but the butcher remained.
176 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
The Cka'dee was asked what should be the reward
of the butcher; and answered that he should be
paid as he had been paid by the Na'zir. The Def-
turda'r therefore ordered that the head of the Na'zir
should be given to him; and the butcher went away
with his worse than valueless burden, thanking God
that he had not been more unfortunate, and scarcely
believing himself to have so easily escaped until he
arrived at his village. The money paid for the flesh
of the Nazir was given to the owner of the cow.
Most of the governors of provinces and districts
carry their oppression far beyond the limits to which
they are authorized to proceed by the Ba'sha; and
even the sheykh of a village, in executing the com-
mands of his superiors, abuses his lawful power :
bribes, and the ties of relationship and marriage, in-
fluence him and them; and by lessening the op-
pression of some, who are more able to bear it,
greatly increase that of others. But the office of a
sheykh of a village is far from being a sinecure : at
the period when the taxes are demanded of him, he
frequently receives a more severe bastinading than
any of his inferiors; for, when the population of a
village does not yield the sum required, their sheykh
is often beaten for their default ; and not always
does he produce his own proportion until he has been
well thrashed. All the fella'hhee'n are proud of the
stripes they receive for withholding their contribu-
tions; and are often heard to boast of the number of
blows which were inflicted upon them before they
would give up their money. Ammianus Marcellinus
gives precisely the same character to the Egyptians
of his time".
The revenue of the Ba'sha of Egypt is generally
º rº e te
said to amount to about three millions of pounds
* Lib. xxii. The more easily the peasant pays, the more is
he made to pay.
GOVERNMENT. 177
sterling *. Nearly half arises from the direct taxes
on land, and from indirect exactions from the fel-
la'hhee'n: the remainder, principally from the custom-
taxes, the tax on palm-trees, a kind of income-tax,
and the sale of various productions of the land; by
which sale, the government, in most instances, ob-
tains a profit of more than fifty per cent.
The present Ba'sha has increased his revenue to
this amount by most oppressive measures. He has
dispossessed of their lands all the private proprietors
throughout his dominions, allotting to each, as a
partial compensation, a pension for life, proportioned
to the extent and quality of the land which belonged
to him. The farmer has, therefore, nothing to leave
to his children but his hut, and perhaps a few cattle
and some small savings.
The direct taxes on land are proportioned to the
natural advantages of the soil. Their average
amount is about 8s. per fedda'n, which is nearly
equal to an English acret. But the cultivator can
never calculate exactly the full amount of what the
government will require of him : he suffers from
indirect exactions of quantities, differing in different
years, but always levied per fedda'n, of butter, honey,
wax, wool, baskets of palm-leaves, ropes of the fibres
of the palm-tree, and other commodities: he is also
obliged to pay the hire of the camels which convey
his grain to the government shoo'neh (or granary),
and to defray various other expenses. A portion of
the produce of his land is taken by the government #,
and sometimes the whole produce, at a fixed and fair
* Some estimate it at five millions; others, at little more
than two millions.
f The fedda'n has lately been reduced: it was equal to
about an English acre and one-tenth a few years ago; and
somewhat more at an earlier period.
# Of some productions, as cotton, flax, &c., the government
always takes the whole,
178 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
price, which, however, in many parts of Egypt, is
retained to make up for the debts of the insolvent
peasants *. The fella'hh, to supply the bare neces-
saries of life, is often obliged to steal, and convey
secretly to his hut, as much as he can of the produce
of his i. He may either himself supply the seed
for his land, or obtain it as a loan from the govern-
ment; but in the latter case he seldom obtains a
sufficient quantity ; a considerable portion being
generally stolen by the persons through whose hands
it passes before he receives it. To relate all the
oppressions which the peasantry of Egypt endure
would require too much space in the present work.
It would be scarcely possible for them to suffer
more, and live. It may be hardly necessary, there-
fore, to add, that few of them engage, with assiduity,
in the labours of agriculture, unless compelled to do
so by their superiors.
The Ba'sha has not only taken possession of the
lands of the private proprietors, but he has also
thrown into his treasury a considerable proportion
of the incomes of religious and charitable institu-
tions, deeming their accumulated wealth superfluous.
He first imposed a tax (of nearly half the amount
of the regular land-tax) upon all land which had
become a wuckf (or legacy unalienable by law) to
any mosque, fountain, public school, &c.; and after-
wards took absolute possession of such ands, granting
certain annuities in lieu of them, for keeping in repair
the respective buildings, and for the maintenance of
those persons attached to them, as Na'zirs (or
wardens), religious ministers, inferior servants, stu-
dents, and other pensioners. He has thus rendered
himself extremely odious to most persons of the
* Even the debts of the peasantry of one village are often
imposed upon the inhabitants of another who have paid all
that is justly due from them.
GOVERNMENT. 179
religious and learned professions, and especially to
the Na'zirs of the mosques, who too generally en-
riched themselves from the funds intrusted to their
care, which were, in most cases, superabundant. The
household property of the mosques and other public
institutions (the wuckfs of numerous individuals of
various ranks) the Ba'sha has hitherto left inviolate.
The tax upon the palm-trees has been calculated
to amount to about a hundred thousand pounds
Sterling. The trees are rated according to their qua-
lities; generally at a piaster and a half each.
The income-tax, which is called fir'deh, is gene-
rally a twelfth or more of a man’s annual income or
salary, when that can be ascertained. The maximum,
however, is fixed at five hundred piasters. In the
large towns it is levied upon individuals; in the
Villages, upon houses. The income-tax of all the
inhabitants of the metropolis amounts to eight thou-
sand purses, or about forty thousand pounds sterling.
The inhabitants of the metropolis and of other
large towns pay a heavy tax on grain, &c. The tax
on each kind of grain is eighteen piasters per ardeb'h
(or about five bushels); which sum is equal to the
price of wheat in the country after a good harvest.
180 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
CHAPTER W.
Dom Estic LIFE.
HAVING sufficiently considered the foundations of the
moral and social state of the Moos'lims of Egypt, we
may now take a view of their domestic life and ordi-
nary habits; and, first, let us confime our attention to
the higher and middle orders.
A master of a family, or any person who has
arrived at manhood, and is not in a menial situation,
or of very low condition, is commonly honoured with
the appellation of “the sheykh,” prefixed to his name.
The word “sheykh” literally signifies “an elder,” or
“an aged person;” but it is used as synonymous
with our appellation of “Mister *:” a sheree'f, or
descendant of the Prophet, is called “the seſſ'd,” or
“the sey'yid” (master, or lord), whatever be his
station. Many sheree'fs are employed in the lowest
offices: there are servants, dustmen, and beggars, of
the honoured race of Mohham'mad; but all of them
are entitled to the distinctive appellation above men-
tioned, and privileged to wear the green turban f;
many of them, however, not only among those of
humble station, but also among the wealthy, and
particularly the learned, assume neither of these pre-
* Though more particularly applied to a learned man, or a
reputed saint.
t Men and women of this caste often contract marriages
with persons who are not members of the same; and as the
title of sheree'ſ is inherited from either of the parents, the
number of persons who enjoy this distinction has become very
considerable.
DOM ESTIC LIFE. 181
rogatives; preferring the title of “sheykh,” and the
white turban. A man who has performed the pil-
grimage is generally called “the hka'gg *;” and a
woman who has alike distinguished herself, “the
hha'ggeh :” yet there are many pilgrims who, like
those sheree'ſs just before alluded to, prefer the title
of “sheykh.” The general appellation of a lady is
“the sitt,” which signifies “the mistress,” or “the
lady.”
Before I describe the ordinary habits of the master
of a family, I must mention the various classes of
persons of whom the family may consist. The hba-
ree'm, or the females of the house, have distinct
apartments allotted to them; and into these apart-
ments (which, as well as the persons to whom they
are appropriated, are called “the haree'm”) no
males are allowed to enter, excepting the master of
the family, and certain other near relations, and
children. The hharee'm may consist, first, of a wife,
or wives (to the number of four); secondly, of
female slaves, some of whom, namely, white and
Abyssinian slaves, are generally concubines, and
others (the black siaves) kept merely for servile
offices, as cooking, waiting upon the ladies, &c.;
thirdly, of female free servants, who are, in no case,
concubines, or not legitimately so. The male de-
pendants may consist of white and of black slaves,
and free servants; but are mostly of the last-men-
tioned class. Very few of the Egyptians avail them-
selves of the licence which their religion allows them,
of having four wives; and still smaller is the number
of those who have two or more wives, and concu-
bines besides. Even most of those men who have
* This word is thus pronounced by the inhabitants of Cairo
and the greater part of Egypt; but in most other countries
where Arabic is spoken, hka'īj. The Turks and Persians use,
instead of it, the synonymous Arabic word hka'ījee.
WOL. I. M
182 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
but one wife are content, for the sake of domestic
peace, if for no other reason, to remain without a
concubine slave: but some prefer the possession of
an Abyssinian slave to the more expensive main-
tenance of a wife; and keep a black slave-girl, or
an Egyptian female servant, to wait upon her, to
clean and keep in order the apartments of the hba-
ree'm, and to cook. It is seldom that two or more
wives are kept in the same house: if they be, they
generally have distinct apartments. Of male ser-
vants, the master of a family keeps, if he can afford
to do so, one or more to wait upon him and his male
guests; another, who is called a sack'cka, or water-
carrier, but who is particularly a servant of the
hharee’m, and attends the ladies when they go out *;
a bow'wa'b, or door-keeper, who constantly sits at the
door of the house; and a sa'is, or groom, for the
horse, mule, or ass. Few of the Egyptians have
memloo'ks, or male white slaves; most of these being
in the possession of rich’’Osma'nlees (or Turks);
and searcely any but Turks of high rank keep
eunuchs: but a wealthy Egyptian merchant is proud
of having a black slave to ride or walk behind him,
and to carry his pipe.
The Egyptian is a very early riser; as he retires
to sleep at an early hour: it is his duty to be up and
dressed before daybreak, when he should say the
morning-prayers. In general, while the master of
a family is performing the religious ablution, and
saying his prayers, his wife or slave is preparing for
him a cup of coffee, and filling his pipe, which she
presents to him as soon as he has acquitted himself
of his religious duties.
Many of the Egyptians take nothing before noon
but the cup of coffee and the pipe: others take a
* Unless there be a eunuch. The sack'cka is generally the
chief of the servants.
DOMESTIC LIFE. 183
light meal at an early hour. The meal of breakfast
(el-fatoo'r) generally consists of bread, with eggs,
butter, cheese, clouted cream, or curdled milk, &c.;
or of a futee'reh, which is a kind of pastry, Saturated
with butter, made very thin, and folded over and
over like a napkin : it is eaten alone, or with a little
honey poured over it, or sugar. A very common
dish for breakfast is foo'l moodem.'mes, or beans,
similar to our horse-beams, slowly boiled, during a
whole night, in an earthen vessel, buried, all but the
neck, in the hot ashes of an oven or a bath, and
having the mouth closely stopped: they are eaten
with linseed-oil, or butter, and generally with a little
lime-juice: thus prepared, they are sold in the morn-
ing in the soo'cks (or markets) of Cairo and other
towns. A meal is often made (by those who cannot
afford luxuries) of bread and a mixture called doock'-
ckah, which is commonly composed of salt and pepper,
with za'atar (or wild marjoram), or mint, or cumin-
seed, and with one, or more, or all, of the following
ingredients; namely, coriander-seed, cinnamon, se-
Same, and hkom/moos (or chick-peas): each mouthful
of bread is dipped in this mixture. The bread is
always made in the form of a round flat cake, gene-
rally about a span in width, and a finger’s breadth
in thickness.
The pipe and the cup of coffee are enjoyed by
almost all persons who can afford such luxuries, very
early in the morning, and oftentimes during the day.
There are many men who are scarcely ever seen
without a pipe either in their hand or carried behind
them by a servant. The smoker keeps his tobacco
for daily use in a purse or bag made of shawl-stuff,
or silk, or velvet, which is often accompanied with a
Small pouch containing a flint and steel, and some
agaric tinder, and is usually crammed into his bosom.
The pipe (which is called by many names, as shib'-
M 2
| 84 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
ook”, '00'd, &c.) is generally between four and five
feet long : some pipes are shorter, and some are of
greater length. The most common kind used in
Egypt is made of a kind of wood called qur'mush'-
uckf. The greater part of the stick (from the mouth-
piece to about three quarters of its length) is covered
with silk, which is confined at each extremity by gold
thread, often intertwined with coloured silks, or by a
tube of gilt silver; and at the lower extremity of the
covering is a tassel of silk. The covering was ori-
ginally designed to be moistened with water, in order
to cool the pipe, and, consequently, the smoke, by
evaporation : but this is only done when the pipe is
old, or not handsome. Cherry-stick pipes, which are
never covered, are also used by many persons, parti-
cularly in the winter. In summer, the smoke is not
so cool from the cherry-stick pipe as from the kind
before mentioned. The bowl (called hag'ar) is of
baked earth, coloured red or brown . The mouth-
piece (foom', or turkee'beh) is composed of two or
more pieces of opaque, light-coloured amber, inter-
joined by ornaments of enamelled gold, agate, jasper,
cornelian, or some other precious substance. It is
the most costly part of the pipe: the price of one of
the kind most generally used by persons of the
middle order, is from about one to three pounds
sterling. A wooden tube passes through it. This is
often changed, as it soon becomes foul from the oil
of the tobacco. The pipe also requires to be cleaned
very often, which is done with tow, by means of a
long wire. Many poor men in Cairo gain their live-
lihood by going about to clean pipes.
The tobacco smoked by persons of the higher
* From the Turkish chiboo'ck. # I believe it is maple,
# To preserve the matting or carpet from injury, a small
brass tray is often placed beneath the bowl; and a small tray
of wood is made use of to receive the ashes of the tobacco.
DOMESTIC
LIFE.
185
Pipes.

DOMESTIC LIFE. 187
orders, and some others, in Egypt, is of a very mild
and delicious flavour. It is mostly from the neigh-
bourhood of El-La'dickee'yeh, in Syria. The best
kind is the “mountain tobacco” (dookh'kha'n
geb'elee). A stronger kind, which takes its name
from the town of Soo'r (dookh'kha'n Soo'ree), some
times mixed with geb'elee, is used by most persons
of the middle orders. In smoking, the people of
Egypt and of other countries of the East draw in
their breath freely; so that much of the smoke
descends into the lungs; and the terms which they
use to express “smoking tobacco” signify “drinking
smoke,” or “drinking tobacco:” for the same word
signifies both “smoke” and “tobacco.” Few of
them spit while smoking: I have very seldom seen
any do so.
Some of the Egyptians use the Persian pipe, in
which the smoke passes through water. The pipe of
this kind most commonly used by persons of the
higher classes is called na'rgee'leh, because the vessel
that contains the water is a cocoa-nut, of which
“na'rgee'leh” is an Arabic name. Another kind,
which has a glass vase, is called shee'sheh *. Each
has a very long, flexible tube. A particular kind of
tobacco, called toomba'k, from Persia, is used in the
water-pipe: it is first washed several times, and put
into the pipe-bowl while damp; and two or three
pieces of live charcoal are placed on the top. Its
flavour is mild and very agreeable ; but the strong
inhalation necessary in this mode of smoking is in-
jurious to persons of delicate lungst. In using the
Persian pipe, the person as freely draws the smoke
* A Persian word, signifying “glass.”
# It is, however, often recommended in the case of a cough.
One of my friends, the most celebrated of the poets of Cairo,
who is much troubled by asthma, uses the na'rgee'leh almost
incessantly from morning till night.
188 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
into his lungs as he would inhale pure air. The
great prevalence of liver-complaints in Arabia is
attributed to the general use of the na'rgee'leh ; and
many persons in Egypt suffer severely from the same
cause. A kind of pipe, called go'zeh *, which is
similar to the na'rgee'leh, excepting that it has a short
cane tube, instead of the snake (or flexible one), and
no stand, is used by men of the lowest class, for
smoking both the toomba'k and the intoxicating
hhashee'sh, or hemp.
The coffee (ckah'wehi) is made very strong, and
without sugar or milk. The coffee-cup (which is
called finga'n) is small; generally holding mot quite
an ounce and a half of liquid. It is of porcelain, or
Dutch-ware, and, being without a handle, is placed
within another cup (called zurf), of silver or brass,
according to the circumstances of the owner, and,
both in shape and size, nearly resembling our egg-
cupi. In preparing the coffee, the water is first
Coffee-service.
* “Go'zeh” is the most common name. . . . . .
+ This is the name of the beverage; the berries (whether
whole or pounded) are called boon'n,
in a full service there are ten fingans and zurſsof unif
kinds, and often another finga'n and zurf of a superior kind


DOMESTIC LIFE. 189
made to boil: the coffee (freshly roasted, and
pounded) is then put in, and stirred; after which the
pot is again placed on the fire, once or twice, until
the coffee begins to simmer ; when it is taken off,
and its contents are poured out into the cups while
the surface is yet creamy. The Egyptians are ex-
cessively fond of pure and strong coffee, thus pre-
pared; and very seldom add sugar to it (though some
do so when they are unwell), and never milk or
cream; but a little cardamom-seed * is often added to
it. It is a common custom, also, to fumigate the
cup with the smoke of mastic; and the wealthy some-
times impregnate the coffee with the delicious fra-
grance of ambergrist. The most general mode of
doing this is, to put about a carat-weight of amber-
gris in a coffee-pot, and melt it over a fire; then make
the coffee in another pot, in the manner before de-
scribed, and, when it has settled a little, pour it into
the pot which contains the ambergris. Some persons
make use of the ambergris, for the same purpose,
in a different way; sticking a piece of it, of the
weight of about two carats, in the bottom of the cup,
and then pouring in the coffee : a piece of the weight
above-mentioned will serve for two or three weeks.
This mode is often adopted by persons who like
always to have the coffee which they themselves
drink flavoured with this perfume, and do not give
all their visiters the same luxury. The coffee-pot is
for the master of the house, or for a distinguished guest. In
the accompanying sketch, the coffee-pot (bek'reg, or buk'rug)
and the zurfs and tray are of silver, and are represented on a
scale of one-eighth of the real size. Below this set are a
similar zurf and finga'm, on a scale of one-fourth, and a brass
zurf, with the finga'n placed in it. . Some zurfs are of plain
or gilt silver filigree; and a few opulent persons have them of
gold. Many Mooslims, however, religiously disallow all
utensils of gold and of silver.
* Hhab/b-ha'n. + Am'bar, 5
M
190 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
sometimes brought in a vessel of silver or brass
(called 'a'z'ckee), containing burning charcoal. This
vessel is suspended by three chains. In presenting
he coffee, the servant holds the foot of the zurf with
º *º
º
****
º
'A'z'ckee and Mun'ckuds •.
his, thumb and first finger. In receiving the fingan
and zurf, he makes use of both hands, placing the left
beneath and the right above at the same instant.
In cold weather, a brasier, or chafing-dish (called
mun'ckud), of tinned copper, full of burning char-
ºl, is placed on the floor; and sometimes perfume
is burnt in it. The Egyptians take great delight in
Perfumes f; and often fumigate their apartments.
The substance most commonly used for this purpose
is frankincense of an inferior quality, called bakhoor
el-burr. Benzoint and aloes-woods are also used
for the same purpose.
v. 9º, ºf the latter (that to the right) is an earthen vessel.
*hof the above utensils is represented on a scale of about
**hth of the real size. . . . . . . .
# They sometimes ºme the beard and mustaches with
civet. 23: - - - - - -
f Ga'wee,




DOMESTIC LIFE. 191
If he can conveniently afford to keep a horse,
mule, or ass, or to hire an ass, the Egyptian is sel-
dom seen walking far beyond the threshold of his
own house; but very few of the people of Cairo, or
of the other towns, venture to expose themselves to
the suspicion of possessing superfluous wealth, and,
consequently, to greater exactions of the government
than they would otherwise suffer, by keeping horses *.
The modern saddle of the horse is generally padded,
and covered with cloth or velvet, embroidered, or
otherwise ornamented; and the head-stall and breast-
leather are adorned with silk tassels, and coins, or
other ornaments, of silver. Wealthy merchants, and
the great 'ool'ama, usually ride mules. The saddle
of the mule is, generally, nearly the same as that of
º An Ass equipped in the usual mann
* Whether walking or riding, a person of the
is usually attended by a servant bearing his pip
+ Nearly the whole of its coat is closely shorn.








192 MODERN EG YPTIANS.
the ass; of which a sketch is inserted : when the
rider is one of the ’ool'ama, it is covered with a
segga'deh (or prayer-carpet); so, also, sometimes is
the ladies’ saddle; from which, however, the former
differs considerably, as will be shown hereafter.
Asses are most generally used for riding through
the narrow and crowded streets of Cairo ; and there
are many for hire: their usual pace is an easy amble.
The ass is furnished with a stuffed saddle; the fore-
part of which is covered with red leather, and the
seat, most commonly, with a kind of soft woollen lace,
similar to our coach-lace, of red, yellow, and other
colours. The stirrup-leathers are, in every case, very
short. The horseman is preceded by a servant, or
by two servants, to clear the way; and, for the same
purpose, a servant generally runs beside or behind
the ass, or sometimes before; calling out to the pas-
sengers to move out of the way to the right or left,
or to take care of their backs, faces, sides, feet, or
heels". The rider, however, must be vigilant, and
not trust merely to his servant, or he may be thrown
down by the wide load of a camel; which accident,
indeed, is sometimes unavoidable in the more narrow
* , Yemeenak shima'lak 1 (to thy right! to thy left!), dah'-
rak! (thy back 1), wish'shak! (thy face (), gem'bak '(thy side 1),
rig'lak '(thy foot!), ka'abakº (thy heel !), and, to a Turk,
sa'ckin 1 (take care (), are the most common cries. The follow-
ing appellations are also often added:—ya' eſen/dee 1 (to a
Turk), ya'sheykh ( (to an old, or a middle-aged, Moos'lim
native), ya’ subſee 1 (to a young man), ya' welled ! or ya' ib'nee'ſ
(to a boy), ya'sheree'ft (to a green-turbaned descendant of
the Prophet), ya' m'al'lim / (to a native Christian, or a Jew),
ya'khawalgeh ( (to a Frank), ya' sitt' (to a lady, or a female
of the middle order), and ya bint that is, “daughter,” or
“girl” (to a poor female). A woman of the lower class, how-
ever old she be, the servant must call “girl,” or “daughter,"
or probably she will not move an inch out of the way. A
little girl, or young woman, is often called’aroo'sch, or “bride;”
and hka'ggeh, or “female pilgrim,” is an appellation often
given to women in the streets.
DOMESTIC LIFE. 193
and crowded streets. His pipe is generally carried
by the servant, and filled and lighted if he dismount
at a house or shop.
If he have no regular business to employ him, the
Egyptian spends the greater part of the day in riding,
paying visits, or making purchases; or in smoking
and sipping coffee and chatting with a friend at
home ; or he passes an hour or more in the morning
enjoying the luxuries of a public bath. At noon, he
has again to say prayers, if he fulfil the duties im-
posed on him by his religion: but, as I have remarked
on a former occasion, there are comparatively few
persons among the Egyptians who do not sometimes
neglect these duties; and there are many who
scarcely ever pray. Directly after mid-day, he dines;
then takes a pipe and a cup of coffee, and, in hot
weather, usually indulges himself with a map. Often
he retires to recline in the hbaree'm ; where a wife
or female slave watches over his repose, or rubs the
soles of his feet with her hands. On such occasions,
and at other times when he wishes to enjoy privacy,
every person who comes to pay him a visit is told,
by the servant, that he is in the hbaree’m ; and no
friend expects him to be called thence, unless on
very urgent business. From the time of the after-
noon prayers until sunset (the next time of prayer),
he generally enjoys, again, his pipe and a cup of
coffee in the society of some one or more of his
friends at home or abroad. Shortly after sunset,
he sups.
I must now describe the meals of dinner (el-
ghud'a) and supper (el-'ash'a), and the manner and
etiquette of eating. The same remarks will apply to
both these repasts; excepting that supper is always
the principal meal. It is the general custom to cook
in the afternoon; and what remains of the supper is
eaten the next day for dinner, when there are no
194 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
guests in the house. The master of a family gene-
rally dines and sups with his wife or wives and chil-
dren; but there are many men, particularly in the
higher classes, who are too proud to do this, or too
much engaged in society to be able to do so, unless
on some few occasions ; and there are men even in
the lowest class who scarcely ever eat with their wives
or children. When a person is paying a visit to a
friend, and the hour of dinner or supper arrives, it
is incumbent on the master of the house to order the
meal to be brought; and the same is generally con-
sidered necessary if the visiter be a stranger.
Every person, before he sits down to the table, or
rather to the tray, washes his hands*, and some-
times his mouth also, with soap and water; or, at
least, has some water poured upon his right hand. A
servant brings to him a basin and ewer (called tisht
and ibree'ck), of tinned copper, or of brass f. The
Tisht and Ibree'cki.
* see Mark, vii. 3. > ...
...t In the houses of some of the opulent these utensils are of
- I have also seen some of gilt copper. ~
The width of the former is fourteen inch es; and th
t of the latter, the same. -- º





DOMESTIC LIFE. 195
former of these has a cover pierced with holes, with
a raised receptacle for the soap in the middle ; and
the water, being poured upon the hands, passes
through this cover into the space below ; so that,
when the basin is brought to a second person, the
water with which the former one has washed is not
seen. A napkin (foo'tah) is given to each person.
|
r
-
ºš
§º
%
** *...*
Hill||
º |||||||
: ! f
º
*Tºtº
Washing before or after a Meal.
A round tray (called seenee'yeh) of tinned copper,
or sometimes of brass, generally between two and
three feet in diameter, serves as a table; being placed
upon a stool (koor'see) about fifteen inches high,
made of wood, and often covered with mother-of-
pearl, tortoise-shell, bone, &c. These two pieces of fur-
niture compose the soof'rah. Round cakes of bread,
such as have been before described, sometimes cut in


196 MODERN EG Y PTIANS.
halves across the middle, are placed round the tray,
with several limes, cut in two, to be squeezed over
any of the dishes that may require the acid; and a
spoon of box-wood, or of ebony, or tortoise-shell, is
put for each person. The bread often serves as a
plate. Several dishes of tinned copper, or of china,
containing different kinds of viands, vegetables, &c.,
are then placed upon the tray, according to the com-
mon fashion of the country; or only one dish is put
on at a time, after the Turkish mode.
The persons who are to partake of the repast sit
upon the floor around the tray; each with his mapkin
upon his knees: or, if the tray be placed near the
edge of a low deewa'n, which is often done, some of
Koor'see and Seenee'yeh.
the persons may sit on the deewa'm, and the others
on the floor: but, if the party be numerous, the tray
is placed in the middle of the room, and they sit
round it with one knee on the ground, and the other

Dom ESTIC LIFE. 197
(the right) raised; and, in this manner, as many as
twelve persons may sit round a tray three feet wide.
Each person bares his right arm to the elbow, or
tucks up the hanging end of his sleeve. Before he
begins to eat, he says “Bi-smil'lah” (In the name
of God)*. This is generally said in a low but audi-
ble voice; and by the master of the house first. It
A Party at Dinner or Supper+.
_* Or “ Bi-smi-plahi-r-rahhma'ni-r-rahheem" (In the name
of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful).
t One of the servants is holding a water-bottle; the other,
a fly-whisk made of palm-leaves.

198 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
is considered both as a grace and as an invitation to
any person to partake of the meal; and when any
one is addressed with “Bi-smi-l'lah,” or “Tafud'dal”
(which latter signifies, in this case, “Do me the
favour to partake of the repast”), he must reply, if
he do not accept the invitation, “Henee'-an” (or
“May it benefit”), or use some similar expression :
else it will be feared that an evil eye has been cast
upon the food; and they say that, “in the food that
is coveted " (or upon which an envious eye has
fallen), “there is no blessing.” But the manner in
which the Egyptian often presses a stranger to eat
with him shows that feelings of hospitality most
forcibly dictate the “Bi-smi-l'lah.” The master of
the house first begins to eat; the guests or others
immediately follow his example. Neither knives
nor forks are used: the thumb and two fingers of
the right hand serve instead of those instruments;
but the spoons are used for soup or rice, or other
things that cannot be easily eaten without; and both
hands may be used in particular cases, as will be
presently explained. When there are several dishes
upon the tray, each person takes of any that he likes,
or of every one in succession: when only one dish is
placed upon the tray at a time, each takes from it a
few mouthfuls, and it is quickly removed, to give
place to another”. To pick out a delicate morsel,
and hand it to a friend, is esteemed polite. The
manner of eating with the fingers, as practised in
Fgypt and other Eastern countries, is more delicate
than may be imagined by Europeans who have not
witnessed it, nor heard it correctly described. Each
person breaks off a small piece of bread, dips it in
the dish, and then conveys it to his mouth, together
with a small portion of the meat or other contents
* Our Saviour and his disciples thus ate from one dish,
See Matt. xxvi. 23.
DOMESTIC LIFE. 199
of the dish”. The piece of bread is generally doubled
together, so as to enclose the morsel of meat, &c.;
and only the thumb and first and second fingers are
commonly used. When a person takes a piece of
meat too large for a single mouthful, he usually
places it upon his bread.
The food is dressed in such a manner that it may
be easily eaten in the mode above-described. It
generally consists, for the most part, of yukh'nee, or
stewed meat, with chopped onions, or with a quan-
tity of ba'miyehs t, or other vegetables; cha'woor'-
meh, or a richer stew with onions; war'uck mahh'-
shee, or vine-leaves, or bits of lettuce-leaf or cab-
bage-leaf, with a mixture of rice and minced meat
(delicately seasoned with salt, pepper, and onions,
and often with garlic, parsley, &c.) wrapped up in
them, and boiled; cucumbers (khiya'r), or black,
white, or red ba'dinga'ns f, or a kind of gourd (called
ckar'â koo'seh) of the size and shape of a small
cucumber, which are all mahh'shee, or stuffed, with
the same composition as the leaves above-mentioned;
and keba'b, or small morsels of mutton or lamb,
roasted on skewers. Many dishes consist wholly, or
for the most part, of vegetables; such as cabbage,
purslain, spinach, beans, lupins, chick-peas, gourd cut
into small pieces, colocasié, lentils, &c. Fish, dressed
with oil, is also a common dish. Most of the meats
are cooked with clarified butter, on account of the
* Or he merely sops his morsel of bread in the dish. See
Ruth, ii. 14; and John, xiii. 26.
+ The balmiyeh is the esculent hibiscus: the part which
is eaten is a polygonal pod, generally between one and three
inches in length, and of the thickness of a small finger: it is
full of seeds and nutritive mucilage, and has a very pleasant
flavour. A little lime-juice is usually dropped on the plate of
ba'miyehs.
# The black and white baldinga'n are the fruits of two kinds
of egg-plant : the red is the tomata.
200 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
deficiency of fat, and are made very rich : the
butter, in the hot season, is perfectly liquid. When
a fowl is placed whole on the tray, both hands are
generally required to separate the joints; or two per-
sons, each using the right hand alone, perform this
operation together: but some will do it very cleverly
without assistance, and with a single hand. Many
of the Arabs will not allow the left hand to touch
food in aliy case”, excepting when the right is
maimed. A boned fowl, stuffed with raisins, pistachio-
nuts, crumbled bread, and parsley, is not an uncom-
mon dish ; and even a whole lamb, stuffed with
pistachio-nuts, &c., is sometimes served up; but the
meat is easily separated with one hand. Sweets are
often mixed with stewed meat, &c.; as, for instance,
'anna'h (or jujubes) and sugar with yukh'nee. Va-
rious kinds of sweets are also served up, and often in
no particular order with respect to other meats. A
favourite sweet dish is koona'feh, which is made of
wheat-flour, and resembles vermicelli, but is finer;
it is boiled, and sweetened with sugar or honey. A
dish of water-melon (buttee'kh), if in season, gene-
rally forms part of the meal. This is cut up about a
quarter of an hour before, and left to cool in the ex-
ternal air, or in a current of air, by the evaporation
of the juice on the surfaces of the slices; but it is
always watched during this time, lest a serpent should
come to it, and poison it by its breath or bite ; for
this reptile is said to be extremely fond of the water-
melon, and to smell it at a great distance. Water-
melons are very abundant in Egypt, and mostly very
delicious and wholesome. A dish of boiled rice
(called rooz'z moofelfel, the pila'v of the Turks),
mixed with a little butter, and seasoned with salt and
pepper, is generally that from which the last morsels
are taken; but, in the houses of the wealthy, this is
* Because used for unclean purposes.
MODERN EGYPTIANS.
Water-bottles ( Do'rucks), with covers of different kinds. The bottles in
the foremost row are one-sixth of the real size.
Water-bottles (Ckooriehs),


I)OMESTIC LIFE. 203
often followed by a bowl of khoosha'f", a sweet
drink, commonly consisting of water with raisins
boiled in it, and then sugar: when cool, a little rose-
water is dropped into itt. The water-melon fre-
quently supplies the place of thisł.
The Egyptians eat very moderately; though
quickly. Each person, as soon as he has finished,
says “Elhham'doo li-l'la'h' (Praise be to God)S,
and gets up, without waiting till the others have
done ||: he then washes his hands and mouth with
Soap and water; the basin and ewer being held by a
servant, as before.
The only beverage at meals is water of the Nile,
or, sometimes, at the tables of the rich, sherbet,
which will presently be described. The water of the
Nile is remarkably good ; but that of all the wells in
Cairo and in other parts of Egypt is slightly brackish.
In general, water is drunk either from an earthen
bottle or from a brass cup". The water-bottles are of
two kinds; one called do'ruck, and the other
ckool'leh : the former has a narrow, and the latter a
wide, mouth. They are made of a greyish, porous
earth, which cools the water deliciously, by evapora-
* So called from the Persian kho'sh a'b, or “sweet water.”
# It is drunk with ladles of tortoise-shell, or cocoa-nut.
f The principal and best fruits of Egypt are dates, grapes,
Oranges and citrons of various kinds, common figs, sycamore-
figs, prickly-pears, pomegranates, bananas, and a great variety
of melons. From this enumeration it appears that there are
not many good fruits in this country.
§ Or “El-hham'doo li-/'la'hi rub'bi-l-'a'lamee'n” (Praise be
to God, the Lord of all creatures).
|| It is deemed highly improper to rise during a meal, even
from respect to a superior who may approach. It has been
mentioned before, that the Prophet forbade his followers to
rise while eating, or when about to eat, even if the time of
praver arrived.
* The ancient Egyptians used drinking-cups of brass.
(Herodotus, lib. ii. cap. 37.)
204 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
tion; and they are, therefore, generally placed in a
current of air. The interior is often blackened with
the smoke of some resinous wood, and then per-
fumed with the smoke of chief"al"-wood and mastic ;
the latter used last. A small earthen vessel (called
mib'khar'ah) is employed in performing these opera-
tions, to contain the burning charcoal, which is
Earthen Mib'khar'ah, and China Do'ruck, one-sixth of the real size.
required to ignite the wood, and the mastic; and the
water-bottle is held inverted over it. A strip of rag
is tied round the neck of the do'ruck, at the distance
of about an inch from the mouth, to prevent the
smoke-black from extending too far upon the exterior
of the bottle. Many persons also put a little orange-
flower-water into the bottles +. This gives a very
agreeable flavour to their contents. The bottles have
stoppers of silver, brass, tin, wood, or palm-leaves;
and are generally placed in a tray of tinned copper,
which receives the water that exudes from them. In
cold weather, china bottles are used in many mouses
instead of those above-described, which then render
the water too cold. The two most common forms of
drinking-cups are here represented. Every pers
* Amyris kaſal. Forskal. An Arabian free,
+ Mo'yet zahr, or mo'yet zahr na'rin'g.

DOMESTIC LIFE. 205
Brass Drinking-cups, one-fifth of the real size.
before and after drinking, repeats the same ejacula-
tions as before and after eating ; and this he does
each time that he drinks during a meal: each friend
present then says to him “May it benefit”*; to
which the reply is “God benefit thee” +.
Though we read, in some of the delightful “Tales
of a Thousand and One Nights,” of removing “ the
table of viands” f and bringing “ the table of wine”$,
this prohibited beverage is not often introduced in
general society, either during or after the meal, or at
other times, by the Moos'lims of Egypt in the present
day. Many of them, however, habitually indulge in
drinking wine with select parties of their acquaint-
ance. The servants of a man who is addicted to this
habit know such of his friends as may be admitted, if
they happen to call when he is engaged in this un-
lawful pleasure; and to all others they say that he is
not at home, or that he is in the hbaree'm. Drink-
ing wine is indulged in by such persons before and
after supper, and during that meal; but it is most
approved before supper; as they say that it quickens
the appetite. The “table of wine" is usually thus
prepared, according to a penitent Moos'lim wine-
bibber, who is one of my friends (I cannot speak on
this subject from my own experience; for, as I never
* Hanee'-an. -
# Allah yehen'nee'k (for yoohen'nee'É).
# Soof"rat el-ta'a'm, § Soof"rat el-mooda'm.
WOI, I. - N

206 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
drink wine, I have never been invited to join a Moos'-
lim wine-party):—a round japanned tray, or a glass
dish, is placed on the stool before-mentioned: on this
are generally arranged two cut-glass jugs, one con-
taining wine”, and the other, rosoglio f; and some-
times two or more bottles besides: several small
glasses are placed with these ; and glass saucers of
dried and fresh fruits, and, perhaps, pickles: lastly,
two candles, and, often, a bunch of flowers stuck in a
candlestick, are put upon the tray.
The Egyptians have various kinds of sherbets, or
sweet drinks. The most common kind f is merely
sugar and water; but very sweet: lemonadeś is ano-
ther: a third kind, the most esteemed ||, is prepared
from a hard conserve of violets, made by pounding
violet-flowers, and them boiling them with sugar : this
violet-sherbet is of a green colour: a fourth'ſ kind is
prepared from mulberries: a fifth **, from sorrel.
There is also a kind of sherbet sold in the streets fif,
which is made with raisins, as its name implies; ano-
ther kind, which is a strong infusion of licorice-root,
and called by the name of that root #; and a third
kind, which is prepared from the fruit of the locust-
tree, and called, in like manner, by the name of the
fruitS$. The sherbet is served in covered glass cups
containing about half a pint measure, or rather more;
some of which (the more common kind) are orna-
mented with gilt flowers, &c. The sherbet-cups are
placed on a round tray, and covered with a round
* Nebee'd, or mooda'm. + 'Am/berlee.
# Called simply shurba't, or shurba't sook'kar, snerbet of
sugar.
§ Ley'moo'na'teh, or shara'b el-leymoo'n.
| Shara'b el-benef'seg. *| Shara'b et-too/t.
* Shara'bel-hhommey'd.
if Called zebee'b. This name is also given to an intoxi-
cating conserve.
# Er'ck soo's. §§ Khurroo'b.
DOMESTIC LIFE. 207
piece of embroidered silk, or cloth of gold. On the
right arm of the person who presents the sherbet is
hung a large oblong napkin with a wide embroidered
border of gold and coloured silks at each end. This
is ostensibly offered for the purpose of wiping the lips
after drinking the sherbet; but it is really not so
much for use as for display: the lips are seldom or
scarcely touched with it.
Sherbet-cups.
The interval between supper and the 'esh'é, or
time of the night-prayers, is generally passed in
smoking a pipe, and sipping a cup of coffee. The
enjoyment of the pipe may be interrupted by prayer,
but is continued afterwards; and sometimes draughts
or chess, or some other game, or at least conversa-
tion, contributes to make the time glide away more
agreeably. The members of an Egyptian family in
easy circumstances may pass their time very plea-
santly; but they do so in a quiet way. The men
often pay evening visits to their friends at, or after,
supper-time. They commonly use, on these and
similar occasions, a folding lantern (fa'moo's), com-
posed of waxed cloth strained over rings of wire, and
a top and bottom of tinned copper. This kind of
lantern is here represented, together with the com-
mon lamp (ckandee'l), and its usual receptacle of
ood, which serves to protect the flame from the
wind. The lamp is a small vessel of glass, having a
- N 2



208 MODERN EGY PTIANS
little tube in the bottom, in which is stuck a wick
formed of cotton twisted round: a piece of straw.
Some water is poured in first, and then the oil. A
Lantern and Lamp.
lamp of this kind is often hung over the entrance of a
house. By night, the interiors of the houses present
a more dull appearance than in the day: the light of
one or two candles (placed on the floor or on a stool,
and sometimes surrounded by a large glass shade, or
enclosed in a glass lantern, on account of the win-
dows being merely of lattice-work) is generally
thought sufficient for a large and lofty saloon. Few
of the Egyptians sit up later, in summer, than three
or four o'clock, which is three or four hours after
sunset; for their reckoning of time is from sunset
at every season of the year: in winter they often sit
up five or six hours. - %
Thus the day is usually spent by men of moderate
wealth who have no regular business to attend to,
or none that requires their own active superintend
ence. But it is the habit of the tradesman to repair,


DOM ESTIC LIFE. 209
soon after breakfast, to his shop or warehouse, and
to remain there until near sunset". He has leisure
to smoke as much as he likes; and his customers
often smoke with him. To some of these he offers
his own pipe (unless they have theirs with them),
and a cup of coffee, which is obtained from the
nearest coffee-shop. A great portion of the day he
sometimes passes in agreeable chat with customers,
or with the tradesmen of the next or opposite shops.
He generally says his prayers without moving from
his shop. Shortly after the noon-prayers, or some-
times earlier or later, he eats a light meal, such as a
plate of keba'b and a cake of bread (which a boy or
maid daily brings from his house, or procures in the
market), or some bread and cheese or pickles, &c.,
which are carried about the streets for sale; and if
a customer be present, he is always invited, and often
pressed, to partake of this meal. A large earthen
bottle of water is kept in the shop, and replenished,
whenever necessary, by a passing sack'cka, or water-
carrier. In the evening, the tradesman returns to
his house, eats his supper, and, soon after, retires to
bed.
It is the general custom in Egypt for the husband
and wife to sleep in the same bed, excepting among
the wealthy classes, who mostly prefer separate beds.
The bed is usually thus prepared in the houses of
persons of moderate wealth : a mattress f, stuffed
with cottom, about six feet long, and three or four
feet in width, is placed upon a low frame f: a pillow
is placed for the head, and a sheet spread over this
and the mattress: the only covering in summer is
generally a thin blanket S; and in winter a thick
* A description of the shops, and a further account of the
tradesmen of Cairo, will be given in another chapter, on In-
dustry.
t Toorra'hhah. # Seree'r. § Hhera'm.
N 3
210 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
quilt *, stuffed with cotton. If there be no frame,
the mattress is placed upon the floor; or two mat-
tresses are laid one upon the other, with the sheet,
pillow, &c.; and often, a cushion of the deewa'n is
placed on each side. A musquito-curtain f is sus-
pended over the bed by means of four strings, which
are attached to nails in the wall. The dress is seldom
changed on going to bed; and in winter many
people sleep with all their ordinary clothes on, ex-
cepting the gib'beh, or cloth coat; but in summer
they sleep almost, or entirely, unclad. In winter, the
bed is prepared in a small closet (called khuz'neh):
in summer, in a large room. All the bed-clothes are
rolled up, in the day-time, and placed on one side,
or in the closet above-mentioned. During the
hottest weather many people sleep upon the house-
top, or in a fes'hhah, which is an uncovered apart-
ment; but ophthalmia and other diseases often result
from their thus exposing themselves to the external
air at night. The most common kind of frame for
the bed is made of palm-sticks; but this harbours
bugs, which are very abundant in Egypt in the sum-
mer, as fleas are in the winter. These and other
plagues, to which the people of Egypt are exposed by
night and day, have been before mentioned . With
regard to the most disgusting of them, the lice, it
may here be added, that they are not always to be
avoided even by the most scrupulous cleanliness: but
a person who changes his linen after two or three
days’ wear is very seldom annoyed by these vermin;
and when he is, they are easily removed, not attach-
ing themselves to the skin: they are generally found
in the linen. A house may be kept almost clear of
* Lehhalf.
t Na'moo'see'yeh. It is composed of muslin, or linen of an
open texture, or crape, and forms a close canopy.
# In the Introduction to this work.
DOMESTIC LIFE. 21 1
fleas by frequent washing and sweeping; and the
flies may be kept out by placing nets at the doors
and windows: but it is impossible to purify an
Egyptian house from bugs, if it contain much wood-
work, which is generally the case.
The male servants” lead a very easy life, with the
exception of the sa'is, or groom, who, whenever his
master takes a ride, runs before or beside him ; and
this he will do in the hottest weather for hours to-
gether, without appearing fatigued. Almost every
wealthy person in Cairo has a bow'wa'b, or door-
keeper, always at the door of his house, and several
other male servants. Most of these are natives of
Egypt; but many Nubians are also employed as
servants in Cairo and other Egyptian towns. The
latter are mostly bow'wa'bs, and are generally esteemed
more honest than the Egyptian servants; but I am
inclined to think, from the opinion of several of my
friends, and from my own experience, that they have
acquired this reputation only by superior cunning.
The wages of the male servants are very small, usually
from one to two dollars (or from four to eight shil-
lings) per month: but they receive many presents.
On the ’eed (or festival) after Rum'ada'n, the master
generally gives, to each of his servants, part or the
whole of a new suit of clothes, consisting of an 'er'ee
(a blue shirt, which is their outer dress), a turboo'sh,
and a turban. Other articles of dress which they
require during the year (excepting, sometimes, shoes)
the servants are obliged to provide for themselves.
Besides what their master gives them, they also
receive small presents of money from his visiters, and
from the trades-people with whom he deals; particu-
larly whenever he has made any considerable pur-
chase. They sleep in the clothes which they wear
* Khadda'mee'n, singular khad'da'm.
212 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
during the day, each upon a small mat; and in winter
they cover themselves with a cloak” or blanket. In
some respects, they are often familiar in their manners
to their master, even laughing and joking with him :
in others, they are very submissive; paying him the
utmost honour, and bearing corporal chastisement
from his hand with child-like patience.
The male black slave f is treated with more consi-
deration than the free servant; and leads a life well
suited to his lazy disposition. If discontented with
his situation, he can legally compel his master to
sell him. Many of the slaves in Egypt wear the
Turkish military dress. They are generally the
greatest fanatics in the East; and more accustomed
than any other class to insult the Christians and
every people who are not of the faith which they have
themselves adopted, without knowing more of its doc-
trines than Arab children who have been but a week
at school.
An acquaintance with the modern inhabitants of
Egypt leads us often to compare their domestic habits
with those of Europeans in the middle ages; and,
perhaps, in this comparison, the points of resem-
blance which we observe, with regard to the men,
are more striking than the contrasts; but the reverse
will be found to be the case when we consider the
state of the females.
* See Exodus, xxii. 26, 27. # Called 'abd
MARRIAGE. 213
CHAPTER VI.
DoMESTIC LIFE—continued.
QUITTING the lower apartments, where we have been
long detained, I must enter upon a more presump-
tuous office than I have yet undertaken, which is that
of a guide to the Hharee’m ; but first I must give
Some account of marriage, and the marriage ceremo-
IlleS.
To abstain from marrying when a man has at-
tained a sufficient age, and when there is no just
impediment, is esteemed, by the Egyptians, improper,
and even disreputable. For, being myself guilty of
this fault (to use no harsher term), I have suffered
much inconvenience and discomfort during my stay
in this country, and endured many reproaches.
During my former visit to Egypt, having occasion to
remove from a house which I had occupied for some
months in a great thoroughfare-street in Cairo, I en-
gaged another house, in a neighbouring quarter: the
lease was written, and some money paid in advance ;
but, a day or two after, the agent of the owner came
to inform me that the inhabitants of the quarter,
who were mostly sheree'fs (or descendants of the
Prophet), objected to my living among them, because
I was not married. He added, however, that they
would gladly admit me if I would even purchase a
female slave, which would exempt me from the oppro-
brium cast upon me by the want of a wife. I replied,
that, being merely a sojourner in Egypt, I did not like
either to take a wife or female slave, whom I must
214 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
soon abandon: the money that I had paid was, there-
fore, returned to me. In another quarter I was less
unfortunate; such heavy objections on account of my
being unmarried were not raised : I was only required
to promise that no persons wearing hats should come
into the quarter to visit me; yet, after I had established
myself in my new residence, the sheykh (or chief)
of the quarter often endeavoured to persuade me to
marry. All my arguments against doing so he
deemed of no weight. “You tell me,” said he, “that
in a year or two you mean to leave this country:
now, there is a young widow, who, I am told, is
handsome, living within a few doors of you, who will
be glad to become your wife, even with the express
understanding that you shall divorce her when you
quit this place; though, of course, you may do so
before, if she should not please you.” This young
damsel had several times contrived to let me catch
a glimpse of a pretty face, as I passed the house in
which she and her parents lived. What answer could
I return ? I replied, that I had actually, by accident,
seen her face, and that she was the last woman I
should wish to marry, under such circumstances; for
I was sure that I could never make up my mind to
part with her. But I found it rather difficult to
silence my officious friend.—It has been mentioned
before, in the Introduction, that an unmarried man,
or one who has not a female slave, is usually obliged
to dwell in a weka'leh, unless he have some near
relation with whom to reside; but that Franks are
now exempted from this restriction.
The Egyptian females arrive at puberty much
earlier than the natives of colder climates. Many
marry at the age of twelve or thirteen years; and
some remarkably precocious girls are married at the
age of ten " : but such occurrences are not common.
*They are often betrothed two or three or more years earlier.
MARRIAGE. 215
Few remain unmarried after sixteen years of age.
An Egyptian girl at the age of thirteen, or even
earlier, may be a mother. The women of Egypt are
generally very prolific; but females of other countries
residing here are often childless; and the children of
foreigners, born in Egypt, seldom live to a mature
age, even when the mother is a native. It was on
this account that the emancipated Memlooks (or
military slaves) usually adopted Memlooks.
It is very common among the Arabs of Egypt and
of other countries, but less so in Cairo than in other
parts of Egypt, for a man to marry his first cousin.
In this case, the husband and wife continue to call
each other “cousin”; because the tie of blood is in-
dissoluble, but that of matrimony very precarious.
A union of this kind is generally lasting, on account
of this tie of blood; and because mutual intercourse
may have formed an attachment between the parties
in tender age; though, if they be of the higher or
middle classes, the young man is seldom allowed to
See the face of his female cousin, or even to meet and
converse with her, after she has arrived at or near the
age of puberty, until she has become his wife.
Marriages in Cairo are generally conducted, in the
case of a virgin, in the following manner; but in that
of a widow, or a divorced woman, with little cere-
mony. Most commonly, the mother, or some other
near female relation, of the youth or man who is
desirous of obtaining a wife describes to him the
personal and other qualifications of the young women
with whom she is acquainted, and directs his choice” :
or he employs a kha't’beh, or kha'tibeh; a woman
whose regular business is to assist men in such cases.
* Abraham's sending a messenger to his own country to
seek a wife for his son Isaac (see Genesis, xxiv.) was just such
a measure as most modern Arabs would adopt under similar
circumstances, if easily practicable,
216 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
Sometimes two or more women of this profession
are employed. A kha’t beh gives her report confi-
dentially, describing one girl as being like a gazelle,
pretty and elegant and young ; and another, as not
pretty, but rich, and so forth. If the man have a
mother and other near female relations, two or three
of these usually go with a kha't’beh to pay visits to
several hbaree’ms, to which she has access in her
professional character of a match-maker; for she is
employed as much by the women as by the men.
She sometimes also exercises the trade of a della'leh
(or broker) for the sale of ornaments, clothing, &c.,
which procures her admission into almost every hba-
ree'm. The women who accompany her in search
of a wife for their relation are introduced to the dif-
ferent hbaree’ms merely as ordinary visiters; and as
such, if disappointed, they soon take their leave,
though the object of their visit is of course understood
by the other party: but, if they find among the females
of a family (and they are sure to see all who are
marriageable) a girl or young woman having the
necessary personal qualifications, they state the mo-
tive of their visit, and ask, if the proposed match
be not at once disapproved of, what property, orna-
ments, &c., the object of their wishes may possess.
If the father of the intended bride be dead, she may
perhaps possess one or more houses, shops, &c.; and
in almost every case a marriageable girl of the mid-
dle or higher ranks has a set of ornaments of gold
and jewels. The women-visiters, having asked these
and other questions, bring their report to the expect-
ant youth or man. If satisfied with their report, he
gives a present to the kha't'beh, and sends her again
to the family of his intended wife, to make known to
them his wishes. She generally gives an exaggerated
description of his personal attractions, wealth, &c.
For instance, she will say, of a very ordinary young
MARRIAGE. 217
man, of scarcely any property, and of whose dispo-
sition she knows nothing, “My daughter, the youth
who wishes to marry you is young, graceful, elegant,
beardless, has plenty of money, dresses handsomely,
is fond of delicacies, but cannot enjoy his luxuries
alone; he wants you as his companion; he will give
you everything that money can procure; he is a
stayer-at-home, and will spend his whole time with
you, caressing and fondling you.”
The parents may betroth their daughter to whom
they please, and marry her to him without her con-
sent, if she be not arrived at the age of puberty; but,
after she has attained that age, she may choose a
husband for herself, and appoint any man to arrange
and effect her marriage. In the former case, however,
the khat'beh and the relations of a girl sought in
marriage usually endeavour to obtain her consent to
the proposed union. Very often, a father objects to
giving a daughter in marriage to a man who is not
of the same profession or trade as himself; and to
marrying a younger daughter before an elder”.
The bridegroom can scarcely ever obtain even a
surreptitious glance at the features of his bride, until
he finds her in his absolute possession, unless she
belong to the lower classes of society; in which case,
it is easy enough for him to see her face.
When a female is about to marry, she should have
a wekeel (or deputy) to settle the compact, and con-
clude the contract, for her, with her proposed hus-
band. If she be under the age of puberty, this is
absolutely necessary; and in this case, her father, if
living, or (if he be dead) her paternal grandfather,
or a guardian appointed by will, or by the Cka'dee,
performs the office of wekee'l; but, if she be of age,
she appoints her own wekee'l, or may even make
the contract herself; though this is seldom done.
* See Genesis, xxix. 26.
WOL. I. O
218 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
After a youth or man has made choice of a female
to demand in marriage, on the report of his female
relations, or that of the kha't’beh, and, by proxy,
made the preliminary arrangements before described
with her and her relations in the hnaree'm, he repairs
with two or three of his friends to her wekee'l. Hav-
ing obtained the wekee'l’s consent to the union, if the
infºnded bride be under age, he asks what is the
annount of the required mahr (or dowry).
The giving of a dowry is indispensable, as I have
mentioned in a former chapter. It is generally calcu-
lated in riya'ls, of ninety fud'dahs (now equivalent
to five pence and two fifths) each. The riya' is an
imaginary money; not a coin. The usual amount
of the dowry, if the parties be in possession of a
moderately good income, is about a thousand riya'ls
(or twenty-two pounds ten shillings); or, sometimes,
not more than half that sum. The wealthy calculate
the dowry in purses, of five hundred piasters (or, now,
five pounds sterling) each ; and fix its amount at ten
purses, or more. It must be borne in mind that we
are considering the case of a virgin bride; the dowry
of a widow or a divorced woman is much less. In
settling the amount of the dowry, as in other pecuniary
transactions, a little haggling frequently takes place :
if a thousand riya'ls be demanded through the wekee'l,
the party of the intended bridegroom will probably
make an offer of six hundred : the former party then
gradually lowering the demand, and the other in-
creasing the offer, they at length agree to fix it at
eight hundred. It is generally stipulated that two-
thirds of the dowry shall be paid immediately before
the marriage-contract is made; and the remaining
third held in reserve, to be paid to the wife in case
of divorcing her against her own consent, or in case
of the husband's death.
This affair being settled, and confirmed by all per-
MARRIAGE. 219
sons present reciting the opening chapter of the
Ckoor-a'n (the Fa't'hhah), an early day (perhaps
the day next following) is appointed for paying the
money, and performing the ceremony of the marriage-
contract, which is properly called 'ackd em-nika'hh”.
The making this contract is commonly called ketb
el-kita'b (or the writing of the writ); but it is very
seldom the case that any document is written to con.
firm the marriage, unless the bridegroom is about to
travel to another place, and fears that he may have
occasion to prove his marriage where witnesses of the
contract cannot be procured. Sometimes the marriage-
contract is concluded immediately after the arrange-
ment respecting the dowry, but more generally a day
or two after. On the day appointed for this cere-
mony, the bridegroom, again accompanied by two or
three of his friends, goes to the house of the bride,
usually about noon, taking with him that portion
of the dowry which he has promised to pay on this
occasion. He and his companions are received by
the bride’s wekee'l; and two or more friends of the
latter are usually present. It is necessary that there
be two witnesses (and those must be Moos'lims) to
the marriage-contract, unless in a situation where
witnesses cannot be procured. All persons present
recite the Fa't'hhah; and the bridegroom then pays
the money. After this, the marriage-contract is
performed. It is very simple. The bridegroom and
the bride’s wekee'l sit upon the ground, face to face,
with one knee upon the ground, and grasp each
other's right hand, raising the thumbs, and pressing
them against each other. A fick'eef is generally
* It is a common belief in Egypt, that, if any one make a
marriage-contract in the month of Mohhar'ram, the marriage
will be unhappy, and soon dissolved: wherefore, few persons
O SO.
t This appellation is commonly given to a schoolmaster,
O 2
220 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
employed to instruct them what they are to say.
Having placed a handkerchief over their joined hands,
he usually prefaces the words of the contract with a
khoot'beh, consisting of a few words of exhortation and
prayer, with quotations from the Ckoora'n and Tradi-
tions, on the excellency and advantages of marriage.
He then desires the bride's wekee'ſ to say “I betroth
[or marry] to thee my daughter [or the female who
has appointed me her wekee'ſ], such a one [naming
the bride], the virgin * [or the adult virgin], for a
dowry of such an amount.” (The words “for a
dowry,” &c., are sometimes omitted.) The bride’s
wekee'l having said this, the bridegroom, prompted in
the same manner by the fick'ee, says “I accept from
thee her betrothal [or marriage] to myself, and take
her under my care, and bind myself to afford her my
protection; and ye who are present bear witness of
this.” The wekee'] addresses the bridegroom in the
same manner a second and a third time; and each
time, the latter replies as before. They then gene-
rally add, “And blessing be on the Apostles, and
praise be to God, the Lord of all creatures, amen :”
after which, all present again repeat the Fa't'hhah.
It is not always the same form of khoot'beh that is
recited on these occasions: any form may be used;
and it may be repeated by any person : it is not even
necessary, and is often altogether omitted. The
contract concluded, the bridegroom sometimes (but
seldom unless he be a person of the lower orders)
kisses the hands of his friends and others there pre-
sent; and they then remain to dinner. Each of
them receives an embroidered handkerchief, provided
by the family of the bride; excepting the fick'ee, who
receives a similar handkerchief, with a small gold
coin tied up in it, from the bridegroom. Before the
* If the bride be not a virgin, a word importing this is
substituted; namely, sey'yib,
MARRIAGE. 221
persons assembled on this occasion disperse, they
settle when the “ley'let ed-dookh'leh” is to be : this
is the night when the bride is brought to the house
of the bridegroom, and the latter, for the first time,
visits her.
In general, the bridegroom waits for his bride
about eight or ten days after the conclusion of the
contract. Meanwhile, he sends to her, two or three
or more times, some fruit, sweetmeats, &c.; and per-
haps makes her a present of a shawl, or some other
article of value. The bride's family are at the same
time occupied in preparing for her a stock of house-
hold furniture (as deewa'ns, matting, carpets, bed-
ding, kitchen-utensils, &c.) and dress. The portion
of the dowry which has been paid by the bridegroom,
and generally a much larger sum (the additional
money, which is often more than the dowry itself,
being supplied by the bride’s family), is expended in
purchasing the articles of furniture, dress, and orna-
ments, for the bride. These articles, which are called
gaha'z, are the property of the bride; and, if she be
divorced, she takes them away with her. She cannot,
therefore, with truth be said to be purchased *. The
furniture is sent, commonly borne by a train of
camels, to the bridegroom's house. Often, among
the articles of the gaha'z, is a chair for the turban or
head-dress (koor'see el-'ema'meh), alluded to in a
former page. It is of a large size, but slight make;
the bottom and back generally of cane-work; some-
times with a canopy. It is never used to sit upon.
The turban, when placed upon it, is covered with a
napkin of thick silk stuff, usually ornamented with
* Among the peasants, however, the father, or nearest male
relation of the bride, receives the dowry, and gives nothing in
return but the girl, and sometimes a little corn, &c. The
bridegroom, in this case, supplies everything; even the dress
of the bride,
o 2
222 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
Hold thread. There are sometimes sent two of
these chairs; one for the husband, and the other for
The bridegroom should receive his bride on the
eve of Friday, or that of Monday"; but the former
Lantern, &c., suspended on the occasion of a Wedding.
* Burckhardt has erred in stating that Monday and Thurs-
day are the days on which the ceremonies immediately pre-
* to the marriage-night are performed; he hºuidº, said
*day and Thursday." He has also fallen intº other
errors in the account which he has given of the marriage
$remonies of the Egyptians, in the illustrations of his “Arabic
ºverbs" (pp. 112 ºils). To mention this, I feel to be a
myself; but one which I º with reluctance, and
...thout the fear that Burckhardt's just, reputation for
** accuracy may make my reader thiſ, that he is right
f these ****, and that I am wrong. I write these word in













MARRIAGE. 225
is generally esteemed the more fortunate period. Let
us say, for instance, that the bride is to bº conducted
to him on the eve of Friday. During twº or three or
more preceding nights, the street or quarter in which
the bridegroom lives is illuminated with chandeliers
and lanterns, or with lanterns and Smail lamps, sus-
pended from cords drawn across from the bride-
groom's and several other houses on each side to the
houses opposite; and several small silk flags, each of
two colours, generally red and green, are attached to
other cords*. An entertainment is also given on
each of these nights, particularly on the last night be-
fore that on which the wedding is concluded, at the
bridegroom's house. On these occasions, it is cus-
tomary for the persons invited, and for all intimate
friends, to send presents to his house, a day or two
before the feast which they puri rose or expect to
attend: they generally send sugar, coffee, rice, wax
candles, or a lamb : the former articles are usually
placed upon a tray of copper or wood, and covered
with a silk or embroidered kerchief. The guests are
entertained on these occasions by musicians and male
or female singers, by dancing girls, or by the per-
formance of a khut'meh or a zier f.
Cairo, with his book before me, and after sufficient experience
and inquiries.
* The lantern here represented, which is constructed of
wood, and painted green, red, white, and blue, is called toorei'ay
(the Arabic name of the Pleiades), and, together with the
frame above, from which six lamps are suspended, and which
is termed kha'iim Sooleyma'n (or Solomon's seal), composes
what is called a hſien'ſ chan'a'dee'l.
f. These entertainments I do not here particularly describe,
as it is my intention to devote the whole of a subsequent
chapter to the subject of private festivities. The khut'meh is
the recitation of the Ckoor-a'n; and the zikr, the repetition of
the name of God, or of the profession of his unity, &c.; I
shall have occasion to speak of both more fully in another
chapter, on the periodical public festivals.
224 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
In the houses of the wealthy, the kha't’beh or
kha't’behs together with the da'weh (or midwife) of
the family, the bella'neh (or female attendant of the
bath), and he nurse of the bride, are each presented,
a day or two after the conclusion of the contract, with
a piece of gold stuff, a Kashmee'r shawl, or a piece
of striped silk, such as yel'eks and shintiya'ns are
made of; and, placing these over the left shoulder,
and attaching the edges together on the right side,
go upon asses, with two or more men before them
beating kettle-drums or tabours, to the houses of all
the friends of the bride, to invite the females to ac-
company her to and from the bath, and to partake of
an entertainment given on that occasion. At every
house where they call, they are treated with a repast,
having sent notice the day before of their intended
visit. They are called moodna't *. I have sometimes
seen them walking, and without the drums before
them; but making up for the want of these instru-
ments by shrill, quavering cries of joy, called
zugh'a'ree’t f.
On the preceding Wednesday (or on the Saturday
if the wedding be to conclude on the eve of Monday),
at about the hour of noon, or a little later, the bride
goes in state to the bath Í. The procession to the
bath is called zeffet el-hhamma'm. It is headed by
a party of musicians with a hautboy, or two, and
drums of different kinds S. Frequently, as I have
* From the verb ad'na, “he brought,” &c.
+ These cries of the women, which are heard on various
occasions of rejoicing in Egypt and other eastern countries,
are produced by a sharp utterance of the voice, accompanied
by a quick, tremulous motion of the tongue.
# I have once seen this zeffeh, or procession, and a
second which will be described hereafter, go forth much later,
and return an hour after sunset.
§ The music is generally of a very rude kind; and the airs
usually played are those of popular songs; specimens of
which will be found in this work.
MARRIAGE. 225
mentioned in a former chapter, some person avails
himself of this opportunity to parade his young son
previously to circumcision: the child and his attend-
ants, in this case, follow next after the musicians, in
the manner already described. Sometimes, at the
head of the bride's party are two men who carry the
utensils and linen used in the bath, upon two round
trays, each of which is covered with an embroi-
dered or a plain silk kerchief: also, a sack'cka, who
gives water to any of the passengers, if asked; and
two other persons, one of whom bears a choom'ckoom,
or bottle, of plain or gilt silver, or of china, containing
rose-water, or orange-flower-water, which he occa-
sionally sprinkles on the passengers; and the other, a
mib'khar'ah (or perfuming-vessel) of silver, with aloes-
wood, or some other odoriferous substance burning in
it : but it is seldom that the procession is thus at-
tended. In general, the first persons among the
bride's party are several of her married female rela-
tions and friends, walking in pairs; and next, a
number of young virgins. The former are dressed in
the usual manner, covered with the black silk hbab'-
arah: the latter have white silk hbab'arahs, or shawls.
Then follows the bride, walking under a canopy of
silk, of some gay colour, as pink, rose-colour, or
yellow ; or of two colours, composing wide stripes,
often rose-colour and yellow. It is carried by four
men, by means of a pole at each corner, and is open
only in front; and at the top of each of the four
poles is attached an embroidered handkerchief.
The dress of the bride, during this procession, en-
tirely conceals her person. She is generally covered,
from head to foot, with a red Kashmee'r shawl; or
with a white or yellow shawl, though rarely. Upon
her head is placed a small pasteboard cap, or crown.
The shawl is placed over this, and conceals from the
view of the public the richer articles of her dress,
o 5
226 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
her face, and her jewels, &c., excepting one or two
ckoos'sahs” (and sometimes other ornaments), gene-
rally of diamonds and emeralds, attached to that part
of the shawl which covers her forehead. She is ac-
companied by two or three of her female relations
within the canopy; and often, when in hot weather,
a woman, walking backwards before her, is constantly
employed in fanning her, with a large fan of black
ostrich-feathers, the lower part of the front of which
is usually ornamented with a piece of looking-glass.
Sometimes one Zef"feh, with a single canopy, serves
for two brides, who walk side by side. The proces-
sion moves very slowly: it is closed by a second
party of musicians, similar to the first, or by two or
three drummers.
In the bridal processions of the lower orders, which
are often conducted in the same manner as that above
described, the women of the party frequently utter, at
intervals, those shrill cries of joy called zugh'a'reeſt,
which I have before had occasion to mention ; and
females of the poorer classes, when merely spectators
of a zef'feh, often do the same.
The whole bath is sometimes hired for the bride
and her party exclusively. They pass several hours,
or seldom less than two, occupied in washing, sport-
ing, and feasting; and frequently 'A'l'mehs (or female
singers) are hired to amuse them in the bath: they
then return in the same order in which they came.
The expense of the Zef'feh falls on the relations of
the bride; but the feast is supplied by the bridegroom.
Having returned from the bath to the house of her
family, the bride and her companions sup together.
If 'A'I'mehs have contributed to the festivity in the
bath, they, also, return with the bride, to renew their
concert. Their songs are always on the subject of
* For a description of these ornaments, see the Appendix.
228 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
~5
#sº
**
*
sº
ſº
*...*
ſº
.2
tº
#
*}
º
lº
sº
2.
gº
r:
•º:
§§§
*
º
ğ

MARRIAGE. 229


MARRIAGE, 23 1
love, and of the joyous event which occasions their
presence. After the company have been thus enter-
tained, a large quantity of hben'na having been pre-
pared, mixed into a paste, the bride takes a lump of
it in her hand, and receives contributions (called
noockoo’i) from her guests: each of them sticks a
coin (usually of gold) in the hben’na which she holds
upon her hand; and, when the lump is closely stuck
with these coins, she scrapes it off her hand upon the
edge of a basin of water. Having collected in this
manner from all her guests, some more hben'na is
applied to her hands and feet, which are then bound
with pieces of linen; and in this state they remain
until the next morning, when they are found to be
sufficiently dyed with its deep orange-red tint. Her
guests make use of the remainder of the dye for their
own hands. This night is called Ley'let el-Hhen'na,
or “the Night of the Hhen'na.”
It is on this night, and sometimes also during the
latter half of the preceding day, that the bridegroom
gives his chief entertainment. Mohhabbazee'n (or
low farce-players) often perform on this occasion be-
fore the house, or, if it be large enough, in the court.
The other and more common performances by which
the guests are amused have been before mentioned.
On the following day, the bride goes in procession
to the house of the bridegroom. The procession be-
fore described is called “the zef'feh of the bath, " to
distinguish it from this, which is the more important,
and which is therefore particularly called zef'fet el-
'aroo'seh, or “the zef'feh of the bride.” In some
cases, to diminish the expenses of the marriage-cere-
monies, the bride is conducted privately to the bath,
and only honoured with a zef'feh to the bridegroom's
house. This procession is exactly similar to the
former. The bride and her party, after breakfasting
together, generally set out a little after mid-day. They
232 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
proceed in order, the same, and at the same slow
pace, as in the zef'feh of the bath; and, if the house
of the bridegroom be near, they follow a circuitous
route, through several principal streets, for the sake of
display. The ceremony usually occupies three or
more hours.
Sometimes, before bridal processions of this kind,
two swordsmen, clad in nothing but their drawers,
engage each other in a mock combat; or two fella'-
hhee'n cudgel each other with nebboo’ts, or long
staves. In the procession of a bride of a wealthy
family, any person who has the art of performing
some extraordinary feat to amuse the spectators is
almost sure of being a welcome assistant, and of re-
ceiving a handsome present *. When the Seyd’Om'ra,
the Nackee'b el-Ashra'f (or chief of the descendants
of the Prophet), who was the main instrument of
advancing Mohham'mad 'Al'ee to the dignity of
Ba'sha of Egypt, married a daughter, about twenty-
seven years since, there walked before the procession
a young man who had made an incision in his ab-
domen, and drawn out a large portion of his intes-
tines, which he carried before him on a silver tray.
After the procession, he restored them to their proper
place, and remained in bed many days before he re-
covered from the effects of this foolish and disgusting
* One of the most common of the feats witnessed on such
an occasion is the performance of a laborious task by a water-
carrier, termed a cKei'yim, who, for the sake of a present, and
this empty title, carries a water-skin filled with sand and
water, of greater weight, and for a longer period, than any of
his brethren will venture to do; and this he must accomplish
without ever sitting down, except in a crouching position, to
rest. In the case of a bridal procession which I lately wit.
messed, the ckei'yim began to carry his burden, a skin of sand
and water weighing about two hundred pounds, at sunset of
the preceding day; bore it the whole night, and the ensuing
day, before and during the procession, and continued to do so
till sunset.
MARRIAGE 233
act. Another man, on the same occasion, ran a
sword through his arm, before the crowding specta-
tors, and then bound, over the wound, without with-
drawing the sword, several handkerchiefs, which
were soaked with the blood. These facts were de-
scribed to me by an eye-witness. A spectacle of a
more singular and more disgusting nature used to be
not uncommon on similar occasions, but is now very
seldom witnessed *. Sometimes, also, hka'wees (or
conjurers and sleight-of-hand performers) exhibit a
variety of tricks on these occasions. But the most
common of all the performances here mentioned are
the mock fights. Similar exhibitions are also some-
times witnessed on the occasion of a circumcision f.
The bride and her party, having arrived at the
bridegroom's house, sit down to a repast. . Her
friends, shortly after, take their departure; leaving
with her only her mother and sister, or other near
female relations, and one or two other women ;
usually the bella'neh. The ensuing night is called
Ley'let ed-Dookh'-leh, or “the Night of the En-
trance.” je
The bridegroom sits below. Before sunset, he
goes to the bath, and there changes his clothes; or
he merely does the latter at home, and, after having
Supped with a party of his friends, waits till a little
before the 'esh'é (or time of the night-prayer), or
until the third or fourth hour of the night, when,
according to general custom, he should repair to some
celebrated mosque, such as that of the Hhasaney'n,
* A correct description of this is given in Burckhardt’s
“Arabic Proverbs,” pp. 115, 116.
† Grand zeffehs are sometimes accompanied by a number
of cars, each bearing a group of persons of some manufacture
or trade performing the usual work of their craft; even such
as builders, white-washers, &c.; including members of all, or
* all, the arts and manufactures practised in the metro-
polis,
284 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
and there say his prayers. If young, he is generally
honoured with a zef'feh on this occasion : he goes to
the mosque preceded by musicians with drums and
one or more hautboys, and accompanied by a num-
ber of friends, and by several men bearing mesh'als.
The mesh'al is a staff with a cylindrical frame of
iron at the top filled with flaming wood, or having
two, three, four, or five of these receptacles for fire,
- . Mesh"als. : -
The party usually proceeds to the mosque with a
quick pace, and without much order. A second
group of musicians, with the same instruments, or
with drums only, closes the procession. The bride:
groom is generally dressed in a clºuſta'n with red
stripes, and a red gibbeh, with a Kashmee'r shawl of


MARRIAGE. 235
the same colour for his turban ; and walks between
two friends similarly dressed. The prayers are com-
monly performed merely as a matter of ceremony;
and it is frequently the case that the bridegroom does
not pray at all, or prays without having previously
performed the woodoo', like memloo'ks who say their
prayers only because they fear their master *. The
procession returns from the mosque with more order
and display, and very slowly; perhaps because it
would be considered unbecoming in the bridegroom
to hastem home to take possession of his bride. It is
headed, as before, by musicians, and two or more
bearers of mesh'als. These are generally followed
by two men, bearing, by means of a pole resting hori-
Zontally upon their shoulders, a hanging frame, to
which are attached about sixty or more small lamps,
in four circles, one above another; the uppermost of
which circles is made to revolve; being turned round
occasionally by one of the two bearers. These
numerous lamps, and several mesh'als beside those
before-mentioned, brilliantly illumine the streets
through which the procession passes, and produce a
remarkably picturesque effect. The bridegroom and
his friends and other attendants follow, advancing in
the form of an oblong ring, all facing the interior of
the ring, and each bearing in his hand one or more
wax candles, and sometimes a sprig of hben'ha or
some other flower, excepting the bridegroom and the
friend on either side of him. These three form the
latter part of the ring, which generally consists of
twenty or more persons. At frequent intervals, the
party stops for a few minutes; and, during each of
these pauses, a boy or man, one of the persons who
compose the ring, sings a few words of an epithala-
mium. The sounds of the drums, and the shrill
* Hence, this kind of prayer is called sal'ah mem'allec'kee-
weh, or “the prayer of memloo'ks.”
236 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
notes of the hautboy (which the bride hears half an
hour or more before the procession arrives at the
house), cease during these songs. The train is
closed, as in the former case, by a second group of
musicians.
In the manner above described, the bridegroom's
zef'feh is most commonly conducted; but there is
another mode, that is more respectable, called zef "fêh
sa'da'tee, which signifies “the gentlemen's zef'feh.”
In this, the bridegroom is accompanied by his friends
in the same manner as before related, and attended
and preceded by men bearing mesh'als, but not by
musicians: in the place of these are about six or
eight men, who, from their being employed as singers
on occasions of this kind, are called wila'd el-lāya'lee,
or “sons of the nights.” Thus attended, he goes to
the mosque; and, while he returns slowly thence to
his house, the singers above mentioned chant, or
rather sing, moowesh'shahhs (or lyric odes) in praise
of the Prophet. Having returned to the house, these
same persons chant portions of the Ckoor-a'n, one
after another, for the amusement of the guests;
then, altogether, recite the opening chapter (the
Fa't'hhah); after which, one of them sings a
ckaseedeh (or short poem) in praise of the Prophet:
lastly, all of them again sing moowesh'shahhs.
After having thus performed, they receive noockoo't
(or contributions of money) from the bridegroom
and his friends.
Soon after his return from the mosque, the
bridegroom leaves his friends in a lower apartment,
enjoying their pipes and coffee and sherbet. The
bride's mother and sister, or whatever other female
relations were left with her, are above; and the bride
herself, and the bella'neh, in a separate apartment.
If the bridegroom be a youth or young man, it is
considered proper that he, as well as the bride, should
MARRIAGE. 237
exhibit some degree of bashfulness: one of his
friends, therefore, carries him a part of the way up to
the hbaree'm. On entering the bride's apartment,
he gives a present to the bella'neh, and she retires.
The bride has a shawl thrown over her head; and
the bridegroom must give her a present of money,
which is called “the price of the uncovering of the
face”,” before he attempts to remove this, which she
does not allow him to do without some apparent re-
luctance, if not violent resistance, in order to show
her maiden modesty. On removing the covering, he
says, “In the name of God, the Compassionate, the
Merciful,” and then greets her with this compliment:
“The night be blessed,” or “—is blessed :” to which
she replies, if timidity do not choke her utterance,
“God bless thee.” The bridegroom now sees the
face of his bride for the first time, and generally finds
her nearly what he has been led to expect. Often,
but not always, a curious ceremony is then performed.
The bridegroom takes off every article of the bride’s
clothing excepting her shirt; seats her upon a mat-
tress or bed, the head of which is turned towards the
direction of Mek'keh, placing her so that her back is
also turned in that direction; and draws forward, and
spreads upon the bed, the lower part of the front of
her shirt: having done this, he stands at the distance
of rather less than a yard before her, and performs
the prayers of two rek"ahs; laying his head and
hands, in prostration, upon the part of her shirt that
is extended before her lap. He remains with her
but a few minutes longert: having satisfied his
curiosity respecting her personal charms, he calls to
* Hhack'ck keshfel-wish'sh. Wish'sh is a vulgar corruption
of wegh, or wejh.
f I beg to refer the reader, if he desire further details on
this subject, to page 117 of Burckhardt's “Arabic Proverbs.”
His account might have been more complete ; but he seems to
have studied to be particularly concise in this case.
238 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
the women (who generally collect at the door, where
they wait in anxious suspense) to raise their cries of
joy, or zugh'a'ree't; and the shrill sounds acquaint
the persons below and in the neighbourhood, and
often, responded by other women, spread still further
the news, that he has acknowledged himself satisfied
with his bride : he soon after descends to rejoin his
friends, and remains with them an hour, or more,
before he returns to his wife. It very seldom hap-
pens that the husband, if disappointed in his bride,
immediately disgraces and divorces her : in general,
he retains her, in this case, a week or more.
Having now described the most usual manner in
which the marriages of virgin-brides are conducted in
Cairo, I may add a few words on some of the cere-
monies observed in other cases of matrimony, both
of virgins and of widows or divorced women.
The daughters of the great, generally having baths
in their own houses, seldom go to the public bath
previously to marriage. A bride of a wealthy family,
and her female relations and friends, if there be not
a bath in her house, go to the public bath, which is
hired for them exclusively, and to the bridegroom's
house, without music or canopy, mounted on asses:
the bride herself generally wearing a Kashmee'r
shawl, in the manner of a hab'arah. If the bride-
groom or the bride's family have eunuchs, these ride
before the bride; and sometimes a man runs at the head
of the procession, crying “Bless ye the Prophet” (”
This man, on entering the house, throws down, upon
the threshold, some leaves of the white bete (sulck),
over which the ladies ride. The object of this act is
to propitiate fortune. The same man then exclaims
“Assistance from God, and a speedy victory fl”
* Sal’ſoo 'a-n-neb'ee. 'A-n-neb'ee is a vulgar contraction of
'al'a-n-neb'ee.
# Ckoor-an, chap. lxi, ver, 13.
MARRIAGE. 239
Marriages, among the Egyptians, are sometimes
conducted without any pomp or ceremony even in
the case of virgins, by mutual consent of the bride-
groom and the bride’s family, or the bride herself;
and widows and divorced women are never honoured
with a zef'feh on marrying again. The mere sen-
tence “I give myself up to thee *” uttered by a
female to a man who proposes to become her hus-
band (even without the presence of witnesses, if none
can be easily procured) render her his legal wife, if
arrived at puberty; and marriages with widows and
divorced women, among the Moos'lims of Egypt, and
other Arabs, are sometimes concluded in this simple
manner. The dowry of such women is generally
one quarter or third or half the amount of that of a
Virgin.
In Cairo, among persons not of the lowest order,
though in very humble life, the marriage-ceremonies
are conducted in the same manner as among the
middle orders. But, when the expenses of such
zef'fehs as I have described cannot by any means
be paid, the bride is paraded in a very simple manner,
covered with a shawl (generally red), and surrounded
by a group of her female relations and friends, dressed
in their best, or in borrowed clothes, and enlivened
by no other sounds of joy than their zugh'a'ree't,
which they repeat at frequent intervals.
The general mode of zef'feh among the inhabitants
of the villages is different from those above-described.
The bride, usually covered with a shawl, is seated
on a camel; and so conveyed to the bridegroom’s
dwelling. Sometimes four or five women or girls sit
with her, on the same camel; one on either side of
her, and two or three others behind: the seat being
made very wide, and usually covered with carpets or
other drapery. She is followed by a group of
* Waheb'too lak nef'see.
240 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
women singing. In the evening of the wedding, and
often during several previous evenings, in a village,
the male and female friends of the two parties meet
at the bridegroom’s house, and pass several hours of
the night in the open air, amusing themselves with
songs and a rude kind of dance, accompanied by the
sounds of a tambourine or some kind of drum : both
sexes sing; but only the women dance. I have intro-
duced here these few words on the marriage-cere-
monies of the peasantry to avoid scattering notes on
subjects of the same nature. I now revert to the
customs of the people of Cairo.
On the morning after the marriage, khowals” or
gha'zee'yehs (dancing men or girls) perform in the
street before the bridegroom's house, or in the courtf.
On the same morning also, if the bridegroom be a
young man, the person who carried him up-stairs
generally takes him and several friends to an enter-
tainment in the country, where they spend the whole
day. This ceremony is called el-hooroo'beh, or the
flight. Sometimes the bridegroom himself makes
the arrangements for it; and pays part of the
expenses, if they exceed the amount of the contribu-
tions of his friends ; for they give moockoo't on this
occasion. Musicians and dancing-girls are often
hired to attend the entertainment. If the bride-
groom be a person of the lower orders, he is con-
ducted back in procession, preceded by three or four
musicians with drums and hautboys; his friends and
other attendants carrying each a nosegay, as in the
zef'feh of the preceding night; and if their return
be after sunset, they are accompanied by men bearing
mesh”als, lamps, &c.; and the friends of the bride-
groom carry lighted wax candles, besides the nose-
* A khow'al is also called gha'ish, plural gheeya'sh.
f This performance is called the bride's sub'a/hhee'yeh.
MARRIAGE. 24]
gays *. Subsequent festivities occasioned by mar-
riage will be described in a later chapter.
The husband, if he can conveniently so arrange,
generally prefers that his mother should reside with
him and his wife; that she may protect his wife's
honour, and consequently his own also. It is said
that the mother-in-law is, for this reason, called
hham'ah f. The women of Egypt are said to be
generally prone to criminal intrigues; and I fear that,
in this respect, they are not unjustly accused. Some-
times a husband keeps his wife in the house of her
mother, and pays the daily expenses of both. This
ought to make the mother very careful with regard to
expenditure, and strict as to her daughter's conduct,
lest the latter should be divorced; but it is said, that,
in this case, she often acts as her daughter's pro-
curess, and teaches her innumerable tricks, by which
to gain the upper hand over her husband, and to drain
his purse. The influence of the wife's mother is also
scarcely less feared when she only enjoys occasional
opportunities of seeing her daughter: hence it is held
more prudent for a man to marry a female who has
neither mother nor any near relations of her own
* Among the peasants of Upper Egypt, the relations and
acquaintances of the bridegroom and bride meet together on
the day after the marriage; and while a number of the men
clap their hands, as an accompaniment to a tambourine, or
two, and any other instruments that can be procured, the
bride dances before them for a short time. She has a head-
veil reaching to her heels, and a printed cotton handkerchief
completely.covering her face, and wears, externally, the most
remarkable of her bridal garments (mentioned by Burckhardt,
in the place before referred to, and, in some parts of Egypt,
hung over the door of a peasant's house after marriage).
ther women, similarly veiled, and dressed in their best, or
borrowed, clothes, continue the dance about two hours, or
In Ore.
# Thus cºmmonly pronounced, for hkama'h, a word derived
from the verb ham'a, “he protected, or guarded.”
WOL. I. P
242 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
sex; and some wives are even prohibited receiving
any female friends but those who are relations of the
husband : they are very few, however, upon whom
such severe restrictions are imposed.
For a person who has become familiar with male
Moos'lim society in Cairo, without marrying, it is
not so difficult as might be imagined by a stranger to
obtain, directly and indirectly, correct and ample
information respecting the condition and habits of
the women. Many husbands of the middle classes,
and some of the higher orders, freely talk of the
affairs of the hbaree'm with one who professes to
agree with them in their general moral sentiments,
if they have not to converse through the medium of
an interpreter.
Though the women have a particular portion of
the house allotted to them, the wives, in general, are
not to be regarded as prisoners; for they are usually
at liberty to go out and pay visits, as well as to receive
female visiters, almost as often as they please. The
slaves, indeed, being subservient to the wives, as well
as to their master, or, if subject to the master only,
being under an authority almost unlimited, have not
that liberty. One of the chief objects of the master
in appropriating a distinct suite of apartments to his
women, is to prevent their being seen by the male
domestics and other men without being covered in
the manner prescribed by their religion. The follow-
ing words of the Ckoor-a'n show the necessity under
which a Mohhammadan woman is placed of con-
cealing whatever is attractive in her person or attire
from all men, excepting certain relations and some
other persons. “And speak unto the believing women,
that they restrain their eyes, and preserve their
modesty, and discover not their ornaments, except
what [necessarily] appeareth thereof: and let them
throw their veils over their bosoms, and not show
THE HHAREE'M. 243
their ornaments, unless to their husbands, or their
fathers, or their husbands' fathers, or their sons, or
their husbands' sons, or their brothers, or their
brothers' sons, or their sisters' sons, or their women,
or those [captives] which their right hands shall pos-
Sess, or unto such men as attend [them] and have
no meed [of women], or unto children :” “ and let
them not make a noise with their feet, that their
ornaments which they hide may [thereby] be dis-
covered *.” The last passage alludes to the practice
of knocking together the anklets which the Arab
women in the time of the Prophet used to wear;
and which are still worn by many women in Egypt.
I must here transcribe two notes of an eminent
Egyptian commentator on the Ckoor-a'n, in illustra-
tion of the above extract, and inserted in Sale’s trans-
lation. This I do, because they would convey an
erroneous idea of modern customs with regard to the
admission, or non-admission, of certain persons into
the hbaree'm. The first is on the above words “or
their women,” which it thus explains—“That is, such
as are of the Mohhammadan religion : it being rec-
koned by some unlawful, or, at least, indecent, for
a woman who is a true believer to uncover herself
before one who is an infidel; because the latter will
hardly refrain from describing her to the men ; but
others suppose all women in general are here ex-
cepted; for, in this particular, doctors differ.” In
Egypt, and I believe in every other Mohhammadan
country, it is not now considered improper for any
Woman, whether independent, or a servant, or a
slave, a Christian, a Jewess, a Moos'lim'eh, or a
pagan, to enter a Moos'lim's hbaree'm.—The second
of the notes above alluded to is on the words “or
those captives;” and is as follows: “Slaves of
* Chap. xxiv., ver, 31.
P 2
244 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
either sex are included in this exception, and, as
some think, domestic servants who are not slaves, as
those of a different nation. It is related that Moh-
ham'mad once made a present of a man-slave to his
daughter Faſtimeh; and, when he brought him to
her, she had on a garment which was so scanty, that
she was obliged to leave either her head or her feet
uncovered: and that the Prophet, seeing her in great
confusion on that account, told her, she need be
under no concern, for that there was none present
but her father and her slave.” Among the Arabs of
the Desert this may still be the case; but in Egypt I
have never heard of an instance of an adult male
slave being allowed to see the hharee’m of a respect-
able man, whether he belonged to that haree'm or
not; and am assured that it is never permitted. Per-
haps the reason why the man-slave of a woman is
allowed this privilege by the Ckoor-a'n is, because she
cannot become his lawful wife as long as he conti-
nues her slave : but this is a poor reason for granting
him access to the hbaree’m in such a state of society.
It is remarkable that, in the verse of the Ckoor-a'n
above quoted, uncles are not mentioned as privileged
to see their nieces unveiled: some think that they
are not admissible, and for this reason, lest they
should describe the persons of their nieces to their
sons; for it is regarded as highly improper for a man
to describe the features or person of a female (as to
say, that she has large eyes, a straight nose, small
mouth, &c.) to one of his own sex, by whom it is un-
lawful for her to be seen, though it is not considered
indecorous to describe her in general terms, as, for
instance, to say “she is a sweet girl, and set off with
kohhl and hben'na.”
It may be mentioned here, as a general rule, that
a man is allowed to see unveiled only his own wives
and female slaves and those females whom he is
THE HHAREE'M. 245,
prohibited, by law, from marrying, on account of their
being within certain degrees of consanguinity or fa-
mily connexion, or having given him suck, or having
been suckled by the same nurse as himself”. The
high antiquity of the veil has been alluded to in the
first chapter of this work. It has also been men-
tioned, that it is considered more necessary, in Egypt,
for a woman to cover the upper and back part of her
head than her face ; and more requisite for her to
conceal her face than most other parts of her person:
for instance, a female who cannot be persuaded to
unveil her face in the presence of men, will think it
but little shame to display the whole of her bosom, or
the greater part of her leg. There are, it is true,
many women among the lower classes in this country
who constantly appear in public with unveiled face;
but they are almost constrained to do so by the want
of a boor'cko' (or face-veil), and the difficulty of ad-
justing the tar'hhah (or head-veil), of which scarcely
any woman is destitute, so as to supply the place of
the former; particularly when both their hands are
occupied in holding some burden which they are car-
rying upon the head. When a respectable woman is,
by any chance, seen with her head or face uncovered,
by a man who is not entitled to enjoy that privilege,
she quickly assumes or adjusts her tar'hhah, and often
exclaims “O my misfortunef" or “O my sorrow i !”
Motives of coquetry, however, frequently induce an
Egyptian woman to expose her face before a man
when she thinks that she may appear to do so unin-
tentionally, or that she may be supposed not to see
him. A man may also occasionally enjoy opportuni-
* See the chapter on Religion and Laws. Eunuchs are
ºwed to see the face of any woman: so, also, are young
Oys.
t Ya' dahh'wet'ee, for da'awet'ee.
# Ya' meda'm'tee, for neda'metee.
P 3
246 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
ties of seeing the face of an Egyptian lady when she
really thinks herself unobserved ; sometimes at an
open lattice, and sometimes on a house-top. Many
small houses in Cairo have no apartment on the
ground-floor for the reception of male visiters, who
therefore ascend to an upper room; but as they go
up stairs, they exclaim, several times, “ destoo'r "
(“permission!”), or “ya' Saltir P’ (“O Protec-
tor!” that is “O protecting God (??), or use some
similar ejaculation, in order to warn any woman who
may happen to be in the way, to retire, or to veil
herself; which she does by drawing a part of her
tar'hhah before her face, so as to leave, at most,
only one eye visible. To such an absurd pitch do the
Moos'lims carry their feeling of the sacredness of
women, that entrance into the tombs of some females
is denied to men ; as, for instance, the tombs of the
Prophet’s wives and other females of his family, in
the burial-ground of El-Medee neh; into which
women are freely admitted: and a man and woman
they never bury in the same vault, unless a wal
separate the bodies. Yet there are, among the Egyp-
tians, a few persons who are much less particular in
this respect: such is one of my Moos'lim friends
here, who generally allows me to see his mother
when I call upon him. She is a widow, of about
fifty years of age; but, being very fat, and not look-
ing so old, she calls herself forty. She usually comes
to the door of the apartment of the hbaree m in
which I am received (there being no lower apart-
ment in the house for rhale visiters), and sits there
upon the floor, but will never enter the room. Oc-
casionally, and as if by accident, she shows me the
whole of her face, with plenty of kohhl round her
eyes; and does not attempt to conceal her diamonds,
emeralds, and other ornaments; but rather the re-
verse. The wife, however, I am never permitted
THE HHAREE/M. 247
to see; though once I was allowed to talk to her, in
the presence of her husband, round the corner of a
passage at the top of the stairs.
I believe that, in Egypt, the women are gene-
rally under less restraint than in any other country of
the Turkish Empire; so that it is not uncommon
to see females of the lower orders flirting and jesting
with men in public, and men laying their hands
upon them very freely. Still it might be imagined
that the women of the higher and middle classes feel
themselves severely oppressed, and are much discon-
tented with the state of seclusion to which they are
subjected: but this is not commonly the case; on
the contrary, an Egyptian wife who is attached to
her husband is apt to think, if he allow her unusual
liberty, that he neglects her, and does not sufficiently
love her; and to envy those wives who are kept and
watched with greater strictness.
It is not very common for an Egyptian to have
more than one wife, or a concubine slave; though the
law allows him four wives (as I have before stated),
and, according to the opinion of some, as many con-
cubine slaves as he may choose. But, though a man
restrict himself to a single wife, he may change as
often as he desires; and there are certainly not many
persons in Cairo who have not divorced one wife, if
they have been long married. The husband may,
whenever he pleases, say to his wife “Thou art
divorced *:” if it be his wish, whether reasonable or
not, she must return to her parents or friends. This
liability to an unmerited divorcement is the source of
more uneasiness to many wives than all the other
troubles to which they are exposed; as they may
thereby be reduced to a state of great destitution :
but to others, who hope to better their condition, it
* En/tee ta’lickah.
248 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
is, of course, exactly the reverse. I have mentioned,
in a former chapter *, that a man may divorce his
wife twice, and each time receive her again without
any ceremony; but that he cannot legally take her
again after a third divorce until she has been married
and divorced by another man. The consequences
of a triple divorce conveyed in one sentence t are the
same, unless the man and his wife agree to infringe
the law, or the former deny his having pronounced
the sentence; in which latter case, the woman may
have much difficulty to enforce his compliance with
the law, if she be inclined to do so.
In illustration of this subject, I may mention a
case in which an acquaintance of mine was concerned
as a witness of the sentence of divorce. He was
sitting in a coffee-shop with two other men, one of
whom had just been irritated by something that his
wife had said or done. After a short conversation
upon this affair, the angry husband sent for his wife,
and, as soon as she came, said to her “Thou art
trebly divorced :” then, addressing his two com-
panions, he added “You, my brothers, are witnesses.”
Shortly after, however, he repented of this act, and
wished to take back his divorced wife; but she re-
fused to return to him, and appealed to the Shar'â
Allah (or Law of God). The case was tried at the
Mahh'kem'eh. The woman, who was the plaintiff,
stated that the defendant was her husband; that he
had pronounced against her the sentence of a triple
divorce; and that he now wished her to return to
him, and live with him as his wife, contrary to the
law, and consequently in a state of sin. The de-
fendant denied that he had divorced her. “Have
you witnesses?” said the judge to the plaintiff. She
* On the Religion and Laws.
+ En'tee ta'lickah bi-t-tela'teh.
THE HHAREE/M. 249.
answered, “I have here two witnesses.” These
were the men who were present in the coffee-shop
when the sentence of divorce was pronounced. They
were desired to give their evidence; and stated that
the defendant divorced his wife, by a triple sentence,
in their presence. The defendant averred that she
whom he divorced in the coffee-shop was another wife
of his. The plaintiff declared that he had no other
wife; but the judge observed to her that it was im-
possible she could know that; and asked the witnesses
what was the name of the woman whom the defend-
ant divorced in their presence. They answered that
they were ignorant of her name. They were then
asked if they could swear that the plaintiff was the
woman who was divorced before them. Their reply
was, that they could not swear to a woman whom
they had never seen unveiled. Under these circum-
stances, the judge thought it right to dismiss the
case; and the woman was obliged to return to her
husband. She might have demanded that he should
produce the woman whom he professed to have
divorced in the coffee-shop; but he would easily have
found a woman to play the part he required ; as it
would not have been necessary for her to show a
marriage-certificate; marriages being almost always
performed in Egypt without any written contract, and
Sometimes even without witnesses.
It not unfrequently happens, that, when a man
who has divorced his wife the third time wishes to
take her again (she herself consenting to their re-
union, and there being no witnesses to the sentence
of divorce), he does so without conforming with the
offensive law before mentioned. It is also a common
Custom for a man under similar circumstances to em-
ploy a person to marry the divorced woman on the
condition of his resigning her, the day after their
union, to him, her former husband, whose wife she
250 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
again becomes, by a second contract; though this is
plainly contrary to the spirit of the law. A poor man
(generally a very ugly person, and often one who is
blind) is usually chosen to perform this office. He
is termed a Moostahhil'l, or Mohhal'lil. It is often
the case that the man thus employed is so pleased
with the beauty of the woman to whom he is intro-
duced on these terms, or with her riches, that he re-
fuses to give her up ; and the law cannot compel him
to divorce her, unless he act unjustly towards her as
her husband; which of course he takes good care
not to do. But a person may employ a moostahhil'l
without running this risk. It is the custom of many
wealthy Turks, and of some of the people of Egypt,
to make use of a slave, generally a black, their own
property, to officiate in this character. Sometimes, a
slave is purchased for this purpose; or if the person
who requires him for such a service be acquainted
with a slave-dealer, he asks from the latter a present
of a slave; signifying that he will give him back
again. The uglier the slave, the better. The Turks
generally choose one not arrived at puberty; which
the tenets of their sect allow. As soon as the woman
has accomplished her 'ed'deh (or the period during
which she is obliged to wait before she can marry
again), the husband who divorced her, having pre-
viously obtained her consent to what he is about to
do, introduces the slave to her, and asks her if she
will be married to him. She replies that she will.
She is accordingly wedded to the slave, in the pre-
sence of witnesses; and a dowry is given to her, to
make the marriage perfectly legal. The slave con-
summates the marriage; and thus becomes the
woman's legitimate husband. Immediately after, or
on the following morning, her former husband pre-
sents this slave to her as her own property, and the
moment that she accepts him, her marriage with
THE HEHAREE/M. 251
him becomes dissolved; for it is unlawful for a woman
to be the wife of her own slave; though she may
emancipate a slave, and then marry him. As soon
as her marriage is dissolved by her accepting the
gift of the slave, she may give back this slave to her
husband: but it seldom happens that the lattet will
allow a person who has been a moostahhil'l for him
to remain in his house. The wiſe, after this proceed-
ing, may, as soon as she has again accomplished her
'ed'deh, become reunited to her former husband,
after having been separated from him, by the neces-
sity of her fulfilling two 'ed'dehs, about half a year,
or perhaps more.
The depraving effects of this facility of divorce
upon both sexes may be easily imagined. There are
many men in this country who, in the course of ten
years, have married as many as twenty, thirty, or
more wives; and women not far advanced in age
who have been wives to a dozen or more men suc-
cessively. I have heard of men who have been in
the habit of marrying a new wife almost every month.
A person may do this though possessed of very little
property: he may choose, from among the females of
the lower orders in the streets of Cairo, a handsorne
young widow or divorced woman who will consent to
become his wife for a dowry of about ten shillings;
and when he divorces her, he need not give her more
than double that sum to maintain her during her
ensuing 'ed'deh. It is but just, however, to add, that
Such conduct is generally regarded as very disgrace-
ful; and that few parents in the middle or higher
classes will give a daughter in marriage to a man
who has divorced many wives.
Polygamy, which is also attended with very inju-
rious effects upon the morals of the husband and the
wives, is more rare among the higher and middle
classes than it is among the lower orders; and it is
252 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
not very common among the latter. A poor man
may indulge himself with two or more wives, each of
whom may be able, by some art or occupation, nearly
to provide her own subsistence; but most persons of
the middle and higher orders are deterred from doing
so by the consideration of the expense and discomfort
which they would incur. A man having a wife who
has the misfortune to be barren, and being too much
attached to her to divorce her, is sometimes induced
to take a second wife, merely in the hope of obtain-
ing offspring ; and, from the same motive, he may
take a third, and a fourth ; but fickle passion is the
most evident and common motive both to polygamy
and repeated divorces. They are comparatively very
few who gratify this passion by the former practice.
I believe not more than one husband among twenty
has two wives.
When there are two or more wives belonging to
one man, the first (that is, the one first married)
generally enjoys the highest rank; and is called “the
great lady *.” Hence it often happens that, when a
man who has already one wife wishes to marry an-
other girl or woman, the father of the latter, or the
female herself who is sought in marriage, will not
consent to the union unless the first wife be pre-
viously divorced. The women, of course, do not ap-
prove of a man’s marrying more than one wife.
Most men of wealth, or of moderate circumstances,
and even many men of the lower orders, if they have
two or more wives, have, for each, a separate house.
The wife has, or can oblige her husband to give her,
a particular description of lodgingt, which is either
a separate house, or a suite of apartments (consisting
of a room in which to sleep and pass the day, a
kitchen, and a latrina) that are, or may be made,
* Es-sitt el-kebee'reh. # Called mes'kin shar”ee.
THE HHAREE'M, 253
separate and shut out from any other apartments in
the same house. A fellow-wife is called door/rah *.
The quarrels of door'rahs are often talked of: for it
may be naturally inferred, that, when two wives share
the affection and attentions of the same man, they
are not always on terms of amity with each other;
and the same is generally the case with a wife and
a concubine slave living in the same house, and under
similar circumstances f. If the chief lady be barren,
and an inferior, either wife or slave, bear a child to
her husband or master, it commonly results that the
latter woman becomes a favourite of the man, and
that the chief wife or mistress is “despised in her
eyes,” as Abraham’s wife was in the eyes of Hagar
on the same account f. It therefore not very unfre-
quently happens that the first wife loses her rank and
privileges; another becomes the chief lady, and, being
the favourite of her husband, is treated by her rival
or rivals, and by all - the members and visiters of the
hharee’m, with the same degree of outward respect
which the first wife previously enjoyed: but some-
times the poisoned cup is employed to remove her.
A preference given to a second wife is often the cause
of the first's being registered as na'shizeh $, either
on her husband's or her own application at the Mahh'-
kem'eh. Yet many instances are known of neglected
wives behaving with exemplary and unfeigned sub-
mission to their husband, in such cases, and with
amiable good nature towards the favourite ||.
* Commonly thus pronounced, for dur'rah ; originally, per-
haps, by way of a pun; as door'rah is a common name for a
parrot.
# The law enjoins a husband who has two or more wives to
be strictly impatial to them in every respect; but compliance
with its dictates, in this matter, is rare.
# See Genesis, xvi. 4.
§ This has been explained in the 3d chapter.
| In general, the most beautiful of a man's wives or slaves
WOL, I. Q
254 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
Some wives have female slaves who are their own
property, generally purchased for them, or presented
to them, before marriage. These cannot be the
husband's concubines without their mistress's permis-
sion, which is sometimes granted (as it was in the
case of Hagar, Sarah’s bondwoman); but very sel-
dom. Often, the wife will not even allow her female
slave or slaves to appear unveiled in the presence of
her husband. Should such a slave, without the per-
mission of her mistress, become the concubine of the
husband, and bear him a child, the child is a slave,
unless, prior to its birth, the mother be sold, or pre-
sented, to the father.
The white female slaves are mostly in the pos-
session of wealthy Turks. The concubine slaves in
the houses of Egyptians of the higher and middle
classes are, generally, Abyssinians, of a deep brown
or bronze complexion. In their features as well as
their complexions they appear an intermediate race
between the negroes and white people: but the diſ-
ference between them and either of the above-men-
tioned races is considerable. They themselves, how-
ever, think that they differ so little from the white
people, that they cannot be persuaded to act as ser-
vants, with due obedience, to their master's wives;
and the black (or negro) slave-girl feels exactly in
the same manner towards the Abyssinian; but is
perfectly willing to serve the white ladies. I should
here mention, that the slaves who are termed Abys-
sinians are not from the country properly called Abys-
is, of course, for a time, his greatest favourite; but, in many
(if not most) cases, the lasting favourite is not the most hand-
some. The love of a Moos'lim, therefore, is not always merely
sensual; nor does the relative condition and comfort of his
wife, or of each of his wives, invariably depend so much on
his caprice, or her own personal charms, as on her general
conduct and disposition.
THE HIHAREE/M. 255
sinia, but from the neighbouring territories of the
Gallas. Most of them are handsome. The average
price of one of these girls is from ten to fifteen
pounds sterling, if moderately handsome; but this is
only about half the sum that used to be given for one
a few years ago. They are much esteemed by the
voluptuaries of Egypt; but are of delicate consti-
tution: many of them die, in this country, of con-
sumption. The price of a white slave-girl is usually
from treble to tenfold that of an Abyssinian; and
the price of a black girl about half or two-thirds, or
considerably more if well instructed in the art of
cookery. The black slaves are generally employed
as menials”.
Almost all of the slaves become converts to the
Mohhammadan faith; but, in general, they are little
instructed in the rites of their new religion; and still
less in its doctrines. Most of the white female slaves
who were in Egypt during my former visit to this
country were Greeks; vast numbers of that unfortu-
nate people having been made prisoners by the Turkish
and Egyptian army under Ibrahee'm Ba'sha; and
many of them, males and females, including even
infants scarcely able to walk, sent to Egypt to be sold.
Latterly, from the impoverishment of the higher
classes in this country, the demand for white slaves
has been small. A few, some of whom undergo a
kind of preparatory education (being instructed in
music or other accomplishments, at Constantinople),
are brought from Chercassia and Georgia. The
white slaves, being often the only female companions,
and sometimes the wives, of the Turkish grandees,
and being generally preferred by them before the free
ladies of Egypt, hold a higher rank than the latter
* The white female slave is called Ga'riyeh Bey'da; the
jºinian, Ga'riyeh Hhabashee'yeh; and the black, Ga'riyeh
0' (las
Q 2
256 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
in common opinion. They are richly dressed, pre-
sented with valuable ornaments, indulged, frequently,
with almost every luxury that can be procured, and,
when it is not their lot to wait upon others, may, in
Some cases, be happy; as lately has been proved,
since the termination of the war in Greece, by many
females of that country, captives in Egyptian
hharee'ms, refusing their offered liberty, which all of
these cannot be supposed to have done from ig-
norance of the state of their parents and other rela-
tions, or the fear of exposing themselves to poverty.
But, though some of them are undoubtedly happy, at
least for a time, their number is comparatively small:
most are fated to wait upon more favoured fellow-pri-
soners, or upon Turkish ladies, or to receive the un-
welcome caresses of a wealthy dotard, or of a man
who has impaired his body and mind by excesses of
every kind ; and, when their master or mistress be-
comes tired of them, or dies, are sold again (if they
have not borne children), or emancipated, and married
to some person in humble life, who can afford them
but few of the comforts to which they have been ac-
customed. The female slaves in the houses of per-
sons of the middle classes in Egypt are generally
more comfortably circumstanced than those in the
hharee'ms of the wealthy: if concubines, they are, in
most cases, without rivals to disturb their peace; and
if menials, their service is light, and they are under
less restraint. Often, indeed, if mutual attachment
subsist between her and her master, the situation of
a concubime slave is more fortunate than that of a
wife; for the latter may be cast off by her husband
in a moment of anger, by an irrevocable sentence of
divorce, and reduced to a state of poverty; whereas
a man very seldom dismisses a female slave without
providing for her in such a manner that, if she have
not been used to luxuries, she suffers but little, if at
THE HEHAREE/M. 257
all, by the change: this he generally does by eman-
cipating her, giving her a dowry, and marrying her
to some person of honest reputation ; or by present-
ing her to a friend. I have already mentioned, that
a master cannot sell a slave who has borne him a
child; and that she is entitled to her freedom on his
death. It often happens that such a slave, imme-
diately after the birth of her child, is emancipated,
and becomes her master's wife: when she has be-
come free, she can no longer lawfully supply the place
of a wife unless he marry her. Many persons con-
sider it disgraceful even to sell a female slave who
has been long in their service. Most of the Abyssi-
nian and black slave-girls are abominably corrupted
by the Gella'bs, or slave-traders, of Upper Egypt and
Nubia, by whom they are brought from their native
countries: there are very few of the age of eight or
nine years who have not suffered brutal violence;
and so severely do these children, particularly the
Abyssinians, and boys as well as girls, feel the treat-
ment which they endure from the Gella'bs, that many
instances occur of their drowning themselves during
the voyage down the Nile *. The female slaves of
every class are somewhat dearer than the males of
the same age. Those who have not had the small-
pox are usually sold for less than the others. Three
days’ trial is generally allowed to the purchaser ,
during which time, the girl remains in his, or some
friend's, hbaree'm ; and the women make their report
to him. Snoring, grinding the teeth, or talking during
sleep, are commonly considered sufficient reasons for
returning her to the dealer.—The dresses of the
female slaves are similar to those of the Egyptian
WOImen.
* The Gella'bs generally convey their slaves partly over the
descrt and partly down the river.
258 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
The female servants, who are Egyptian girls or
women, are those to whom the lowest occupations
are allotted. They generally veil their faces in the
presence of their masters, with the head-veil; drawing
a part of this before the face, so that they leave only
one eye and one hand at liberty to see and perform
what they have to do. When a male visiter is re-
ceived by the master of a house in an apartment of
the hbaree'm (the females of the family having been
sent into another apartment on the occasion), he is
usually, or often, waited upon by a female servant,
who is always veiled.
Such are the relative conditions of the various
classes in the hbaree'm. A short account of their
usual habits and employments must be added.
The wives, as well as the female slaves, are not
only often debarred from the privilege of eating with
the master of the family, but also required to wait
upon him when he dines or sups, or even takes his
pipe and coffee in the hbaree'm. They frequently
serve him as menials; fill and light his pipe, make
coffee for him, and prepare his food, or, at least,
certain dainty dishes; and, if I might judge from my
own experience, I should say that most of them are
excellent cooks; for, when a dish has been recom-
mended to me because made by the wife of my host,
I have generally found it especially good. The wives
of men of the higher and middle classes make a great
study of pleasing and fascinating their husbands by
unremitted attentions, and by various arts. Their
coquetry is exhibited, even in their ordinary gait,
when they go abroad, by a peculiar twisting of the
body *. In the presence of the husband, they are
usually under more or less restraint; and hence they
are better pleased when his visits, during the day, are
* The motion here described they term ghoon'g.
THE H H A REE/M. 253
not very frequent or long; in his absence, they cften
indulge in noisy merriment.
The diet of the women is similar to that of the
men, but more frugal; and their manner of eating is
the same. Many of them are allowed to enjoy the
luxury of smoking ; for this habit is not considered
unbecoming in a female, however high her rank;
the odour of the tobacco which they use being very
delicate. Their pipes are generally more slender
than those of the men, and more ornamented; and
the mouth-piece is sometimes partly composed of coral,
in the place of amber. They generally make use of
perfumes, such as musk, civet, &c.; and often, also,
of cosmeties, and particularly of several preparations
which they eat or drink with the view of acquiring
what they esteem a proper degree of plumpness *: one
of these preparations is extremely disgusting; being
chiefly composed of mashed beetlest. Many of them
also have a habit of chewing frankincense {, and
labdanum Ş, which impart a perfume to the breath.
The habit of frequent ablutions renders them cleanly
in person. They spend but little time in the opera-
tions of the toilet; and, after having dressed them-
selves in the morning, seldom change their clothes
during the day. Their hair is generally braided in
the bath; and not undone afterwards for several days.
The care of their children is the primary occupa-
tion of the ladies of Egypt: they are also charged
* The Egyptians (unlike the Mugh'reb'ees, and some other
people of Africa, and of the East) do not generally admire
very fat women. In his love-songs, the Egyptian commonly
describes the object of his affections as of slender figure, and
small waist. -
t It would seem that these insects were eaten by the Jews
(see Leviticus, xi. 22); but we cannot suppose that they de-
rived this custom from the Egyptians, who regarded the beetle
*S Sacred.
* Liba'n. § La'din.
260 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
with the superintendence of domestic affairs; but, in
most families, the husband alone attends to the
household expenses. Their leisure-hours are mostly
spent in working with the needle; particularly in
embroidering handkerchiefs, head-veils, &c., upon a
frame called men'seg, with coloured silks and gold.
Many women, even in the houses of the wealthy,
replenish their private purses by ornamenting hand-
kerchiefs and other things in this manner, and em-
ploying a della'leh (or female broker) to take them
to the market, or to other hbaree'ms, for sale. The
visit of one haree’m to another often occupies nearly
a whole day. Eating, smoking, drinking coffee and
sherbet, gossiping, and displaying their finery, are
sufficient amusements to the company. On such
%
$º % ſºft o
ºft
%
###
The Men'seg—This is of walnut-wood, inlaid with mother of pearl and
tortoise-shell. The more common sort is of beech.

THE H HAREE/M. 261
occasions, the master of the house is never allowed
to enter the hbaree'm, unless on some particular and
unavoidable business; and in this case, he must give
notice of his approach, and let the visiters have suf-
ficient time to veil themselves, or to retire to an
adjoining room. Being thus under no fear of his
sudden intrusion, and being maturally of a lively and
an unreserved disposition, they indulge in easy gaiety,
and not unfrequently in youthful frolic. When their
usual subjects of conversation are exhausted, some-
times one of the party entertains the rest with the
recital of some wonderful or facetious tale. The
Egyptian ladies are very seldom instructed either in
music or dancing ; but they take great delight in
the performances of professional musicians and public
dancers; and often amuse themselves and their
guests, in the absence of better performers and better
instruments, by beating the dar'abook'keh (which is
a kind of drum) and the ta'r (or tambourine *);
though seldom in houses so situated that many pas-
sengers might hear the sounds of festivity. On the
occasion of any great rejoicing among the women
(such as takes place on account of the birth of a son,
or the celebration of a circumcision, or a wedding,
&c.), 'Awa'lim (or professional female singers) are
often introduced; but not for the mere amusement
of the women, on common occasions, in any respect-
able family; for this would be considered indecorous.
The Ghawa'zee (or public dancing-girls), who exhibit
in the streets with unveiled faces, are very seldom
admitted into a hbaree'm ; but on such occasions as
those above-mentioned, they often perform in front of
the house, or in the court; though, by many persons,
even this is not deemed strictly proper. The A'la'-
Descriptions and engravings of these instruments will
be given in another chapter, in the second volume.
262 MODE R N EGYPTIANS.
tee'yeh (or male musicians) are never hired exclusively
for the amusement of the women; but chiefly for that
of the men: they always perform in the assembly of
the latter: their concert, however, is distinctly heard
by the inmates of the hbaree’m *.
When the women of the higher or middle classes
go out to pay a visit, or for any other purpose, they
generally ride upon asses. They sit astride, upon a
very high and broad saddle, which is covered with a
small carpet; and each is attended by a man on one
or on each side. Generally, all the women of a
hharee’m ride out together; one behind another.
Mounted as above described, they present a very
singular appearance. Being raised so high above
the back of the hnoma'rt 'a'lee (or the “high ass”—
for so the animal which they ride, furnished with the
high saddle, is commonly called {), they seem very
insecurely seated; but I believe this is not really the
case: the ass is well girthed, and sure-footed ; and
proceeds with a slow, ambling pace, and very easy
motion. The ladies of the highest rank, as well
as those of the middling classes, ride asses, thus
equipped: they are very seldom seen upon mules or
horses. The asses are generally hired. When a lady
cannot procure a hboma’r 'a'lee, she rides one of the
asses equipped for the use of the men ; but has a
segga'deh (or prayer-carpet) placed over its saddle;
and the inferior members of the hbaree’m, and females
of the middle orders, often do the same. Ladies
never walk abroad, unless they have to go but a very
short distance. They have a slow and shuffling gait,
owing to the difficulty of retaining the slippers upon
their feet; and, in walking, they always hold the
* The performances of the A'la'tee'yeh, 'Awa'lim, and
Ghawa'zee, will be described in the second volume.
f Thus commonly pronounced, for hkema'r.
t It is also called homa'r mooghuttee (covered ass).
THE H HAREE'M.
263
·âupya søſpærı

THE HIHAREE/M. 265
front edges of the hbab'arah in the manner repre-
sented in the engraving opposite page 51 in this
volume. Whether walking or riding, they are re-
garded with much respect in public: no well-bred
man stares at them; but rather directs his eyes
another way. They are never seen abroad at night,
if not compelled to go out or return at that time by
some pressing and extraordinary necessity: it is their
usual rule to return from paying a visit before sunset.
The ladies of the higher orders never go to a shop,
but send for whatever they want; and there are
numerous della'lehs who have access to the hbaree'ms,
and bring all kinds of ornaments, articles of female
apparel, &c., for sale. Nor do these ladies, in
general, visit the public bath, unless invited to ac-
company thither some of their friends; for most of
them have baths in their own houses.
* x-sw" ºrº--~~~~~ :---- --- ~~~ --> , - . . . . ... -- ~~~~
266
CHAPTER VII.
Dom ESTIC LIFE—continued.
THE domestic life of the lower orders will be the
subject of the present chapter. In most respects, it
is so simple, that, in comparison with the life of the
middle and higher classes, of which we have just
been taking a view, it offers but little to our notice.
The lower orders in Egypt, with the exception of
a very small proportion, chiefly residing in the large
towns, consist of Fella'hhee'n (or Agriculturists).
Most of those in the great towns, and a few in the
smaller towns and some of the villages, are petty
tradesmen or artificers, or obtain their livelihood as
servants, or by various labours. In all cases, their
earnings are very small; barely sufficient, in general,
and sometimes insufficient, to supply them and their
families with the cheapest necessaries of life.
Their food chiefly consists of bread (made of millet
or of maize), milk, new cheese, eggs, small salted
fish”, cucumbers and melons and gourds of a great
variety of kinds, onions and leeks t, beans, chick-peas,
lupins, the fruit of the black egg-plant, lentils, &c.,
dates (both fresh and dried), and pickles. Most of
the vegetables they eat in a crude state. When the
maize (or Indian corn) is nearly ripe, many ears of
it are plucked, and toasted or baked, and eaten thus
by the peasants. Rice is too dear to be an article of
common food for the fella'hhee'n ; and flesh-meat they
* Called fesee'kh. + See Numbers, xi, 5.
THE LOWER ORDERS 267
very seldom taste. There is one luxury, however,
which most of them enjoy; and that is, smoking the
cheap tobacco of their country, merely dried, and
broken up. It is of a pale, greenish colour, when
dried; and of a mild flavour. Though all the articles
of food mentioned above are extremely cheap, there
are many poor persons who often have nothing with
which to season their coarse bread but the mixture
called doock'ckah, described in a former chapter. It
is surprising to observe how simple and poor is the
diet of the Egyptian peasantry, and yet how robust
and healthy most of them are, and how severe is the
labour which they can undergo.
The women of the lower orders seldom pass a life
of inactivity. Some of them are even condemned to
greater drudgery than the men. Their chief occupa-
tions are the preparing of the husband's food, fetching
water (which they carry in a large vessel on the
head), spinning cotton, linen, or woollen yarn, and
making the fuel called gel'leh, which is composed of
the dung of cattle, kneaded with chopped straw, and
formed into round flat cakes: these they stick upon
the walls or roofs of their houses, or upon the ground,
to dry in the sun ; and then use for heating their
ovens, and for other purposes. They are in a state
of much greater subjection to their husbands than is
the case among the superior classes. Not always is
a poor woman allowed to eat with her husband.
When she goes out with him, she generally walks
behind him; and if there be anything for either of
them to carry, it is usually borne by the wife; unless
it be merely a pipe or a stick. Some women, in the
towns, keep shops; and sell bread, vegetables, &c.
and thus contribute as much as their husbands, or
even more than the latter, to the support of their
families. When a poor Egyptian is desirous of marry
ing, the chief object of his consideration is the dowry
268 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
which is usually from about twenty riya'ls (or nine
shillings) to four times that amount, if consisting
only of money; and rather less if, as is the case
throughout a great part of Egypt, it comprise certain
articles of clothing : if he can afford to give the dowry,
he seldom hesitates to marry; for a little additional
cxertion will enable him to support a wife and two or
three children. At the age of five or six years, the
children become of use to tend the flocks and herds;
and at a more advanced age, until they marry, they
assist their fathers in the operations of agriculture.
The poor in Egypt have often to dependentirely upon
their sons for support in their old age; but many
parents are deprived of these aids, and consequently
reduced to beggary, or almost to starvation. A few
months ago, the Ba'sha, during his voyage from
Alexandria to this city (Cairo), happening to land at
a village on the bank of the Nile, a poor man of the
place ran up to him, and grasped his sleeve so tightly,
that the surrounding attendants could not make him
quit his hold : he complained that, although he had
been once in very comfortable circumstances, he had
been reduced to utter destitution by having his sons
taken from him in his old age as recruits for the
army. The Ba'sha (who generally pays attention to
personal applications) relieved him; but it was by
ordering that the richest man in the village should
give him a cow.
A young family, however, is sometimes an insup-
portable burden to poor parents. Hence, it is not
a very rare occurrence, in Egypt, for children to be
publicly carried about for sale, by their mothers or
by women employed by the fathers: but this very
seldom happens except in cases of great distress.
When a mother dies, leaving one or more children
unweaned, and the father and other surviving rela-
tions are so poor as not to be able to procure a nurse,
THE LOWER ORDERS. 269
this singular mode of disposing of the child or
children is often resorted to ; or sometimes an infant
is laid at the door of a mosque, generally when the
congregation is assembled to perform the noon-prayers
of Friday; and in this case it usually happens that
some member of the congregation, on coming out
of the mosque, and seeing the poor foundling, is
moved with pity, and takes it home to rear in his
family, not as a slave, but as an adopted child; or,
if not, it is taken under the care of some person until
an adoptive father or mother be found for it. A
short time ago, a woman offered for sale, to the
mistress of a family with whom a friend of mine is
acquainted in this city, a child a few days old, which
she professed to have found at the door of a mosque.
The lady said that she would take the child, to rear it
for the sake of God, and in the hope that her own
child, an only one, might be spared to her as a reward
for her charity; and handed, to the woman who
brought the infant, ten piasters (then equivalent to a
little more than two shillings): but the offered remu-
neration was rejected. This shows that infants are
Sometimes made mere objects of traffic ; and some
persons who purchase them may make them their
slaves, and sell them again. I have been informed,
by a slave-dealer (and his assertion has been con-
firmed to me by other persons), that young Egyptian
girls are sometimes sold as slaves from other coun-
tries, either by a parent or by some other relation.
The slave-dealer here alluded to said, that several
such girls had been committed to him for sale; and
by their own consent: they were taught to expect
rich dresses, and great luxuries; and were instructed
to say, that they had been brought from their own
country when only three or four years of age, and
that they consequently were ignorant of their native
language, and could speak only Arabic.
270 MODE R N EGYPTIANS.
It often happens, too, that a fella'hh in a state of
great poverty is induced, by the offer of a sum of
money, to place his son in a situation far worse than
that of ordinary slavery. When a certain number of
recruits are required from a village, the sheykh of the
village often adopts the plan that gives him the least
trouble to obtain them, which is, to take the sons of
those persons who are possessed of most property.
Under such circumstances, a father, rather than part
with his son, generally offers, to one of his poorer
fellow-villagers, a sum equivalent to one or two pounds
sterling, to procure a son of the latter as a substitute
for his own ; and usually succeeds; though the love
of offspring prevails among the Egyptians as much
as filial piety; and most parents have a great horror
of parting with their children, particularly if taken
for recruits, as is proved by the means to which they
have recourse for the prevention of such an occur-
rence. There is now (in 1834) seldom to be found,
in any of the villages, an able-bodied youth or young
man who has not had one or more of his teeth broken
out (that he may not be able to bite a cartridge), or a
finger cut off, or an eye pulled out or blinded, to
prevent his being taken for a recruit. Old women
and others make a regular trade of going about from
village to village, to perform these operations upon
the boys; and the parents themselves are sometimes
the operators. But, from what has been said before,
it appears that it is not always affection alone that
prompts the parents to have recourse to such ex-
pedients to prevent their being deprived of their
children.
The Fella'hhee'n of Egypt cannot be justly repre-
sented in a very favourable light with regard to their
domestic and social condition and manners. In the
worst points of view, they resemble their Bed'awee
ancestors, without possessing many of the virtues of
THE LOWER ORDERS. 27]
the inhabitants of the desert, unless in an inferior
degree ; and the customs which they have inherited
from their forefathers often have a very baneful effect
upon their domestic state. It has before been men-
tioned that they are descended from various Arab
tribes who have settled in Egypt at different periods;
and that the distinction of tribes is still preserved by
the inhabitants of the villages throughout this coun-
try. In the course of years, the descendants of each
tribe of settlers have become divided into numerous
branches, and these minor tribes have distinctive ap-
pellations, which have also often been given to the
village or villages or district which they inhabit.
Those who have been longest established in Egypt
have retained less of Bed'awee manners, and have
more infringed the purity of their race by inter-
marriages with Copt proselytes to the Mohham-
madan faith, or with the descendants of such per-
sons: hence, they are often despised by the tribes
more lately settled in this country, who frequently, in
contempt, term the former “Fella'hhee'n,” while they
arrogate to themselves the appellation of “Arabs” or
“Bed'awees.” The latter, whenever they please,
take the daughters of the former in marriage, but
will not give their own daughters in return ; and if
one of them be killed by a person of the inferior
tribe, they kill two, three, or even four, in blood-
revenge. The prevalence of the barbarous Bed'awee
law of blood-revenge among the inhabitants of the
villages of Egypt has been mentioned in a former
chapter: the homicide, or any person descended from
him, or from his great-grandfather's father, is killed
y any of such relations of the person whom he has
slain; and when the homicide happens to be of one
tribe, and the person killed of another, often a petty
war breaks forth between these two tribes, and is
Sometimes continued, or occasionally renewed, during
272 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
a period of several years. The same is also frequently
the result of a trifling injury committed by a member
of one tribe upon a person of another. In many
instances, the blood-revenge is taken a century or
more after the commission of the act which has occa-
sioned it; when the feud, for that time, has lain
dormant, and perhaps is remembered by scarcely
more than one individual. Two tribes in Lower
Egypt, which are called Sa'ad and Hhara'm, are
most notorious for these petty wars and feuds ; and
hence their names are commonly, applied to any two
persons or parties at enmity with each other. It is
astonishing that, in the present day, such acts (which,
if committed in a town or city in Egypt, would be
punished by the death of, perhaps, more than one of
the persons concerned) should be allowed. Some
other particulars respecting blood-revenge, and its
consequences, have been stated in the chapter above
alluded to. The avenging of blood is allowed by the
Ckoor-a'n; but moderation and justice are enjoined
in its execution; and the petty wars which it so often
occasions in the present age are in opposition to a
precept of the Prophet, who said, “If two Moos'lims
contend with their swords, the slayer and the slain
will be in the fire [of Hell].”
The Fella'hhee'n of Egypt resemble the Bed'awees
in other respects. When a Fella'hhah is found to
have been unfaithful to her husband, in general, he,
or her brother, throws her into the Nile, with a stone
tied to her neck; or cuts her in pieces, and then
throws her remains into the river. In most instances,
also, a father or brother punishes in the same manner
an unmarried daughter or sister who has been guilty
of incontinence. These relations are considered as
more disgraced than the husband by the crime of the
woman; and are often despised if they do not thus
punish her.
273
CHAPTER VIII.
CoMMON USAges of Society.
THE Moos'lims are extremely formal and regular
in their social manners ; though generally very easy
in their demeanour, and free in their conversation.
Several of their most common usages are founded
upon precepts of their religion, and distinguish them
in society from all other people. Among these is
their custom of greeting each other with the salutation
of “Peace be on you” (” to which the proper and
general reply is “On you be peace, and the mercy of
God, and his blessingst l’’ This salutation is never
to be addressed by a Moos'lim to a person whom
he knows to be of another religion f; mor vice versä.
The giving it, by one Moos'lim to another, is a duty;
but one that may be omitted without sin: the return-
ing it is absolutely obligatory: the former is a soon meh
ordinance; and the latter, furd. Should a Moos'lim,
however, thus salute, by mistake, a person not of the
same faith, the latter should not return it; and the
* Es-sela'moo 'aley'koom, or Sela'moon 'aley'koom, or, vul-
garly, es-sela'm 'aley'koom.
f’Aley'koomoo-s-sela'moo wa-rahh'matoo-lla'hi we-baraka'tooh,
or merely ’Aley'koom es-sela'm (On you be peace (); but the
longer salutation is more commonly used, in accordance with
an injunction in the Ckoor-a'n, chap. iv. ver, 88.
* Very few Moos'lims in Egypt do so. A European tra-
veller, not disguised by Turkish dress, often fancies that he is
greeted with this salutation when it is really intended for his
Moos'lim attendant,
274 MODE RN EGYPTIANS.
former, on discovering his mistake, generally revokes
his salutation: so also he sometimes does if a Moos'-
lim refuse to return his salutation; usually saying
“Peace be on us, and on [all] the right worshippers
of God.”
The chief rules respecting salutation, as dictated
by the Prophet, and generally observed by modern
Moos'lims, are as follow.—The person riding should
first salute him who is on foot; and he who passes
by, the person or persons who are sitting down or
standing still; and a small party, or one of such a
party, should give the salutation to a large party; and
the young, to the aged”. As it is sufficient for one
party to give, so is it, also, for one only to return,
the salutation. It is required, too, that a Moos'lim,
when he enters a house, should salute the people of
that house; and that he should do the same when he
leaves it. He should always salute first, and then
talk.-But, to the above rules, there are some excep-
tions. For instance, in a crowded city, it is not neces.
sary (indeed it is hardly possible) to salute many of
those whom one may pass; nor on a road where one
meets numerous passengers. Yet it is usual for a
wealthy or well-dressed person, or a venerable sheykh,
or any person of distinction, to salute another who
appears to be a man of rank, wealth, or learning,
even in a crowded street. Among polite people, it is
customary for him who gives or returns the saluta-
tion to place his right hand upon his breast, at the
same time; or to touch his lips, and then his fore-
head, or turban, with the same hand. This action
is called teymee'neh. The latter mode of teymee'neh,
which is the more respectful, is often performed to a
person of superior rank, not only at first, with the
* Herodotus speaks of the respect paid in Egypt to the
aged, and of the polite salutations of the Egyptians to each
other, (Lib. ii. cap. 80.)
COMMON USAGES OF SOCIETY. 275
sela'm (or salutation of “Peace be on you”), but also,
frequently during a conversation, and in the latter
case, without the sela'm.
A person of the lower orders, on approaching a
superior, particularly if the latter be a Turk, does
not always give the sela'm, but only performs this
teymee'neh; and he shows his respect to a man of
high rank by bending down his hand to the ground,
and then putting it to his lips and forehead, without
pronouncing the sela'm. It is a common custom,
also, for a man to kiss the hand of a superior (gene-
rally on the back only, but sometimes on the back
and front), and then to put it to his forehead, in order
to pay him particular respect; but in most cases, the
latter does not allow this; and only touches the hand
that is extended towards his : the other person, then,
merely puts his own hand to his lips and forehead.
To testify abject submission, in craving pardon for an
offence, or interceding for another person, or begging
any favour of a superior, not unfrequently the feet
are kissed instead of the hand. The son kisses the
hand of the father; the wife, that of her husband;
and the slave, and often the free servant, that of the
master. The slaves and servants of a grandee kiss
their lord's sleeve, or the skirt of his clothing.
When particular friends salute each other; they
join their right hands, and then each kisses his own
hand, and puts it to his lips and forehead, or his
forehead only, or his breast; or merely places it on
his breast, without kissing it: if after a long absence,
and on some other occasions, they embrace each
ºther; each falling upon the other's neck, and kissing
him on the right side of the face or neck, and then
upon the left. Another mode of salutation is very
90mmonly practised among the lower orders, when
Wo friends or acquaintances meet after a journey:
Joining their right hands, each of them compliments
276 MODE R N EGYPTIANS,
the other on his safety, and expresses his wishes for
his welfare, by repeating, alternately, many times, the
words sel'a'ma't and tet'yibee'n “: in commencing
this ceremony, which is often continued for nearly a
minute before they proceed to make any particular
inquiries, they join their hands in the same manner
as is usually practised by us; and at each alternation
of the two expressions above-mentioned, they change
the position of the hands: in repeating the second
word, each of the two persons turns his fingers over
the thumb of the other; and in repeating the first
word again, the former position is resumed.
In polite society, various other formal salutations
and compliments follow the sela'm. To most of
these, there are particular replies; or two or more
different forms of reply may be used in some cases;
but to return any that custom has not prescribed
would be considered as a proof of ignorance or vul-
garity. When a person asks his friend “How is
your health t t " the latter replies “Praise be to
God iſ ” and it is only by the tone of voice in which
he makes this answer that the inquirer can infer
whether he be well or ill. When one greets the
other with “Tei'yibee'n,” the usual reply is “God
bless thee S,” or “God preserve thee ||.” A friend or
acquaintance, on meeting another whom he has not
seen for several days, or for a longer period, gene-
rally says, after the sela'm, “Thou hast made us de-
solate by thy absence from us" ; ” and is usually
answered “May God not make [us] desolate by thy
absence *.” The ordinary set compliments in use in
* Meaning, “I congratulate you on your safety” and “I
hope you are well.”
f Eysh hka'l’koom. : El-hham'doo li-lla'h.
§ Al'lah yeba'rik (for yooba'rik) feek.
| Allah yesel'lin'ak (for yoosei'ām'ak).
*| Owhhash'tenſe, ** Al'lah la' yoo'hhesh min'nak.
COMMON USAGES OF SOCIETY. 277
Egyptian society are so numerous, that a dozen pages
of this work would not suffice for the mention of
those which may be heard almost every day.
When a person goes to the house of another, to
pay a visit, or for any other purpose, he never enters
unawares; for this is expressly forbidden by the
Ckoor-a'n “; and particularly, if he have to ascend
to an upper apartment; in which case, he should
call out for permission, or announce his approach, as
he goes up stairs, in the manner which I have had
occasion to describe in a former chapter f. Should
he find no person below, he generally claps his hands,
at the door, or in the court; and waits for a servant
to come down to him ; or for permission to be given
him to seat himself in a lower apartment, or to
ascend to an upper room. On entering the room in
which the master of the house is seated, he gives the
sela'm. The master returns the salutation ; and
welcomes the visiter with courteousness and affability.
To his superiors f or equals, he rises; and to the
former, and often to the latter also, he yields the most
honourable place, which is a corner of the deewa'n:
it is that corner which is to the right of a person
facing the upper end of the room. This end of the
room is called the sudr ; and the whole of the seat
which extends along it is more honourable than
those which extend along the sides; each of which is
called gemb. Visiters inferior in rank to the master
of the house never seat themselves at the upper end
unless invited to do so by him ; and when so invited,
they often decline the offered honour. His equals sit
at their ease, cross-legged, or with one knee raised;
and recline against the cushions: his inferiors (first,
at least) often sit upon their heels; or take their
* Chap. xxiv. ver, 27. + Chap. vi.
# That is, to those who are above him either in office
wealth, or religious or literary reputation.
WOL. I. R
278 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
place upon the edge of the deewa'n; or, if very much
beneath him in grade, seat themselves upon the mat
or carpet. In strict etiquette, the visiter should not,
at first, suffer his hands to appear, when entering the
room, or when seated; but should let the sleeves fall
over them ; and when he has taken his place on the
deewa'n, he should not stretch out his legs, nor even
allow his feet to be seen : but these rules are not
often attended to, excepting in the houses of the
great. Various formal compliments and salutations
are given and returned after the sela'm ; and some of
them, particularly the expressions of “tei'yibee'n"
and “eysh ha'l’koom,” are repeated several times
during the same interview.
Sometimes the visiter’s own servant attends him
with his pipe: the former takes his tobacco-purse out
of his bosom, and gives it to the servant, who folds
it up and returns it after having filled the pipe, or
after the termination of the visit: otherwise, a servant
of the host brings a pipe for the visiter, and one for
his master; and next, a cup of coffee is presented to
each *; for “tobacco without coffee,” say the Arabs,
“is like meat without salt.” On receiving the pipe,
and the coffee, the visiter salutes the master of the
house with the teymee'neh, which the latter returns;
and the same is done on returning the cup to the
servant. The master of the house also salutes his
guest in the same manner, if the latter be not much
beneath him in rank, on receiving and returning his
own cup of coffee. The subjects of conversation are
generally the news of the day, the state of trade, the
prices of provisions, and sometimes religion and
science. Facetious stories are often related ; and,
very frequently, persons in the best society tell tales,
* The visiter, if superior, or not much inferior in rank to
i. master of the house, receives his pipe and coffee before the
atter.
COMMON USAGES OF SOCIETY. 279
and quote proverbs, of the most indecent nature.
In good society, people seldom talk of each other’s
hharee'ms; but intimate friends, and many persons
who do not strictly observe the rules of good breed-
ing, very often do so, and in a manner not always
delicate. Genteel people inquire respecting each
other’s “houses,” to ascertain whether their wives
and families are well.—Visits not unfrequently occupy
several hours; and sometimes (especially those of
hharee'ms), nearly a whole day. The pipes are re-
plenished, or replaced by others, as often as is neces-
sary; for however long a visiter may stay, he gene-
rally continues smoking during the whole time; and
sometimes coffee is brought again, or sherbet. The
manner in which the coffee and sherbet are served
has been before described. A person receives the
same compliment after drinking a glass of sherbet as
after taking a draught of water"; and replies to it
in the same manner.
In the houses of the rich, it used to be a common
custom to sprinkle the guest, before he rose to take
his leave, with rose or orange-flower water; and to
perfume him with the smoke of some odoriferous
substance; but of late years, this practice has become
unfrequent. The scent-bottle, which is called ckoom'-
ckoom, is of plain or gilt silver, or fine brass, or
china, or glass; and has a cover pierced with a small
hole. The perfuming-vessel, or mib'khar'ah, is ge-
nerally of one or the other of the metals above
mentioned: the receptacle for the burning charcoal
is lined, or half filled, with gypsum-plaster; and its
cover is pierced with apertures for the emission of
the smoke. The mib'khar'ah is used last: it is pre-
sented by a servant to the visiter or master, who
wafts the smoke towards his face, beard, &c., with
* Mentioned in chap, v.
R 2
280 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
Ckoom'ckoom and Mib'khar'ah-Each is about eight inches high.
his right hand. Sometimes it is opened, to emit the
smoke more freely. The substance most commonly
used in the mib'khar'ah is aloes-wood *, or benzoin t,
or cascarilla-bark j. The wood is moistened before
it is placed upon the burning coals. Ambergris Š
is also used for the same purpose; but very rarely,
and only in the houses of persons of great wealth;
as it is extremely costly. As soon as the visiter has
been perfumed, he takes his leave; giving the sela'm,
which is returned to him, and paying and receiving
other set compliments. If he be a person of much
higher rank than the master of the house, the latter
not only rises, but also accompanies him to the top
of the stairs, and then commends him to the care of
God.
* *Ooºd. + Ga'wee.
Ckishr’am/bar, § 'Am/bar.

COMMON USAGES OF SOCIETY. 281
It is usual for a person, after paying a visit of
ceremony, and on some other occasions, previously
to his leaving the house, to give a small present (two
or three piasters, or more, according to circum-
stances) to one, or to several, of the servants ; and
if his horse or mule or ass be waiting for him at the
door, one of the servants goes out with him, to
adjust his dress when he mounts: this officious person
particularly expects a present. When money is thus
given to a man's servants, it is considered incumbent
upon their master to do exactly the same when he
returns the visit.
Friends very often send presents to each other,
merely for the sake of complying with common cus-
tom. When a person celebrates any private festivity,
he generally receives presents from most of his
friends; and it is a universal rule that he should
repay the donor by a similar gift, or one of the same
value, on a similar occasion. It is common for the
receiver of a present, on such an event, even to ex-
press to the giver his hope that he may have to
repay it on the occasion of a like festivity. An
acknowledgment accompanied by such an allusion
to the acquitment of the obligation imposed by the
gift, which would be offensive to a generous Eu-
ropean, is, in this country, esteemed polite. The
present is generally wrapped in an embroidered hand-
kerchief, which is returned, with a trifling pecuniary
gratification, to the bearer. Fruit, laid upon leaves,
and sweetmeats and other dainties, placed in a dish
or on a tray, and covered with a rich handkerchief or
napkin, are common presents. Very frequently, a
present is given by a person to a superior with the
view of obtaining something more valuable in return.
This is often done by a servant to his master; and
the gift is seldom refused; but often paid for imme-
iately in money, more than equivalent. It is gene-
R 3
282 MoDERN EGYPTIANs.
rally with the expectation above mentioned that an
Oriental gives a present to a European. The custom
of giving money to the servants of a friend, after
paying him a visit, is not now so common as it was
a few years since; but it is still observed by most
persons on the occasion of a visit of ceremony; and
particularly on the two 'eeds, or religious festivals,
and by the guests at private festivities. Other cus-
toms of a similar nature, which are observed at these
festivities, will be described in a subsequent chapter *.
To decline the acceptance of a present generally
gives offence; and is considered as reflecting disgrace
upon the person who has offered it.
There are many formal usages which are observed
in Egypt not merely on the occasions of ceremonious
visits, or in the company of strangers, or at the casual
meetings of friends, but also in the ordinary inter-
course of familiar acquaintances. When a man hap-
pens to sneeze, he says “Praise be to God t!” Each
person present (servants generally excepted) then says
to him “God have mercy on you i !” to which the
former generally replies “God guide us and guide
you $1 ° or he returns the compliment in words of a
similar purport. Should he yawn, he puts the back
of his left hand to his mouth, and then says “I seek
refuge with God from Satan the accursed |!” but he
is not complimented on this act; as it is one which
should rather be avoided; for it is believed that the
devil is in the habit of leaping into a gaping mouth.
For a breach of good manners, it is more common
to ask the pardon of God, than that of the present
company; by saying “I beg pardon of God, the




* In the second volume. + El-hham'doo li-lla'h.
Rahhem'koom Al'la'h. . -
& Yahdee'ne wa-yahdee'koom Al'la'h. -
|| 4'oo'z bi-lla/h minesh-sheyta'n er-ragee'm.

COMMON USAGES OF SOCIETY". 282
Great *!” When a man has just been shaved, or
been to the bath, when he has just performed the
ablution preparatory to prayer, when he has been
saying his prayers, or doing any other meritorious
act, when he has just risen from sleep, when he has
purchased or put on any new article of dress, and on
many other occasions, there are particular compli-
ments to be paid to him, and particular replies for him
to make.
It is a rule with the Moos' lims to honour the right
hand and foot above the left: to use the right hand
for all honourable purposes; and the left, for actions
which, though necessary, are unclean: to put on and
take off the right shoe before the left; and to put the
right foot first over the threshold of a door.
The Egyptians are extremely courteous to each
other, and have a peculiar grace and dignity in their
manner of salutation and their general demeanour,
combined with easiness of address, which seem na-
tural to them; being observable even in the peasants.
The middle and higher classes of townspeople pride
themselves upon their politeness and elegance of
manners, and their wit, and fluency of speech; and
with some justice: but they are not less free in their
conversation than their less accomplished fellow-
countrymen. Affability is a general characteristic of
the Egyptians of all classes. It is common for
strangers, even in a shop, after mutual salutation, to
enter into conversation with each other with as much
freedom as if they were old acquaintances; and for
one who has a pipe to offer it to another who has
none; and it is not unusual, nor is it generally con-
sidered unpolite, for persons in a first, casual meeting,
to ask each other's names, professions or trades, and
places of abode. Lasting acquaintances are often
* Astugh/ir Al'la'h el-'azee'm.
284 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
formed on such occasions. In the middle and higher
ranks of Egyptian society, it is very seldom that a
man is heard to say anything offensive to the feel-
ings of another in his company; and the most profli-
gate never venture to utter an expression meant to
cast ridicule upon sincere religion: most persons,
however, in every class, are otherwise more or less
licentious in their conversation, and extremely fond of
joking. They are generally very lively and dramatic
in their talk; but scarcely ever noisy in their mirth.
They seldom indulge in loud laughter; expressing
their enjoyment of anything ludicrous by a smile or
an exclamation.
”*.*.*.*.*&#&@*
285
CHAPTER IX.
LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, AND SCIENCE.
The metropolis of Egypt maintains the reputation
by which it has been distinguished for many cen-
turies, of being the best school of Arabic literature,
and of Mohhammadan theology and jurisprudence.
Polite knowledge has much declined among the Arabs
universally; but least in Cairo: consequently, the fame
of the professors of this city still remains unrivalled;
and its great mosque, the Az'har, continues to attract
innumerable students from every quarter of the Moos'-
lim world.
The Arabic spoken by the middle and higher classes
in Cairo is generally inferior, in point of grammatical
correctness and pronunciation, to the dialects of the
Bed'awees of Arabia, and of the inhabitants of the
towns in their immediate vicinity; but much to be
preferred to those of Syria; and still more, to those of
the Western Arabs. The most remarkable peculiarities
in the pronunciation of the people of Egypt are the
following:—The fifth letter of the alphabet is pro-
nounced by the natives of Cairo, and throughout the
greater part of Egypt, as g in give ; while, in most
parts of Arabia, and in Syria and other countries,
it receives the sound of j in joy: but it is worthy of
remark, that, in a part of southern Arabia, where, it
is said, Arabic was first spoken, the former sound is
given to this letter. In those parts of Egypt where
this pronunciation of the fifth letter prevails, the sound
286 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
of hem'zeh (which is produced by a sudden emission
of the voice after a total suppression) is given to the
twenty-first letter, excepting by the better instructed,
who give to this letter its true sound, which I repre-
sent by cle. In other parts of Egypt, the pronuncia-
tion of the fifth letter is the same as that of j in
joy, or nearly so; and the twenty-first letter is pro-
nounced as g in give. By all the Egyptians, in
common with most other people who speak the
Arabic language, the third and fourth letters of the
alphabet are pronounced alike, as our t , and the
eighth and ninth, as our d-Of the peculiarities in
the structure of the Egyptian dialect of Arabic, the
most remarkable are, the annexation of the letter
sheen in negative phrases, in the same manner as the
word “pas” is used in French; as ma' yerda'sh, for
ma' yer'da, “ he will not consent”; ma' hoo'sh
tei'yib, for ma' hoo'a tei'yib, “it is not good”; the
placing the demonstrative pronoun after the word to
which it relates; as el-beyt de', “this house”; and
a frequent unnecessary use of the diminutive form
in adjectives; as sooghei'yir, for sagheer, “ small ”;
ckoorei'yib, for ckaree/b, “near.”
There is not so much difference between the lite-
rary and popular dialects of Arabic as some European
Orientalists have supposed. The latter may be de-
scribed as the literary dialect simplifted, principally
by the omission of the final vowels and other ter-
minations which distinguish the different cases of
mouns and some of the persons of verbs. Nor is
there so great a difference between the dialects of
Arabic spoken in different countries as some persons,
who have not held intercourse with the inhabitants of
such countries, have imagined: they resemble each
other more than the dialects of some of the different
counties in England. The Arabic language abounds
with synonymes; and, of a number of words which




BOOKS, &c. 287
are synonymous, one is in common use in one coun-
try, and another elsewhere. Thus, the Egyptian calls
milk leb'en; the Syrian calls it hkalee'b : the word
leb'em is used in Syria to denote a particular prepara-
tion of sour milk. Again, bread is called in Egypt
'eysh ; and in other Arab countries, khoob'z ; and
many examples of a similar kind might be adduced.
—The pronunciation of Egypt has more softness than
that of Syria and most other countries in which Arabic
is spoken.
The literature of the Arabs is very comprehensive;
but the number of their books is more remarkable
than the variety. The relative number of the books
which treat of religion and jurisprudence may be
stated to be about one-fourth : next in number are
works on grammar, rhetoric, and various branches of
philology: the third in the scale of proportion are
those on history (chiefly that of the Arab nation),
and on geography: the fourth, poetical compositions.
Works on medicine, chymistry, the mathematics, alge-
bra, and various other sciences, &c., are comparatively
very few.
There are, in Cairo, many large libraries; most of
which are attached to mosques, and consist, for the
greater part, of works on theology and jurisprudence,
and philology. Several rich merchants, and others,
have also good libraries. The booksellers of Cairo
are, I am informed, only eight in number *; and their
shops are but ill stocked. Whenever a valuable book
comes into the possession of one of these persons, he
goes round with it to his regular customers; and is
almost sure of finding a purchaser. The leaves of the
books are seldom sewed together; but they are usually
enclosed in a cover bound with leather; and mostly
* These are natives. There are also a few Turkish book-
Sellers,
288 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
have, also, an outer case (called zurf) of pasteboard
and leather. Five sheets, or double leaves, are com-
monly placed together, one within another; com-
posing what is called a karra's. The leaves are thus
arranged, in small parcels, without being sewed, in
order that one book may be of use to a number of
persons at the same time; each taking a karra's. The
books are laid flat, one upon another; and the mame
is written upon the front of the outer case, or upon the
edge of the leaves. The paper is thick and glazed: it
is mostly imported from Venice, and glazed in Egypt.
~
&º
Books, and Apparatus for Writing *.
The ink is very thick and gummy. Reeds are used
instead of pens; and they suit the Arabic character
much better. The Arab, in writing, places the paper
upon his knee, or upon the palm of his left hand, or
upon what is called a mis'med'eh, composed of a dozen
or more pieces of paper attached together at the four
* The latter consist of the reed (**) the mickut'ta', the
penknife (?nick'shut), the dawa'yeh, the misſtar'ah, the mis'ned'eh
(upon which the five articles before mentioned lie), and the
scissors (mickus's), which, with their sheath, are placed upon
the upper book,

THE GREAT MOSQUE EL-AZ"HAR. 289
corners, and resembling a thin book, which he rests
on his knee. His ink and pens are contained in a
receptacle called dawa'yeh, mentioned in the first
chapter of this work, together with the penknife,
and an ivory instrument (mickut'ta') upon which the
pen is laid to be nibbed. He rules his paper by lay-
ing under it a piece of pasteboard with strings
strained and glued across it (called a mis/tar'ah),
and slightly pressing it over each string. Scissors
are included among the apparatus of a writer: they
are used for cutting the paper; a torn edge being
considered as unbecoming. In Cairo there are many
persons who obtain their livelihood by copying manu-
scripts. The expense of writing a karra's of twenty
pages, quarto size, with about twenty-five lines to a
page, in an ordinary hand, is about three piasters (or
a little more than sevenpence of our money); but
more if in an elegant hand; and about double the
sum if with the vowel points, &c.
In Egypt, and particularly in its metropolis, those
youths or men who purpose to devote themselves to
religious employments, or to any of the learned pro-
fessions, mostly pursue a course of study in the great
mosque El-Az'har; having previously learned nothing
more than to read, and, perhaps, to write, and to re-
cite the Ckoor-a'n. The Az'har, which is regarded as
the principal university “ of the East, is an extensive
building, surrounding a large, square court. On one
* The Az'har is not called a “ university” with strict pro-
priety; but is regarded as such by the Moos'lims, as whatever
they deem worthy of the name of science, or necessary to be
known, is taught within its walls. Its name has been trans-
lated, by European travellers, “the Mosque of Flowers;” as
though it had been called Game’ el-Azha'r, instead of El-
Game’ el-Az'har, which is its proper appellation, and signifies
“ the Splendid Mosque.” It is the first with respect to the
period of its foundation, as well as in size, of all the mosques
within the original limits of the city.
WOL, I, S
290 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
side of this court, the side towards Mek'keh, is the
chief place of prayer; a spacious portico: on each of
the other three sides are smaller porticoes, divided into
a number of apartments, called riva'cks, each of
which is destined for the use of natives of a particular
country, or of a particular province of Egypt. This
building is situated in the heart of the metropolis. It
is not remarkable in point of architecture, and is so
surrounded by houses that very little of it is seen ex-
ternally. The students are called mooga'wiree/n^.
Each riva'ck has a library for the use of its members;
and from these books, and the lectures of the pro-
fessors, the students acquire their learning. The
regular subjects of study are grammatical inflexion
and syntax t, rhetoric i, versification $, logic ||, theo-
logy I, the exposition of the Ckoor-a'n “”, the Tra-
ditions of the Prophet fit, the complete science of
jurisprudence, or rather of religious, moral, civil, and
criminal law if, which is chiefly founded on the Ckoor-
a'n and the Traditions; together with arithmetic $$,
as far as it is useful in matters of law. Lectures are
also given on algebra ||, and on the calculations of
the Mohhammadan calendar, the times of prayer,
&c. *||. Different books are read by students of
different sects. Most of the students, being natives
of Cairo, are of the Sha'fe'ee sect; and always the
Sheykh, or head of the mosque, is of this sect. None
of the students pay for the instruction they receive;
being mostly of the poorer classes. Most of those
who are strangers, having riva'cks appropriated to
them, receive a daily allowance of food, provided from
funds chiefly arising from the rents of houses be-
* In the singular, mooga'wir. + Surf and nahh!oo,
# El-ma'a'nee we-l-baya'n. El-'aroo'd.
| El-mun'tick. ºf Et-towhhee'd. ** Et-teſsee'r.
†† El-ahh/a/dee's. if El-fickh, §§ El-hhesa'b.
| El-gebr we-l-moocka'beleń. *I'ſ El-meecka’t.
THE GREAT MOSQUE EL-Az'HAR. 291
queathed for their maintenance. Those of Cairo and
its neighbourhood used to receive a similar allowance;
but this they no longer enjoy, excepting during the
month of Rum'ada'n : for the present Ba'sha of Egypt
has taken possession of all the cultivable land which
belonged to the mosques; and thus the Az'har has
lost the greater portion of the property which it pos-
sessed: nothing but the expenses of necessary repairs,
and the salaries of its principal officers, are provided
for by the government. The professors, also, receive
no salaries. Unless they inherit property, or have
relations to maintain them, they have no regular
means of subsistence but teaching in private houses,
copying books, &c.; but they sometimes receive pre-
sents from the wealthy. Any person who is compe-
tent to the task may become a professor by leave of
the Sheykh of the mosque. The students mostly
obtain their livelihood by the same means as the pro-
fessors ; or by reciting the Ckoor-a'n in private
houses, and at the tombs and other places. When
sufficiently advanced in their studies, some of them
become cka'dees, moof'tees, ima'ms of mosques, or
Schoolmasters, in their native villages or towns, or in
Cairo; others enter into trade: some remain all their
lifetime studying in the Az'har; and aspire to be
ranked among the higher 'Ool'ama. Since the con-
fiscation of the lands which belonged to the Az'har,
the number of that class of students to whom no
endowed riva'ck is appropriated has very much
decreased. The number of students, including all
classes excepting the blind, is (as I am informed
by one of the professors) about one thousand five
hundred #.
* Many persons say that their number is not less than
three thousand; others, not more than one thousand. It
Varies very much at different times.
S 2
292 MODE R N EGYPTIANS.
There is a chapel (called Za'wiyet el-Omya'n, or
the Chapel of the Blind), adjacent to the eastern angle
of the Az'har, and one of the dependencies of that
mosque, where at present about three hundred poor
blind men, most of whom are students, are main-
tained, from funds bequeathed for that purpose.
These blind men often conduct themselves in a most
rebellious and violent manner : they are notorious for
such conduct, and for their fanaticism. A short
time ago, a European traveller entering the AZ'har,
and his presence there being buzzed about, the blind
men eagerly inquired “Where is the infidel?” adding
“We will kill him ;” and groping about at the same
time to feel and lay hold of him: they were the only
persons who seemed desirous of showing any vio-
lence to the intruder. Before the accession of the
present Ba'sha, they often behaved in a very out-
rageous manner whenever they considered themselves
oppressed, or scanted in their allowance of food :
they would, on these occasions, take a few guides, go
about with staves, seize the turbans of passengers in
the streets, and plunder the shops. The most cele-
brated of the present professors in the Az'har, the
sheykh El-Ckoowey'sinee *, who is himself blind,
being appointed, a few years ago, Sheykh of the
Za'wiyet el-’Omya'n, as soon as he entered upon
his office, caused every one of the blind men there to
be flogged; but they rose against him, bound him,
and inflicted upon him a flogging far more severe
than that which they had themselves endured; and
obliged him to give up his office.
Learning was in a much more flourishing state
in Cairo before the entrance of the French army than
it has been in later years. It suffered severely from
t. Since this was written he has become Sheykh of the
Az'har.
SCIENCE. 293
this invasion; not through direct oppression, but in
consequence of the panic which this event occasioned,
and the troubles by which it was followed. Before
that period, a sheykh who had studied in the Az'har,
if he had only two boys, sons of a moderately rich
fella'hh, to educate, lived in luxury: his two pupils
served him, cleaned his house, prepared his food, and,
though they partook of it with him, were his menial
attendants at every time but that of eating: they
followed him whenever he went out; carried his
shoes (and often kissed them when they took them
off) on his entering a mosque ; and in every case
treated him with the honour due to a prince. He
was then distinguished by an ample dress, and the
large formal turban called a moock'leh ; and as he
passed along the street, whether on foot or mounted
on an ass or mule, passengers often pressed towards
him to implore a short ejaculatory prayer on their
behalf; and he who succeeded in obtaining this wish
believed himself especially blessed: if he passed by a
Frank riding, the latter was obliged to dismount: if
he went to a butcher, to procure some meat (for he
found it best to do so, and not to send another), the
butcher refused to make any charge; but kissed his
hand, and received as an honour and a blessing
whatever he chose to give—The condition of a man
of this profession is now so fallen, that it is with
difficulty he can obtain a scanty subsistence, unless
possessed of extraordinary talent.
The Moos'lim 'ool'ama are certainly much fettered
in the pursuit of some of the paths of learning by
their religion; and superstition sometimes decides a
point which has been controverted for centuries.
There is one singular means of settling a contention
on any point of faith, science, or fact, of which I
must give an instance. The following anecdote was
related to me by the Ima'in of the late Moof'tee (the
294 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
sheykh El-Mah'dee): I wrote it in Arabic, at his dic-
tation, and shall here translate his words. The
sheykh Mohham'mad El-Bahei' (a learned man,
whom the vulgar regard as a wel'ee, or especial
favourite of heaven) was attending the lectures of
the sheykh El-Emee'r El-Kebee'r (sheykh of the
sect of the Ma'likees), when the professor read, from
the Ga'mé es-Saghee'r * of Es-Sooyoo'tee, this say-
ing of the Prophet “Verily El-Hhas'an and El-
Hhosey'n are the two words of the youths of the
people of Paradise, in Paradise,” and proceeded to
remark, in his lecture, after having given a summary
of the history of El-Hhas'an and El-Hhosey'n, that,
as to the common opinion of the people of Musr (or
Cairo) respecting the head of El-Hhosey'n, holding
it to be in the famous Mesh'hed in this city (the
mosque of the Hhas'aney'n), it was without founda-
tion; not being established by any credible authority.
“I was affected,” says Mohham'mad El-Bahei,
“with excessive grief, by this remark; since I be-
lieved what is believed by people of integrity and of
intuition, that the noble head was in this Mesh'hed;
and I entertained no doubt of it: but I would not
oppose the sheykh El-Emee'r, on account of his high
reputation and extensive knowledge. The lecture
terminated, and I went away, weeping; and when
might overshaded the earth, I rose upon my feet, pray-
ing, and humbly supplicating my Lord, and betaking
myself to his most noble apostle (God favour and
preserve him (), begging that I might see him in my
sleep, and that he would inform me in my sleep of
the truth of the matter concerning the place of the
noble head. And I dreamed that I was walking on
the way to visit the celebrated Mesh'hed El-
Hhosey'nee in Musr, and that I approached the
* A celebrated collection of the Traditions of the Prophet.
SCIENCE. 295
ckoob/beh”, and saw in it a spreading light, which
filled it: and I entered its door, and found a sheree'f
standing by the door; and I saluted him, and he re-
turned my salutation, and said to me “Salute the
Apostle of God (God favour and preserve him ();’
and I looked towards the ckib'leh f, and saw the
Prophet (God favour and preserve him ') sitting upon
a throne, and a man standing on his right, and
another man standing on his left: and I raised my
voice, saying ‘Blessing and peace be on thee, O
Apostle of God!’ and I repeated this several times
weeping as I did it: and I heard the Apostle of God
(God favour and preserve him!) say to me “Approach,
O my son 1 O Mohham'mad ' Then the first man
took me, and conducted me towards the Prophet
(God favour and preserve him, !) and placed me be-
fore his noble hands; and I saluted him, and he re-
turned my salutation, and said to me “God recom-
pense thee for thy visit to the head of El-Hhosey'n
my son.' I said “O Apostle of God, is the head of
El-Hhosey'n here?' He answered ‘Yes, it is here.'
And I became cheerful: grief fled from me; and
my heart was strengthened. Then I said “O Apostle
of God, I will relate to thee what my sheykh and
my preceptor El-Emee'r hath affirmed in his lec-
ture: and I repeated to him the words of the
Sheykh : and he (God favour and preserve him )
looked down, and then raised his head, and said
‘The copyists are excused.’ I awoke from my sleep
joyful and happy: but I found that much remained
of the night; and I became impatient of its length;
longing for the morn to shine, that I might go to
the sheykh, and relate to him the dream, in the hope
* The saloon of the tomb. * a tº
# That is, towards the niche which marks the direction
of Mek'keh.
296 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
that he might believe me. When the morn arose, I
prayed, and went to the house of the sheykh ; but
found the door shut: I knocked it violently; and the
porter came in alarm, asking ‘Who is that?” but
when he knew me, for he had known my abode from
the sheykh, he opened the door to me: if it had been
another person, he would have beaten him. I en-
tered the court of the house, and began to call out
“My master' My master!’ The sheykh awoke, and
asked ‘Who is that?' I answered “It is I, thy pupil,
Mohham'mad El-Bahei''' The sheykh was in won-
der at my coming at this time, and exclaimed “God's
absolute glory ! What is this What is the news?'
thinking that some great event had happened among
the people. He then said to me “Wait while I pray.’
I did not sit down until the sheykh came down to
the hall; when he said to me “Come up :” and I
went up, and neither saluted him, nor kissed his
hand, from the effect of the dream which I had
seen; but said “The head of El-Hhosey'n is in this
well-known Mesh'hed in Musr: there is no doubt of
it.” The sheykh said “What proof have you of that?
If it be a true record, adduce it.’ I said “From a
book, I have none.” The sheykh said “Hast thou
seen a vision ?? I replied ‘Yes; and I related it
to him; and informed him that the Apostle of God
(God favour and preserve him ) had acquainted me
that the man who was standing by the door was
'Al'ee the son of Ab/oo Ta'lib, and that he who was
on the right of the Prophet, by the throne, was
Aboo Bekr, and that he on his left was Om'ar the
son of El-Khatta'b: and that they had come to visit
the head of the Ima'm El-Hhosey'n. The sheykh
rose, and took me by the hand, and said “Let us
go and visit the Mesh'hed El-Hhosey'nee'; and when
he entered the ckoob'beh, he said “Peace be on thee,
O son of the daughter of the Apostle of God! I be-
SCIENCE. 297
lieve that the noble head is here, by reason of the
vision which this person has seen ; for the vision of
the Prophet is true; since he hath said “Whoso
seeth me in his sleep seeth me truly ; for Satan can-
not assume the similitude of my form.’ Then the
sheykh said to me ‘Thou hast believed, and I have
believed: for these lights are not illusive.’”—The
above-quoted tradition of the Prophet has often occa-
sioned other points of dispute to be settled in the
same manner, by a dream ; and when the dreamer
is a person of reputation, no one ventures to contend
against him.
The remark made at the commencement of this
chapter implies that there are, in the present day,
many learned men in the metropolis of Egypt; and
there are some also in other towns of this country,
One of the most celebrated of the modern 'Ool'ama
of Cairo is the sheykh H has'an El-'Atta'r, who is the
present sheykh of the Az'har *. In theology and
jurisprudence, he is not so deeply versed as some of
his contemporaries, particularly the sheykh El-
Ckoowey'sinee, whom I have before mentioned; but
he is eminently accomplished in polite literature t.
He is the author of an “In’sha,” or an excellent col-
lection of Arabic letters, on various subjects, which
are intended as models of epistolary style. This
work has been printed at Boo'la'ck. In mentioning
its author, I fulfil a promise which he condescended
to ask of me: supposing that I should publish, in
my own country, some account of the people of Cairo,
he desired me to state that I was acquainted with
him, and to give my opinion of his acquirements.-
The sheykh Mohham'mad Shiha'b is also deservedly
al Since the above was written, this eminent scholar has
led.
+ °Ilm el-ad'ab,
S 5
298 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
celebrated as an accomplished Arabic scholar, and
elegant poet. His affability and wit attract to his
house, every evening, a few friends, whose pleasures,
on these occasions, I sometimes participate. We are
received in a small, but very comfortable room ; each
of us takes his own pipe; and coffee alone is pre-
sented to us: the sheykh's conversation is the most
delightful banquet that he can offer us.—There are
also several other persons in Cairo who enjoy con-
siderable reputation as philologists and poets.-The
sheykh ‘Abd Er-Rahhma'n El-Gebur'tee, another
modern author, and a native of Cairo, particularly
deserves to be mentioned, as having written a very
excellent history of the events which have taken
place in Egypt since the commencement of the
twelfth century of the Flight *. He died in 1825, or
1826, soon after my first arrival in Cairo. His
family was of El-Gebur’t (also called Ez-Zey'la'), a
province of Abyssinia, bordering on the ocean. The
Gebur'tees (or natives of that country) are Moos'-
lims. They have a riva'ck (or apartment appro-
priated to such of them as wish to study) in the
Az'har; and there is a similar provision for them at
Mek'keh, and also at El-Medee'neh.
The works of the ancient Arab poets were but im-
perfectly understood (in consequence of many words
contained in them having become obsolete) between
two and three centuries, only, after the introduction
of the Mohhammadan faith: it must not therefore
be inferred, from what has been said in the preced-
ing paragraph, that persons able to explain the most
difficult passages of the early Arab authors are now
to be found in Cairo, or elsewhere. There are, how-
ever, many in Egypt who are deeply versed in Arabic
* The twelfth century of the Flight commenced on the 16th
or 17th of October, A.D. 1688.
SCIENCE. 299
grammar, rhetoric, and polite literature; though the
sciences mostly pursued in this country are theology
and jurisprudence. Few of the ’ool'ama of Egypt are
well acquainted with the history of their own nation;
much less with that of other people.
The literary acquirements of those who do not
belong to the classes who make literature their pro-
fession are of a very inferior kind. Many of the
wealthy tradespeople are well instructed in the arts
of reading and writing; but few of them devote much
time to the pursuit of literature. Those who have
committed to memory the whole, or considerable por-
tions, of the Ckoor-a'n, and can recite two or three
celebrated chasee'dehs (or short poems), or introduce,
now and them, an apposite quotation in conversation,
are considered accomplished persons. Many of the
tradesmen of Cairo can neither read mor write, or
can only read; and are obliged to have recourse to a
friend to write their accounts, letters, &c.; but these
persons generally cast accounts, and make intricate
calculations, mentally, with surprising rapidity and
COrrectness.
It is a very prevalent notion among the Christians
of Europe, that the Moos'lims are enemies to almost
cºery branch of knowledge. This is an erroneous
idea; but it is true that their studies, in the present
age, are confined within very narrow limits. Very
few of them study medicine, chymistry (for our first
knowledge of which we are indebted to the Arabs),
the mathematics, or astronomy. The Egyptian me-
dical and surgical practitioners are mostly barbers,
miserably ignorant of the sciences which they profess,
and unskilful in their practice; partly in consequence
of their being prohibited by their religion from avail-
ing themselves of the advantage of dissecting human
bodies. But a number of young men, natives of
300 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
Egypt, are now receiving European instruction in
medicine, anatomy, surgery, and other sciences, for
the service of the government. Many of the Egyp-
tians, in illness, neglect medical aid; placing their
whole reliance on Providence or charms. Alchymy
is more studied in this country than pure chymistry;
and astrology, more than astronomy. The astrolabe
and quadrant are almost the only astronomical in-
struments used in Egypt. Telescopes are rarely seen
here; and the magnetic needle is seldom employed,
excepting to discover the direction of Mek'keh; for
which purpose, convenient little compasses (called
ckiblee'yehs), showing the direction of the ckib'leh at
various large towns in different countries, are con-
structed, mostly at Dimya't: many of these have a
dial, which shows the time of the 'asr at different
places and different seasons. Those persons in
Egypt who profess to have considerable knowledge of
astronomy are generally blind to the true principles
of the science: to say that the earth revolves round
the sun, they consider absolute heresy. Pure astro-
nomy they make chiefly subservient to their compu-
tations of the calendar.
The Mohhammadan year consists of twelve lunar
months; the names of which are pronounced by the
Egyptians in the following manner:—
1. Mohhar'ram.
2. Suf'ar.
3. Rabee'ā el-Ow'wal.
4. Rabee'â et-Ta'nee.
5. Gooma'd el-Ow'wal, or Gooma'da-l-Oo'la.
6. Gooma'd et-Ta'nee, or Gooma'da-t-Ta'niyeh.
7. Reg'eb.
8. Shaaba'm.
9. Rum'ada'n.
SCIENCE. 301
10. Show'wa'l.
11. Zoo-l-Cka'adeh, or El-Ckaſadeh.
12. Zoo-l-Hheg'geh, or El-Hheg'geh”.
Each of these months retrogrades through all the
different seasons of the solar year in the period of
about thirty-three years and a half: consequently,
they are only used for fixing the anniversaries of
most religious festivals, and for the dates of historical
events, letters, &c., and not in matters relating to
astronomy or the seasons. In the latter cases, the
Coptic months are still in general use.
With their modern names, I give the correspond-
ing periods of our calendar.
. Too't commences on the 10th or 11th of September.
Ba'beh . . . . 10th or 11th of October.
. Ha'too'r . . . 9th or 10th of November.
. Kayah'k (vulg. Kiya'k) 9th or 10th of December
. Too'beh . . . 8th or 9th of January.
. Amshee'r . . . 7th or 8th of February.
. Baramha't . . . 9th of March.
8. Burmoo'deh . . 8th of April.
9. Beshen's . . . 8th of May.
10. Ba-oo'neh . . . 7th of June.
11. Ebee'b . . . . 7th of July.
12. Misra . . . . 6th of August.
:
* It is the general opinion of our chronologers, that the first
day of the Mohhammadan era of “the Flight” (in Arabic,
el-Hij'rah, or, as it is pronounced by most of the Egyptians,
el-Hig'reh) was Friday, the 16th of July, A.D. 622; but it
must be remarked, that the Arabs generally commence each
month on the night on which, or on the eve of which, the
new moon is actually seen ; and this night is, in most cases,
the second, but sometimes and in some places, the third,
after the true period of the new moon : if, however, the moon
is not seen on the second or third night, the month is com-
menced on the latter. The new moon of July, A.D. 622, hap-
pened between 5 and 6 o'clock in the morning of the 14th:
therefore the 16th was most probably the first day of the era.
302 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
The Eiya'm en-Nesſee (Intercalary days) five or
six days, complete the year.
These months, it will be observed, are of thirty
days each. Five intercalary days are added at the
end of three successive years; and six at the end of
the fourth year. The Coptic leap-year immediately
precedes ours: therefore the Coptic year begins on
the 11th of September only when it is the next after
their leap-year; or when our next ensuing year is a
leap-year; and, consequently, after the following
February, the corresponding days of the Coptic and
our months will be the same as in other years. The
Copts begin their reckoning from the era of Diocle-
tian, A.D. 284.
In Egypt, and other Moos'lim countries, from
sunset to sunset is reckoned as the civil day; the
might being classed with the day which follows it:
thus the night before Friday is called the night of
Friday. Sunset is twelve o'clock: an hour after
sunset, one o’clock: two hours, two o'clock; and so
on to twelve: after twelve o'clock in the morning, the
hours are again named one, two, three, and so on *.
The Egyptians wind up, and, if necessary, set their
watches at sunset; or rather a few minutes after;
generally when they hear the call to evening-prayer.
Their watches, according to this system of reckoning
from sunset, to be always quite correct, should be
set every evening; as the days vary in length.
The following Table shows the times of Mohham-
madan prayert, with the apparent European time of
* Consequently, the time of noon according to Mohham-
madan reckoning, on any particular day, subtracted from
twelve gives the apparent time of sunset, on that day, ac-
cording to European reckoning.
# The periods of the 'esh'é, daybreak, and 'asr are here
given according to the reckoning most commonly followed

in Egypt. (See the chapter on religion and laws.) Mo. T.
denotes Mohhammadan Time: Eur. T., European Time.
SCIENCE. 303
sunset, in and near the latitude of Cairo, at the com-
mencement of each zodiacal month.

Sunset. ‘Esh'e. º, Noon. 'Asr. .
Mo. T. |Eur. T. Mo. T. Mo. T. Mo. T. Mo. T.
June 21 ! º } º º 3." º º " ; , #"
July 22 || May 21 | 12 0 6 53 I 30 8 30 5 7 8 43
Aug. 23 Apr. 20 | 12 0 || 6 31 || 1 22 || 9 24 5 29 || 9 4
Sep. 23 Mar. 20 | 12 0 6 4 1 18 || 10 24 5 56 9 24
Oct. 23 | Feb. 18 || 12 0 5 37 1 18 || 11 18 6 23 9 35
Nov. 22 Jan. 20 | 12 0 || 5 15 || 1 22 | 11 59 || 6 45 9 41
Dec. 21 12 0 5 4 1 24 || 12 15 6 56 9 43
A pocket almanac is annually printed at the go-
vernment-press at Boo'la'ck *. It comprises the
period of a solar year, commencing and terminating
with the vernal equinox; and gives, for every day,
the day of the week, and of the Mohhammadan, Cop-
tic, Syrian, and European months; together with the
sun's place in the Zodiac, and the time of sunrise,
moon, and the 'asr. It is prefaced with a summary
of the principal eras and feast-days of the Moos'lims,
Copts, and others; and remarks and notices relating
to the seasons. Subjoined to it is a calendar contain-
ing physical, agricultural, and other notices for every
day in the year; mentioning eclipses, &c.; and com-
prising much matter suited to the superstitions of the
people. It is the work of Yahh'ya Efen'dee, origin-
ally a Christian priest of Syria; but now a Moos'lim.
Of geography, the Egyptians in general, and, with
very few exceptions, the best instructed among them,
* More than a hundred books have been printed at this
press: most of them for the use of the military, naval, and
civil servants of the government.
304 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
have scarcely any knowledge: having no good maps,
they are almost wholly ignorant of the relative situa-
tions of the several great countries of Europe. Some
few of the learned venture to assert that the earth is
a globe; but they are opposed by a great majority of
the 'Ool'ama. The common opinion of all classes of
Moos'lims is, that the earth is an almost plane ex-
panse, surrounded by the ocean, which, they say, is
encompassed by a chain of mountains called Cleaf.
Such being the state of science among the modern
Egyptians, the reader will not be surprised at finding
the present chapter followed by a long account of
their superstitions; a knowledge of which is neces-
sary to enable him to understand their character and
to make due allowances for many of its faults. We
may hope for, and, indeed, reasonably expect, a very
great improvement in the intellectual and moral state
of this people, in consequence of the introduction of
European sciences, by which their present ruler has,
in some degree, made amends for his oppressive
sway; but it is not probable that this hope will be
soon realized to any considerable extent.
305
CHAPTER X.
SUPERSTITIONs.
THE Arabs are a very superstitious people; and none
of them are more so than those of Egypt. Many
of their superstitions form a part of their religion ;
being sanctioned by the Ckoor-a'n ; and the most
prominent of these is the belief in Ginn, or Genii—in
the singular, Gin'nee.
The Ginn are said to be of praeadamite origin, an
intermediate class of beings between angels and
men, created of fire, and capable of assuming the
forms and material fabric of men, brutes, and mon-
sters, and of becoming invisible at pleasure. They
eat and drink, propagate their species (like, or in
conjunction with, human beings), and are subject to
death; though they generally live many centuries.
Their principal abode is in the chain of mountains
called Cka'f, which are believed to encompass the
Whole earth; as mentioned at the close of the pre-
ceding chapter. Some are believers in El-Isla'm
others are infidels. Of both these classes, the Arabs
stand in great awe; and for the former, they en-
tertain a high degree of respect. It is a common
custom of this people, on pouring water, &c. on the
ground, to exclaim, or mutter, destoo'r; that is, to
ask the permission, or crave the pardon, of any gin'-
nee that may chance to be there : for the ginn are
Supposed to pervade both the solid matter of the
earth and the firmament. They are also believed to
inhabit rivers, ruined houses, wells, baths, ovens, and
306 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
even the latrina: hence, persons, when they enter
the latter place, and when they let down a bucket
into a well, or light a fire, and on other occasions,
say, “Permission!” or “Permission ye blessed “1”;
which words, in the case of entering the latrina, they
sometimes preface with a prayer for God's protection
against all evil spirits; but in doing this, some per-
sons are careful not to mention the name of God
after they have entered (deeming it improper in
such a place), and only say, “I seek refuge with
Thee from the evil (that is Satan) and the evil ones.”
These customs present a commentary on the story
in “the Thousand and one Nights,” in which a mer-
chant is described as having killed a gin'nee by
throwing aside the stone of a date which he had
just eaten. In the same story, and in others of the
same collection, a gin'nee is represented as approach-
ing in a whirlwind of sand or dust; and it is the
general belief of the Arabs of Egypt, that the zo'-
ba'ah, or whirlwind which raises the sand or dust in
the form of a pillar of prodigious height, and which
is so often seen sweeping across the fields and de-
serts of this country, is caused by the flight of one of
these beings; or, in other words, that the gin nee
“rides in the whirlwind.” A charm is usually uttered
by the Egyptians to avert the zo'ba'ah, when it
seems to be approaching them : some of them ex-
claim, “Iron, thou unlucky f | *; as genii are sup-
posed to have a great dread of that metal: others en-
deavour to drive away the monster by exclaiming,
“God is most great i !”. What we call a “falling
star” (and which the Arabs term shiha'b) is com-
monly believed to be a dart thrown by God at an
evil gin' nee; and the Egyptians, when they see it,
exclaim, “May God transfix the enemy of the
* Destoo/r, or Destoo'r ya’ mooba'rakee'n.
f HRadee'd ya' meshoo/m. † Alla'hoo ak'bar.
GENIf 307
faith"!”. The evil gin'nees are commonly termed
'Efree ts. The existence of 'efree'ts must be believed
by the Moos'lim on account of the occurrence, in the
Ckoor-a'n, of these words, “An 'efree’t from among
the ginn answered” (chap. xxvii. ver. 39); which
words Sale translates “A terrible genius answered.”
They are generally believed to differ from the other
gimm in being very powerful, and always malicious;
but to be, in other respects, of a similar nature.
Connected with the history of the ginn are many
fables not acknowledged by the Ckoor-a'n, and there-
fore not credited by the sober Moos'lims, but only by
the less instructed. The latter believe that the earth
was inhabited, before the time of Adam, by a race
of beings differing from ourselves in form, and much
more powerful; and that forty (or, according to
Some, seventy-two) praeadamite kings, each of whom
bore the name of Sooleyma'n (or Solomon), succes-
sively governed this people. The last of these
Sooleymans was named Ga'n Ib'n Ga'n; and from
him, it is said, the ginn (who are also called ga'm)
derive their name. Hence, some believe the ginn
to be the same with the praeadamite race here men-
tioned: but others assert that they (the ginn) were
a distinct class of beings, and brought into subjection
by the other race.
Gin'nees are believed often to assume, or perpe-
tually to wear, the shapes of cats, dogs, and other
brute animals. The sheykh Khalee'l El-Meda'-
bighee, one of the most celebrated of the ’oo'ama of
£gypt, and author of several works on various
sciences, who died, at a very advanced age, during
the period of my former visit to this country, used to
relate the following anecdote. He had, said he, a
favourite black cat, which always slept at the foot of
* Sah'am Allah fee 'adoo'ed-deen.
308 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
his musquito-curtain. Once, at midnight, he heard
a knocking at the door of his house; and his cat
went, and opened the hanging shutter of his window,
and called, “Who is there ?” A voice replied, “I
am such a one’’ (mentioning a strange name) “the
gin'nee: open the door.” “The lock,” said the
sheykh's cat, “ has had the name [of God] pro-
nounced upon it *.”—“Then throw me down,” said
the other, “two cakes of bread.”—“The bread-bas-
ket,” answered the cat at the window, “has had the
name pronounced upon it.” “Well,” said the stranger,
“at least give me a drink of water.” But he was
answered that the water-jar had been secured in the
same manner; and asked what he was to do, seeing
that he was likely to die of hunger and thirst: the
sheykh's cat told him to go to the door of the next
house ; and went there also himself, and opened the
door, and soon after returned. Next morning, the
sheykh deviated from a habit which he had con-
stantly observed: he gave, to the cat, half of the
fatee'reh upon which he breakfasted, instead of a
little morsel, which he was wont to give; and after-
wards said, “O my cat, thou knowest that I am a
poor man: bring me, then, a little gold:” upon which
words, the cat immediately disappeared, and he saw
it no more. — Ridiculous as stories of this kind
really are, it is impossible, without relating one or
more, to convey a just notion of the opinions of the
people whom I am attempting to describe.
It is commonly affirmed, that malicious or dis-
* It is a custom of many foock'aha (or learned and devout
persons), and some others, to say the bismil'lah (In the name
of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful) on locking a door,
covering bread, laying down their clothes at night, and on
other occasions; and this, they believe, protects their pro-
perty from genii. The thing over which the bismil'lah has
been pronounced is termed moosem'mee (for moosem'ma)
'aley'h,
GENII. 309
turbed genii very often station themselves on the
roofs, or at the windows, of houses in Cairo, and other
towns of Egypt, and throw bricks and stones down
into the streets and courts. A few days ago, I was
told of a case of this kind, which had alarmed the
people in the principal street of the metropolis for a
whole week; many bricks having been thrown down
from some of the houses every day during this
period; but nobody killed or wounded, I went to
the scene of these pretended pranks of the genii, to
witness them, and to make inquiries on the subject;
but on my arrival there I was told that the regm
(that is, the throwing) had ceased. I found no one
who denied the throwing down of the bricks, or
doubted that it was the work of genii; and the
general remark, on mentioning the subject, was “God
avert from us their evil doings!”
One of my friends observed to me, on this occa-
sion, that he had met with some Englishmen who
disbelieved in the existence of genii; but he concluded
that they had never witnessed a public performance,
though common in their country, of which he had
since heard, called koomed'yeh (or comedy); by
which term he meant to include all theatrical per-
formances. Addressing one of his countrymen, and
appealing to me for the confirmation of his words,
he then said—“An Algerine, a short time ago, gave
me an account of a spectacle of this kind which he
had seen in London.”—Here his countryman inter-
rupted him, by asking, “Is not England in Lon-
don? or is London a town in England?”—My
friend, with diffidence, and looking to me, answered
that London was the metropolis of England; and
then resumed the subject of the theatre—“The
house,” said he, “in which the spectacle was ex-
hibited cannot be described: it was of a round form,
With many benches on the floor, and closets all
310 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
round, in rows, one above another, in which people
of the higher classes sat; and there was a large
square aperture, closed with a curtain. When the
house was full of people, who paid large sums of
money to be admitted, it suddenly became very
dark: it was at night; and the house had been
lighted up with a great many lamps; but these be-
came almost entirely extinguished, all at the same
time, without being touched by any body. Then,
the great curtain was drawn up : they heard the
roaring of the sea and wind; and indistinctly per-
ceived, through the gloom, the waves rising and
foaming, and lashing the shore. Presently, a tre-
mendous peal of thunder was heard; after a flash of
lightning had clearly shown to the spectators the
agitated sea: and then there fell a heavy shower of
real rain. Soon after, the day broke; the sea be-
came more plainly visible; and two ships were seen
in the distance: they approached, and fought each
other, firing their cannons; and a variety of other
extraordinary scenes were afterwards exhibited.
“Now it is evident,” added my friend, “that such
wonders must have been the works of genii, or at
least performed by their assistance.”—He could not
be convinced of his error by my explanations of
these phenomena.
During the month of Rum'ada'n, the genii, it is
said, are confined in prison; and hence, on the eve
of the festival which follows that month, some of
the women of Egypt, with the view of preventing
these objects of dread from entering their houses,
sprinkle salt upon the floors of the apartments;
saying, as they do it, “In the name of God, the
Compassionate, the Merciful.”
A curious relic of ancient Egyptian superstition
must here be mentioned. It is believed that each
quarter in Cairo has its peculiar guardian-genius,
GENII, 31 1
or Agathodamon, which has the form of a ser-
pent.
The ancient tombs of Egypt, and the dark recesses
of the temples, are commonly believed, by the people
of this country, to be inhabited by 'efree'ts. I found
it impossible to persuade one of my servants to enter
the Great Pyramid with me, from his having this
idea. Many of the Arabs ascribe the erection of the
Pyramids, and all the most stupendous remains of
antiquity in Egypt, to Ga'n Ib'n Ga'n, and his ser-
vants, the ginn; conceiving it impossible that they
could have been raised by human hands.
The term 'efree’t is commonly applied rather to
an evil gin'nee than any other being; but the ghosts
of dead persons are also called by this name; and
many absurd stories are related of them; and great
are the fears which they inspire. There are some
persons, however, who hold them in no degree of
dread.—I had once a humorous cook, who was some-
what addicted to the intoxicating hbashee'sh: soon
after he had entered my service, I heard him, one
evening, muttering and exclaiming, on the stairs, as
if in surprise at some event; and then politely say-
ing, “But why are you sitting here in the draught?
-Do me the favour to come up into the kitchen,
and amuse me with your conversation a little:” the
civil address, not being answered, was repeated and
varied several times; till I called out to the man, and
asked him to whom he was speaking. “The 'efree’t
of a Turkish soldier,” he replied, “is sitting on the
stairs, smoking his pipe, and refuses to move; he
came up from the well below: pray step and see
him.” On my going to the stairs, and telling the
servant that I could see nothing, he only remarked
that it was because I had a clear conscience. He
was told, afterwards, that the house had long been
haunted; but asserted that he had not been pre-
312 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
viously informed of the supposed cause; which was
the fact of a Turkish soldier having been murdered
there. My cook professed to see this 'efree’t fre-
quently after.
The existence of Ghools likewise obtains almost
universal credence among the modern Egyptians, in
common with several other Eastern nations. These
beings are said to appear in the forms of various ani-
mals, and in many monstrous shapes; to haunt
burial-grounds, and other sequestered spots; to feed
upon dead bodies; and to kill and devour every
human creature who has the misfortune to fall in
their way. Hence, the term “ghoo'l” is applied, in
general, to any cannibal.
That fancies such as these should exist in the
minds of a people so ignorant as those who are the
subject of these pages cannot reasonably excite our
surprise. But the Egyptians pay a superstitious re-
verence not to imaginary beings alone: they extend
it to certain individuals of their own species; and
often to those who are justly the least entitled to
such respect *. An idiot or a fool is vulgarly re-
garded by them as a being whose mind is in
heaven, while his grosser part mingles among ordi-
nary mortals; consequently, he is considered an
especial favourite of heaven. Whatever enormities
a reputed saint may commit (and there are many
who are constantly infringing precepts of their reli-
gion) such acts do not affect his fame for sanctity;
for they are considered as the results of his soul,
or reasoning faculties, being wholly absorbed in de-
votion; so that his passions are left without control.
Lunatics who are dangerous to society are kept in
confinement; but those who are harmless are gene-
rally regarded as saints. Most of the reputed Saints
* As is the case also in Switzerland.
SAINTS. 3.13
of Egypt are either lunatics or idiots or impostors.
Some of them go about perfectly naked, and are so
highly venerated, that the women, instead of avoid-
ing them, sometimes suffer these wretches to take
any liberty with them in a public street; and, by the
lower orders, are not considered as disgraced by such
actions, which, however, are of very rare occurrence.
Others are seen clad in a cloak or long coat com-
posed of patches of various coloured cloths, which is
called a dilck, adorned with numerous strings of
beads, wearing a ragged turban, and bearing a staff
with shreds of cloth of various colours attached to
the top. Some of them eat straw, or a mixture of
chopped straw and broken glass; and attract ob-
servation by a variety of absurd actions. During
my first visit to this country, I often met, in the
streets of Cairo, a deformed man, almost naked, with
long matted hair, and riding upon an ass, led by
another man. On these occasions, he always
stopped his beast directly before me, so as to inter-
cept my way, recited the Fa't'hhah (or opening
chapter of the Ckoor-a/n), and then held out his
hand for an alms. The first time that he thus
crossed me, I endeavoured to avoid him ; but a per-
son passing by remonstrated with me, observing that
the man before me was a saint, and that I ought to
respect him, and comply with his demand, lest some
misfortune should befal me. Men of this class are
supported by alms, which they often receive without
asking for them. A reputed Saint is commonly
called sheykh, moora'but, or wel'ee. If affected with
lunacy or idiotcy, or of weak intellect, he is also, and
more properly, termed meg?00'b, or mesloo'b. Wel'ee
is an appellation correctly given only to an eminent
and very devout saint; and signifies “a favourite of
heaven;” but it is so commonly applied to real or
pretended idiots, that some wit has given it a new
WOL. I. T
314 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
interpretation, as equivalent to belee'd, which means
“a fool” or “simpleton;” remarking that these two
terms are equivalent both in sense and in the nume-
rical value of the letters composing them : for wel'ee
is written with the letters wa’oo, la'm, and ye’, of
which the numerical values are 6, 30, and 10, or,
together, 46; and belee'd is written with be', la'm,
ge', and da'l, which are 2, 30, 10, and 4, or, added
together, 46. A simpleton is often jestingly called
a wel'ee.
The Moos'lims of Egypt, in common with those
of other countries, entertain very curious superstitions
respecting the persons whom they call wel'ees. I
have often endeavoured to obtain information on the
most mysterious of these superstitions ; and have
generally been answered, “You are meddling with
the matters of the taree'ckah,” or the religious course
of the durwee'shes; but I have been freely ac-
quainted with the general opinions on these subjects:
and such are perhaps all that might be required to
be stated in a work like the present: I shall, how-
ever, also relate what I have been told by learned
persons, and by durwee'shes, in elucidation of the
popular belief.
In the first place, if a person were to express a
doubt as to the existence of true wel'ees, he would
be branded with infidelity; and the following passage
of the Ckoor-a'n would be adduced to condemn him :
“Are not the favourites” of God those upon whom
no fear shall come, and who shall not be grievedf?”
This is considered as sufficient to prove that there is
a class of persons distinguished above ordinary hu-
man beings. The question then suggests itself,
“Who, or of what description, are these persons 2"
and we are answered, “They are persons wholly de-
* In the original, ow'lee'a, or owliya', plural of we'ee.
# Chap. x, ver, 63.
SAINTS. 315
voted to God, and possessed of extraordinary faith;
and, according to their degree of faith, endowed with
the power of performing miracles *.”
The most holy of the wel'ees is termed the Ckootb;
or, according to some persons, there are two who
have this title; and again, according to others, four.
The term chootb signifies an aris; and hence is ap-
plied to a wel'ee who rules over others: they depend-
ing upon him, and being subservient to him. For
the same reason it is applied to temporal rulers, or
any person of high authority. The opinion that
there are four ckootbs, I am told, is a vulgar error,
originating from the frequent mention of “the four
ckootbs,” by which expression are meant the founders
of the four most celebrated orders of durwee'shes (the
Rif'a"ee'yeh, Cka'diree'yeh, Ahhmedee'yeh, and Ba-
ra'himeh); each of whom is believed to have been
the ckootb of his time. I have also generally been
told, that the opinion of there being two ckootbs is a
vulgar error, founded upon two names, Ckootb el-
Hhackee'ckah (or the Ckootb of Truth), and Chootb
el-Gho's (or the Ckootb of Invocation for help), which
properly belong to but one person. The term el-
Ckootb el-Mootawel'lee is applied, by those who be-
lieve in but one ckootb, to the one ruling at the pre-
sent time; and by those who believe in two, to the
acting clootb. The Ckootb who exercises a super-
intendence over all other wel'ees (whether or not
there be another ckootb—for if there be, he is in-
ferior to the former) has, under his authority, wel'ees
of different ranks, to perform different offices; Ne-
gedbs, Nackee'bs, Bedee'ls f, &c.; who are known
* A miracle performed by a wel'ee is termed kara'meh.
one performed by a prophet, mo'agiz'eh.
# In the plural forms, Anga'b or Noog'aba, Noock'aba, and
Abda'ſ.
T 2
316 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
only to each other, and perhaps to the rest of the
wel'ees, as holding such offices.
The Ckootb, it is said, is often seen, but not known
as such : and the same is said of all who hold au-
thority under him. He always has a humble de-
meanour, and mean dress; and mildly reproves those
whom he finds acting impiously; particularly those
who have a false reputation for sanctity, Though
he is unknown to the world, his favourite stations
are well known; yet at these places he is seldom
visible. It is asserted that he is almost constantly
seated at Mek'keh, on the roof of the Ka'abeh; and,
though never seen there, is always heard at midnight
to call twice, “O thou most merciful of those who
show mercy” (” which cry is then repeated from
the ma'd'nehs of the temple, by the moo-ed'dins:
but a respectable pilgrim, whom I have just ques-
tioned upon this matter, has confessed to me that
he himself has witnessed that this cry is made by a
regular minister of the mosque; yet that few pilgrims
know this: he believes, however, that the roof of the
Ka'abeh is the chief mur'kaz (or station) of the
Ckootb. Another favourite station of this revered
and unknown person is the gate of Cairo called
Ba'b Zoowey'leh, which is at the southern extremity
of that part of the metropolis which constituted the
old city; though now in the heart of the town; for
the capital has greatly increased towards the south,
as it has also towards the west. From its being a
supposed station of this mysterious being, the Ba'b
Zoowey'leh is commonly called “El-Mootawel'leet.”
One leaf of its great wooden door (which is never
shut), turned back against the eastern side of the
interior of the gateway, conceals a small vacant space,
* Ya'ar'hhama-r-ra'hhemee'n.
+ For Ba'b El-Mootawel'ſee.
SAINTS. 317
which is said to be the place of the Ckootb. Many
persons, on passing by it, recite the Fa't'hhah; and
some give alms to a beggar who is generally seated
there, and who is regarded by the vulgar as one of
the servants of the Ckootb. Numbers of persons
afflicted with head-ache drive a nail into the door, to
charm away the pain ; and many sufferers from the
tooth-ache extract a tooth, and insert it in a crevice
of the door, or fix it in some other way, to insure
their not being attacked again by the same malady.
Some curious individuals often try to peep behind
the door, in the vain hope of catching a glimpse of
the Ckootb, should he happen to be there, and not
at the moment invisible. He has also many other
stations, but of inferior celebrity, in Cairo; as well
as one at the tomb of the seyd Ahh'mad El-Bed'a-
wee, at Tun'ta; another at El-Mahhal'leh (which,
as well as Tun'ta, is in the Delta); and others in
other places. He is believed to transport himself
from Mek'keh to Cairo in an instant; and so also
from any one place to another. Though he has a
number of favourite stations, he does not abide solely
at these; but wanders throughout the whole world,
among persons of every religion, whose appearance,
dress, and language he assumes; and distributes to
mankind, chiefly through the agency of the subor-
dinate wel'ees, evils and blessings, the awards of des-
tiny. When a Ckootb dies, he is immediately suc-
ceeded in his office by another.
Many of the Moos'lims say that Elijah, or Elias,
whom they generally call El-Khidr, was the Ckootb
of his time ; and that he invests the successive
ckootbs: for they acknowledge that he has never
died. This particular in their superstitious notions
respecting the ckootbs, combined with some others
which I have before mentiomed, is very curious when
compared with what we are told, in the Bible, of
T 3
3.18 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
Elijah, of his being transported from place to place
by the spirit of God; of his investing Elisha with
his miraculous powers, and his offices; and of the
subjection of the other prophets to him and to his
immediate successor". Some wel'ees renounce the
pleasures of the world, and the society of mankind;
and, in a desert place, give themselves up to medita-
tion upon heaven, and prayer; depending upon
divine providence for their support: but their retreat
becomes known; and the Arabs daily bring them
food. This, again, reminds us of the history of
Elijah: for, in the opinion of some critics, we should
read, for the word “ravens,” in the fourth and sixth
verses of the seventeenth chapter of the second book
of Kings, “Arabs:” “I have commanded the Arabs
to feed thee”—“And the Arabs brought him
bread.” &c.
Certain wel'ees are said to be commissioned by
the Ckootb to perform offices which, according to
the accounts of my informants here, are far from
being easy. These are termed As-hha'b ed-Dar'ak,
which is interpreted as signifying “watchmen,” or
“overseers.” In illustration of their employments,
the following anecdote was related to me a few days
ago.—A devout tradesman in this city, who was
ardently desirous of becoming a wel'ee, applied to a
person who was generally believed to belong to this
holy class, and implored the latter to assist him to
obtain the honour of an interview with the Ckootb.
The applicant, after having undergone a strict exami-
nation as to his motives, was desired to perform the
ordinary ablution (el-woodoo") very early the next
morning; then to repair to the mosque of El-Moo-
ei'yad (at an angle of which is the Ba'b Zoowey'leh,
or El-Mootawel'lee, before mentioned), and to lay
* See 1 Kings, xviii. 12, and 2 Kings, ii. 9–16.
SAINTS, 3} 9
hold of the first person whom he should see coming
out of the great door of this mosque. He did so.
The first person who came out was an old, venerable-
looking man ; , but meanly clad , wearing a brown
woollen gown (or zaaboo't); and this proved to be
the Clootb. The candidate kissed his hand, and
entreated to be admitted among the As-hha'b ed-
Dar'ak. After much hesitation, the prayer was
granted: the Ckootb said, “Take charge of the dis-
trict which consists of the Durb el-Ahh'mar * and its
immediate neighbourhood;” and immediately the
person thus addressed found himself to be a wel'ee:
and perceived that he was acquainted with things
concealed from ordinary mortals : for a wel'ee is
said to be acquainted by God with all secrets neces-
sary for him to know.—It is commonly said of a
wel'ee, that he knows what is secrett, or not discover-
able by the senses; which seems plainly contradic-
tory to what we read in several places in the Ckoor-
a'n; that mone knoweth what is secret (or hidden
from the senses) but God: the Moos'lims, however,
who are seldom at a loss in a discussion, argue that
the passages above alluded to, in the Ckoor-a'n, imply
the knowledge of secrets in an unrestricted sense;
and that God imparts to wel'ees such secrets only as
He thinks fit.
The wel'ee above mentioned, as soon as he had en-
tered upon his office, walked through his district;
and seeing a man at a shop, with a jar full of boiled
beans before him, from which he was about to serve
his customers as usual, took up a large piece of stone,
and, with it, broke the jar. The bean-seller imme-
diately jumped up ; seized hold of a palm-stick that
lay by his side; and gave the wel'ee a severe beat-
ing: but the holy man complained not; nor did he
* A street on the south of the Ba'b Zoowey'leh.
t Ya'alam el-gheyb.
320 MODE R N EG YPTIANS.
utter a cry : as soon as he was allowed, he walked
away. When he was gone, the bean-seller began to
try if he could gather up some of the scattered con-
tents of the jar. A portion of the jar remained in
its place; and on looking into this, he saw a veno-
mous serpent in it, coiled round, and dead. In
horror at what he had done, he exclaimed, “There
is no strength nor power but in God! I implore
forgiveness of God, the Great! What have I done !
This man is a wel'ee ; and has prevented my selling
what would have poisoned my customers.” — He
looked at every passenger all that day, in the hope of
seeing again the saint whom he had thus injured,
that he might implore his forgiveness ; but he saw
him not ; for he was too much bruised to be able to
walk. On the following day, however, with his limbs
still swollen from the blows he had received, the
wel'ee limped through his district, and broke a great
jar of milk at a shop not far from that of the bean-
seller ; and its owner treated him as the bean-seller
had done the day before ; but while he was beating
him, some persons ran up, and stopped his hand,
informing him that the person whom he was thus
punishing was a wel'ee, and relating to him the
affair of the serpent that was found in the jar of
beans. “Go, and look,” said they, “in your jar of
milk, and you will find, at the bottom of it, some-
thing either poisonous or unclean.” He looked ; and
found, in the remains of the jar, a dead dog.—On
the third day, the wel'ee, with the help of a staff,
hobbled painfully up the Durb el-Ahh'mar, and saw
a servant carrying, upon his head, a supper-tray
covered with dishes of meat, vegetables, and fruit,
for a party who were going to take a repast in the
country. He put his staff between the servant's
legs, and overthrew him ; and the contents of the
dishes were scattered in the street. With a mouth
SAINTS. 321
full of curses, the servant immediately began to give
the saint as severe a thrashing as he himself expected
to receive from his disappointed master for this acci-
dent: but several persons soon collected around him ;
and one of these bystanders observed a dog eat part,
of the contents of one of the dishes, and, a moment
after, fall down dead: he instantly seized the hand
of the servant, and informed him of this circum-
stance, which proved that the man whom he had
been beating was a wel'ee. Every apology was made
to the injured saint, with many prayers for his for-
giveness; but he was so disgusted with his new office,
that he implored God and the Ckootb to release him
from it; and, in answer to his solicitations, his su-
pernatural powers were withdrawn, and he returned
to his shop, more contented than before.—This story
is received as true by the people of Cairo; and there-
fore I have inserted it; for, in treating of supersti-
tions, we have more to do with opinions than with
facts. I am not sure, indeed, that it is altogether
false: the supposed saint might have employed per-
sons to introduce the dead serpent and dog into the
vessels which he broke. I am told that many a per-
son has obtained the reputation of being a wel'ee by
artifices of the kind just mentioned.
There have been many instances, in Egypt, of
werees afflicting themselves by austerities similar to
those which are often practised by devotees in India.
At the present time there is living, in Cairo, a wel'ee
who has placed an iron collar round his neck, and
chained himself to a wall of his chamber; and it is
said that he has been in this state more than thirty
years: but some persons assert that he has often
been seen to cover himself over with a blanket, as if
to sleep, and that the blanket has been removed im-
mediately after, and nobody found beneath it! Stories
of this kind are related and believed by persons who,
322 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
in many respects, are endowed with good sense; and
to laugh, or express discredit, on hearing them,
would give great offence. I was lately told, that, a
certain wel'ee being beheaded, for a crime of which
he was not guilty, his head spoke after it was cut
off”; and, of another decapitated under similar cir-
cumstances, that his blood traced upon the ground, in
Arabic characters, the following declaration of his in-
nocence—“I am a wel'ee of God; and have died a
martyr.”
It is a very remarkable trait in the character of
the people of Egypt and other countries of the East,
that Moos' lims, Christians, and Jews adopt each
other's superstitions, while they abhor the more ra-
tional doctrines of each other's faiths. In sickness,
the Moos'lim sometimes employs Christian and
Jewish priests to pray for him : the Christians and
Jews, in the same predicament, often call in Moos'-
lim saints, for the like purpose. Many Christians
are in the frequent habit of visiting certain Moos'lim
saints here ; kissing their hands; begging their
prayers, counsels, or prophecies; and giving them
money and other presents.
Though their prophet disclaimed the power of per-
forming miracles, the Moos'lims attribute to him
many; and several miracles are still, they say, con-
stantly, or occasionally, performed for his sake, as
marks of the divine favour and honour. The pil-
grims who have visited El-Medee'neh relate that
there is seen, every night, a ray or column of faint
light, rising from the cupola over the grave of the
Trophet to a considerable height, apparently to the
clouds, or, as some say, to Paradise; but that the
observer loses sight of it when he approaches very
* Like that of the Physician Doo'ba'n, whose story is told
in “the Thousand and one Nights.”
SAINTS. 323
near the tomb #. This is one of the most remarkable
of the miracles which are related as being still wit-
nessed. On my asking one of the most grave and
sensible of all my Moos'lim friends here, who had
been on a pilgrimage, and visited El-Medee'neh,
whether this assertion were true, he averred that it
was ; that he had seen it every night of his stay in
that city; and he remarked that it was a most strik-
ing and impressive proof of God's favour and honour
for “our lord Mohham'mad.” I did not presume to
Question the truth of what he asserted himself to
have seen ; nor to suggest that the great number of
lights kept burning every night in the mosque might
produce this effect; but, to judge whether this might
be the case, I asked my friend to describe to me the
construction of the apartment of the tomb, its cupola,
&c. He replied, that he did not enter it, nor the
Ka'abeh at Mek'keh, partly from his being in a state
of excessive nervous excitement (from his veneration
for those holy buildings, but particularly for the
former, which almost affected him with a kind of
hysteric fit), and partly because, being of the sect of
the Hhan'afees, he held it improper, after he should
have stepped upon such sacred ground, ever again
to run the risk of defiling his feet, by walking bare-
footed: consequently, he would have been obliged
always to wear leather socks or mezz within his outer
shoes; which, he said, he could not afford to do.—
The pilgrims also assert, that, in approaching El-
Medee'neh, from the distance of three days’ journey,
or more, they always see a flickering lightning, in
the direction of the sacred city, which they believe to
proceed from the Prophet's tomb. They say, that,
however they turn, they always see this lightning in
* It is also said, that similar phenomena, but not so bril-
i. distinguish some other tombs at El-Medee'neh and else-
Where,
324 MODER N EGYPTIANS.
the direction of El-Medee'neh. There is something
strikingly poetical in this and in the former state-
ment.
A superstitious veneration, and honours unauthor-
ized by the Ckoor-an or any of the Traditions, are
paid, by all sects of Moos'lims, excepting the Wah'-
ha’bees, to deceased saints, even more than to those
who are living; and more particularly by the Moos'-
lims of Egypt*. Over the graves of most of the
more celebrated saints are erected large and hand-
Some mosques: over that of a saint of less note (one
who, by a life of sanctity or hypocrisy, has acquired
the reputation of being a wel'ee, or devout sheykh) is
constructed a small, square, whitewashed building,
crowned with a cupola. There is generally, directly
over the vault in which the corpse is deposited, an
oblong monument of stone or brick (called turkee'beh)
or wood (in which case it is called ta'boo't); and
this is usually covered with silk or linen, with some
words from the Ckoor-a'n worked upon it, and sur-
rounded by a railing or screen, of wood or bronze,
called mucksoo'rah. Most of the sanctuaries of
saints in Egypt are tombs; but there are several
which only contain some inconsiderable relic of the
person to whom they are dedicated; and there are a
few which are mere cenotaphs. The most sacred of
all these sanctuaries is the mosque of the Hhas'-
* Several superstitious customs, observed in the perform-
auce of many ordinary actions, result from their extravagant
respect for their prophet, and their saints in general. For
instance, on lighting the lamp in the evening, more particut
larly at a shop, it is customary to say, “Commemorate Mohº
ham'mad, and forget not the excellencies of 'Al'ee: the Fa'-
thhah for the Prophet, and for every wel'ee:” and then, to
repeat the Faſt'hhah. It is usual to say, on first seeing the
new moon, “O God favour our lord Mohham'mad God
make thee a blessed moon (or month):” on looking at one's
face in a glass, “O God favour our lord Mohham'mad!”
SAINTS. 325
aney'n, in which the head of the martyr El-Hbosey'n,
the son of the Ima'm 'Al'ee, and grandson of the
Prophet, is said to be buried. Among others but
little inferior in sanctity, are the mosques of the sey’-
yideh Zey'neb (daughter of the Ima'm 'Al'ee, and
grand-daughter of the Prophet), the sey'yideh Sekee'-
neh (daughter of the Ima'm El-Hhosey'n), the sey’-
yideh Nefee'seh (great-grand-daughter of the Ima'm
El-Hhas'an), and the Ima'm Esh-Sha'fe'ee, already
mentioned as the author of one of the four great
Moos'lim sects, that to which most of the people of
Cairo belong. The buildings above mentioned, with
the exception of the last two, are within the metro-
polis: the last but one is in a southern suburb of
Cairo; and the last, in the great southern cemetery.
The Egyptians occasionally visit these and other
sanctuaries of their saints, either merely with the view
of paying honour to the deceased, and performing
meritorious acts for the sake of these venerated per-
sons, which they believe will call down a blessing on
themselves, or for the purpose of urging some
special petition, as for the restoration of health, or
for the gift of offspring, &c.; in the persuasion that
the merits of the deceased will insure a favourable
reception of the prayers which they offer up in such
consecrated places. The generality of the Moos'lims
regard their deceased saints as intercessors with the
Deity; and make votive offerings to them. The
visitor walks round the mucksoo'rah or the monu-
ment from left to right; and recites the Fa't'hhah,
inaudibly, or in a very low voice, before its door, or
before each of its four sides. Sometimes a longer
chapter of the Ckoor-a'n than the first (or Fat’hhah)
is recited afterwards; and sometimes a khut'meh (or
recitation of the whole of the Ckoor-a'n) is performed
on such an occasion. These acts of devotion are
generally performed for the sake of the saint; though
WOL. I. U
326 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
merit is likewise believed to reflect upon the visitor
who makes a recitation. He usually says at the close
of this, “[Assert] the absolute glory of thy Lord, the
Lord of Might, exempting Him from that which
they [that is, the unbelievers] ascribe to Him"
(namely, the having a son, or a partaker of his god-
head); and adds, “ and peace be on the Apostles;
and praise be to God, the Lord of all creatures. O
God, I have transferred the merit of what I have
recited from the excellent Ckoor-a'n to the person to
whom this place is dedicated,” or—“ to the soul of
this wel'ee.” Without such a declaration, or an inten-
tion to the same effect, the merit of the recital belongs
solely to the person who performs it. After this re-
cital, the visitor, if it be his desire, offers up any
prayer, for temporal or spiritual blessings; generally
using some such form as this—“O God, I conjure
thee by the Prophet, and by him to whom this place
is dedicated, to grant me such and such blessings:”
or “My burdens be on God and on thee, O thou to
whom this place is dedicated.” In doing this, some
persons face any side of the mucksoo'rah : but it is
more proper to face the mucksoo'rah and the ckib'leh.
During the prayer, the hands are held as in the pri-
vate supplications after the ordinary prayers of every
day; and afterwards they are drawn down the face.
—Many of the visitors kiss the threshold of the build-
ing, and the walls, windows, mucksoo'rah, &c. The
rich, and persons in easy circumstances, when they
visit the tomb of a saint, distribute money or bread
to the poor; and often give money to one or more
water-carriers to distribute water to the poor and
thirsty, for the sake of the saint. There are particular
days of the week on which certain tombs are more
generally visited: thus, the mosque of the H has'
aney'n is mostly visited, by men, on Tuesday, and
by women, on Saturday: that of the sey'yideh Zey'-
SAINTS. 327
neb, on Wednesday: that of the lma'm Esh-Sha'-
fe'ee, on Friday. On these occasions, it is a common
custom for the male visitors to take with them sprigs
of myrtle : they place some of these on the monu-
ment, or on the floor within the mucksoorah; and
take back the remainder, which they distribute to
their friends. The poor sometimes place khoo's (or
palm-leaves); as most persons do upon the tombs of
their friends and relations. The women of Cairo,
instead of the myrtle or palm-leaves, often place roses,
flowers of the hben'na-tree, jasmine, &c.
At almost every village in Egypt is the tomb of
some favourite or patron saint, which is generally
visited, on a particular day of the week, by many of
the inhabitants; chiefly women; some of whom bring
thither bread, which they leave there for poor travel-
lers, or any other persons. Some also place small
pieces of money in these tombs. These gifts are
offerings to the sheykh ; or given for his sake.
Another custom common among the peasants is, to
make votive sacrifices at the tombs of their sheykhs.
For instance, a man makes a vow (medr) that, if he
recover from a sickness, or obtain a son or any other
specific object of desire, he will give, to a certain
Sheykh (deceased), a goat, or a lamb, or a sheep,
&c.; if he attain his object, he sacrifices the animal
which he has vowed at the tomb of the sheykh, and
makes a feast with its meat for any persons who may
choose to attend. Having given the animal to the
Saint, he thus gives to the latter the merit of feeding
the poor. Little kids are often vowed as future sacri-
fices; and have the right ear slit ; or are marked
in some other way. It is not uncommon, too, without
any definite view but that of obtaining general bless-
ings, to make these vows: and sometimes, a peasant
vows that he will sacrifice, for the sake of a saint, a
calf which he possesses, as soon as it is full grown
U 2
328 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
and fatted: it is let loose, by consent of all his neigh-
bours, to pasture where it will, even in fields of
young wheat; and at last, after it has been sacri-
ficed, a public feast is made with its meat. Many a
large bull is thus given away.
Almost every celebrated saint, deceased, is honoured
by an anniversary birth-day festival, which is called
moo'lid, or, more properly, mo'lid. On the occasions
of such festivals, many persons visit the tomb, both as
a duty and as a supposed means of obtaining a
special blessing; fickees are hired to recite the
Ckoor-a'n, for the sake of the saint; foock'ara often
perform zikrs; and the people living in the neigh-
bourhood of the tomb hang lamps before their doors,
and devote half the night to such pleasures as those
of smoking, sipping coffee, and listening to story-
tellers at the coffee-shops, or to the recitals of the
Ckoor-a'n, and the zikrs. I have now a cluster of
lamps hanging before my door, in honour of the
moo'lid of a sheykh who is buried near the house in
which I am living. Even the native Christians often
hang up lamps on these occasions. The festivities
often continue several days. The most famous moo'-
lids celebrated in Cairo, next to that of the Prophet,
are those of the Hhas'aney n and the sey'yideh Zey'-
neb; accounts of which will be found in a subsequent
chapter, on the periodical public festivals, &c. of the
people of Egypt. Most of the Egyptians not only ex-
pect a blessing to follow their visiting the tomb of a
celebrated saint, but they also dread that some mis-
fortune will befal them if they neglect this act. Thus,
while I am writing these lines, an acquaintance of
mine is suffering from an illness which he attributes
to his having neglected, for the last two years, to
attend the festivals of the sey’d Ahh'mad El-Bed'-
awee, at Tun ta; this being the period of one of these
festivals. The tomb of this saint attracts almost as

SAINTS. 329
many visitors, at the periods of the great annual fes-
tivals, from the metropolis, and from various parts of
Lower Egypt, as Mek'keh does pilgrims from the
whole of the Moos'lim world. Three moo'lids are
celebrated in honour of him every year; one, about
the tenth of the Coptic month of Too'beh (17th or
18th of January); the second, at, or about, the Vernal
Equinox *; and the third, or great moo'lid, about a
month after the Summer solstice (or about the mid-
dle of the Coptic month of Ebee'b), when the Nile
has risen considerably, but the dams of the canals are
not yet cut. Each lasts one week and a day; begin-
ning on a Friday, and ending on the afternoon of
the next Friday; and, on each night, there is a dis-
play of fireworks. One week after each of these, is
celebrated the moo'lid of the seyd Ibrahee'm Ed-De-
Soo'ckee, at the town of Desoo'ck, on the east bank
of the western branch of the Nile. The seyd Ibra-
hee'm was a very famous saint; next in rank to the
seyd El-Bed'awee. These moo'lids, both of the seyd
El-Bed'awee and of the seyd Ibrahee'm, are great
fairs, as well as religious festivals. At the latter,
most of the visitors remain in their boats; and some
of the Saadee'yeh durwee'shes of Rashee'd exhibit
their feats with serpents: some carrying serpents
with silver rings in their mouths, to prevent their
biting: others partly devouring these reptiles alive.
The religious ceremonies at both are merely zikrst,
and recitals of the Ckoor-a'n.—It is customary
among the Moos' lims, as it was among the Jews, to
rebuild, whitewash, and decorate, the tombs of their
saints, and occasionally to put a new covering over
the turkee'beh or taboo't; and many of them do this
* Called the Shems el-Kebee'reh.
# The zikr will be fully described in another chapter, on
the periodical public festivals, &c., in the second volume.
330 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
from the same pharisaic motives which actuated the
Jews”.
Durwee'shes are very numerous in Egypt; and
some of them who confine themselves to religious
exercises, and subsist by alms, are much respected in
this country; particularly by the lower orders. Va-
rious artifices are employed by persons of this class
to obtain the reputation of superior sanctity, and of
being endowed with the power of performing miracles.
Many of them are regarded as wel'ees.
A direct descendant of Ab'oo Bekr, the first
Khalee'feh, having the title of Esh-Sheykh el-Bek'ree,
and regarded as the representative of that prince,
holds authority over all orders of durwee'shes in
Egypt. The present Sheykh el-Bek'ree, who is also
descended from the Prophet, is Nackee'b el-Ashra'ſ,
or chief of the Sheree'fs.—I may here add that the
second Khalee'feh, 'Om'ar, has likewise his repre-
sentative, who is the sheykh of the "En'a'nee'yeh, or
Owla'd 'Ena'n, an order of durwee'shes so named
from one of their celebrated sheykhs, Ibn 'Ena'n.
'Osma'n has no representative; having left no issue.
The representative of 'Al'ee is called Sheykh es-
Sa'da't, or Sheykh of the Sey'yids, or Sheree'fs; a
title of less importance than that of Nackee'b of the
Sheree'fs. Each of these three sheykhs is termed the
possessor of the segga'deh (or prayer carpet) of his
great ancestor. So also the sheykh of an order of
durwee'shes is called the possessor of the segga'deh
of the founder of the order i. The segga'deh is con-
sidered as the spiritual throne. There are four great
segga'dehs of durwee'shes in Egypt; which are those
of four great orders about to be mentioned.
The most celebrated orders of durwee'shes in Egypt
are the following.—1. The Rif"a”ee'yeh (in the singu-
* See St. Matthew, xxiii. 29.
+ The title is sa'hheb segga'deh.
D URWEE/SHES. 331
lar Rifa'ee). This order was founded by the seyd
Ahh'mad Rifa’ah El-Kebee'r. Its banners, and the
turbans of its members, are black; or the latter are
of a very deep blue woollen stuff, or muslin of a very
dark greenish hue. The Rifa'ee durwee'shes are
celebrated for the performance of many wonderful
feats *. The 'ſhºyeh, or Owla'd 'Ilwa'n, who
are a sect of the Rifa'ees, pretend to thrust iron
spikes into their eyes and bodies without sustaining
any injury; and in appearance they do this, in such
a manner as to deceive any person who can believe it
possible for a man to do such things in reality. They
also break large masses of stone on their chests;
eat live coals, glass, &c.; and are said to pass swords
completely through their bodies, and packing-needles
through both their cheeks, without suffering any
pain, or leaving any wound: but such performances
are mow seldom witnessed. I am told that it was a
common practice for a durwee'sh of this order to
hollow out a piece of the trunk of a palm-tree, fill it
with rags soaked with oil and tar, then set fire to
these contents, and carry the burning mass under
his arm, in a religious procession (wearing only
drawers); the flames curling over his bare chest,
back, and head, and apparently doing him no injury.
—The Saadee'yeh, an order founded by the sheykh
Sa'ad ed-Deen El-Giba'wee, are another and more
celebrated sect of the Rifa'ees. Their banners are
green; and their turbans of the same colour, or of
the dark hue of the Rifa'ees in general. There are
many durwee'shes of this order who handle, with
impunity, live, venomous serpents, and scorpions;
and partly devour them. The serpents, however,
they render incapable of doing any injury, by extract-
ing their venomous fangs; and doubtless they also

* In most of their . performances, the durwee'shes
of Egypt are inferior to the most expert of the Indians.
332 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
deprive the scorpions of their poison. On certain
occasions (as, for instance, on that of the festival of
the birth of the Prophet), the Sheykh of the Saadee'yeh
rides, on horseback, over the bodies of a number of
his durwee'shes, and other persons, who throw them-
selves on the ground for the purpose; and all assert
that they are not injured by the tread of the horse *.
This ceremony is called the do'seh. Many Rifa'ee
and Sa'adee durwee'shes obtain their livelihood by
going about to charm away serpents from houses.
Of the feats of these modern Psylli, an account will
be given in another chapter.—2. The Cka'diree'yeh;
an order founded by the famousseyd 'Abd El-Cka'dir
El-Geela'nee. Their banners and turbans are white.
Most of the Cka'diree'yeh of Egypt are fishermen:
these, in religious processions, carry, upon poles, nets
of various colours (green, yellow, red, white, &c.), as
the banners of their order.—3. The Ahhmedee'yeh,
or order of the seyd Ahh'mad El-Bed'awee, whom I
have lately mentioned. This is a very numerous and
highly respected order. Their banners and turbans
are red.—The Bei'yoo'mee'yeh (founded by the seyd
'Al'ee El-Beiyoo'mee), the Sha'ara'wee'yeh (founded
by the sheykh Esh-Shaara'wee), the Shin'na'wee'yeh
(founded by the seyd 'Al'ee Esh-Shinna'wee), and
many other, orders, are sects of the Ahhmedee'yeh.
The Shin'na'wee'yeh train an ass to perform a strange
part in the ceremonies of the last day of the moo'lid
of their great patron Saint, the seyd Ahh'mad El-
Bed'awee, at Tun'ta : the ass, of its own accord, en-
ters the mosque of the Seyd, proceeds to the tomb,
and there stands while multitudes crowd around it,
and each person who can approach near enough to
it plucks off some of its hair, to use as a charm, until
* In the chapter on the periodical public festivals, &c., this
and other performances of the durwee'shes of Cairo will be
described more fully.
DU RWEE SHES, 333
the skin of the poor beast is as bare as the palm of a
man's hand. There is another sect of the Ahhme-
dee'yeh, called Owla'd Noo'hh, all young men ; who
wear turtoo'rs (or high caps), with a tuft of pieces of
various coloured cloth on the top, wooden swords and
numerous strings of beads; and carry a kind of whip
(called firckilleh), a thick twist of cords.-4. The
Bara'himeh, or Boorha'mee'yeh; the order of the
Seyd Ibrahee'm Ed-Desoo'ckee; whose moo'lid has
been mentioned above. Their banners and turbans
are green.—-There are many other classes of dur-
wee'shes; some of whom are sects of one or other of
the above orders. Among the more celebrated of
them are the Hhef'na'wee'yeh, the 'Afee'fee'yeh, the
Dimurda'shee'yeh, the Nuckshaben'dee'yeh, the Be-
kree'yeh, and the Leysee'yeh.
It is impossible to become acquainted with all the
tenets, rules, and ceremonies of the durwee'shes, as
many of them, like those of the freemasons, are not
to be divulged to the uninitiated. A durwee'sh with
whom I am acquainted thus described to me his
taking the 'ahd, or initiatory covenant; which is
nearly the same in all the orders. He was admitted
by the sheykh of the Dimurda'shee'yeh. Having
first performed the ablution preparatory to prayer
(the woodoo'), he seated himself upon the ground
before the sheykh, who was seated in like manneſ,
The sheykh and he (the mooree'd, or candidate)
then clasped their right hands together in the manner
which I have described as practised in making the
marriage-contract: in this attitude, and with their
hands covered by the sleeve of the sheykh, the candi-
date took the covenant; repeating, after the sheykh,
the following words, commencing with the form of a
common cath of repentance. “I beg forgiveness of
God, the Great” (three times); “than whom there is
no other deity; the Living, the Everlasting: I turn
to Him with repentance, and beg his grace, and for-
U 3
334 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
giveness, and exemption from the fire.” The sheykh
then said to him, “Dost thou turn to God with repent-
ance?” He replied, “I do turn to God with repent-
ance; and I return unto God; and I am grieved for
what I have done [amiss], and I determine not to
relapse"—and then repeated, after the sheykh, “I
beg for the favour of God, the Great, and the noble
Prophet; and I take as my sheykh and my guide
unto God (whose name be exalted), my master 'Abd
Er-Rahhee'm Ed-Dimurda'shee El-Khal'wet'ee Er-
Rifa'ee En-Neb'awee; not to change, nor to sepa-
rate; and God is our witness: by God, the Great l”
(this oath was repeated three times): “there is no
deity but God” (this also was repeated three times).
The sheykh and the mooree'd then recited the
Fa't'hhah together; and the latter concluded the
ceremony by kissing the sheykh's hand.
The religious exercises of the durwee'shes chiefly
consist in the repetition of zikrs. Sometimes stand-
ing in the form of a circular or oblong ring, or in
two rows, facing each other, and sometimes sitting,
they exclaim, or chant, La'ila'ha il'la-lla/h (There is
no deity but God), or Allah l Allah 1 Allah!
(God! God! God!), or repeat other invocations,
&c., over and over again, until their strength is
almost exhausted ; accompanying their ejaculations
49r chants with a motion of the head, or of the whole
body, or of the arms. From long habit, they are
able to continue these exercises for a surprising length
of time without intermission. They are often ac-
companied, at intervals, by one or more players upon
a kind of flute, called na'y, or a double reed-pipe,
called arghoo'l, and by persons singing religious
odes; and some durwee'shes use a little drum, called
ba'z *, or a tambourine, during their zikrs: some,
also, perform a peculiar dance; the description of
* For descriptions of the instruments here mentioned, see a
subsequent chapter, on the Egyptian music, &c.
D URWEE/SHES. 33}
which, as well as of several, different zikrs, I reserve
for a future chapter.
Some of the rites of durwee'shes (as forms of
prayer, modes of zikr, &c.) are observed only by par-
ticular orders: others, by members of various orders.
Among the latter may be mentioned the rites of the
Khal'wet'ees and Sha'zilees; two great classes; each
of which has its sheykh. The chief difference be-
tween these is that each has its particular form of
prayer to repeat every morning; and that the former
distinguish themselves by occasional seclusion;
whence their appellation of “ Khal'wet'ees *:” the
prayer of this class is repeated before day-break; and
is called wir'd sah'ar: that of the Sha'zilees, which
is called hkez'besh-Sha'zilee, after day-break. Some-
times, a Khal'wet'ee enters a solitary cell, and re-
mains in it for forty days and nights, fasting from
day-break till sunset the whole of this period.
Sometimes also a number of the same class confine
themselves, each in a separate cell, in the sepulchral
mosque of the sheykh Ed-Dimur'da'shee, on the
north of Cairo, and remain there three days and
nights, on the occasion of the moo'lid of that saint,
and only eat a little rice, and drink a cup of sherbet,
in the evening: they employ themselves in repeating
certain forms of prayer, &c. not imparted to the un-
initiated; only coming out of their cells to unite in
the five daily prayers in the mosque ; and never
answering any one who speaks to them but by saying
“There is no deity but God.” Those who observe
the forty days' fast, and seclude themselves during
that long period, practise nearly the same rules; and
employ their time in repeating the testimony of the
faith, imploring forgiveness, praising God, &c.
Almost all the durwee'shes of Egypt are trades-
* From khal'weh, a cell, or closet.
336 MOLERN EGYPTIANS.
men or artisans or agriculturists; and only occasion-
ally assist in the rites and ceremonies of their respec-
tive orders ; but there are some who have no other
occupations than those of performing zikrs at the
festivals of saints and at private entertainments, and
of chanting in funeral processions. These are termed
foock'ara, or fackee'rs ; which is an appellation given
also to the poor in general, but especially to poor de-
votees. Some obtain their livelihood as water-car-
riers, by supplying the passengers in the streets of
Cairo, and the visitors at religious festivals, with
water, which they carry in an earthen vessel, or a
goat's skin, on the back. A few lead a wandering
life, and subsist on alms ; which they often demand
with great importunacy and effrontery. Some of
these distinguish themselves in the same manner as
certain reputed saints before mentioned, by the dilck,
or coat of patches, and the staff with shreds of cloth
of different colours attached to the top : others wear
fantastic dresses of various descriptions.
Some Rifa'ee durwee'shes (besides those who
follow the occupation of charming away serpents from
houses) pursue a wandering life; travelling about
Egypt, and profiting by a ridiculous superstition
which I must here mention. A venerated saint,
called See Da-oo'd El-'Az'ab (or Master David the
Bachelor), who lived at Tefa'hineh, a village in
Lower Egypt, had a calf, which always attended
him, brought him water, &c. Since his death, some
Rifa'ee durwee'shes have been in the habit of rearing
a number of calves at his native place, or burial
place, above named; teaching them to walk up
stairs, to lie down at command, &c.; and then going
about the country, each with his calf, to obtain alms.
The calf is called 'Egl El-'Az'ab (the Calf of El-
'Az'ab, or of the Bachelor). I once called into my
house one of these durwee'shes, with his calf; the
DU RWEE/SHES. 337
only one I have seen : it was a buffalo calf; and had
two bells suspended to it; one attached to a collar
round its neck, and the other, to a girth round its
body. It walked up the stairs very well; but showed
that it had not been very well trained in every re-
spect. The 'Egl El-'Az'ab is vulgarly believed to
bring into the house a blessing from the saint after
whom it is called.
There are numerous wandering Turkish and Per-
sian durwee'shes in Egypt; and to these, more than
to the few Egyptian durwee'shes who lead a similar
life, must the character for impudence and impor-
tunacy be ascribed. Very often, particularly in
Rum'ada'n, a foreign durwee'sh goes to the mosque
of the Hhas'aney'n, which is that most frequented
by the Turks and Persians, at the time of the Friday-
prayers; and, when the Khatee'b is reciting the first
khoot'beh, passes between the ranks of persons who
are sitting upon the floor, and places before each a
little slip of paper upon which are written a few
words, generally exhortative to charity (as “He who
giveth alms will be provided for”—“The poor dur-
wee'sh asketh an alms,” &c.); by which proceeding
he usually obtains from each, or almost every per-
son, a piece of five or ten fud'dahs, or more. Many
of the Persian durwee'shes in Egypt carry an oblong
bowl of cocoa-nut or wood or metal, in which they
receive their alms, and put their food ; and a wooden
spoon; and most of the foreign durwee'shes wear
dresses peculiar to their respective orders. They are
chiefly distinguished by the cap: the most common
description of cap is of a sugar-loaf, or conical,
shape, and made of felt: the other articles of dress
are generally a vest and full drawers, or trowsers, or
a shirt and belt, and a coarse cloak, or long coat.
The Persians here all affect to be Soon'nees. The
Turks are the more intrusive of the two classes.
338
CHAPTER XI.
superSTITIONs—continued.
ONE of the most remarkable traits in modern Egyp-
tian superstition is the belief in written charms. The
composition of most of these amulets is founded upon
magic; and occasionally employs the pen of almost
every village schoolmaster in Egypt. A person of
this profession, however, seldom pursues the study of
magic further than to acquire the formulae of a few
charms, most commonly consisting, for the greater
part, of certain passages of the Ckoor-a'n, and names
of God, together with those of spirits, genii, prophets,
or eminent saints, intermixed with combinations of
numerals, and with diagrams, all of which are sup-
posed to have great secret virtues.
The most esteemed of all hhega'bs (or charms) is a
moos'hhaf (or copy of the Ckoor-a'n). It used to be
the general custom of the Turks of the middle and
higher orders, and of many other Moos'lims, to wear
a small moos'hhaf in an embroidered leather or
velvet case hung upon the right side by a silk string
which passed over the left shoulder : but this custom
is not now very common. During my former visit to
this country, a respectable Turk, in the military dress,
was seldom seen without a case of this description
upon his side; though it often contained no hbega'b.
The moos'hhaf and other hega'bs are still worn by
many women; generally enclosed in cases of gold, or
of gilt or plain silver. To the former, and to many
other charms, most extensive efficacy is attributed:
they are esteemed preservatives against disease, en-
CHARMS. 339
chantment, the evil eye, and a variety of other evils.
The charm next in point of estimation to the moos'-
hhaf is a book or scroll containing certain chapters of
the Ckoor-a'n ; as the 6th, 18th, 36th, 44th, 55th,
67th, and 78th; or some others; generally seven.—
Another charm, which is believed to protect the wearer
(who usually places it within his cap) from the devil,
genii, and many other objects of fear, is a piece of
paper inscribed with the following passages from the
Ckoor-a'n”, “And the preservation of both [heaven
and earth] is no burden unto Him. He is the High,
the Great” (chap. ii., ver, 256). “But God is the best
protector ; and He is the most merciful of those who
show mercy” (chap. xii., ver. 64). “They watch
him by the command of God’’ (chap. xiii., ver, 12).
“And we guard them from every devil driven away
with stones” (chap. xv., ver. 17). “And a guard
against every rebellious devil” (chap. xxxvii., ver. 7).
“And a guard. This is the decree of the Mighty,
the Wise’’ (chap. lxi., ver. 11). “And God encom-
passeth them behind. Verily it is a glorious Ckoor-a'n,
[written] on a preserved tablet” (chap. lxxxv., ver.
20, 21, 22).-The ninety-nine names, or epithets, of
God, comprising all the divine attributes, if frequently
repeated, and written on a paper, and worn on the
person, are supposed to make the wearer a particular
object for the exercise of all the beneficent attributes.
—In like manner it is believed that the ninety-nine
names, or titles, &c., of the Prophet, written upon
anything, compose a charm which (according to his
own assertion, as recorded by his son-in-law the Ima'm
*Al'ee) will, if placed in a house, and frequently read
from beginning to end, keep away every misfortune,
pestilence and all diseases, infirmity, the envious eye,
enchantment, burning, ruin, anxiety, grief, and trou-
* Called a'ya't el-hheſz (the verses of protection, or preser-
vation).
340 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
ble. After repeating each of these names, the
Moos'lim adds, “God favour and preserve him l’—
Similar virtues are ascribed to a charm composed of
the names of the As-hha'b el-Kahf (or Companions
of the Cave, also called the Seven Sleepers), together
with the name of their dog". These names are some-
times engraved on the round tray of tinned copper
which, placed on a stool, forms the table for dinner,
supper, &c. — Another charm, supposed to have
similar efficacy, is composed of the names of those
paltry articles of property which the Prophet left at
his decease. These relics f were two seb'hhahs (or
rosaries), his moos'hhaf (in unarranged fragments),
his mook'-hhool'ah (or the vessel in which he kept
the black powder with which he painted the edges of
his eyelids), two segga'dehs (or prayer-carpets), a
hand-mill, a staff, a tooth-stick, a suit of clothes i,
the ewer which he used in ablution, a pair of sandals,
a boor'deh (or a kind of woollen covering §), three
* These, it is said, were Christian youths of Ephesus, who
took refuge from the persecution of the emperor Decius in a
cave, and slept there, guarded by their dog, for the space of
300 [solar] or 309 [lunar] years. (See the Ckoor-a/n, chap.
xviii.)
+ Called mookhallafa’t en-neb/ee.
# A shirt which is said to have been worn by the Prophet
is preserved in the mosque cf El-Ghoo'ree, in Cairo. It is
wrapped in a Kashmeer shawl; and not shown to any but
persons of very high rank.
§ The boor'deh, which is worn by some of the peasants in
Egypt, is an oblong piece of thick woollen stuff, resembling
the hkera'm, excepting in colour, being generally brown or
greyish. The Prophet's is described as about seven feet and
a half in length, and four and a half in width. It was used
by him, as boor'dehs are at present, both to envelop the body
by day and as a night-covering. I may be excused for re-
marking here (as it seems to be unknown to some Arabic
scholars) that the terms akh'dar and ahh'mar, which are applied
by different historians to the Prophet's boor'deh, are used to
signify respectively grey and brown, as well as green and red.
CHARMS. 341
mats, a coat of mail, a long woollen coat, his white
mule dool'dool, and his camel 'ad'ba.—Certain verses
of the Ckoor-a'n are also written upon slips of paper,
and worn upon the person as safeguards against
various evils, and to procure restoration to health,
love and friendship, food, &c. These and other
charms, enclosed in cases of gold, silver, tin, leather,
or silk, &c., are worn by many of the modern Egyp-
tians, men, women, and children.
It is very common to see children, in this country,
with a charm against the evil eye, enclosed in a case,
generally of a triangular form, attached to the top of
the cap; and horses often have similar appendages.
The Egyptians take many precautions against the
evil eye; and anxiously endeavour to avert its ima-
gined consequences. When a person expresses what
is considered improper or envious admiration of any-
thing, he is generally reproved by the individual whom
he has thus alarmed, who says to him, “Bless the
Prophet”, ”; and if the envier obeys, saying, “O
God, favour him f : ”, no ill effects are apprehended.
It is considered very improper for a person to express
his admiration of another, or of any object which is
not his own property, by saying “God preserve
ust " " “How pretty ” or, “Very pretty 1": the
most approved expression in such cases is “Ma’
sha-lla/h 1” (or “God’s will!”); which implies both
admiration, and submission to, or approval of, the
will of God. A person who has exclaimed “How
pretty!”, or used similar words, is often desired to
say, rather, “Ma'sha-lla/h !” as well as to bless the
Prophet. In the second chapter of this work, a re-
markable illustration has been given of the fear
* Sal/lee 'a-n-neb'ee, for —'al'a-n-neb'ee.
# Alla'hoom (for Alla'hoom/ma) sal'lee 'aley'h.
: The ejaculation which I thus translate is Ya' sela'm, or
Ya' sela'moo sel'lim.
342 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
which mothers in Egypt entertain of the effect of the
evil eye upon their children. It is the custom in
this country, when a person takes the child of another
into his arms, to say, “In the name of God, the Com-
passionate, the Merciful!” and, “O God, favour our
lord Mohham'mad l’’; and then to add, “Ma'sha-
lla'h!” It is also a common custom of the people
of Egypt, when admiring a child, to say, “I seek
refuge with the Lord of the Day-break for thee!”
alluding to the Chapter of the Day-break (the 113th
chapter of the Ckoor-a'n); in the end of which, pro-
tection is implored against the mischief of the envious.
The parents, when they see a person stare at, or seem
to envy, their young offspring, sometimes cut off a
piece of the skirts of his clothes, burn it with a little
salt (to which some add coriander-seed, alumn, &c.),
and fumigate with the smoke, and sprinkle with the
ashes, the child or children. This, it is said, should
be done a little before sunset; when the sun becomes
red.
Alumn is very generally used, in the following
manner, by the people of Egypt, to counteract the
effects of the evil eye. A piece of about the size of
a walnut is placed upon burning coals, and left until
it has ceased to bubble. This should be done a
short time before sunset; and the person who per-
forms the operation should repeat three times, while
the alumn is burning, the first chapter of the Ckoor-
a'n, and the last three chapters of the same; all of
which are very short. On taking the alumn off the
fire, it will be found (we are told) to have assumed
the form of the person whose envy or malice has
given occasion for this process : it is then to be
pounded; put into some food; and given to a black
dog, to be eaten. I have once seen this done, by a
man who suspected his wife of having looked upon
him with an evil eye; and in this case, the alumn did
CHARMS. 343
assume a form much resembling that of a woman,
in what the man declared was a peculiar posture in
which his wife was accustomed to sit. But the shape
which the alumn takes depends almost entirely upon
the disposition of the coals; and can hardly be such
that the imagination may not see in it some resem-
blance to a human being.—Another supposed mode
of obviating the effects of the envious eye is, to prick
a paper with a needle, saying, at the same time,
“This is the eye of such a one, the envier;” and
then to burn the paper—Alumn is esteemed a very
valuable charm against the evil eye : sometimes, a
small, flat piece of it, ornamented with tassels, is hung
to the top of a child’s cap. A tassel of little shells
and beads is also used in the same manner, and for
the same purpose. The small shells called cowries
are considered preservatives against the evil eye;
and hence, as well as for the sake of ornament,
they are often attached to the trappings of camels,
horses, and other animals, and sometimes to the caps
of children ".
To counteract the effects of the evil eye, many
persons in Egypt, but mostly women, make use of
what is called mey"ah mooba'rakah (or blessed
storax), which is a mixture of various ingredients that
will be mentioned below, prepared and sold only
during the first ten days of the month of Moh-
har'ram. During this period, we often see, in the
streets of Cairo, men carrying about this mixture of
mey’’ah, &c. for sale; and generally crying some such
words as the following—“Mey’’ah mooba'rakah
A new year and blessed 'A'shoo'rafſ The most
blessed of years [may this be] to the believers! Ya'
* Such appendages are evidently meant to attract the eye
to themselves, and so to prevent observation and envy of the
object which they are designed to protect.
# This is the name of the tenth day of Mohhar'ram.
344 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
mey'ah mooba'rakah!” — The man who sells it
bears upon his head a round tray, covered with dif-
ferent-coloured sheets of paper, red, yellow, &c.;
upon which is placed the valuable mixture. In the
middle is a large heap of tiſt (or refuse) of a dark
reddish material for dying, mixed with a little mey’’ah
(or storax), coriander Seed", and seed of the fennel-
flower f : round this large heap are smaller heaps;
one consisting of salt dyed blue with indigo ; another,
of salt dyed red; a third, of salt dyed yellow ; a
fourth, of sheehh (a kind of wormwood); a fifth, of
dust of liba'n (or frankincense). These are all the
ingredients of the “Mey”ah mooba'rakah.” The
seller is generally called into the house of the pur-
chaser. Having placed his tray before him, and re-
ceived a plate, or a piece of paper, in which to put
the quantity to be purchased, he takes a little from
one heap, then from another, then from a third, and
so on, until he has taken some from each heap;
after which, again and again, he takes an additional
quantity from each kind. While he does this, he
chants a long spell, generally commencing thus—
“In the name of God! and by God! There is no
conqueror that conquereth God, the Lord of the
East and the West: we are all his servants: we
must acknowledge his unity: his unity is an illus-
trious attribute.” After some words on the virtues
of salt, he proceeds to say—“I charm thee from the
eye of girl, sharper than a spike ; and from the eye
of woman, sharper than a pruning-knife; and from
the eye of boy, more painful than a whip; and from
the eye of man, sharper than a chopping-knife;” and
so on. Then he relates how Solomon deprived the
evil eye of its influence; and afterwards enumerates
every article of property that the house is likely to
* Kooz'oar'ah.
† Hkab'beh soda, or hſiab'bet el-bar'akah.
CHARMS. 345
contain, and that the person who purchases his won-
derful mixture may be conjectured to possess; all of
which he charms against the influence of the eye.
Many of the expressions which he employs in this
spell are very ridiculous : words being introduced
merely for the sake of rhyme.—The mey'ah mooba'-
rakah, a handful of which may be purchased for five
fud'dahs", is treasured up by the purchaser during
the ensuing year; and whenever it is feared that a
child or other person is affected by the evil eye, a
little of it is thrown upon some burning coals in a
chafing-dish; and the smoke which results is gene-
rally made to ascend upon the supposed sufferer.
It is a custom among the higher and middle
classes in Cairo, on the occasion of a marriage, to
hang chandeliers in the street before the bride-
groom's house; and it often happens that a crowd is
collected to see a very large and handsome chan-
delier suspended : in this case, it is a common prac-
tice to divert the attention of the spectators by throw-
ing down and breaking a large jar, or by some other
artifice, lest an envious eye should cause the chan-
delier to fall. Accidents which confirm the Egyp-
tians in their superstitions respecting the evil eye
often occur: for instance, a friend of mine has just
related to me, that, a short time ago, he saw a camel
carrying two very large jars of oil: a woman stopped
before it, and exclaimed “God preserve us! What
large jars!”—the conductor of the camel did not tell
her to bless the Prophet; and the camel, a few
minutes after, fell, and broke both the jars, and one
of its own legs.
While writing these notes on modern Egyptian
superstitions, I have been amused by a complaint of
one of my Mus'reet friends, which will serve to
* Now equivalent to a farthing and one fifth,
+ That is, Caireen.
346 MODERN EG YPTIANS.
illustrate what I have just stated.—“The Ba'sha,”
he said, “having, a few days ago, given up his mo-
nopoly of the meat, the butchers now slaughter for
their own shops; and it is quite shocking to see fine
sheep hung up in the streets, quite whole, tail” and
all, before the public eye; so that every beggar who
passes by envies them ; and one might, therefore, as
well eat poison as such meat.”—My cook has made
the same complaint to me; and, rather than purchase
from one of the shops near at hand, takes the trouble
of going to one in a distant quarter, kept by a man
who conceals his meat from the view of the passen-
gers in the street.
Many of the tradesmen of the metropolis and other
towns of Egypt, place over their shops (generally
upon the hanging shutter which is turned up in front)
a paper inscribed with the name of God, or that of
the Prophet, or both, or the profession of the faith
(“There is no deity but God: Mohham'mad is God's
Apostle”), the bismillah (“In the name of God, the
Compassionate, the Merciful”), or some maxim of
the Prophet, or a verse of the Ckoor-a'n (as, “Verily
we have granted thee a manifest victory” ſch. xlviii.,
ver, 1], and “Assistance from God, and a speedy
victory: and do thou bear good tidings to the true
believers” [ch. lxi., ver. 13]), or an invocation to the
deity, such as, “Oh thou opener [of the doors of
prosperity, or subsistence] O thou wise ! O thou
supplier of our wants O thou bountiful* !”—This
invocation is often pronounced by the tradesman
when he first opens his shop in the morning, and by
the pedestrian vender of small commodities, bread,
vegetables, &c., when he sets out on his daily
rounds. It is a custom among the lower orders to
put the first piece of money that they receive in the
* The fat of the tail is esteemed a dainty.
f Ya' ſetta'hh! Ya’ ‘alee'm Ya' rezza'ck / Ya' keree'm /
CHARMS. 347
day to the lips and forehead before putting it in the
pocket.
Besides the inscriptions over shops, we often see,
in Cairo, the invocation “O God *!” sculptured over
the door of a private house ; and the words “The
Creator is the Everlasting,” or “He is the Creator,
the Everlasting,” painted in large characters upon
the door, both as a charm and to remind the master
of the house, whenever he enters it, of his own mor-
tality f. These words are often inscribed upon the
door of a house when its former master, and many
or all of its former inhabitants, have been removed
by death.
The most approved mode of charming away sick-
ness or disease is to write certain passages of the
Ckoor-a'n on the inmer surface of an earthenware
cup or bowl ; then to pour in some water, and stir it
until the writing is quite washed off; when the water,
With the sacred words thus infused in it, is to be
drunk by the patient. These words are as follow:
“And he will heal the breasts of the people who be-
lieve” (chap. ix., ver. 14). “O men, now hath an
admonition come unto you from your Lord ; and a
remedy for what is in your breasts” (chap. x., ver.
58). “Wherein is a remedy for men” (chap. xvi.,
ver. 71). “We send down, of the Ckoor-a'n, that
which is a remedy and mercy to the believers ”
(chap. xvii., ver. 84). “And when I am sick he
healeth me” (chap. xxii., ver. 80). “Say, it is, to
those who believe, a guide and a remedy” (chap. xli.,
ver. 44). Four of these verses, notwithstanding they
are thus used, refer not to diseases of the body, but
of the mind; and another (the third) alludes to the
* Ya! Al/laſh 7
... t. See the engraving of a door with this inscription inserted
in the introduction.
# Called aſya’t esh-shif'e (the verses of restoration).
348 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
virtues of honey !—On my applying to my sheykh
(or tutor) to point out to me in what chapters these
verses were to be found, he begged me not to
translate them into my own language; because the
translation of the Ckoor-a'n, unaccompanied by the
original text, is prohibited : not that he seemed
ashamed of the practice of employing these words as
a charm, and did not wish my countrymen to be in-
formed of the custom ; for he expressed his full be-
lief in their efficacy, even in the case of an infidel
patient, provided he had proper confidence in their
virtue; “seeing,” he observed, “that the Prophet
(God favour and preserve him ) has said, “If thou
confide in God, with true confidence, He will sustain
thee as He sustaineth the birds.’” I silenced his
scruples on the subject of translating these verses by
telling him, that we had an English translation of
the whole of the Ckoor-a'n.—Sometimes, for the cure
of diseases, and to counteract poisons, &c., a draught
of water from a metal cup, having certain passages
of the Ckoor-a'n, and talismanic characters and
figures, engraved in the interior, is administered to
the patient. I have a cup of this description, lately
given to me * here (in Cairo), much admired by my
Moos'lim acquaintances. On the exterior is an in-
scription enumerating its virtues: it is said to possess
charms that will counteract all poisons &c., and the
evil eye, and cure “all sicknesses and diseases, ex-
cepting the sickness of death.” I have seen, here,
another cup which appeared to have been exactly
similar to that above mentioned; but its inscriptions
were partly effaced. — The secret virtues of the
Ckoor-a'nt are believed to be very numerous. One
day, on my refusing to eat of a dish that I feared
* By Robert Hay, Esq., who purchased it from a peasant
at Thebes.
t Asra'r el-Choor-a'n,
CHARMS. 349
would do me harm, I was desired to repeat the Soo'rat
Ckoorey'sh (106th chapter of the Ckoor-a'n) to the
end of the words “supplieth them with food against
hunger;” and to repeat these last words three times.
This, I was assured, would be a certain preventive of
any harm that I might have feared.
There are various things which are regarded in
the same light as written charms; such as dust from
the tomb of the Prophet, water from the sacred well
of Zem'zem, in the Temple of Mek'keh, and pieces of
the black silk covering of the Ka'abeh”. The water
of Zem'zem is much valued for the purpose of
sprinkling upon grave-clothes.—An Arab, to whom
I had given some medicine which had been beneficial
to him, in the Sa’ee'd, during my former visit to this
country, heard me inquire for some Zem'zem-water
(as several boats full of pilgrims on their return from
Mek'keh were coming down the Nile), and perhaps
thought, from my making this inquiry, that I was a
pious Moos'lim: accordingly, to show his gratitude
to me, he gave me what I was seeking to obtain.
Having gone to his house, he returned to my boat,
bringing a small bundle, which he opened before me.
“Here,” said he, “are some things which, I know,
you will value highly. Here are two tin flasks of
the water of Zem'zem: one of them you shall have :
you may keep it to sprinkle your winding-sheet with
it. This is a miswa'k (a tooth-stick) dipped in the
water of Zem'zem : accept it from me : clean your
teeth with it, and they will never ache, nor decay.
“And here,” he added (showing me three small,
oblong and flat cakes, of a kind of greyish earth
each about an inch in length, and stamped with
* Every year, on the day after the completion of the pil-
grimage, a new covering is hung upon the Ka'abeh. The
old one is cut up; and the greater part of it is sold to the pil-
grims.
WOL. I. X
350 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
Arabic characters, “In the name of God! Dust of
our land [mixed] with the saliva of some of us'),
“these are composed of earth from over the grave of
the Prophet (God favour and preserve him ): I pur-
chased them myself in the noble tomb, on my return
from the pilgrimage: one of them I give to you :
you will find it a cure for every disease: the second
I shall keep for myself; and the third we will eat
together.”—Upon this, he broke in halves one of the
three cakes ; and we each ate our share. I agreed
with him (though I had read the inscription) that
it was delicious; and I gladly accepted his presents.
—I was afterwards enabled to make several additions
to my Mek'keh curiosities; comprising a piece of
the covering of the Ka'abeh, brought from Mek'keh
by the sheykh Ibrahee'm (Burckhardt), and given to
me by his legatee 'Osma'n.—A cake composed of
dust from the Prophet's tomb is sometimes sewed up
in a leather case, and worn as an amulet. It is also
formed into lumps of the shape of a pear, and of the
size of a small pear; and hung to the railing or
screen which surrounds the monument over the
grave of a saint, or to the monument itself, or to the
windows or door of the apartment which contains it.
So numerous are the charms which the Egyptians
employ to insure good fortune, or to prevent or re-
move evils of every kind, and so various are the
superstitious practices to which they have recourse
with these views, that a large volume would scarcely
suffice to describe them in detail. These modes of
endeavouring to obtain good, and to avoid or dispel
evil, when they are not founded upon religion or
magic or astrology, are termed matters of 'ilm er-
Took'keh, or the science of the distaff (that is, of the
women); which designation is given to imply their
absurdity, and because women are the persons who
most confide in them. This term is considered, by
CHARMS. 351
some, as a vulgar corruption of “’ilm er-roock'yeh,”
or “the science of enchantment:” by others, it is
supposed to be substituted for the latter term by way
of a pun. Some practices of the nature just de-
scribed have already been incidentally mentioned: I
shall only give a few other specimens.
It is a very common custom in Cairo to hang an
aloe-plant over the door of a house; particularly over
that of a new house, or over a door newly built: and
this is regarded as a charm to insure long and
flourishing lives to the inmates, and long continuance
to the house itself”. The women also believe that
the Prophet visits the house where this plant is
Suspended. The aloe, thus hung, without earth
or water, will live for several years; and even
blossom.
When any evil is apprehended from a person, it is
customary to break a piece of pottery behind his
back. This is also done with the view of preventing
further intercourse with such a person.
As ophthalmia is very prevalent in Egypt, the
ignorant people of this country resort to many ridi-
culous practices of a supersitious nature for its cure.
Some, for this purpose, take a piece of dried mud,
from the bank of the Nile at or near Boo'la'ck, the
principal port of Cairo, and, crossing the river, de-
posit it on the opposite bank, at Imba'beh. This
is considered sufficient to insure a cure.--Others,
with the same view, hang to the head-dress, over the
forehead, or over the diseased eye, a Venetian
sequin f; but it must be one of a particular descrip-
tion, in which the figures on each side correspond,
* It has been said, by a traveller, that this is only done at
pilgrims' houses; but such is not the case at least in Egypt.
+ Ben'doock'ee.
x 2
352 MODERN EG Y PTIANS,
head to head, and feet to feet.*. Yet iſ a person
having a Venetian sequin, or a dollar, in his pocket,
enter the room of one who is suffering from ophthal-
mia or fever, his presence is thought to aggravate
the complaint. It also is a general belief, here, that,
if an individual in a state of religious uncleanness
enter a room in which is a person afflicted with
ophthalmia, the patient's disease will consequently be
aggravated, and that a speck will appear in one or
each of his eyes. A man with whom I am acquainted
has, at the time I write this, just come out of a room
in which he had confined himself, while suffering
from ophthalmia, for about three months, from this
fear; never allowing any person to enter; his ser-
vant always placing his food outside his door: he
has, however, come out with a speck in one of his
eyes.
Another practice, which is often adopted in similar
cases, but mostly by women, and frequently with the
view of preventing barrenness, is very singular and
disgusting. The large open place called the Room-
ey'leh, on the west of the Citadel of Cairo, is a com-
mon scene of the execution of criminals; and the
decapitation of persons convicted of capital offences
in the metropolis was formerly almost always per-
formed there, rather than in any other part of the
town. On the south of this place is a building called
Mugh'sil es-Soolta'n, or the Soolta'n's washing-place
for the dead; where is a table of stone, upon which
the body of every person who is decapitated is washed,
previously to its burial; and there is a trough to re-
ceive the water, which is never poured out, but re-
mains tainted with the blood, and fetid. Many a
* A sequin of this description is termed ben'doock'ee moosha'-
harah.
CHARMS. 353
woman goes thither, and, for the cure of ophthalmia,
or to obtain offspring, or to expedite delivery in the
case of a protracted pregnancy, without speaking (for
silence is deemed absolutely necessary), passes under
the stone table above mentioned, with the left foot
foremost, and then over it; and does this seven
times; after which, she washes her face with the
polluted water that is in the trough, and gives five or
ten fud'dahs to an old man and his wife, who keep
the place ; then goes away, still without speaking.
Men, in the case of ophthalmia, often do the same.
The Mugh'sil is said to have been built by the famous
Beybur's, before he became Soolta'n; in consequence
of his observing that the remains of persons decapi-
tated in Cairo were often kicked about, and buried
without being previously washed.
Some women step over the body of a decapitated
man seven times, without speaking, to become preg-
nant; and some, with the same desire, dip, in the
blood, a piece of cotton wool, of which they after.
wards make use in a manner I must decline men-
tioning.
A ridiculous ceremony is practised for the cure of a
pimple on the edge of the eye-lid, or what we com-
monly call a “sty,” and which is termed in Egypt
shahh'-hha'teh, a word which literally signifies “a
female beggar.” The person affected with it goes to
any seven women of the name of Fa't’meh, in seven
different houses, and begs from each of them a
morsel of bread: these seven morsels constitute the
remedy.—Sometimes, in a similar case, and for the
same purpose, a person goes out before sunrise, and,
without speaking, walks round several tombs, from
right to left, which is the reverse of the regular
course made in visiting tombs.-Another supposed
mode of cure in a case of the same kind is, to bind a
x 3
354 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
bit of cotton on the end of a stick; then to dip it in
one of the troughs out of which the dogs drink in
the streets of Cairo, and to wipe the eye with it.
The patient is thus careful to preserve his hand. from
the polluted water, when he is about to apply this to
another part of his person.
As an imaginary cure for ague, some of the
women of Egypt (I mean those of the Moos'lim faith)
hang to their necks the finger of a Christian or Jew,
cut off a corpse, and dried. This and other practices
mentioned before are striking proofs of the degrading
effects of superstition, and of its powerful influence
over the mind: for, in general, the Moos'lims are
scrupulously careful to conform with that precept of
their religion which requires them to abstain from
everything polluting or unclean.
When a child is unable to walk, after having at-
tained the age when it is usual to begin to do so, it
is a common custom for the mother to bind its feet
together with a palm-leaf tied in three knots, and to
place it at the door of a mosque during the period
when the congregation are engaged in performing
the Friday-prayers: when the prayers are ended, she
asks the first, second, and third persons who come
out of the mosque to untie each a knot of the palm-
leaf; and then carries the child home, confident that
this ceremony will soon have the effect of enabling
the little-one to walk.
There are several pretended antidotes for poison,
and remedies for certain diseases, to which the Egyp-
tians often have recourse, and which may perhaps
have some efficacy: but superstition attributes to
them incredible virtues. The bezoar-stone * is used
as an antidote for poison, by rubbing it in a cup
* Hkag'ar el'-benzaheer.
CHARMS. 355
with a little water: the cup is then filled with water,
which the patient drinks. In the same manner, and
for the same purpose, a cup made of the horn of the
rhinoceros” is used : a piece of the same material
(the horn) is rubbed in it.—As a cure for the
jaundice, many persons in Cairo drink the water of
a well in this city, called beer el-yaracka'n, or “the
well of the jaundice.” It is the property of an old
woman, who reaps considerable advantage from it:
for it has two mouths, under one of which is a dry
receptacle for anything that may be thrown down;
and the old woman desires the persons who come to
use the medicinal water to drop through this mouth
whatever she happens to be in need of; as sugar,
coffee, &c.
The Moos'lims have recourse to many superstitious
practices to determine them when they are in doubt
as to any action which they contemplate, whether
they shall do it or not. Some apply, for an answer,
to a table called a za'ir"geh. There is a table of this
kind ascribed to Idree's, or Enoch. It is divided
into a hundred little squares; in each of which is
written some Arabic letter. The person who con-
sults it repeats, three times, the opening chapter of
the Ckoor-a'n, and the 58th verse of the Soo'rat el-
An'a'm (or 6th chapter)—“With Him are the keys
of the secret things: none knoweth them but Him :
He knoweth whatever is on the dry ground or in the
sea: there falleth no leaf but He knoweth it; neither
is there a single grain in the dark parts of the earth,
nor a green thing nor a dry thing, but it is [written]
in a perspicuous book.”-Having done this, without
looking directly at the table, he places his finger upon
it: he then looks to see upon what letter his finger
* Cºur'n khurtee’t,
356 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
is placed; writes that letter; the fifth following it;
the fifth following this; and so on, until he comes
again to the first which he wrote; and these let-
ters together compose the answer. The construction
of the table may be shown by translating it, thus—
d w h b h
i O - d t W
f r {2 d i O i 8, ©
1 | n s c t | 1 | g h e h
For an example, suppose the finger to be placed on
the letter e in the sixth line: we take, from the table,
the letters e nj o y p e a c e a b s t a i n a n d,
which compose this sentence “Abstain, and enjoy
peace :” the sentence always commencing with the
first of the letters taken from the uppermost line. It
will be seen that the table gives only five answers;
and that, if we proceed as above directed, we must
obtain one of these answers, with whatever letter of
the table we commence. It will also be observed,
that the framer of the table, knowing that men very
frequently wish to do what is wrong, and seldom to
do what is right, and that it is generally safer for

AUGURATION. 357
them to abstain when in doubt, has given but one
affirmative answer, and four negative *.
Some persons have recourse to the Ckoor-a’n for
an answer to their doubts. This they call making
an istikha'rah, or application for the favour of heaven.
Repeating, three times, the opening chapter, the
112th chapter, and the verse above quoted, they let
the book fall open, or open it at random, and, from
the seventh line of the right-hand page, draw their
answer. The words often will not convey a direct
answer; but are taken as affirmative or negative ac-
cording as their general tenor is good or bad; pro-
mising a blessing, or denouncing a threat, &c. In-
stead of reading the seventh line of this page, some
count the number of the letters kha and sheen which
occur in the whole page; and if the khas predominate,
the inference is favourable: kha represents kheyr, or
good : sheen, shurr, or evil.
There is another mode of istikha'rah; which is, to
take hold of any two points of a seb'hhah (or rosary),
after reciting the Fa't'hhah three times, and then to
count the beads between these two points, saying, in
passing the first bead through the fingers, “[I
assert] the absolute glory of God;” in passing the
second, “Praise be to God;” in passing the third,
“There is no deity but God;” and repeating these
expressions in the same order, to the last bead : if
the first expression fall to the last bead, the answer
is affirmative and favourable: if the second, indiffer-
ent: if the last, negative. This is practised by many
persons.
Some, again, in similar cases, on lying down to
sleep, at night, beg of God to direct them by a
dream; by causing them to see something white or
* The more approved zaïr'gehs are extremely complicated;
and the process of consulting them involves intricate astrolo-
gical calculations.
358 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
green, or water, if the action which they contemplate
be approved, or if they are to expect approaching
good fortune; and if not, by causing them to see
something black or red, or fire: they then recite the
Fa't'hhah ten times; and continue to repeat these
words—“O God, favour our lord Mohham'mad l’—
until they fall asleep,
The Egyptians place great faith in dreams, which
often direct them in some of the most important ac-
tions of life. They have two large and celebrated
works on the interpretation of dreams, by Ib'n Sha'-
hee'n and Ib'n Seeree'n ; the latter of whom was the
pupil of the former. These books are consulted, even
by the learned, with implicit confidence. When one
person says to another, “I have seen a dream,” the
latter usually answers, “Good *” (i. e. may it be of
good omen), or, “Good, please God f.” When a
person has had an evil dream, it is customary for him
to say, “O God favour our lord Mohham'mad ‘’”
and to spit over his left shoulder three times, to pre-
vent an evil result.
In Egypt, as in most other countries, superstitions
are entertained respecting days of the week; some
being considered fortunate; and others, unfortunate.
—The Egyptians regard Sunday as an unfortunate
day, on account of the night which follows it.—This
night, which (according to the system already men-
tioned) is called the night of Monday, the learned
Moos'lims, and many of the inferior classes, consider
unfortunate, because it was that of the death of their
Prophet; but some regard it as fortunate, particu-
larly for the consummation of marriage; though not
so auspicious for this affair as the eve of Friday.
The day following it is also considered, by some, as
fortunate ; and by others, as unfortunate.—Tuesday
* Kheyr. + Kheyr in sha-l'la'h,
AUGURATION. 359
is generally thought unfortunate, and called “the
day of blood;" as it is said that several eminent mar-
tyrs were put to death on this day: and hence, also,
it is commonly esteemed a proper day for being bled.
—Wednesday is regarded as indifferent.—Thursday
is called el-mooba'rak (or the blessed); and is consi-
dered fortunate; particularly deriving a blessing
from the following night and day.—The eve, or
night, of Friday is very fortunate; especially for the
consummation of marriage. Friday is blessed above
all other days as being the sabbath of the Moos'lims:
it is called el-fadee'leh (or the excellent)—Saturday
is the most unfortunate of days. It is considered
very wrong to commence a journey, and, by most
people in Egypt, to shave, or cut the nails, on this
day.—A friend of mine here was doubting whether
he should bring an action against two persons on so
unfortunate a day as Saturday: he decided, at last,
that it was the best day of the week for him to do
this, as the ill fortune must fall upon one of the two
parties only, and doubtless upon his adversaries, be-
cause they were two to one.—There are some days
of the year which are esteemed very fortunate; as
those of the two grand festivals, &c.; and some
which are regarded as unfortunate; as, for instance,
the last Wednesday in the month of Suf'ar; when
many persons make a point of not going out of their
houses, from the belief that numerous afflictions fall
upon mankind on that day.—Some persons draw
lucky or unlucky omens from the first object they
see on going out of the house in the morning: ac-
cording as that object is pleasant or the reverse, they
say, “our morning is good” or “– bad.”
360
ChapTEn XII.
MAGIC, ASTROLOGY, AND ALCHYMY.
If we might believe some stories which are com-
monly related in Egypt, it would appear that, in
modern days, there have been, in this country, ma-
gicians not less skilful than Pharoah’s “wise men
and sorcerers” of whom we read in the Bible.
The more intelligent of the Moos'lims distinguish
two kinds of magic, which they term Er-Roo'hha'nee
(vulgo. Row'hha'nee) and Es-See’miya: the former
is spiritual magic, which is believed to effect its
wonders by the agency of angels and genii, and by
the mysterious virtues of certain names of God, and
other supernatural means: the latter is natural and
deceptive magic; and its chief agents, the less cre-
dulous Moos'lims believe to be certain perfumes and
drugs, which affect the vision and imagination in a
manner somewhat similar to opium : this drug, in-
deed, is supposed, by some persons, to be employed
in the operations of the latter branch of magic.
Er-Roo'hha'nee, which is universally considered,
among the Egyptians, as true magic, is of two kinds,
'il'wee (or high) and soof'lee (or low); which are
also called rahhma'nee (or divine, or, literally, relating
to “the Compassionate,” which is an epithet of God)
and sheyta'mee (or satanic). The 'il'wee, or rah-
hma'nee, is said to be a science founded on the
agency of God, and of his angels, and good genii,
and on other lawful mysteries; to be always em-
Ployed for good purposes, and only attained and
MAGIC, &c. 361
practised by men of probity, who, by tradition, or
from books, learn the names of those superhuman
agents, and invocations which insure compliance
with their desires. The writing of charms for good
purposes belongs to this branch of magic, and to
astrology, and to the science of the mysteries of num-
bers. The highest attainment in divine magic con-
sists in the knowledge of the Ism el-A'azam. This
is “the most great name” of God, which is gene-
rally believed, by the learned, to be known to none
but prophets and apostles of God. A person ac-
quainted with it can, it is said, by merely uttering it,
raise the dead to life, kill the living, transport him-
self instantly wherever he pleases, and perform any
other miracle. Some suppose it to be known to
eminent wel'ees.—The soof’lee is believed to depend
on the agency of the devil, and evil spirits, and un-
believing genii; and to be used for bad purposes,
and by bad men. To this branch belongs the
science called, by the Arabs, es-sehhr; which is a
term they give only to wicked enchantment.—Those
who perform what is called durb el-men'del (of which
I purpose to relate some examples) profess to do it
by the agency of genii; that is, by the science called
er-roo'hha'nee: but there is another opinion on this
subject which will be presently mentioned.
Es-See’miya is generally pronounced, by the
learned, to be a false science, and deceptive art,
which produces surprising effects by those natural
means which have been above mentioned ; and the
durb el-men'del, as perfumes are employed in the per-
formance of it, is considered, by such persons, as
pertaining to es-see’miya.
'Ilm en-Noogoo'm, or Astrology, is studied by
many persons in Egypt. It is chiefly employed in
casting nativities, in determining fortunate periods,
&c.; and very commonly, to divine by what sign of
WOL. I Y

362 MODERN EGYPTIANS
the zodiac a person is influenced; which is usually
done by a calculation founded upon the numerical
values of the letters composing his or her name, and
that of the mother: this is often done in the case of
two persons who contemplate becoming man and
wife, with the view of ascertaining whether they will
agree.—The science called durb er-reml, or geo-
mancy, by which, from certain marks made at ran-
dom on paper, or on sand (whence its name), the
professors pretend to discover past, passing, and fu-
ture events, is, I am informed, mainly founded on
astrology.
El-Kee’miya, or Alchymy, is also studied by many
persons in Egypt, and by some possessed of talents
by which they might obtain a better reputation than
this pursuit procures them, and who, in spite of the
derision which they experience from a few men of
sounder minds, and the reproaches of those whom
they unintentionally make their dupes, continue, to
old age, their fruitless labours. Considerable know-
Yedge of Chymistry is, however, sometimes acquired
in the study of this false science; and in the present
degraded state of physical knowledge in this country,
it rather evinces a superior mind when a person
gives his attention to alchymy.
There is, or was (for I am informed that he died a
few weeks ago), a native of Egypt very highly cele-
brated for his performances in the higher kind of
that branch of magic called er-roo'hha'nee; the
sheykh Isma’ee'l Aboo Roo-oo's, of the town of
Desoo'ck. Even the more learned and sober of the
people of this country relate most incredible stories
of his magical skill; for which some of them account
by asserting his having been married to a gimnee'yeh
(or female genie); and others, merely by his having
ginn at his service, whom he could mentally consult
and command, without making use of any such
MAGIC 363
charm as the lamp of Ala' ed-Deen *. He is said
to have always employed this supernatural power
either for good or innocent purposes; and to have
been much favoured by the present Ba'sha, who,
some say, often consulted him. One of the most
sensible of my Moos'lim friends, in this place (Cairo),
informs me that he once visited Ab'oo Roo-oo's, at
Desoo'ck, in company with the sheykh El-Emee'r,
son of the sheykh El-Emee'r El-Kebee'r, sheykh of
the sect of the Ma'likees. My friend's companion
asked their host to show them some proof of his skill
in magic; and the latter complied with the request.
“Let coffee be served to us,” said the sheykh El-
Emee'r, “in my father's set of finga'ns and zurfs,
which are at Musr.” They waited a few minutes;
and then the coffee was brought; and the sheykh
El-Emee'r looked at the finga'ns and zurfs, and said
that they were certainly his father's. He was next
treated with sherbet, in what he declared himself
satisfied were his father's clºool'lehs. He then wrote
a letter to his father, and, giving it to Ab'oo Roo-oo's,
asked him to procure an answer to it. The magi-
cian took the letter, placed it behind a cushion of his
deewa'n, and, a few minutes after, removing the
cushion, showed him that this letter was gone, and
that another was in its place. The sheykh El-
Emee'r took the latter; opened and read it; and
found in it, in a handwriting which, he said, he
could have sworn to be that of his father, a complete
answer to what he had written, and an account of
the state of his family which he proved, on his return
to Cairo, a few days after, to be perfectly true.
A curious case of magic fell under the cognizance
* I must be excused for deviating from our old and erro-
neous mode of spelling the name of the master of “the won-
derful lamp.” It is vulgarly pronounced 'Ala'y ed-Deen.
Y 2
364 MODE R N EGYPTIANS.
of the government during my former visit to this
country; and became a subject of general talk and
wonder throughout the metropolis. I shall give the
story of this occurrence, precisely as it was related
to me by several persons in Cairo; without curtail-
ing it of any of the exaggerations with which they
embellished it; not only because I am ignorant how
far it is true, but because I would show how great a
degree of faith the Egyptians in general place in
magic, or enchantment. -
Moos'tuf'a Ed-Dig'wee, chief secretary in the
Cka'dee's court, in this city, was dismissed from his
office, and succeeded by another person of the name
of Moos'tuf'a, who had been a sey'refee, or money-
changer. The former sent a petition to the Ba'sha,
begging to be reinstated; but before he received an
answer, he was attacked by a severe illness, which
he believed to be the effect of enchantment: he per-
suaded himself that Moos' tuf'a the sey'refee had em-
ployed a magician to write a spell which should
cause him to die; and therefore sent a second time
to the Ba'sha, charging the new secretary with this
crime. The accused was brought before the Ba'sha;
confessed that he had done so ; and named the
magician whom he had employed. The latter was
arrested; and, not being able to deny the charge
brought against him, was thrown into prison, there
to remain until it should be seen whether or not Ed-
Dig'wee would die. He was locked up in a small
cell; and two soldiers were placed at the door; that
one of them might keep watch while the other slept.
Now for the marvellous part of the story. At night,
after one of the guards had fallen asleep, the other
heard a strange, murmuring noise, and, looking
through a crack of the door of the cell, saw the ma-
gician sitting in the middle of the floor, muttering
MAGIC 365
some words which he (the guard) could not under-
stand. Presently, the candle which was before him
became extinguished; and, at the same instant, four
other candles appeared ; one in each corner of the
cell. The magician then rose, and, standing on one
side of the cell, knocked his forehead three times
against the wall; and each time that he did so, the
wall opened, and a man appeared to come forth from
it. After the magician had conversed for some mi-
nutes with the three personages whom he thus pro-
duced, they disappeared; as did, also, the four
candles; and the candle that was in the midst of the
cell became lighted again, as at first: the magician
then resumed his position on the floor; and all was
quiet. Thus the spell that was to have killed Ed-
Dig'wee was dissolved. Early the next morning, the
invalid felt himself so much better, that he called for
a basin and ewer, performed the ablution, and said
his prayers; and from that time he rapidly recovered.
He was restored to his former office; and the magi-
cian was banished frcm Egypt.—Another enchanter
(or sahh!hha'r) was banished a few days after, for
writing a charm which caused a Mohhammadan girl
to be affected with an irresistible love for a Copt
Christian.
A few days after my first arrival in this country,
my curiosity was excited on the subject of magic by
a circumstance related to me by Mr. Salt, our con-
sul-general. Having had reason to believe that one
of his servants was a thief, from the fact of several
articles of property having been stolen from his
house, he sent for a celebrated Mugh'reb'ee magician,
with the view of intimidating them, and causing the
guilty one (if any of them were guily) to confess
his crime. The magician came ; and said that he
would cause the exact image of the person who had
366 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
committed the thefts to appear to any youth not
arrived at the age of puberty; and desired the mas-
ter of the house to call in any boy whom he might
choose. As several boys were then employed in a
garden adjacent to the house, one of them was called
for this purpose. In the palm of this boy’s right
hand, the magician drew, with a pen, a certain dia-
gram, in the centre of which he poured a little ink.
Into this ink he desired the boy stedfastly to look.
He then burned some incense and several bits of
paper inscribed with charms; and, at the same time,
called for various objects to appear in the ink. The
boy declared that he saw all these objects, and, last
of all, the image of the guilty person: he described
his stature, countenance, and dress; said that he
knew him; and directly ran down into the garden,
and apprehended one of the labourers, who, when
brought before the master, immediately confessed
that he was the thief.
The above relation made me desirous of witnessing
a similar performance during my first visit to this
country; but not being acquainted with the name
of the magician here alluded to, or his place of
abode, I was unable to obtain any tidings of him.
I learned, however, soon after my return to Eng-
land, that he had become known to later travellers
in Egypt; was residing in Cairo; and that he was
called the sheykh ‘Abd El-Cka'dir El-Mugh'reb'ee.
A few weeks after my second arrival in Egypt, my
neighbour 'Osma'n, interpreter of the British con-
sulate, brought him to me; and I fixed a day for his
visiting me, to give me a proof of the skill for which
he is so much famed. He came at the time ap-
pointed, about two hours before noon; but seemed
uneasy; frequently looked up at the sky, through the
window; and remarked that the weather was unpro-
MAGIC. 367
pitious: it was dull and cloudy; and the wind was
boisterous. The experiment was performed with
three boys; one after another. With the first, it
was partly successful; but with the others, it com-
pletely failed. The magician said that he could do
nothing more that day; and that he would come in
the evening of a subsequent day. He kept his ap-
pointment; and admitted that the time was favour-
able. While waiting for my neighbour, before men-
tioned, to come and witness the performances, we
took pipes and coffee; and the magician chatted with
me on indifferent subjects. He is a fine, tall, and
stout man, of a rather fair complexion, with a dark
brown beard; is shabbily dressed; and generally
wears a large green turban ; being a descendant of
the prophet. In his conversation, he is affable and
unaffected. He professed to me that his wonders
were effected by the agency of good spirits; but to
others, he has said the reverse: that his magic is
satanic.
In preparing for the experiment of the magic
mirror of ink, which, with some other performances
of a similar nature, are here termed durb el-mem'del,
the magician first asked me for a reed-pen and ink,
a piece of paper, and a pair of scissors; and, having
cut off a narrow strip of paper, wrote upon it cer-
tain forms of invocation, together with another
charm, by which he professes to accomplish the ob-
ject of the experiment. He did not attempt to con-
ceal these ; and on my asking him to give me copies
of them, he readily consented, and immediately
wrote them for me; explaining to me, at the same
time, that the object he had in view was accom-
plished through the influence of the two first words,
“Tur'shoon” and “Turyoo'shoon,” which, he said,
were the names of two genii, his “familiar spirits.”
I compared the copies with the originals; and found
368 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
that they exactly agreed. Fac-similes of them are
here inserted, with a translation.
|}_*AJA
-232G |,2-/ſ/P/
__P3'→ ~~~~ V/

& f tº Vſ
|,4→ *-º:
slo Waza ſ" !---
ºf - “.. &&.3%te,
prº-
sess & Ale-

Magic Invocation and Charm.
“Tur'shoon | Turyoo'shoon | Come down
Come down | Be present ' Whither are gone
the prince and his troops ? Where are El-Ahh'mar
the prince and his troops? Be present
ye servants of these names"
“And this is the removal. “And we have removed
from thee
thy veil; and thy sight to-day
is piercing.” Correct. correct.”
Having written these, the magician cut off the paper
MAGIC, 369
containing the forms of invocation from that upon
which the other charm was written ; and cut the
former into six strips. He then explained to me
that the object of the latter charm (which contains
part of the 21st verse of the Soo'rat Cka'f, or 50th
chapter of the Ckoor-a'n) was to open the boy's
eyes in a supernatural manner; to make his sight
pierce into what is to us the invisible world.
I had prepared, by the magician's direction, some
frankincense and coriander-seed”, and a chafing-
dish with some live charcoal in it. These were now
brought into the room, together with the boy who
was to be employed: he had been called in, by my
desire, from among some boys in the street, return-
ing from a manufactory; and was about eight or
nine years of age. In reply to my inquiry respecting
the description of persons who could see in the magic
mirror of ink, the magician said that they were a
boy not arrived at puberty, a virgin, a black female
slave, and a pregnant woman. The chafing-dish
was placed before him and the boy; and the latter
was placed on a seat. The magician now desired
my servant to put some frankincense and cori-
ander-seed into the chafing-dish ; then, taking hold
of the boy's right hand, he drew, in the palm of it,
a magic square, of which a copy is here given. The
figures which it contains are Arabic numerals. In
the centre, he poured a little ink, and desired the
boy to look into it, and to tell him if he could see
his face reflected in it; the boy replied that he saw
his face clearly. The magician, holding the boy’s
hand all the whilet, told him to continue looking
intently into the ink; and not to raise his head.
He then took one of the little strips of paper in-
* He generally requires some benzoin to be added to these.
+ This reminds us of animal magnetism.
Y 5
370 MOD E R N EGYPTIANS.
‘L 7 || -
| 4 | f T |
Magic Diagram and Mirror of Ink.
scribed with the forms of invocation, and dropped it
into the chafing-dish, upon the burning coals and
perfumes, which had already filled the room with
their smoke; and as he did this, he commenced at,
indistinct muttering of words, which he continued
during the whole process, excepting when he had to
ask the boy a question, or to tell him what he was
to say. The piece of paper containing the words
from the Ckoor-a'n, he placed inside the fore part
of the boy's ta'ckee'yeh, or scull-cap. He then asked
him if he saw anything in the ink; and was an-
swered “No :” but about a minute after, the boy,
trembling, and seeming much frightened, said, “I
see a man sweeping the ground.” “When he has
done sweeping,” said the magician, “tell me.” Pre-

MAGIC, 371
sently, the boy said, “He has done.” The magi-
cian then again interrupted his muttering to ask
the boy if he knew what a bey'ruck (or flag) was;
and, being answered, “’Yes,” desired him to say,
“Bring a flag.” The boy did so; and soon said,
“He has brought a flag.” “What colour is it?”
asked the magician : the boy replied, “Red.” He
was told to call for another flag ; which he did ; and
soon after he said that he saw another brought;
and that it was black. In like manner, he was told
to call for a third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh ;
which he described as being successively brought
before him; specifying their colours, as white, green,
black, red, and blue. The magician then asked him
(as he did, also, each time that a new flag was de-
scribed as being brought), “How many flags have
you now before you?” “Seven,” answered the boy.
While this was going on, the magician put the second
and third of the sinall strips of paper upon which
the forms of invocation were written, into the chaf-
ing-dish ; and, fresh frankincense and coriander-
seed having been repeatedly added, the fumes be-
came painful to the eyes. When the boy had de-
scribed the seven flags as appearing to him, he was
desired to say, “Bring the Soolta'n’s tent; and
pitch it.” This he did ; and in about a minute
after, he said, “Some men have brought the tent;
a large, green tent: they are pitching it;” and pre-
sently he added, “they have set it up.” “Now,”
said the magician, “order the soldiers to come, and
to pitch their camp around the tent of the Soolta'n.”
The boy did as he was desired; and immediately
said, “I see a great many soldiers, with their tents:
they have pitched the tents.” He was then told to
order that the soldiers should be drawn up in ranks;
and, having done so, he presently said, that he saw
them thus arranged. The magician had put the
372 MODE R N EGYPTIANS,
fourth of the little strips of paper into the chafing-
dish ; and soon after, he did the same with the fifth.
He now said, “Tell some of the people to bring a
bull.” The boy gave the order required, and said,
“I see a bull: it is red: four men are dragging it
along ; and three are beating it.” He was told to
desire them to kill it, and cut it up, and to put the
meat in saucepans, and cook it. He did as he was
directed; and described these operations as appa-
rently performed before his eyes. “Tell the sol-
diers,” said the magician, “to eat it.” The boy
did so; and said, “They are eating it. They have
done; and are washing their hands.” The magician
then told him to call for the Soolta'n; and the boy,
having done this, said, “I see the Soolta'n riding to
his tent, on a bay horse; and he has, on his head,
a high red cap: he has alighted at his tent, and
sat down within it.” “Desire them to bring coffee
to the Soolta'n,” said the magician, “and to form the
court.” These orders were given by the boy; and
he said that he saw them performed. The magician
had put the last of the six little strips of paper into
the chafing-dish. In his mutterings I distinguished
nothing but the words of the written invocation, fre-
quently repeated, excepting on two or three occa-
sions, when I heard him say, “If they demand in-
formation, inform them; and be ye veracious.”
He now addressed himself to me; and asked me
if I wished the boy to see any person who was ab-
sent or dead. I named Lord Nelson ; of whom the
boy had evidently never heard ; for it was with much
difficulty that he pronounced the name, after several
trials. . The magician desired the boy to say to the
Soolta'n—“My master salutes thee, and desires
thee to bring Lord Nelson: bring him before my
eyes, that I may see him, speedily.” The boy then
said so ; and almost immediately added, “A mes-
MAGIC, 373
senger is gone, and has returned, and brought a
man, dressed in a black * suit of European clothes:
the man has lost his left arm.” He then paused for
a moment or two; and, looking more intently, and
more closely, into the ink, said, “No, he has not
lost his left arm ; but it is placed to his breast.”
This correction made his description more striking
than it had been without it: since Lord Nelson
generally had his empty sleeve attached to the breast
of his coat: but it was the right arm that he had
lost. Without saying that I suspected the boy had
made a mistake, I asked the magician whether the
objects appeared in the ink as if actually before the
eyes, or as if in a glass, which makes the right ap-
pear left. He answered, that they appeared as in
a mirror. Thi rendered the boy's description fault-
less.
The next person I called for was a native of
Egypt, who has been for many years resident in
England, where he has adopted our dress; and who
had been long confined to his bed by illness before
I embarked for this country : I thought that his
name, one not very uncommon in Egypt, might
make the boy describe him incorrectly ; though
another boy, on the former visit of the magician,
had described this same person as wearing a Euro-
pean dress, like that in which I last saw him. In
the present case the boy said, “Here is a man
brought on a kind of bier, and wrapped up in a
sheet.” This description would suit, supposing the
person in question to be still confined to his bed, or
if he be dead Î. The boy described his face as
* Dark blue is called, by the modern Egyptians, es'uſed,
which properly signifies black, and is therefore so translated
here.
# A few months after this was written, I had the pleasure
of hearing that the person here aliuded to was in better
374 MODE R N EGYPTIANS,
covered; and was told to order that it should be
uncovered. This he did ; and then said, “His face
is pale; and he has mustaches, but no beard:”
which is correct.
Several other persons were successively called for;
but the boy’s descriptions of them were imperfect;
though not altogether incorrect. He represented
each object as appearing less distinct than the pre-
ceding one; as if his sight were gradually becoming
dim: he was a minute, or more, before he could give
any account of the persons he professed to see to-
wards the close of the performance ; and the magi-
cian said it was useless to proceed with him.
Another boy was then brought in ; and the magic
square, &c. made in his hand; but he could see
nothing. The magician said that he was too old.
Though completely puzzled, I was somewhat dis-
appointed with his performances, for they fell short
of what he had accomplished, in many instances, in
presence of certain of my friends and countrymen.
On one of these occasions, an Englishman present
ridiculed the performance, and said that nothing
would satisfy him but a correct description of the
appearance of his own father, of whom, he was sure,
no one of the company had any knowledge. The
boy, accordingly, having called by name for the per-
son alluded to, described a man in a Frank dress, of
course, with his hand placed to his head, wearing
spectacles, and with one foot on the ground, and the
other raised behind him, as if he were stepping down
from a seat. The description was exactly true in
every respect: the peculiar position of the hand was
occasioned by an almost constant head-ache; and
that of the foot or leg, by a stiff knee, caused by a
health. Whether he was confined to his bed at the time
when this experiment was performed, I have not been able to
ascertain.
MAGIC. 375
fall from a horse, in hunting. I am assured that, on
this occasion, the boy accurately described each per-
son and thing that was called for. On another oc-
casion, Shakspeare was described with the most
minute correctness, both as to person and dress; and
I might add several other cases in which the same
magician has excited astonishment in the sober
minds of Englishmen of my acquaintance. A short
time since, after performing in the usual manner, by
means of a boy, he prepared the magic mirror in the
hand of a young English lady, who, on looking into
it for a litttle while, said that she saw a broom
sweeping the ground without anybody holding it,
and was so much frightened that she would look no
longer.
I have stated these facts partly from my own expe-
rience, and partly as they came to my knowledge on
the authority of respectable persons. The reader
may be tempted to think, that, in each instance, the
boy saw images produced by some reflection in the
ink; but this was evidently not the case, or that he
was a confederate, or guided by leading questions.
That there was no confederacy, I satisfactorily ascer-
tained, by selecting the boy who performed the part
above described in my presence from a number of
others passing by in the street, and by his rejecting
a present which I afterwards offered him with the
view of inducing him to confess that he did not really
see what he had professed to have seen. I tried the
veracity of another boy on a subsequent occasion in
the same manner ; and the result was the same.
'i'he experiment often entirely fails; but when the
boy employed is right in one case, he generally is so
in all: when he gives, at first, an account altogether
wrong, the magician usually dismisses him at once,
saying that he is too old. The perfumes, or excited
imagination, or fear, may be supposed to affect the
**
376 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
vision of the boy who describes objects as appearing
to him in the ink; but, if so, why does he see ex-
actly what is required, and objects of which he can
have had no previous particular notion ? Neither I
nor others have been able to discover any clue by
which to penetrate the mystery; and if the reader be
alike unable to give the solution, I hope that he will
not allow the above account to induce in his mind
any degree of scepticism with respect to other por-
tions of this work.
377
CHAPTER XIII.
CHARACTER.
THE natural or innate character of the modern Egyp-
tians is altered, in a remarkable degree, by their reli-
gion, laws, and government, as well as oy the climate
and other causes; and to form a just opinion of it is,
therefore, very difficult. We may, however, confidently
state, that they are endowed, in a higher degree than
most other people, with some of the more important
mental qualities, particularly, quickness of apprehen-
sion, a ready wit, and a retentive memory. In youth,
they generally possess these and other intellectual
powers ; but the causes above alluded to gradually
'essen their mental energy.
Of the leading features of their character, none is
more remarkable than their religious pride. They
regard persons of every other faith as the children of
perdition; and such, the Moos'lim is early taught to
despise *. It is written in the Ckoor-a'n, “O ye
who have become believers, take not the Jews or
Christians for your friends: they are friends, one to
another; but whosoever of you taketh them for his
friends, he, surely, is one of them t.” From motives
of politeness, or selfish interest, these people will some-
times talk with apparent liberality of sentiment, and
even make professions of friendship, to a Christian
* I am credibly informed that children in Egypt are often
taught, at school, a regular set of curses to denounce upon the
persons and property of Christians, Jews, and all other unbe-
lievers in the religion of Monham'mad.
+ Chap. v., ver, 56.
378 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
(particularly to a European), whom, in their hearts,
they contemn : but as the Moos'lims of Egypt judge
of the Franks in general from the majority of those
in their towns, some of whom are outcasts from their
native countries, and others, men under no moral
restraint, they are hardly to be blamed for despising
them. The Christians are, however, generally treated
with civility by the people of Egypt: the Moos'lims
being as remarkable for their toleration as for their
contempt of unbelievers,
It is considered the highest honour, among the
Moos'lims, to be religious; but the desire to appear
so leads many into hypocrisy and pharisaical osten-
tation. When a Moos'lim is unoccupied by business
or amusement or conversation, he is often heard to
utter some pious ejaculation. If a wicked thought, or
the remembrance of a wicked action that he has com-
mitted, trouble him, he sighs forth, “I beg forgiveness
of God, the Great “1” The shopkeeper, when not
engaged with customers, nor enjoying his pipe, often
employs himself, in the sight and hearing of the pas-
sengers in the street, in reciting a chapter of the
Ckoor-a'n, or in repeating to himself those expressions
in praise of God which often follow the ordinary
prayers, and are counted with the beads; and in the
same public manner he prays.-The Moos'lims fre-
quently swear by God (but not irreverently); and
also, by the Prophet, and by the head, or beard, of
the person they address. When one is told any-
thing that excites his surprise and disbelief, he gene-
rally exclaims, “ wa-l'lah 2° or, “ wa-lla/hi ?” (by
God?); and the other replies, “wa-lla/hi !”—As on
ordinary occasions before eating and drinking, so,
also, on taking medicine, commencing a writing or
any important undertaking, and before many a trifling
* Astugh'fir Alla'h el-'Azee'm.
CHARACTER. 379
act, it is their habit to say, “In the name of God, the
Compassionate, the Merciful;” and after the act,
“Praise be to God.”—When two persons make any
considerable bargain, they recite together the first
chapter of the Ckoor-a'n (the Fa't'hhah). In case of
a debate on any matter of business or of opinion, it
is common for one of the parties, or a third person
who may wish to settle the dispute, or to cool the dis-
putants, to exclaim, “Blessing on the Prophet *!”—
“O God, favour him f" is said, in a low voice, by
the other or others; and they then continue the argu-
ment; but generally with moderation.
Religious ejaculations often interrupt conversation
upon trivial and even licentious subjects, in Egyptian
society ; sometimes, in such a manner that a person
not well acquainted with the character of this people
would perhaps imagine that they intended to make
religion a jest. In many of their most indecent songs,
the name of God is frequently introduced ; and this
is certainly done without any profane motive, but from
the habit of often mentioning the name of the Deity
in vain, and of praising Him on every trifling occa-
sion of surprise, or in testimony of admiration of
anything uncommon. Thus, a libertine, describing
his impressions on the first sight of a charming girl
(in one of the grossest songs I have ever seen or
heard even in the Arabic language), exclaims, “Ex-
tolled be He who formed thee, O full moon "-and
this and many similar expressions are common in
many other songs and odes: but what is most re-
markable in the song particularly alluded to above
is a profane comparison with which it terminates. I
shall adduce, as an example of the strange manner
in which licentiousness and religion are often blended
* Es-salah 'a-n-neb'ee (for — 'al'a-n-neb'ee); or “Bless ye
(or bless thou) the Prophet !”—Sal'loo (or sal'lee) 'a-n-neb'ee.
# Alla/hoom (for Alla'hoom'ma) sal'lee aley'h.
380 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
together in vulgar Egyptian poetry and rhyming prose,
a translation of the last three stanzas of an ode on
love and wine:—
“She granted me a reception, the graceful of form,
after her distance and coyness. I kissed her teeth
and her cheek; and the cup rang in her hand. The
odours of musk and ambergris were diffused by a
person whose form surpassed the elegance of a
straight and slender branch. She spread a bed of
brocade ; and I passed the time in uninterrupted
happiness. A Turkish fawn enslaved me.
“Now I beg forgiveness of God, my Lord, for all
my faults and sins ; and for all that my heart hath
said. My members testify against me. Whenever
grief oppresses me, O Lord, Thou art my hope
from whatever afflicts me. Thou knowest what I
say, and what I think. Thou art the Bountiful,
the Forgiving ! I implore thy protection: then par-
don me.
“And I praise that benignant being * whom a
cloud was wont to shade; the comely: how great
was his comeliness | He will intercede for us on the
day of judgment, when his haters, the vile, the poly-
theists, shall be repentant. Would that I might
always, as long as I live, accompany the pilgrims, to
perform the circuits and worship and courses, and live
in uninterrupted happiness '''
In translating the first of the above stanzas, I
have substituted the feminine for the masculine pro-
noun: for, in the original, the former is meant,
though the latter is used; as is commonly the case
in similar compositions of the Egyptians.—One of
my Moos'lim friends having just called on me, after
my writing the above remarks, I read to him the last
four stanzas of this ode; and asked him if he con-
* The Prophet.
CHARACTER. 381
sidered it proper thus to mix up religion with de-
bauchery. He answered, “Perfectly proper: a man
relates his having committed sins; and then prays
to God for forgiveness, and blesses the Prophet.”—
“But,” said I, “this is an ode written to be chanted
for the amusement of persons who take pleasure in
unlawful indulgences : and see here, when I close
the leaves, the page which celebrates a debauch
comes in contact, face to face, with that upon which
are written the names of the Deity : the com-
memoration of the pleasures of sin is placed upon
the prayer for forgiveness.” “That is nonsense,”
replied my friend: “turn the book over: place that
side upwards which is now downwards; and then
the case will be the reverse; sin covered by for-
giveness: and God, whose name be exalted, hath
said in the Excellent Book, “Say, O my servants
who have transgressed against your own souls, de-
spair not of the mercy of God; seeing that God for-
giveth all sins: for He is the Forgiving ; the Mer-
ciful*.’”—His answer reminds me of what I have
often observed, that the generality of Moos'lims, a
most inconsistent people, are every day breaking
their law in some point or other, trusting that two
words (“Astugh'fir Alla'h,” or “I beg forgiveness of
God”) will cancel every transgression. He had a
copy of the Ckoor-a’n in his hand; and on my turn-
ing it over to look for the verse he had quoted, I
found in it a scrap of paper containing some words
from the venerated volume: he was about to burn
this piece of paper, lest it should fall out, and be
trodden upon; and on my asking him whether it was
allowable to do so, he answered, that it might either
be burnt, or thrown into running water ; but that it
was better to burn it, as the words would ascend in
* Ckoor-a/n, chap. xxxix., ver, 54.
382 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
the flames, and be conveyed by angels to heaven.—
Sometimes the Ckoor-a'n is quoted in jest, even by
persons of strict religious principles. For instance,
the following equivocal and evasive answer was once
suggested to me on a person's asking of me a present
of a watch, which, I must previously mention, is called
“sa’ah,” a word which signifies an “hour,” and the
“ period of the general judgment:”—“Verily, the
sa'ah shall come: I will surely make it to appear ”
(chap. xx., ver. 15).
There are often met with, in Egyptian society, per-
sons who will introduce an apposite quotation from
the Ckoor-a'n or the Traditions of the Prophet in
common conversation, whatever be the topic ; and an
interruption of this kind is not considered, as it would
be in general society in our own country, either hy-
pocritical or annoying ; but rather occasions expres-
sions, if not feelings, of admiration ; and often
diverts the hearers from a trivial subject to matters
of a more serious nature. The Moos'lims of Egypt,
and, I believe, those of other countries, are generally
fond of conversing on religion; and the most preva-
lent mode of entertaining a party of guests among the
higher and middle ranks in this place (Cairo) is the
recital of a khut'meh (or the whole of the Ckoor-a’im),
which is chanted by fiek'ees, hired for the purpose;
or the performance of a zikr, which has been before
mentioned. Few persons among them would venture
to say, that they prefer hearing a concert of music to
the performance of a khut'meh or zikr ; and they
certainly do take great pleasure in the latter per-
formanees. The manner in which the Ckoor-a'n is
sometimes chanted is, indeed, very pleasing ; though
I must say, that a complete khut'meh is, to me, ex-
tremely tiresome. With the religious zeal of the
Moos'lims, I am daily struck: yet I have often won-
dered that they so seldom attempt to make converts
CHARACTER. 383
to their faith. On my expressing my surprise, as I
have frequently done, at their indifference with respect
to the propagation of their religion, contrasting it with
the conduct of their ancestors of the early ages of
El-Isla'm, I have generally been answered—“Of
what use would it be if I could convert a thousand
infidels? Would it increase the number of the faith-
ful? By no means: the number of the faithful is
decreed by God; and no act of man can increase or
diminish it.” The contending against such an an-
swer would have led to an interminable dispute : so I
never ventured a reply. I have heard quoted, by way
of apology for their neglecting to make proselytes,
the following words of the Ckoor-a'n : “ Dispute not
against those who have received the Scriptures”
(namely, the Christians and Jews), without the
words immediately following—“unless in the mildest
manner ; except against such of them as behave
injuriously [towards you] : and say [unto them] we
believe in [the revelation] that hath been sent down
unto us, and [also in that] which hath been sent
down unto you: and our God and your God is one.”
This precept is, however, generally considered as ab-
rogated by that of the sword: if it were acted upon
by the Moos'lims, it might perhaps lead to disputes
which would make them more liberal-minded, and
much better informed.
The respect which most modern Moos'lims pay to
their Prophet is almost idolatrous. They very fre-
quently swear by him ; and many of the most
learned, as well as the ignorant, often implore his
intercession. Pilgrims are generally much more
affected on visiting his tomb than in performing any
other religious rite. There are some Moos'iims who
will not do anything that the Prophet is not recorded
* Chap. xxix., ver, 45.
384 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
to have done; and who particularly abstain from
eating anything that he did not eat, though its law-
fulness be undoubted. The Ima'm Ahh'mad Ib'n
Hham'bal would not even eat water-melons, because,
although he knew that the Prophet ate them, he
could not learn whether he ate them with or without
the rind, or whether he broke, bit, or cut them : and
he forbad a woman, who questioned him as to the
propriety of the act, to spin by the light of torches
passing in the street by night, which were not her
own property, because the Prophet had not mentioned
whether it was lawful to do so, and was not known to
have ever availed himself of a light belonging to
another person, without that person’s leave. I once,
admiring some very pretty pipe-bowls, asked the
maker why he did not stamp them with his name.
He answered “God forbid! My name is Ahh'mad”
(one of the names of the Prophet): “would you have
me put it in the fire?”—I have heard adduced as
one of the subjects of complaint against the present
Ba'sha, his causing the camels and horses of the
government to be branded with his names of “Mo-
hham'mad 'Al'ee.” “In the first place,” said a
friend of mine, who mentioned this fact to me, “the
iron upon which are engraved these names, names
which ought to be so much venerated, the names of
the Prophet (God favour and preserve him (), and his
Nephew (may God be well pleased with him (), is put
into the fire, which is shocking: then it is applied to
the neck of a camel ; and causes blood, which is
impure, to flow, and to pollute the sacred names both
upon the iron and upon the animal’s skin: and when
the wound is healed, how probable is it, and almost
certain and unavoidable, that the camel will, when he
lies down, lay his neck upon something unclean.”
A similar feeling is the chief reason why the
Moos'lims object to printing their books. They
CHARACTER, 385
have scarcely a book (I do not remember to have
seen one) that does not contain the name of God :
it is a rule among them to commence every book
with the words “ In the name of God, the Com-
passionate, the Merciful,” and to begin the preface
or introduction by praising God, and blessing the
Prophet; and they fear some impurity might be con-
tracted by the ink that is applied to the name of the
Deity, in the process of printing, or by the paper to
be impressed with that sacred name, and perhaps with
words taken from the Ckoor-a'n : they fear, also, that
their books, becoming very cheap by being printed,
would fall into the hands of infidels; and are much
shocked at the idea of using a brush composed of
hogs' hair (which was at first done here) to apply
the ink to the name, and often to the words, of God.
Hence, books have hitherto been printed in Egypt
only by order of the government: but two or three
persons have lately applied for, and received, per-
mission to make use of the government-press. I am
acquainted with a bookseller here who has long been
desirous of printing some books which he feels sure
would bring him considerable profit; but cannot over-
come his scruples as to the lawfulness of doing so.
The honour which the Moos'lims show to the
Ckoor-a'n is very striking. They generally take care
never to hold it, or suspend it, in such a manner as
that it shall be below the girdle; and they deposit it
upon a high and clean place; and never put another
book, or anything else, on the top of it. On quoting
from it, they usually say, “He whose name be
exalted” (or “God, whose name be exalted’’) “hath
said, in the Excellent Book.” They consider it ex-
tremely improper that the sacred volume should be
touched by a Christian or a Jew, or any other person
not a believer in its doctrines; though some of them
are induced, by covetousness, but very rarely, to sell
WOL., I, Z
f
$86 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
copies of it to such persons. It is even forbidden to
the Moos'lim to touch it unless he be in a state of
legal purity; and hence, these words of the book
itself—“None shall touch it but those who are
clean *”—are often stamped upon the cover. The
same remarks apply, also, to anything upon which is
inscribed a passage of the Ckoor-a'n. It is remark-
able, however, that most of the old Arab coins bear
inscriptions of words from the Ckoor-an, or else the
testimony of the faith (“There is no deity but God:
Mohham'mad is God's Apostle”); notwithstanding
they were intended for the use of Jews and Chris-
tians, as well as Moos' lims: but I have heard this
practice severely condemned.—On my once asking
one of my Moos'lim friends whether figs were
esteemed wholesome in Egypt, he answered, “Is
not the fig celebrated in the Ckoor-a'n 2 God swears
by it: ‘By the fig and the olive!’” (chap. xcv.,
ver, 1).
There is certainly much enthusiastic piety in the
character of the modern Moos'lims, notwithstanding
their inconsistencies and superstitions: such, at least,
is generally the case. There are, I believe, very few
professed Moos'lims who are really unbelievers; and
these dare not openly declare their unbelief. I have
heard of two or three such, who have been rendered
so by long and intimate intercourse with Europeans;
and have met with one materialist, who has often had
long discussions with me. In preceding chapters of
this work, several practices indicative of the religious
feeling which prevails among the Moos'lims of Egypt
have been incidentally mentioned. Religious appeals
are generally used by the beggars in this country:
some examples of these will be given hereafter. Of
a similar nature, also, are the cries of many of the
* Ckoor-a/n, chap. lvi., ver. 78.
CHARACTER. 387
persons who sell vegetables, &c. The cry of the
nightly watchman in the quarter in which I lived in
Cairo during my first visit struck me as remarkable
for its beauty and sublimity—“I proclaim the abso-
lute glory of the living King, who sleepeth not nor
dieth *.” The present watchman, in the same quar-
ter, exclaims, “O Lord! O Everlasting t!” Many
other illustrations of the religious character of the
people whom I am endeavouring to portray might be
added. I must, however, here acknowledge, that reli-
gion has much declined among them and most others
of the same faith. Whoever has been in the habit of
conversing familiarly with the modern Moos'lims,
must often have heard them remark, with a sigh, “It
is the end of time !”—“The world has fallen into infi-
delity.”—They are convinced that the present state of
their religion is a proof that the end of the world is
near. The mention which I have made, in a former
chapter, of some of the tenets of the Wah'ha'bees, as
being those of the primitive Moos'lims, shows how
much the generality of the modern professors of the
faith of the Ckoor-a'n have deviated from the pre-
cepts originally delivered to its disciples.
Influenced by their belief in predestination, the
men display, in times of distressing uncertainty, an
exemplary patience, and after any afflicting event, a
remarkable degree of resignation and fortitude, ap-
proaching nearly to apathy f ; generally exhibiting
their sorrow only by a sigh, and the exclamation of
Al'lah keree'm 1 (God is bountiful '): but the women,
* Soobhha'n el-mel'ik el-hhei’ el-lez'ee la' yena'm wel'a
gemoo't
+ Ya' rubb / Ya' da'im.
# They are not, however, so apathetic as some travellers
have supposed; for it is not uncommon to see them weep;
and such a demonstration of feeling is not considered by them
as unmanly; even heroes are frequently represented, in thei:
romances and histories, as weeping under heavy affliction.
z 2
388 MODF RN EGYPTIANS.
*
on the contrary, give vent to their grief by the most
extravagant cries and shrieks. While the Christian
blames himself for every untoward event which he
thinks he has brought upon himself, or might have
avoided, the Moos'lim enjoys a remarkable serenity of
mind in all the vicissitudes of life. When he sees his
end approaching, his resignation is still conspicuous:
he exclaims, “Verily to God we belong; and verily
to Him we returnſ" and to those who inquire respect-
ing his state, in general his reply is, “Praise be to
God! Our Lord is bountiful!”—His belief in pre-
destination does not, however, prevent his taking any
step to attain an object that he may have in view; not
being perfectly absolute, or unconditional : nor does
it in general make him careless of avoiding danger;
for he thinks himself forbidden to do so by these
words of the Ckoor-an”, “Throw not [yourselves]
with your hands into perdition;” excepting in some
cases; as in those of pestilence and other sicknesses;
being commanded, by the Prophet, not to go into
a city where there is a pestilence, nor to come out
from it. The lawfulness of quarantine is contested
among Moos'lims; but the generality of them con-
demn it.
The same belief in predestination renders the
Moos'lim utterly devoid of presumption with regard
to his future actions, or to any future events. He never
speaks of anything that he intends to do, or of any
circumstance which he expects and hopes may come
to pass, without adding, “if it be the will of Godf;”
and, in like manner, in speaking of a past event of
which he is not certain, he generally prefaces or con-
cludes what he says with the expression “God is all-
knowing f.”
Benevolence and charity to the poor are virtues
* Chap. ii., ver, 191. In-sha-l'lah. # Alla'hoo a'alam.
CHARACTER, 389
which the Egyptians possess in an eminent degree,
and which are instilled into their hearts by religion;
but from their own profession it appears that they are
as much excited to the giving of alms by the expec-
tation of enjoying corresponding rewards in heaven,
as by pity for the distresses of their fellow-creatures,
or a disinterested wish to do the will of God. It may
be attributed, in some measure, to the charitable dis-
position of the inhabitants, that beggars are so
numerous in Cairo. The many handsome Sebee'ls,
or public fountains (buildings erected and endowed
for the gratuitous supply of water to passengers),
which are seen in this city, and the more humble
structures of the same kind in the villages and fields,
are monuments of the same virtue.
In my earlier intercourse with the people of Egypt,
I was much pleased at observing their humanity to
dumb animals; to see a person, who gathered toge-
ther the folds of his loose clothes to prevent their
coming in contact with a dog, throw, to the impure
animal, a portion of the bread which he was eating.
Murders, burglaries, and other atrocious crimes, were
then very rare among them. Now, however, I find
the generality of the Egyptians very much changed
for the worse, with respect to their humanity to brutes
and to their fellow-creatures. The increased severity
of the government seems, as might be expected, to
have engendered tyranny, and an increase of every
crime, in the people. It is shocking to see the
miserable asses which are used for carrying dust, &c.
in Cairo; many of them with large crimson wounds,
like carbuncles, constantly chafed by rough ropes of
the fibres of the palm-tree which are attached to the
back part of the pack-saddle. The dogs in the streets
are frequently beaten, both by boys and men, from
mere wantonness; and I often see children amusing
themselves with molesting the cats, which were for-
Z 3
390 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
merly much favoured". Robberies and murders,
during two or three months after my last arrival
here, were occurrences of almost every week. Most
of the Turkish governors of districts used to exercise
great oppression over the fella'hhee'n; but since
persons of the latter class have been put in the places
of the former they have exceeded their predecessors
in tyranny; and it is a common remark, that they
are “more execrable than the Turks f.”
Though I now frequently see the houseless dogs
beaten in the streets of Cairo, and that when quite
inoffensive and quiet, I still often observe men feed-
ing them with bread, &c.; and the persons who do
so are mostly poor men. In every district of this city
are many small troughs, which are daily replenished
with water for the dogs. In each street where there
are shops, a sack'cka receives a small monthly sum
from each shopman for sprinkling the street, and fill-
ing the trough or troughs for the dogs in that street.
There is also a dogs'-trough under almost every shop
of a shurbet'lee, or seller of sherbets.--It may here
be mentioned, that the dogs of Cairo, few of which
* I think it proper to remark here, that I have good reason
for believing Burckhardt to have been misinformed when
stating (see his Arabic Proverbs, No. 393) that children in the
East (in Egypt, &c.) torture serpents by putting them into a
leather bag, then throwing unslaked lime upon them, and
pouring water on it. I find no one who has heard of such
cruelty; and it is not likely that boys in this country would
dare to put a serpent in a bag (for they are excessively afraid
of this reptile), or would give several piasters for a bag to
destroy in this manner. The proverb upon which this state-
ment is founded perhaps alludes to a mode of destroying ser-
pents; but not for sport.
+ “The oppression of the Turks, rather than the justice of
the Arabs,” is a proverb often heard from the mouth of the
Arab peasant; who, in this case, applies the term “Arabs”
to his own class, instead of the Bed'awees, to whom it properly
belongs. See Burckhardt’s “Arabic Proverbs,” No. 176.
CHARACTER, 391
have masters, compose regular and distinct tribes;
and the dogs of each tribe confine themselves to a
certain district or quarter, from which they invariably
chase away any strange dog that may venture to
intrude. These animals are very numerous in Cairo.
They are generally careful to avoid coming in contact
with the men; as if they knew that the majority of
the people of the city regarded them as unclean: but
they often bark at persons in the Frank dress; and
at night, they annoy every passenger. They are of
use in eating the offal thrown out from the butchers'
shops, and from houses. Many dogs also prowl
about the mounds of rubbish around the metropolis;
and these, with the vultures, feed upon the carcases
of the camels, asses, &c., that die in the town. They
are mostly of a sandy colour; and seem to partake of
the form and disposition of the jackal.
The general opinion of the Moos'lims, which holds
the dog to be unclean, does not prevent their keeping
this animal as a house-guard, and sometimes even as
a pet. A curious case of this kind occurred a short
time ago. A woman in this city, who had neither
husband nor child nor friend to Solace her, made a
dog her companion. Death took this only associate
from her ; and, in her grief and her affection for it,
she determined to bury it; and not merely to commit
it to the earth without ceremony, but to inter it as a
Moos'lim, in a respectable tomb, in the cemetery of
the Ima'm Esh-Sha'fe'ee, which is regarded as espe-
cially sacred. She washed the dog according to the
rules prescribed to be observed in the case of a de-
ceased Moos'lim, wrapped it in handsome grave-
clothes, sent for a bier, and put it in ; then hired
several wailing-women; and, with them, performed a
regular lamentation. This done (but not without ex-
citing the wonder of her neighbours, who could not
conjecture what person in her house was dead, yet
392 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
would not intrude, because she never associated with
them), she hired a number of chanters, to head the
funeral-procession, and school-boys, to sing, and carry
the Ckoor-a'n before the bier; and the train went
forth in respectable order; herself and the hired
wailing-women following the bier, and rending the
air with their shrieks: but the procession had not
advanced many steps, when one of the female neigh-
bours ventured to ask the afflicted lady who the person
was that was dead; and was answered, “It is my
poor child.” The inquirer charged her with uttering
a falsehood; and the bereaved lady confessed that it
was her dog; begging, at the same time, that her
inquisitive neighbour would not divulge the secret;
but, for an Egyptian woman to keep a secret, and
such a secret, was impossible: it was immediately made
known to the by-standers; and a mob, in no good
humour, soon collected, and put a stop to the funeral.
The chanters and the singing-boys and wailing-
women vented their rage against their employer (as
soon as they had secured their money) for having
made fools of them; and if the police had not inter-
fered, she would probably have fallen a victim to
popular fury”.
It is a curious fact, that, in Cairo, houseless cats
are fed at the expense of the Cka'dee ; or, rather,
almost wholly at his expense. Every afternoon, a
quantity of offal is brought into the great court
before the Mahh'kem'eh; and the cats are called
* D'Herbelot mentions a somewhat similar case, in which
a Turk, having buried a favourite dog, with some marks of
respect, in his garden, was accused, before the Cka'dee, of
having interred the animal with the ceremonies practised at
the burial of a Moos'lim, and escaped punishment (perhaps a
severe one) by informing the judge that his dog had made a
will, leaving to him (the Cka'deej a sum of money.—(Biblio-
thèque Orientale, art. Cadhi.)
CHARACTER, 393
together to eat. The Soolta'n Ez-Zahir Beybur's
(as I learn from the Ba'sh Ka'tib of the Cka'dee)
bequeathed a garden, which is called gheyt el-
ckoot'tah (or the garden of the cat), near his mosque,
in the north of Cairo, for the benefit of the cats:
but this garden has been sold, over and over again,
by the trustees and purchasers: the former sold it,
on pretence of its being too much out of order to be
rendered productive, excepting at a considerable ex-
pense; and it now produces only a hkekr (or quit-
rent) of fifteen piasters a year, to be applied to the
maintenance of the destitute cats. Almost the whole
expense of their support has, in consequence, fallen
upon the Cka'dee, who, by reason of his office, is the
guardian of this and all other charitable and pious
legacies, and must suffer for the neglect of his pre-
decessors. Latterly, however, the duty of feeding the
cats has been very inadequately performed. Many
persons in Cairo, when they wish to get rid of a cat,
send or take it to the Cka'dee's house, and let it loose
in the great court.
The affability of the Egyptians towards each other
has been mentioned in a preceding chapter. To-
wards foreigners who do not conform with their
manners and customs, and profess the same way of
thinking, they are polite in their address, but cold
and reserved, or parasitical, in conversation. With
such persons, and even among themselves, they often
betray much impertinent curiosity. They are gene-
rally extremely afraid of making to themselves ene-
mies; and this fear frequently induces them to uphold
each other, even when it is criminal to do so.
Cheerfulness is another remarkable characteristic
of this people. Some of them profess a great con-
tempt for frivolous amusements; but most take plea-
sure in such pastimes; and it is surprising to see
how easily they are amused: wherever there are
394 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
crowds, noise, and bustle, they are delighted. In
their public festivals, there is little to amuse a person
of good education ; but the Egyptians enjoy them as
much as we do the best of our entertainments. Those
of the lower orders seem to be extremely happy with
their pipes and coffee, after the occupations of the
day, in the society of the coffee-shop.
Hospitality is a virtue for which the natives of the
East in general are highly and deservedly admired;
and the people of Egypt are well entitled to commen-
dation on this account. A word which signifies
literally “a person on a journey” (moosa'fir) is the
term most commonly employed in this country in the
sense of a visitor or guest. There are very few per-
sons here who would think of sitting down to a meal,
if there were a stranger in the house, without inviting
him to partake of it, unless the latter were a menial;
in which case, he would be invited to eat with the
servants. It would be considered a shameful viola-
tion of good manners if a Moos'lim abstained from
ordering the table to be prepared at the usual time
because a visitor happened to be present. Persons of
the middle classes in this country, if living in a retired
situation, sometimes take their supper before the door
of their house, and invite every passenger of respect-
able appearance to eat with them. This is very com-
monly done among the lower orders. In cities and
large towns, claims on hospitality are unfrequent; as
there are many weka'lehs, or kha’ns, where strangers
may obtain lodging; and food is very easily procured:
but in the villages, travellers are often lodged and
entertained by the Sheykh or some other inhabitant;
and if the guest be a person of the middle or higher
classes, or even not very poor, he gives a present to
his host's servants, or to the host himself. In the
desert, however, a present is seldom received from a
guest.—The account of Abraham's entertaining the
CHARACTER, 395
*
three angels, related in the Bible, presents a perfect
picture of the manner in which a modern Bed'awee
sheykh receives travellers arriving at his encampment.
He immediately orders his wife or women to make
bread; slaughters a sheep or some other animal, and
dresses it in haste; and bringing milk and any other
provisions that he may have ready at hand, with the
bread, and the meat which he has dressed, sets them
before his guests. If these be persons of high rank,
he stands by them while they eat; as Abraham did
in the case above alluded to. Most Bed'awees will
suffer almost any injury to themselves or their fami-
lies rather than allow their guests to be ill-treated
while under their protection. There are Arabs who
even regard the chastity of their wives as not too
precious to be sacrificed for the gratification of their
guests”; and at an encampment of the Bish'a'ree'n,
I ascertained that there are many persons in this
great tribe, which inhabits a large portion of the
desert between the Nile and the Red Sea, who offer
their unmarried daughters to their guests, merely from
motives of hospitality, and not for hire.
There used to be, in Cairo, a numerous class of
persons called Toof'ey'lee'yeh, or Toofey'lees (that is,
Spungers), who, taking advantage of the hospitality
of their countrymen, subsisted entirely by spunging:
but this class has, of late, very much decreased in
number. Wherever there was an entertainment,
some of these worthies were almost sure to be found;
and it was only by a present of money that they could
be induced to retire from the company. They even
travelled about the country, without the smallest coin
in their pockets, intruding themselves into private
houses whenever they wanted a meal, or practising
various tricks for this purpose. Two of them, I was
* See Burckhardt's Notes on the Bedouins, &c., 8vo, edition,
vol. i., pp. 179 and 180.
396 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
told, a little while since, determined to go to the fes-
tival of the seyd El-Bed'awee, at Tun'ta; an easy
journey of two days and a half from Cairo. Walking
at their leisure, they arrived at the small town of
Ckalyoo'b at the end of their first day's journey; and
there found themselves at a loss for a supper. One
of them went to the Cka'dee; and, after saluting him,
said—“O Cka'dee, I am a traveller from the Shurc-
kee'yeh, going to Musr; and I have a companion
who owes me fifty purses, which he has with him at
present, and refuses to give me ; and I am actually in
want of them.” “Where is he P” said the Cka'dee.
“Here, in this town,” answered the complainant. The
Cka'dee sent a rasoo'l to bring the accused ; and in
the meantime, expecting considerable fees for a judg-
ment in such a case, ordered a good supper to be
prepared; which Cka'dees of country towns or villages
generally do under similar circumstances. The two
men were invited to sup and sleep before the case was
tried. Next morning, the parties were examined:
the accused admitted that he had in his possession
the fifty purses of his companion; and said that he
was ready to give them up ; for they were an encum-
brance to him; being only the paper purses in which
coffee was sold. “We are Toofey'lees"—he added;
and the Cka'dee, in anger, dismissed them.
The natives of Egypt in general, in common with
the Arabs of other countries, are justly chargeable
with a fault which is regarded by us as one of great
magnitude: it is want of gratitude. This I am in- ;
clined to consider a relic of the Bed'awee character;
and as arising from the very common practice of
hospitality and generosity, and from the prevailing
opinion that these virtues are absolute duties which it
would be disgraceful to neglect.
The temperance and moderation of the Egyptians,
with regard to diet, are very exemplary. Since my
CHARACTER. 397
first arrival in Egypt, I have searcely ever seen a
native of this country in a state of intoxication; unless
it were a musician at an entertainment, or a dancing
girl, or low prostitute. It hardly need be added that
they are extremely frugal. They show a great respect
for bread, as the staff of life”, and on no account suffer
the smallest portion of it to be wasted, if they can
avoid it. I have often observed an Egyptian take up
a small piece of bread, which had, by accident, fallen
in the street or road, and, after putting it before his
lips and forehead three times, place it on one side,
in order that a dog might eat it, rather than let it re-
main to be trodden under foot. The following in-
stance of the excessive and unreasonable respect of
the Egyptians for bread has been related to me by
several persons; but I must say that I think it hardly
credible.—Two servants were sitting at the door of
their master's house, eating their dinner, when they
observed a Memloo'k Bey, with several of his officers,
riding along the street towards them. One of these
servants rose, from respect to the grandee, who, re-
garding him with indignation, exclaimed, “Which
is the more worthy of respect, the bread that is before
you, or myself?”—Without waiting for a reply, he
made, it is said, a well-understood signal with his
hand; and the unintending offender was beheaded on
the spot.
The higher and middle orders of Moos'lims in
Egypt are scrupulously cleanly; and the lower orders
are more so than in most other countries: but were
not cleanliness a point of their religion, perhaps it
would not be so much regarded by them. From
what has been said in a former chapter of this work,
it appears that we must not judge of them, with re-
spect to this quality, from the dirty state in which they
* The name which they give to it is 'eysh, which literally
signifies life. -
WOL. I. 2 A
398 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
generally leave their children. Their religious ablu-
tions were, certainly, very wisely ordained; personal
cleanliness being so conducive to health in a hot
climate. The Egyptians in general are particularly
careful to avoid whatever their religion has pro-
nounced unclean and polluting. One of their objec-
tions against wine is, that it is unclean ; and I
believe that very few of them, if any, could be induced
by any means, unless by a considerable bribe, to eat
the smallest piece of pig's flesh; excepting the pea-
sants of the Bohhey'reh (the province on the west of
the western branch of the Nile), many of whom eat
the flesh of the wild boar, and rats *. I was once
amused with the remark of a Moos'lim, on the sub-
ject of pork: he observed that the Franks were cer-
tainly a much calumniated people: that it was well
known they were in the habit of eating swine's flesh;
but that some slanderous persons here asserted that
it was not only the flesh of the unclean beast that
was eaten by the Franks, but also its skin, and its
entrails, and its very blood: on being answered that
the accusation was too true, he burst forth with a most
hearty curse upon the infidels, devoting them to the
lowest place in hell.
Many of the butchers who supply the Moos'lim
inhabitants of the metropolis with meat are Jews. A
few years ago, one of the principal 'ool'ama here com-
plained of this fact to the Ba'sha; and begged him to
put a stop to it. Another of the ’ool'ama, hearing that
this person had gone to make the complaint above
mentioned, followed him, and urged, before the
Ba'sha, that the practice was not unlawful. “Adduce
your proof” said the former. “Here,” answered the
other, “is my proof, from the word of God—‘Eat of
* Dogs, too, are eaten by many Mugh'reb'ees settled at
Alexandria, and by descendants of the same people; of whom
there are also a few in Cairo, in the quarter of Teyloo'n.
CHARACTER. 399
that whereon the name of God hath been commemo-
rated *.’” The chief of the Jewish butchers was then
summoned, and asked whether he said anything pre-
viously to slaughtering an animal: he answered,
“Yes: we always say, as the Moos'lims, ‘ In the
name of God! God is most great!' and we never
kill an animal in any other way than by cutting its
throat.”—The complaint was consequently dismissed.
A few days ago, a man, purchasing a fatee'reh of
a baker in this city, saw him take out of his oven a
dish of pork which he had been baking for a Frank;
and, supposing that the other things in the oven might
have been in contact with the unclean meat, and thus
contaminated, immediately brought a soldier from
the nearest guard-house, and caused the baker (who
was in no slight alarm, and protested that he was
ignorant of there being any pig's flesh in his ovem)
to be conducted before the Za'bit. This magistrate
considered the case of sufficient importance to be re-
ferred to the Ba'sha's deewa'n ; and the president of
this council regarded it as of too serious and difficult
a nature for him to decide, and accordingly sent the
accused to be judged at the Mahh'kem'eh. The
Cka'dee desired the opinion of the Moof'tee, who gave
the following sentence:—That all kinds of food not
essentially or radically impure were purified, of any
pollution which they might have contracted, by fire ;
and consequently, that whatever thing of this de-
scription was in the oven, even if it had been in
contact with the pork, was clean as soon as it had
been baked.
A short time since, the Ba'sha received, from Eu-
rope, a set of mattresses and cushions stuffed with
horse-hair, to form a deewa'n for his hnaree'm. The
ladies opened one of the cushions, to ascertain what
* Ckoor-a'il, chap. vi., ver, 118.
2 A 2
400 MODERN EGYPTIANS
was the substance which rendered them so agreeably
elastic; and, disgusted in the highest degree at seeing
what they supposed to be hog's-hair, insisted upon
throwing away the whole deewa'n.
A Frenchman who was employed here, a few years
ago, to refine sugar, by the present Ba'sha, made use
of blood for this purpose; and since that, very few of
the people of this country have ventured to eat any
sugar made by the Franks: the Ba'sha was also
obliged to prohibit the use of blood in his own sugar-
bakeries; and the white of eggs has been employed
in its stead. Some of the Egyptians, seeing the Eu-
ropean sugar to be very superior to that made here,
use it; holding the doctrine that what is originally
clean may become clean again after pollution; but
I am obliged to keep the coarse Egyptian sugar for
the purpose of making sherbet for my visitors; some
of whom hold long discussions with me on this
subject.
It is a general custom among the Egyptians, after
washing clothes, to pour clean water upon them, and
to say, in doing so, “I testify that there is no deity
but God; and I testify that Mohham'mad is God's
Apostle".” In speaking of their religion, I have men-
tioned several other practices instituted for the sake
of cleanliness; most of which are universally observed.
But, notwithstanding these cleanly practices and prin-
ciples, and their custom of frequently going to the
bath, the Egyptians do not change their linen so
often as some people of more northern climates, who
meed not so much to do this frequently: they often go
to the bath in a dirty shirt; and, after a thorough
washing, put on the same again.
Filial piety is one of the more remarkable virtues
* To express that a person has done this, they say, sha'had
ekhhawa'ig, for ghus'al el-Khawa'ig we-teshah'had 'aley'ha.
CHARACTER, 401
of this people. The outward respect which they pay
to their parents, I have already had occasion to men-
tion. Great respect is also shown by the young to.
those far advanced in age *; particularly to such as
are reputed men of great piety or learning.
Love of their country is another predominant cha-
racteristic of the moderg Egyptians. In general, they
have a great dread of quitting their native land. I
have heard of several determining to visit a foreign
country, for the sake of considerable advantages in
prospect; but when the time of their intended de-
parture drew near, their resolution failed them.
Severe oppression has lately lessened this feeling;
which is doubtless owing, in a great degree, to
ignorance of foreign lands and their inhabitants. It
was probably from the same feeling prevailing among
the Arabs of his time that Mohham'mad was induced
to promise such high rewards in a future world to
those who fled their country for the sake of his reli-
gion. I have heard it remarked as a proof of the
extraordinary love which the Egyptians have for their
native place, that a woman or girl in this country will
seldom consent, or her parents allow her, to marry a
man who will not promise to reside with her in her
native town or village; but I rather think that the
reluctance to change the place of abode in this case
arises from the risk which the female incurs of want-
ing the protection of her relations. The Bed'awees
are so attached to their deserts, and have so great a
contempt for people who reside in towns, and for
agriculturists, that it is a matter of surprise that so
many of them were induced to settle even upon the
fertile banks of the Nile. The modern Egyptians,
though mostly descended from Bed'awees, while they
resemble their ancestors in love of their native coun-
* See Leviticus, xix, 32.
402 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
try, have a horror of the desert. One journey in
the desert furnishes them with tales of exaggerated
hardships, perils, and wonders, which they are ex-
tremely fond of relating to their less experienced
countrymen.
Indolence pervades all classes of the Egyptians,
excepting those who are obliged to earn their liveli-
hood by severe manual labour. It is the result of
the climate, and of the fecundity of the soil. Even
the mechanics, who are extremely greedy of gain, will
generally spend two days in a work which they might
easily accomplish in one; and will leave the most
lucrative employment to idle away their time with
the pipe: but the porter, the groom, who runs before
his master's horse, and the boatmen, who are often
employed in towing the vessels up the river during
calm and very hot weather, as well as many other
labourers, endure extreme fatigue.
The Egyptians are also excessively obstinate. I
have mentioned, in a former chapter, that they have
been notorious, from ancient times, that is, from the
period of the Roman domination, for refusing to pay
their taxes until they have been severely beaten; and
that they often boast of the number of stripes which
they have received before they would part with their
imoney. Such conduct is very common among them.
I was once told, that a fella'hh, from whom the value
of about four shillings was demanded by his governor,
endured so severe a bastinading rather than pay this
paltry sum, which he declared he did not possess,
that the governor ordered him to be dismissed; but,
striking him on his face as he limped away, there fell
out of his mouth a gold coin of the exact value of
the sum demanded of him; so that his beating, ter-
rible as it was, fell short of what was necessary to
make him pay. This disposition seems a strange
peculiarity in their character; but it is easily ac-
CHARACTER. 403
counted for by the fact that they know very well the
more readily they pay, the more will be exacted from
them. In other respects, however, they are ex-
tremely obstinate and difficult to govern; though very
obsequious in their manners and professions. It is
seldom that an Egyptian workman can be induced to
make a thing exactly to order: he will generally follow
his own opinion in preference to that of his em-
ployer; and will scarcely ever finish his work by the
time he has promised. *
Though very submissive to their governors, the
fella'hhee'n of Egypt are not deficient in courage
when excited by feuds among each other; and they
become excellent soldiers.
In sensuality, as far as it relates to the indulgence
of libidinous passions, the Egyptians, as well as other
natives of hot climates, certainly exceed more northern
nations; yet this excess is not to be attributed merely
to the climate, but more especially to the institution
of polygamy, to the facility with which divorcements
are accomplished whenever a man may wish to marry
a new wife, and to the custom of concubinage. It is
even said, and, I believe, with truth, that, in this
respect, they exceed the neighbouring nations, whose
religion and civil institutions are similar; and that
their country still deserves the appellation of “the
abode of the wicked,” which, in the Ckoor-a'n ", is,
according to the best commentators, applied to an-
cient Egypt, if we take the word here translated
“wicked” in its more usual modern sense of “de-
bauchees.”—A vice for which the Memloo'ks who
governed Egypt were infamous was so spread by
them in this country as to become not less rare here
than in almost any other country of the East; but of
late years it is said to have much decreased.
* Chap. vii., ver, 142,
404 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
The most immodest freedom of conversation is
indulged in by persons of both sexes, and of every
station of life, in Egypt; even by the most virtuous
and respectable women, with the exception of a very
few, who often make use of coarse language, but not
unchaste. From persons of the best education, ex-
pressions are often heard so obscene as only to be fit
for a low brothel; and things are named, and subjects
talked of, by the most genteel women, without any
idea of their being indecorous, in the hearing of men,
that many prostitutes in our country would abstain
from mentioning.
The women of Egypt have the character of being
the most licentious in their feelings of all females
who lay any claim to be considered as members of a
civilized nation; and this character is freely bestowed
upon them by their countrymen, even in conversation
with foreigners. What liberty they have, many of
them, it is said, abuse; and most of them are not
considered safe, unless under lock and key; to which
restraint, few are subjected. It is believed that they
possess a degree of cunning in the management of
their intrigues that the most prudent and careful hus-
band cannot guard against; and, consequently, that
their plots are seldom frustrated, however great may
be the apparent risk of the undertakings in which
they engage. Sometimes, the husband himself is
made the unconscious means of gratifying his wife's
criminal propensities. Some of the stories of the
intrigues of women in the “Tales of a Thousand and
one Nights” present faithful pictures of occurrences
not unfrequent in the modern metropolis of Egypt.
Many of the men of this city are of opinion that
almost all the women would intrigue if they could do
so without danger; and that the greater proportion
of them do. I should be sorry to think that the
former opinion was just; and I am almost persuaded

CHARACTER. 405
that it is over-severe, because it appears, from the
customs with regard to women generally prevailing
here, that the latter must be false. The difficulty of
carrying on an intrigue with a female in this place
can hardly be conceived by a person who is not
moderately well acquainted with Eastern customs and
habits. It is not only difficult for a woman of the
middle or higher classes to admit her paramour into
the house in which she resides, but it is almost im-
possible for her to have a private interview with a
man who has a hnaree'm, in his own house; or to
enter the house of an unmarried man, or one who
has not a concubine slave, without attracting the
notice of the neighbours, and causing their immediate
interference. But as it cannot be denied that many
of the women of Egypt engage in intrigues notwith-
standing such risks, it may be supposed that the diffi-
culties which lie in the way are the chief bar to most
others: for it is certain that the women of this coun-
try are, with very few exceptions, of highly libidinous
dispositions. Among the females of the lower orders,
intrigues are more easily accomplished, and frequent.
The libidinous character of the women of Egypt,
and the licentious conduct of a great number of
them, may be attributed to many causes; partly, to
the climate; partly, to their want of proper instruc-
tion, and of innocent pastimes and employments;
partly, to the degree of restraint imposed upon them,
and their seclusion from open intercourse with the
other sex, which undoubtedly has a tendency rather
to make women vicious than to secure them from
vice: but it is more to be attributed to the conduct of
the husbands themselves; and to conduct far more
disgraceful to them than the utmost severity that any
of them is known to exercise in the regulations of
his hbaree'm. The generality of husbands in Egypt
endeavour to increase the libidinous feelings of their
2 A 5
406 MODE RN EGYPTIANS.
wives by every means in their power; though, at the
same time, they assiduously study to prevent their in-
dulging those feelings unlawfully. The women are
permitted to listen, screened behind their windows of
wooden lattice-work, to immoral songs and tales sung
or related in the streets by men whom they pay for
this entertainment; and to view the voluptuous dances
of the ghawa zee, and of the effeminate khow'als. The
ghawa'zee, who are professed prostitutes, are not un-
frequently introduced into the hbaree'ms of the
wealthy, not merely to entertain the ladies with their
dances, but to teach them their voluptuous arts; and
even indecent puppets are sometimes brought into
such hbaree'ms for the amusement of the inmates.—
Innumerable stories of the artifices and intrigues of
the women of Egypt have been related to me. The
following narratives of late occurrences will serve as
specimens.
A slave-dealer, who had been possessed of property
which enabled him to live in comfort, but had lost
the greater part of it, married a young and hand-
some woman in this city, who had sufficient wealth
to make up for his losses. He soon, however, neg-
lected her; and as he was past the prime of life, she
became indifferent to him, and placed her affections
upon another man, a dust-man, who had been in the
habit of coming to her house. She purchased, for
this person, a shop close by her house ; gave him a
sum of money to enable him to pursue a less de-
graded occupation, as a seller of grain and fodder;
and informed him that she had contrived a plan for
his visiting her in perfect security. Her hbaree'm
had a window with hanging shutters; and almost
close before this window rose a palm-tree, out-top-
ping the house: this tree, she observed, would afford
her lover a means of access to her, and of egress
from her apartment, in case of danger. She had
CHARACTER, 407
only one servant, a female, who engaged to assist her
in the accomplishment of her desires. Previously
to her lover's first visit to her, she desired the ser-
vant to inform her husband of what was about to
take place in the ensuing night. He determined to
keep watch; and, having told his wife that he was
going out, and should not return that night, concealed
himself in a lower apartment. At night, the maid
came to tell him that the visitor was in the hbaree'm.
He went up; but found the hbaree'm-door shut.
On his trying to open it, his wife screamed; her
lover, at the same time, escaping from the window,
by means of the palm-tree. She called to her neigh-
bours—“Come to my assistancel Pray come !
There is a robber in my house !”—Several of them
soon came ; and, finding her locked in her room,
and her husband outside the door, told her there
was nobody in the house but her husband and maid.
She said that the man they called her husband was
a robber: that her husband was gone to sleep out.
The latter then informed them of what had passed;
and insisted that a man was with her: he broke open
the door, and searched the room; but finding no
man was reprimanded by his neighbours, and abused
by his wife, for uttering a slander. The next day,
his wife, taking with her, as witnesses of his having
accused her of a criminal intrigue, two of the neigh-
bours who had come in on hearing her screams for
assistance, arraigned her husband at the Mahh'kem'eh
as the slanderer of a virtuous woman without the
evidence of his own sight or of other witnesses. Being
convicted of this offence, he was punished with eighty
stripes, in accordance with the ordinance of the
Ckoor-a'n". His wife now asked him if he would
divorce her; but he refused. For three days after
* Chap. xxiv., ver, 4.
408 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
this event, they lived peaceably together. On the
third night, the wife, having invited her lover to visit
her, bound her husband, hand and foot, while he was
asleep, and tied him down to the mattress. Shortly
after, her lover came up, and, waking the husband,
threatened him with instant death if he should call,
and remained with the wife for several hours, in his
presence. As soon as the intruder had gone, the
husband was unbound by his wife, and called out to
his neighbours, beating her at the same time with
such violence that she, also, began to call for assist-
ance. The neighbours coming in, and seeing him
in a fury, easily believed her assertion that he had
become raving mad, and, trying to Socthe him with
kind words, and prayers that God would restore him
to sanity, liberated her from his grasp. She procured,
as soon as possible, a rasoo'l from the Cka'dee; and
went with him and her husband and several of her
neighbours who had witnessed the beating that she
had received, before the judge. The neighbours
unanimously declared their opinion that her husband
was mad; and the Cka'dee ordered that he should
be conveyed to the Ma'rista'n * (or common mad-
house): but the wife, affecting to pity him, begged
that she might be allowed to chain him in an apart-
ment in her house, that she might alleviate his
sufferings by waiting upon him. The Cka'dee
assented ; praising the benevolence of the woman,
and praying that God might reward her. She ac-
cordingly procured an iron collar and a chain from
the Ma'rista'n, and chained him in a lower apart-
ment of her house. Every night, in his presence,
her lover visited her: after which she importuned
him in vain to divorce her; and when the neighbours
came in daily to ask how he was, the only answer he
* Vulgarly called Moorista'n.
CHARACTER. 409
received to his complaints and accusations against
his wife was — “God restore thee God restore
thee!” Thus he continued about a month ; and his
wife, finding that he still persisted in refusing to
divorce her, sent for a keeper of the Ma'rista'n to
take him. The neighbours came round as he left
the house: one exclaimed—“There is no strength
nor power but in God! God restore thee!”—another
said—“How sad? He was really a worthy man : ”
—a third remarked—“Ba'dinga'ns” are very abun-
dant just now.”—While he was confined in the Ma'-
rista'n, his wife came daily to him, and asked him if
he would divorce her: on his answering, “No,” she
said—“Then chained you may lie until you die; and
my lover shall come to me constantly.” At length,
after seven months' confinement, he consented to
divorce her. She procured his liberation; and he
fulfilled his promise. Her lover was of too low a
grade to become her husband; so she remained un-
married; and received him whenever she pleased:
but the maid revealed the true history of this affair;
and it soon became a subject of common talk.
When the wife of a man of wealth or rank en-
gages in a criminal intrigue, both she and her para-
mour generally incur great danger f..—Last year, the
wife of an officer of high rank in the army took ad-
vantage of the absence of her husband from the me-
tropolis (where he always resided with her when not
on military duty) to invite a Christian merchant, of

* Madness is said to be more common and more violent in
Egypt when the black ba'dinga'n (or black egg-plant) is in
season: that is, in the hot weather.
+ “How many men, in Musr,” said one of my friends to
me, “ have lost their lives on account of women A very
handsome young libertine, who lived in this house which you
now occupy, was beheaded here in the street, before his own
door, for an intrigue with a wife of a Bey; and all the womer
of Musr wept for him.”
410 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
whom she had been in the habit of buying silks, to
pay her a visit. He went to her house at the time
appointed, and found a eunuch at the door, who took
him to another house, disguised him in the loose
outer garments and veil of a lady, and then brought
him back, and introduced him to his mistress. He
passed nearly the whole of the night with her; and,
rising before she awoke, put into his pocket a purse
which he had given her, and went down to the
eunuch, who conducted him again to the house where
he had put on his disguise: having here resumed
his own outer clothes, he repaired to his shop. Soon
after, the lady, who had missed the purse, came, and
taxed him with having taken it: she told him that
she did not want money, but only desired his com-
pany; and begged him to come to her again in the
ensuing evening; which he promised to do: but in
the afternoon, a female servant from the house of
this lady came to his shop, and told him that her
mistress had mixed some poison in a bottle of water
which she had ordered to be given him to drink.--
This mode of revenge is said to have been often
adopted when the woman’s paramour has given her
even a slight offence.
It is seldom that the wife of a Moos'lim is guilty
of a criminal intrigue without being punished with
death if there be four witnesses to the fact, and they
or the husband prosecute her ; and not always does
she escape this punishment if she be detected by any
of the officers of justice: in the latter case, four wit-
nesses are not required, and often the woman, if of a
respectable family, is put to death, generally in pri-
vate, on the mere arbitrary authority of the govern-
ment: but a bribe will sometimes save her ; for it
will always be accepted if it can with safety.
Drowning is the punishment now almost always in-
flicted, publicly, upon women convicted of adultery
CHARACTER. 41 l
in Cairo and other large towns of Egypt, instead
of that ordained by the law, which is stoning.—
A few months ago, a poor woman of this city mar-
ried a man whose trade was selling fowls, and, while
living with him and her mother, took three other
lodgings, and married three other husbands; all of
whom were generally absent from the metropolis; so
she calculated that when any of these three persons
came to town for a few days she might easily find an
excuse to go to him. They happened, unfortunately
for her, to come to town on the same day; and all
of them went, the same evening, to inquire for her
at her mother’s house. Being much embarrassed by
their presence, and her first husband being also with
her, she feigned to be ill, and soon to become insen-
sible; and was taken, by her mother, to an inner
room. One of the husbands proposed to give her
something to restore her: another wished to try a
different remedy: they began to contend which was
the best medicine; and one of them said, “I shall
give her what I please: is not she my wife?” “Your
wife l’’ exclaimed each of the three other husbands at
the same time: “she is my wife.”—Each proved his
marriage: the woman was taken to the Mahh'kem'eh ;
tried; condemned to death; and thrown into the
Nile.—Some time ago, when I was before in this
country, a similar case occurred: a woman married
three soldiers, of the miza'm, or regular troops. She
was buried in a hole breast-deep ; and then shot.
A woman may sometimes, but very rarely, trust in
palliating circumstances, or the support of powerful
friends, to save her from the penalty of death, in
case of her detection in a criminal intercourse; as in
the following instance.—The Ba'sha, last year, gave
one of the slaves in his hbaree'm in marriage to a
rich slave-merchant, from whom he had purchased
many of his memloo'ks and female slaves. This
412 MODERN EGYPTIANS,
man was not only unfaithful to her, but utterly neg-
lected her; and she, in consequence, ſormed an im-
proper intimacy with a merchant of whom she was a
frequent customer. One day, when her husband was
out, a black slave belonging to him happened to see
a man's head at a small aperture in a window of the
hharee'm. He immediately went up to search the
room of the wife; who, hearing him coming, locked
her paramour in an adjoining closet. The slave
broke open the door of the closet; and the man
within rushed at him with a dagger which he wore
in his girdle; but the former seized the blade in his
hand; and the woman held him until her lover had
escaped; she then kissed the slave’s hand, and im-
plored him not to cause her death by informing her
husband of what had passed: she, however, found
him inexorable: he immediately went to his master,
showing his bleeding hand, and telling him the cause
of the wound. The woman, meanwhile, fled to the
Ba'sha's hbaree’m, for protection. Her husband de-
manded of the Ba'sha that she should be given up,
and put to death; and, the request being deemed a
proper one, she was brought before her former master
to answer for her crime. She threw herself at his
feet; kissed the skirt of his clothing; and acquainted
him with her husband’s vicious conduct, and his
utter neglect of her. The Ba'sha, feeling himself
insulted by the husband's conduct, spat in his face;
and sent back the wife to his own hbaree'm. Her
paramour did not live long after this: he was smo-
thered in the house of some courtesans; but none of
these women were punished; as it could not be proved
which of them committed the act.
For their sentiments with regard to women, and
their general conduct towards the fair sex, the Egyp-
tians, in common with other Moos'lims, have been
reprehended with too great severity. It is true that
CHARACTER, 413
they do not consider it necessary, or even delicate, to
consult the choice of a girl under age previously to
giving her away in matrimony; but it is not less
true that a man of the middle or higher classes,
almost always, makes his choice of a wife from hear-
say, or as a person blindfold; having no means of
seeing her until the contract is made, and she is
brought to his house. It is impossible, therefore,
that there should be any mutual attachment before
marriage. Both sexes, in truth, are oppressed by
tyrannical laws and customs; but, happily, they re-
gard their chains as becoming and honourable: they
would feel themselves disgraced by shaking them off.
As to the restraint which is exercised towards the
women, I have before remarked that it is in a great
degree voluntary on their part, and that I believe it to
be less strict in Egypt than in any other country of
the Turkish empire: it is certainly far less so than it
has been represented to be by many persons. They
generally look upon this restraint with a degree of
pride, as evincing the husband's care for them; and
value themselves upon their being hidden as trea-
sures*. In good society, it is considered highly in-
decorous to inquire, in direct terms, respecting the
health of a friend's wife, or of any female in his
house, unless she be a relation of the person who
makes the inquiry.—One of my Egyptian acquaint-
ances asking another native of this country, who had
been in Paris, what was the most remarkable thing
that he had seen in the land of the infidels, the
latter, thinking lightly of all that he had observed
really worthy of exciting the admiration of an unpre-
judiced and a sensible man, gave the following an-
swer. “I witnessed nothing so remarkable as this
* A respectable female is generally addressed, in a letter
as “the guarded lady, and concealed jewel” (es-sitt el-masoo/
nch we-l-go'harah el-meknoo'neh).
414 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
fact. It is a custom of every person among the rich
and great, in Paris and other cities of France, fre-
quently to invite his friends and acquaintances, both
men and women, to an entertainment in his house.
The rooms in which the company are received are
lighted with a great number of candles and lamps.
There, the men and women assemble promiscuously;
the women, as you well know, unveiled; and a man
may sit next to another's wife, whom he has never
seen before, and may walk, talk, and even dance
with her, in the very presence of her own husband,
who is neither angry nor jealous at such disgraceful
conduct.”
The Egyptians are equally remarkable for gene-
rosity and cupidity. That two such opposite qualities
should be united in the same mind is not a little sur-
prising; but such is generally the case with this
people. An overreaching and deceitful disposition in
commercial transactions, which is too common among
all nations, is one of the most notorious faults of the
Egyptian: in such cases, he seldom scruples to frame
a falsehood which may better his bargain. Among
people who groan beneath the yoke of a tyrannical
and rapacious government (and such, indeed, is the
government of Egypt), a disposition to avarice inva-
riably predominates: for a man is naturally most
tenacious of that which is most liable to be taken
from him; and hence the oppressed Egyptian, when
he has a sum of money which he does not require
for necessary expenses, and cannot profitably employ,
generally lays it out in the purchase of ornaments for
his wife or wives; which ornaments he can easily con-
vert again into money. Hence, also, it is a common
practice in this country (as it is, or has been, in
almost every country under similar political circum-
stances) for a man to hide treasure in his house,
under the paved floor, or in some other part; and as
CHARACTER, 415
many a person who does so dies suddenly, without
being able to inform his family where is his mukh'ba,
or hiding-place, money is not unfrequently discovered
on pulling down houses. A vice near akin to cupi-
dity, namely envy, I believe to be equally prevalent
among the modern Egyptians, in common with the
whole Arab race; for many of them are candid
enough to confess their own opinion that this hateful
disposition is almost wholly concentrated in the minds
of their nation.
The Egyptians are generally honest in the pay-
ment of debts. Their Prophet asserted that even
martyrdom would not atone for a debt undischarged.
Few of them ever acceptinterest for a loan of money;
as it is strictly forbidden by their law.
Constant veracity is a virtue extremely rare in
modern Egypt. Falsehood was commended by the
Prophet when it tended to reconcile persons at vari-
ance with each other: also, when practised in order to
please one's wife; and to obtain any advantage in a
war with the enemies of the faith: though highly re-
probated in other cases. This offers some little pal-
iiation of the general practice of lying which prevails
among the modern Moos'lims; for, if people are
allowed to lie in certain cases, they insensibly con-
tract a habit of doing so in others. Though most of
the Egyptians often lie designedly, they are seldom
heard to retract an unintentional misstatement with-
out expressing themselves thus—“No, I beg for-
giveness of God”; it was so and so;” as, in stating
anything of which they are not quite certain, they
say, “God is all-knowingt.”—I may here mention
(and I do it with some feeling of national pride) that,
some years ago, there was an Armenian jeweller in
this city (Cairo) so noted for his veracity that his ac-
* La' astugh'fir Allah. # Alla'hoo a'alam.
416 MODERN EGYPTIANS.
quaintances determined to give him some appella-
tion significant of his possessing a virtue so rare
among them ; and the name they gave him was El-
Ingilee'zee, or The Englishman, which has become
his family name. It is common to hear tradesmen
in this place, when demanding a price which they do
not mean to abate, say, “One word; the word of the
English *:” they also often say, “the word of the
Franks,” in this sense: but I have never heard any
particular nation thus honourably distinguished ex-
cepting the English and the Mugh’reb'ees, or Western
Arabs, which latter people have acquired this reputa-
tion by being rather more veracious than most other
Moos'lims.
I have before mentioned the practice of swearing
by God which prevails among the Egyptians: I
must here add, that many of them scruple not to
make use of an oath with the view of obtaining credit
to a falsehood. In this case, they sometimes say,
“Wa-lla/hi P' (“By God!”); but more commonly,
“Wa-l'lah!”: for, though the latter expression has
the same meaning as the former, they pretend that
it may also be used as an ejaculation in praise of
God; whereas “Wa-lla/hi’’ is a decided oath, and,
if uttered to a falsehood, or violated, must be ex-
piated by feeding or clothing ten poor men, liberating
a captive Moos'lim, or fasting three days f. This,
however, is the expiation allowed by the Ckoor-a'n
only for an inconsiderate oath: yet the modern
Moos'lims sometimes observe it in order to free
themselves from the guilt of a deliberate false oath;
and they generally prefer the fast to either of the
other modes of expiation. There are some oaths
which, I believe, few Moos'lims would falsely take;
such as saying, three times, “By God, the Great i l’’,
* Killmet el-Ingilee'z. f Ckoor-a/n, chap. v., ver, 91.
* Wa-lla/hi-l-’azee/m.
CHARACTER, 4.17
and the oath upon the moos'hhaf (or copy of the
Ckoor-a'n)—saying, “By what this contains of the
word of God!"—but a form of oath that is still more
to be depended upon is that of saying, “I impose
upon myself divorcement” ” (that is, the divorce of
my wife, if what I say be false); or, “I impose upon
myself interdiction fl”, which has a similar meaning
(“My wife be unlawful to me!”); or, “I impose upon
myself a triple divorcement; ", which binds him by
the irrevocable divorce of his wife. If a man use
any one of these three forms of oath falsely, his wife,
if he have but one, is divorced by the oath itself, if
proved to be false, without further ceremony; and if
he have two or more wives, he must, under such cir-
cumstances, choose one of them to put away. There
are, however, abandoned liars who will swear falsely
by the oath that is generally held most binding. A
poet, speaking of a character of this description,
Says,
“But Ab’oo-l-Mo'al'la is most false
When he swears by the oath of divorce.”
The generality of the Egyptians are easily excited
to quarrel; particularly those of the lower orders,
who, on such occasions, curse each other's fathers,
mothers, beards, &c.; and lavish upon each other a
variety of opprobrious epithets; such as “son of the
dog, pimp, pig,” and an appellation which they think
still worse than any of these, namely, “Jew.” When
one curses the father of the other, the latter generally
retorts by cursing the father and mother, and some-
times the whole household, of his adversary. They
menace each other; but seldom proceed to blows.
In a few instances, however, I have seen low persons
in this country so enraged as to bite, and grasp each
other by the throat. I have also witnessed many
* 'Alei'ya-i-tala'ck. + 'Alei'ya-l-hhara'm.
f 'Alei'ya-t-tala'ck bi-t-tela'teh.
418 MODE R N EGYPTIANS.
instances of forbearance on the part of individuals of
the middle and lower classes, when grossly insulted: I
have often heard an Egyptian say, on receiving a
blow from an equal, “God bless thee!” “God requite
thee good!” “Beat me again.” In general, a quarrel
terminates by one or both parties saying “Justice is
against me *:” often, after this, they recite the Fa’t’-
hhah together; and then, sometimes, embrace and
kiss one another.
The Egyptians are particularly prone to satire; and
often display considerable wit in their jeers and jests.
Their language affords them great facilities for pun-
ning, and for ambiguous conversation, in which they
very frequently indulge. The lower orders some-
times lampoon their rulers in songs, and ridicule
those enactments of the government by which they
themselves most suffer. I was once much amused
with a song which I found to be very popular in the
town and district of Aswan, on the southern frontier
of Egypt: its burden was a plain invocation to the
plague to take their tyrannical governor and his Copt
clerk. Another song, which was popular throughout
Egypt during my first visit to this country, and which
was composed on the occasion of an increase of the
income-tax called fir’deh, began thus: “You who
have [nothing on your head but] a lib'deh sell it,
and pay the fir’deh.” The lib'deh, I have before men-
tioned, is a felt cap, which is worn under, or instead
of the turban; and the man must be very poor who
has no other covering than this for his head.
* El-hhack'ck 'alei'ya.
END OF THE FIRST VOLUME,
London : Printed by W. Clowes and Sons, 14, Charing Cross.
Page
12.
22.
37
58.
78.
104.
286.
301.
ERRATA AND ADDENDA.
Line 8, after “above it,” add, “This upper window, if
of lattice-work, is often fancifully worked with the
representation of a basin with a ewer above it, or the
figure of a lion, or the name of God, or the words “God
is my hope,’ &c.”
Line 8, for “prefixed,” read “appended.”
Line 14. The term 'Ar'ab was formerly used to de-
signate the townspeople of Arabian origin, while the
people of the same race who dwelt in the desert were
called Aara'b or Aara'bees.
Note. Add,—“Some women pluck out the hair after
merely rubbing the part with the ashes of charcoal.”
Note, line 3, for “Futoot'meh,” read “Futtoo'meh.”
Line 23. Add,—“Blind men are generally preferred for
the office of moo-ed'dins, that the hinareems and ter-
races of surrounding houses may not be overlooked from
the ma'd'nehs.”
Line 17. “Ma' hoo'sh '' is vulgarly contracted into
“ mo'sh.”
Note. It should be added, that the era does not com-
mence from the day on which the Prophet departed
from Mek'keh (as most of our authors who have men-
tioned this subject suppose), but from the first day of
the moon or month of Mohhar'ram preceding that event.
It is said that Mohham'mad, after having remained
concealed in a cave near Mek'keh three days, with
Abſoo Bekr, began his journey, or “the flight,” to El-
Medee'neh, on the ninth day of the third month
(Rabee'à el-Ow'wal), sixty-eight days after the com-
mencement of the era. Thus the first two months are
made of thirty days each, which is often the case when
the calculation from the actual sight of the new moon
is followed; and the flight itself, from the cave, may be
inferred to have commenced on the 22d of September.
342 and 343, for “alumn,” read “alum.”
Line 17, for “obtained,” read “attained.”
354.
WOL, I,
- - &
* t %
- - - % 3. : :
. . " ; , ' ', * - * , r º - - . ... . . . . . . . , , ' , , i y








*
- $
& *
, , x - * … ~ - g
- * * * 3. -
-- > z > 3. w - -- 3. 3. - * :
& - . , º& 4, - - .
. . . . . . . . " . . . .
r 3.33. 3 * * -
1 * * . . .x ºr . . . . ‘. . . . . , ,
* ... - , , , ". . . . . . . ... . . . . . tº , , ,
* - - , . . . . *... ." § {}, ..., #3: . . . . . . . . . . . “‘. . . .
*- * x * * * * * * ..."? . . ºš ... ,< ... : - - ' ', " .. ',47 & . . . *-
. . . .';ºr kºº • ; , ; .33° 3 : , # * : *, *... º.º. º. . . . • *. * , , ; * * * , , >
* } . ... º.º., § w §§§:ºx ...º.º.º. - * … "… ~, … . . . .
... º.º. # 3. * §º < ... º. ** . > *
: & sº: Y. ..º.º.º.º. º : -
º ..º gºšš :* -3.3×3:32:




















JAN17 io95
UNIV. C. r . . . . . H.
Li BRARY
THIS BOOK
FORMS PART OF THE
: ORIGINAL LIBRARY
OF THE
- UNIVERSITY OF MICHICAN
BOUGHT IN EUROPE
1838 TO 1839
BY
: ASA GRAY








.x:
++.
ww-
• {
º:3#
- §:
*.*.*.*.*.*.
**i.
::
.#
;
#
#
º
3.
****
**. :::::::: ić.
º:
§§
*****
*
* - - wºwºjºws: *:
#:###########
ºº:::::. : º :::::: #; §
- º * - º
$ºº-ºº: jº ::::::::$º:
### ### - :# º # º :
#º: ::::::: - º: - # --
::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::. # - **
tº: º ### §§§
3.
#:
§:
#::::::::::::
º
º
§:
º §
:
:
*
:
§§
*
;
º
#
%
!
;
#:
#
#
#:
#
f
#
+
3.
º
#
R
:
ºr.
*.
#3:#. :
#######:
########:
ºº::
§§º º :
#.
ſ
#:
*:
f
#
-§
º
i
**
*3
x:
§§.
:::::::::::::
####
### # tº º:
:::::::: *::::::::::
ººkº.3"
*
3-
§§
§
#####:
sº
§§
§§